Before and After Copernicus• the earth is a flattened the earth is a flattened

disk disk • the sun, stars and the sun, stars and

moon are embedded in moon are embedded in crystalline spheres crystalline spheres that revolve around that revolve around the earththe earth

• the earth is the mid-the earth is the mid-point among all point among all heavenly objects heavenly objects

• the universe is finite; the universe is finite; the earth is enclosed in the earth is enclosed in a finite shapea finite shape

• the earth is a spherethe earth is a sphere

• the stars, planets and the stars, planets and moons revolve on moons revolve on different tracks around different tracks around the sunthe sun

• the sun is a fixed star at the sun is a fixed star at the center of the solar the center of the solar system system

• the earth is a small part the earth is a small part in an infinite universein an infinite universe

Major Advancements of the Scientific RevolutionMajor Advancements of the Scientific Revolution

Copernicus hypothesizes heliocentricismCopernicus hypothesizes heliocentricism Vesalius revises human physiologyVesalius revises human physiology Bacon promotes inductive reasoningBacon promotes inductive reasoning Kepler discovers Laws of Planetary MotionKepler discovers Laws of Planetary Motion Galileo formulates scientific method, discovers Galileo formulates scientific method, discovers

Law of Falling BodiesLaw of Falling Bodies Galileo makes astronomical discoveries using Galileo makes astronomical discoveries using

telescopetelescope Descartes develops algebraic geometryDescartes develops algebraic geometry Newton and Leibnitz develop calculusNewton and Leibnitz develop calculus Newton discovers Law of GravityNewton discovers Law of Gravity

Major Works of the Scientific RevolutionMajor Works of the Scientific Revolution 1543 Copernicus – On the Revolution of

Heavenly Spheres; Vesalius – On the Structure of the Human Anatomy

1559 Index of Prohibited Books established 1605 Bacon – The Advancement of

Learning 1609 Kepler – The New Astronomy 1610 Galileo – The Starry Messenger 1620 Bacon – Novum Organum 1632 Galileo – Dialogue on the Two Chief

World Systems 1637 Descartes – Discourse on Method 1686 Newton – Principia Mathematica 1690 Locke – Essay Concerning Human

Understanding; Two Treatises on Government

Effects of the Scientific RevolutionScience emerges as a challenger to religion for answers to questionsScientific method is developed as a model for problem-solvingNew way of thinking – inductive reasoning – becomes the basis of European knowledge and thoughtScience increases knowledge in the European worldScience creates new, advanced technologyBrings the Enlightenment, the Agricultural Revolution, and the Industrial RevolutionBecomes a basis for European dominance of the world: superior technology means superior forceTechnology increases European demands on resources; long-term effects on the environment

Lasting influence of the Scientific RevolutionLasting influence of the Scientific RevolutionFormulated and refined inductive reasoningFormulated and refined inductive reasoning

Deductive and inductive reasoning fused as the Deductive and inductive reasoning fused as the formal scientific method: Knowledge based on formal scientific method: Knowledge based on observation and experimentationobservation and experimentation

Science challenged religion and became its rivalScience challenged religion and became its rival

Described the universe as mechanisticDescribed the universe as mechanistic

Offered new answers for phenomena in questionOffered new answers for phenomena in question

Spurred growth in universities and scientific Spurred growth in universities and scientific societiessocieties

Gave rise to the EnlightenmentGave rise to the Enlightenment

Applied science led to the agricultural and Applied science led to the agricultural and industrial revolutionsindustrial revolutions

Deductive reasoning: Deductive reasoning: Deriving a conclusion by Deriving a conclusion by

inference in which the inference in which the conclusion about particulars conclusion about particulars

follows necessarily from follows necessarily from general or universal premises.general or universal premises.

The SyllogismThe Syllogism• All men are mortal.All men are mortal.

• Socrates is a manSocrates is a man

• Socrates is mortal.Socrates is mortal.

• I am at Rancho Buena Vista High I am at Rancho Buena Vista High

School.School.

• Rancho Buena Vista High is in Vista.Rancho Buena Vista High is in Vista.

