behavior theories of learning

8/7/2019 behavior theories of learning

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3 Proponents of Behaviourism

J.B. Watson (1878 1958)

E.L. Thorndike (1874 1949)

B.F. Skinner (1904 1990)

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Conditioning

Conditioning involves forming associationsbetween environmental stimuli and responses:

Two types of conditioning are:

Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning

Unlike other theories Behaviorism omits themental processes from explanation of human

behavior.

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Watson: Classical Conditioning

Watson showed that emotions could be

learned by conditioning

Watsons work was inspired byPavlovs experiment on classical

conditioning

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Pavlovs Apparatus

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Classical Conditioning by Ivan Pavlov

(NS)

Conditioning can be used to initiate an intended response

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Generalisation

Discrimination

Extinction

Extension of Pavlovs experimentExtension of Pavlovs experiment::

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Extinction

If after, conditioning, the conditionedstimulus is repeatedly present without theunconditioned stimulus the conditioned

response will eventually disappear. Extinction the weakening and eventual

disappearance of a learned response; in

classical conditioning. It occurs when theconditioning stimulus is not longer pairedwith the unconditioned stimulus

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Stimulus Generalization

After conditioning, the tendency to respond to a

stimulus that resembles one involved in the

original conditioning; in classical conditioning, it

occurs when a stimulus that resembles theConditioned Stimulus (CS) elicits the Condition

Response (CR)

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Stimulus Generalization

After conditioning, the tendency to

respond to a stimulus that resembles one

involved in the original conditioning; in

classical conditioning, it occurs when a

stimulus that resembles the Conditioned

Stimulus (CS) elicits the Condition

Response (CR)

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Exercise

Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response, conditioned

stimulus, and conditioned response in this situations.

Five-year-old Ahmad is watching a storm from her window A hugebolt of lightning is followed by a tremendous thunderclap, and

Ahmad jumps at the noise. This happens several more times.There is a brief lull and then another lightning bolt. Ahmad jumps inresponse to the bolt.

US ___________

UR ___________

CS ___________

CR ___________

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Name the unconditioned stimulus, unconditioned response,

conditioned stimulus, and conditioned response in thissituations.

Naveens mouth waters whenever he eats anything withlemon in it. One day, while reading an ad that show abig glass of lemonade, Naveen notices his mouth

watering.US ___________

UR ___________

CS ___________

CR ___________

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Little Albert Experiment by Watson

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BEFORE CONDITIONING

White Rat(Unconditioned Stimulus)

No fear(Unconditioned Response)

DURING CONDITIONING

White Rat(Unconditioned Stimulus)

Loud Noise(Conditioning Stimulus)

Albert cries and avoidtouching Fear

(Unconditioned Response)

AFTER CONDITIONINGWhite Rat(Conditioned Stimulus)

Fear

(Conditioned Response)

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Watsons Experiment

Albert had LEARNED to fear the white rat

because of its association with the loud noise.

Watsons experiment indicated that our

emotional reactions can be rearranged through

classical conditioning

Watson had no chance to help Albert toovercome his fear.

If you were Watson, how would you help

Albert?

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Thorndikes

S-R THEORY

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Thorndike Connectionism (S-R Theory)

Learning is the result of associations (connections)between STIMULUS (S) and RESPONSE (R).

E.g. Pressing the lever (S) Door opening (R)

The associations (habits) become strengthened orweakened by the nature & frequency of pairings.

E.g. A particular S-R connection was establishedbecause pairings happened many times

The basic form of learning is trial and error learning in

which certain responses come dominate others due torewards.

E.g. A particular S-R connection was established if itwas rewarded (i.e. escape from box & food)

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Thorndikes Theories of Learning

The Law ofReadiness

One will act if one is ready. When one is ready to act, to do so is

satisfying while not doing so is annoying

The Law ofExerciseS-R connection is strengthened with practice but weakened when

practice is discontinued.

The Law ofEffect

The strength of S-R connection is influenced by the consequence. Ifthe response is followed by a pleasant consequence, the strength is

increased. If the response is followed by an unpleasant

consequence, the strength is decreased.

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Implications for Teaching

Intelligence is the function of the number of S-R

connections formed.