• I am in Vista.I am in Vista.

Deductive Reasoning at Work• There is moisture on the back of my hand.• It is not raining• No one has thrown water at me• I have not put my hand in water• ELIMINATING ALL OTHER OUTSIDE

POSSIBILITIES, THEREFORE I CONCLUDE:• The moisture must have come from inside my

body• CONCLUSION: Although I cannot see them,

there must be holes in my skin allowing the moisture to come out of my body to the surface of my skin (pores exist)

Inductive Reasoning:Inductive Reasoning:From a series of observations, From a series of observations,

each of which is true but which each of which is true but which are not individually conclusive, are not individually conclusive,

one assembles evidence from one assembles evidence from which is drawn a general which is drawn a general

conclusion.conclusion.

One derives general principles One derives general principles from particular facts or from particular facts or

instances.instances.

Inductive Reasoning at work• HYPOTHESIS: I believe heavier things fall

faster that light things• EXPERIMENT: I drop several pairs of balls of

different weights• OBSERVATION: The balls hit the ground at the

same time regardless of their weights• CONCLUSION: All objects fall at the same

speed regardless of weight• EXCEPTION: I drop a hammer and a feather,

and the feather falls slower than the hammer.• HYPOTHESIS: Some other factor(s), shape and

air, can influence the dropping of the objects.

INDUCTIVE REASONING AT WORKINDUCTIVE REASONING AT WORKQUESTIONQUESTION: Will I be hit by a brick as I leave the room today.OBSERVATIONSOBSERVATIONS:•I have walked out of this classroom door several times before.•I have never been hit by a brick leaving the classroom.•I have left many similar rooms and NEVER been hit by a brick.•I didn’t see any bricks in dangerous places when I came into the roomHYPOTHESISHYPOTHESIS: I can walk out of the door without fear of being hit by a brick.IS THIS AN ABSOLUTE CERTAINTY?IS THIS AN ABSOLUTE CERTAINTY?

Values of the EnlightenmentValues of the Enlightenment• Naturalism:Naturalism: Nature is perfect; Natural Law is God’s Nature is perfect; Natural Law is God’s

law; Everything is governed by Natural Law; Life law; Everything is governed by Natural Law; Life should be balanced as in Natureshould be balanced as in Nature

• Empiricism:Empiricism: The way to knowledge is through The way to knowledge is through experimentation and observationexperimentation and observation

• Rationalism / Reason:Rationalism / Reason: The human mind behaving The human mind behaving rationally is the key to knowledge; emotion clouds rationally is the key to knowledge; emotion clouds reason and makes one “irrational”reason and makes one “irrational”

• Individualism:Individualism: The individual is the basis of human The individual is the basis of human society; the individual, using the rational mind, is society; the individual, using the rational mind, is responsible for human societyresponsible for human society

• Optimism / Progress:Optimism / Progress: Progress is possible; a “more Progress is possible; a “more perfect” world can be achieved.perfect” world can be achieved.

• Relativism:Relativism: Truths are relative to society and its Truths are relative to society and its experiences; Individualism and progress require a experiences; Individualism and progress require a society that tolerates reasonable differencessociety that tolerates reasonable differences

Essence of the Essence of the EnlightenmentEnlightenment The Scientific Method was applied to political, The Scientific Method was applied to political,

economic, and social areas of European society.economic, and social areas of European society. To bring all thing into Natural balance using the To bring all thing into Natural balance using the

Scientific Method to discover Natural LawsScientific Method to discover Natural Laws Brought great outpouring of intellectual ideasBrought great outpouring of intellectual ideas Gave rise to belief in progress and mission to Gave rise to belief in progress and mission to

improve societyimprove society Reform ideas raised: government forms, political Reform ideas raised: government forms, political

rights, women’s rights, criminal justice, anti-rights, women’s rights, criminal justice, anti-slavery, etc.slavery, etc.

Inspired Enlightened Absolutistism and Inspired Enlightened Absolutistism and Democratic RepublicanismDemocratic Republicanism

Inspired political revolutions: American, French, Inspired political revolutions: American, French, Latin American, European (1820-1850)Latin American, European (1820-1850)

The Goals of the The Goals of the EnlightenmentEnlightenment• To reform the political, economic, and To reform the political, economic, and

social world of human societysocial world of human society• To use the scientific method to discover To use the scientific method to discover

the Natural Laws that affect human the Natural Laws that affect human societysociety

• To make reforms (changes) by applying To make reforms (changes) by applying Natural Laws that exist for human societyNatural Laws that exist for human society

• To reform society through To reform society through experimentation and observationexperimentation and observation

• To bring all things into balance (like To bring all things into balance (like Nature)Nature)

Deism• Belief in a single God as the Creator of all:

“The First Cause”• God’s existence is proven by Nature• Natural Law was created by God to

govern the universe after creation• Miracles can’t exist because they would

contradict Natural Law, which is perfect• Rational mind will reveal Natural Law• Progress is possible through rational

actions of humans• Humans are responsible to use rational

mind to bring progress in human life• Formal religion is man’s creation, not

God’s

The Politics of the EnlightenmentThe Politics of the Enlightenment1740-801740-80 Reign of Maria Theresa as Reign of Maria Theresa as

Austrian EmpressAustrian Empress1740-861740-86 Reign of Frederic the Great in Reign of Frederic the Great in

PrussiaPrussia17481748 Montesquieu: Montesquieu: The Spirit of the The Spirit of the

LawsLaws1762-961762-96 Reign of Catherine the Great in Reign of Catherine the Great in

RussiaRussia1765-901765-90 Reign of Josef II as Austrian Reign of Josef II as Austrian

EmperorEmperor17621762 Rousseau: Rousseau: The Social ContractThe Social Contract1771-751771-75 Pugachev Rebellion of the Pugachev Rebellion of the

Cossacks in RussiaCossacks in Russia1775-811775-81 American RevolutionAmerican Revolution

The Politics of the EnlightenmentThe Politics of the Enlightenment17761776 U.S. U.S. Declaration of Declaration of

IndependenceIndependence17811781 Josef II issues the Edict of Josef II issues the Edict of

TolerationToleration17831783 Treaty of Paris grants U.S. Treaty of Paris grants U.S.

IndependenceIndependence17891789 French Revolution beginsFrench Revolution begins17891789 U.S. Constitution adoptedU.S. Constitution adopted17911791 U.S. Bill of Rights adoptedU.S. Bill of Rights adopted1799-18151799-1815 Napoleon rules France Napoleon rules France1801-091801-09 Presidency of Thomas Jefferson Presidency of Thomas Jefferson

Political Systems of the “Big Five”• Great BritainGreat Britain: : Parliamentary

Monarchy (Gentry in power)• FranceFrance: : Absolute Monarchy (with

Nobility re-gaining power)• PrussiaPrussia: : Absolute Monarchy

(Enlightened)• AustriaAustria: : Absolute Monarchy

(Enlightened)• RussiaRussia: : Absolute Monarchy

(Enlightened)

Enlightened Absolutism:

• Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia,Frederick II, the Great, of Prussia,1740-17861740-1786

• Catherine II, the Great, of Russia,Catherine II, the Great, of Russia,1762-17961762-1796

• Maria Theresa of Austria, 1740-1780Maria Theresa of Austria, 1740-1780

• Joseph II of Austria, 1780-1790Joseph II of Austria, 1780-1790

• Charles III of Spain, 1759-1788Charles III of Spain, 1759-1788

• Napoleon I of France, 1799-1815Napoleon I of France, 1799-1815

The efforts by absolute monarchs of the 18th and early 19th centuries to use their absolute powers to make some “enlightened” reforms.A list of these monarchs usually includes:

“Enlightened Reforms”Religious tolerationHuman rights / treatment of lower class / abolition of serfdomCriminal justice reform / Codifying lawsTax reform and government efficiencyAgricultural reforms and improvementsCreation and encouragement of new industriesEducation: schools, universities, librariesTerritorial expansionFreedom of speech and the pressPatronage of science and the arts