Complex ideas should be broken down into pre-requisite

concepts. Positive reinforcement should be applied asthese concepts are learned.

Transfer of Learning

- The degree of transfer between initial and later learning

depends on the match/similarity between elements

across two events

- Transfer is specific, never general.

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BF Skinner (1904-1990)

Operant Conditioning

Behavior operates on the

environment, which in turn

operates on the person

Picture courtesy of B. F. Skinner Foundation

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Skinner Operant Conditioning

We choose to behave in a certain way because of the

consequences of the particular behaviour. Our behaviour

is determined by the pleasant or unpleasant

consequence of that behaviour.

A behaviour reinforced by a pleasant

consequence increases the probability of

that behaviour occurring in the future

A behaviour no longer followed by a

pleasant consequence results in a

decreased probability of that behaviour

occurring in the future.

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Skinner (Operant) Box

Behavior

Consequence

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In operant conditioning, the animal is

active. It presses the bar to get the food.Its own behaviour (i.e. pressing the bar)

brings about the consequence (i.e. food).

The consequence further reinforces the

behaviour.Pressing the bar

Food

Reinforcement

Food as an

reinforcement

Frequency of bar-

pressing increases

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Principles ofOperant Conditioning

(Reinforcement Theory)

REINFORCEMENT

PUNISHMENT

Positive

Negative

Implications for teaching Provide feedback

Use programmed instruction

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Reinforcement

Process of providing consequences that

increase or maintain a behavior

Criteria for reinforcement

Behavior must have a consequence Behavior must increase in strength (occur more

often)

This increase in strength must be the result of the

consequence

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Positive (+) Reinforcement

Response is followed by the appearance of a

stimulus or event that increases or maintains

the frequency of a behavior

Stimulus or event is called positive reinforcer (SR)

R-SR (response, reinforcing stimulus)


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Examples of positive reinforcement

After feeding a dog a treat for shaking hands,it will be more likely to shake hands in thefuture

Getting paid at work makes it more likelyyoull continue to work there

Nicotine high provides reinforcement forsmoking

Laughing at my jokes is positively reinforcing

Winning a trophy following a race reinforcesracing behavior

Rat pressing lever for food


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Negative (-) reinforcement

Response is followed by the removal or

decrease in intensity of a stimulus (negative

reinforcer), with the effect of increasing or

maintaining the frequency of a behavior


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Cognitive Theories of Learning

Describe and explain the mental processes

involved in learning

Proponents of Cognition: Gestalt Psychologists (e.g. Kohler, Wertheimer, etc)

Jean Piaget

Albert Bandura

Ausubel


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Gestalt Principles of Perceptual Organisation

Principle of closure

We have a tendency to complete incompleteexperiences

Principle of proximity

We tend to organise elements close together asseparate units or groups

Principle of foreground & backgroundWe tend to see things in relation to theirsurroundings.


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Problem Solving by Insight (Kohler)

Our brain is an active information receiver and storer. The brain acts

on the information coming from the environment by making it more

meaningful and organised.

Based on the above principle, Kohlers (1890 1940) conducted

experiments on problem solving by Chimpanzees. The experiments

indicated that Chimpanzees could see the structure of a situation and

recognise interconnections, thereby gaining INSIGHT into the solution

of a problem. Learning therefore occurs with a realization of

a new relationship.

Implication for Teaching: Teachers should arrange learning situationsso that students will make their own discoveries (i.e. developing

INSIGHT) as they engage in class discussion.


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COGNITIVE LEARNING THEORIES

COGNITION is the act of knowing or

acquiring knowledge.

COGNITIVE PROCESSES are mentalprocesses involved in the act of knowing.

It includes perceiving, attention, reasoning,

judging, problem-solving, self-monitoring,

remembering and understanding


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GESTALT THEORIES OF

LEARNING The whole is different from the sum of its parts Experiences are added that is not contained in

what we see or perceive

The Law of Pragnanzstates that when an

organism sees or experiences something that is

disorganized in the physical environment, the

organism will impose order on what it sees or

experiences.