Russia under Catherine the Great• 1762 Catherine II becomes Empress (Tsarina)• 1767 Legislative Commission summoned• 1769 War with Ottoman Empire begins• 1771-5 Pugachev’s Rebellion of the Cossacks• 1772 1st Partition of Poland• 1774 Treaty of Kuchuk-Kanardji ends war

with Ottoman Turks• 1775 Reorganization of local government• 1783 Russia annexes the Crimea• 1785 Catherine issues Charter of the Nobility• 1793 2nd Partition of Poland• 1795 3rd Partition of Poland• 1796 Death of Catherine the Great

WesternersWesterners• Russia has a European

base and connection• Russia can copy and

outdo Europe• Favored by Intellectual

Elite• Favored by Merchants,

Businessmen• Favored by Progressives,

Young• Progressive, reforming

Tsars and leaders

• Russia is unique like no other country

• Russia is its own example and sets its own pace

• Favored by Russian Orthodox Church

• Favored by Military• Favored by Boyars• Favored by Peasants• Conservative, reactionary

Tsars and leaders

The Pendulum of RussiaThe Pendulum of RussiaSlavophilesSlavophiles

Neo-Classicism: The Enlightenment and the Arts

Classicism with references from Classical Greece and Rome and the Renaissance Reaction to Baroque and Rococco’s emotion, extravagance, and detailStrict adherence to formula and orderHarmony, rationality, regularity, balance and symmetryObjectivity: Lack of emotional involvement with the subjectInterest in science and knowledgeLiterature: Development of the essay and the novel

Mercantilism in practice:• Make the nation self-sufficient• Export more than you import in order to

accumulate bullion (gold and silver)• Build up domestic manufacturing and

agriculture and protect them with high tariffs• Government assists growth of new industries and

expands agriculture• Build up navy and merchant marine and

establish ports for foreign trade• Establish foreign trade monopolies• Establish colonies to provide raw materials and

other trade goods unavailable in Mother Country• Enforce mercantilism through law (Navigation

Acts)

Adam Smith and new EconomicsAdam Smith and new Economics• Believed that Natural Laws governed the economy;

Mercantilism interfered with Laws– Law of Supply and Demand– Theory of Value

• Role of Government limited:– Protect from invasion– Keep civil order and protect private property– Operate services necessary to all

• Competition is natural and benefits all– Lower prices and higher quality– More businesses and therefore more jobs– Nation benefits from international competition

• Laissez faire: “Invisible Hand” of competition governs all

• Individuals must follow moral code

European Rivalries – 18th century

• England (Britain) vs. France: Low Countries, North America, India, Caribbean islands

• France vs. Austria: Low Countries (Austrian Netherlands) and the Rhineland

• Austria vs. Prussia: German states and Poland• Austria vs. Ottoman Empire: Balkans, Black Sea (mouth of

Danube), eastern Mediterranean• England vs. Prussia: German states (Hanover)• Russia vs. Ottoman Empire: Balkans and Black Sea

(Turkish straits)• Austria vs. Russia: The Balkans; Romania• Prussia vs. Austria vs. Russia: Lands between them; Poland• England (Britain) vs. Spain: colonies in the Americas and

Caribbean• England (Britain) vs. Netherlands: trade rivalries in the

Americas and Asia

Who hates whom – Where and Why!

The Enlightenment and Warfare Called the “Age of Limited Warfare” Attention paid to the maintaining the

‘balance of power’ by war or diplomacy (as in the balance of Nature)

Armies now are paid by the state: large and expensive

Mercantilism: war, like everything, was to serve business interests

Allies chosen for common interests Greater attention to the art of diplomacy,

settling disputes without war Greater attention to settling wars short of

total victory; peace was preferable Search for ‘rules of war’: Are there ‘rules’ in

war? Is war ‘Natural’? What is the ‘Natural’ way to fight a war? How is Nature disrupted the least?