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PROBLEM SOLVING BY INSIGHT

Problem solving is a cognitive phenomenon

When confronted with a problem, a state of cognitive

disequilibrium is set up and continues until the problem

is solved. A problem can exist in only two states: unsolved and

solved

Successful problem solving comprises:

a. Getting a whole consistent pictureb. Seeing the structure of the whole in relation to parts


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Characteristics of insightful learning

The transition from pre-solution to solution is

sudden and complete

Performance bases on a solution gained by

insight is usually smooth and free of errors

A solution to a problem gained by insights is

retained for a considerable length of time

A principle gained by insight is easily applied toother problems


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Piagets Theory of Learning

Schema:

mental or cognitive structures which enable a

person to adapt and organise theenvironment. Schemas can become moredifferentiated and refined.

Assimilation

The process by which a person takesmaterial into their mind from theenvironment, which may mean changing theevidence of their senses to make it fit.


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Is the cognitive process of integrating new

information or experiences into existing or

readily available schema

It is a quantitative change


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Accommodation

Is the creation of new schema or the

modification of old schema

It is a qualitative change as more schemes are

created


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Stages of Cognitive

Development Sensori-motor :(Birth-2 yrs)Differentiates self from objects

Recognises self as agent of action and begins toact intentionally: e.g. pulls a string to set mobilein motion or shakes a rattle to make a noise

Achieves object permanence: realises that thingscontinue to exist even when no longer present tothe sense


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Pre-operational

(2-7 years)

Learns to use language and to representobjects by images and words.

Thinking is still egocentric: has difficultytaking the viewpoint of others

Classifies objects by a single feature: e.g.groups together all the red blocksregardless of shape or all the square blocks

regardless of colour


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Concrete operational: (7-11 years)

Concrete operational: (7-11 years)

Can think logically about objects andevents.

Achieves conservation of number (age 6),mass (age 7), and weight (age 9)

Classifies objects according to severalfeatures and can order them in series

along a single dimension such as size.


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Formal operational

(11 years and up)

Can think logically about abstract

propositions and test hypotheses

systematicallyBecomes concerned with the hypothetical,

the future, and ideological problems.


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Reflection of the theory

Piaget's Stage Theory gave educators, a

new way of thinking about teaching and

learning as it allowed them to match the

content of (science) curricula to children's

spontaneous intellectual development

(Bliss, 1995)


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According to Herron (1975), Piagetdevelopmental level is one which actually

refers to students' intellectual developmentand not to psychomotor development.

A concrete operational student may or maynot be good with his hands. The distinction

is in the reasoning that the student uses andhis or her ability to go beyond actualexperience to reason in terms of what hasnot been experienced.

Piaget has popularized the notion thatlogical reasoning cannot be taught (Linn,1980).


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Piaget as cited by Driscol (2000) considered threeprocesses as being critical to development ofchildren passing the above quoted stages.

They are assimilation, accommodation andequilibration.

Assimilation occurs when a child perceives newobjects or events in terms of existing schemes or

operations. For instance, infant who puts thing inhis mouth, grasping and throwing or shaking, aremeans of assimilating information about theobjects. Piaget had emphasized the functionalquality of assimilation. That is, children and adults

alike tend to apply any mental structure that isavailable to assimilate a new event, and they willactively seek to use a newly acquired structure.


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Accommodation is considered to haveoccurred when existing schemes oroperations must be modified to account fora new experience.

For example, Driscoll mentions that solvinga conservation task requires a shift in

thinking for all salient aspects of the task tobe accommodated. Hence it becomes clearthat accommodation influences assimilationand vice versa and an inadequate attemptto assimilate some new event into existing

schemes or operations may result in someadjustment of those schemes or operationsthus accommodating the event.


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The third process of development as identified byPiaget (cited in Driscoll, 2000) is equilibration.

To Piaget, equilibration is the master ofdevelopmental process, encompassing bothassimilation and accommodation. Equilibrationcharacterizes the child's transition from one stageof development to the next.

Within each stage, children operate from a set oflogical structure that, for their purposes, work quitewell. But toward the end of a stage, they maybecome aware of shortcomings in their way ofthinking. Anomalies of experience create a state of

disequilibrium which can only be resolved when amore adaptive, more sophisticated mode of thoughtis adopted.

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behavior theories of learning