The 18The 18thth Century – A Century of Warfare Century – A Century of Warfare1701-14 War of the Spanish SuccessionWar of the Spanish Succession

1700-21 Great Northern WarGreat Northern War

1710-11 Russia and Ottoman Empire at WarRussia and Ottoman Empire at War

1733-35 War of the Polish SuccessionWar of the Polish Succession

1736-39 Russia and Ottoman Empire at WarRussia and Ottoman Empire at War

1739 War of Jenkins’ Ear beginsWar of Jenkins’ Ear begins

1740-48 War of the Austrian SuccessionWar of the Austrian Succession

1741-43 Russia and Sweden at WarRussia and Sweden at War

1754 — French and Indian War beginsFrench and Indian War begins

1756-63 Seven Years’ WarSeven Years’ War

1768-74 Russian and Ottoman Empire at WarRussian and Ottoman Empire at War

1775-83 War of American IndependenceWar of American Independence

BritainBritainAustriaAustria

NetherlandsNetherlands

FranceFrancePrussiaPrussiaSpainSpain

vs.

War of theWar of theAustrian Austrian

SuccessionSuccession,,1740-17481740-1748

The Diplomatic RevolutionThe Diplomatic Revolution• Britain and Prussia sign mutual defense

alliance: war with one means war with both

• British Navy will protect Prussian trade• Britain will give Prussia exclusive rights

to importation of tobacco from British colonies

• Prussia acknowledges British possession of German state of Hanover

• Prussia will protect sovereignty of Hanover

• Alliance of British Navy with Prussian Army threatens other great powers

BritainBritainPrussiaPrussia

FranceFranceSpainSpainAustriaAustriaRussiaRussiaSwedenSweden

vs.

Seven Years’ WarSeven Years’ War,,1756-17631756-1763

War and shifting alliances

• France

• Prussia

• Spain

• Britain• Austria• Netherlands

War of the Austrian Succession, 1740-1748

Seven Years’ War, 1756-1763

vs.

• France

• Austria

• Spain

• Russia

• Sweden

• Britain

• Prussiavs.

Treaty of Paris of 1763Treaty of Paris of 1763•Ended Seven Years’ WarEnded Seven Years’ War•Britain got all French lands in North America east of the Britain got all French lands in North America east of the MississippiMississippi•Spain got all French lands in North America west of the Spain got all French lands in North America west of the MississippiMississippi•Britain got Florida, Grenada and the Grenadines from Britain got Florida, Grenada and the Grenadines from SpainSpain•France maintained its Caribbean islands (Haiti, France maintained its Caribbean islands (Haiti, Martinique, Guadeloupe, et. al.)Martinique, Guadeloupe, et. al.)•France kept only 2 unarmed trading posts in India leaving France kept only 2 unarmed trading posts in India leaving Britain in control for colonizing IndiaBritain in control for colonizing India•Spain kept Cuba and the PhilippinesSpain kept Cuba and the Philippines•France withdrew all troops from all German landFrance withdrew all troops from all German land•Prussia maintained Silesia (taken in 1740)Prussia maintained Silesia (taken in 1740)•Prussia supported Josef II of Austria to be Holy Roman Prussia supported Josef II of Austria to be Holy Roman EmperorEmperor•Saxony was restored to prior ruleSaxony was restored to prior rule

Causes of the Agricultural RevolutionGrowth of towns, trade, and the Middle ClassFarm labor declining in availability, rising in costMercantilism: demand for higher output for trade and competitionScientific Revolution and Enlightenment: experimentation and observation applied to improving agricultureNew methods, practices and inventions developed: 3-field crop rotation, elimination of fallow land, soil-enriching crops, increased animal feed, new inventions, crops from Americas introduced, scientific animal breeding, etc.

Effects of the Agricultural Revolution

Enclosure Movement removed peasants from land: Wool requires less labor, brings higher profits

Cash-crop farming: single product produced for sale

Scientific methods increased output using less labor

City and town populations increased: cheap labor source available for coming Industrial Revolution

Increased nutrition brought increasing population: Increased life span and birth rate

Overcrowding causes many to leave Europe for colonies