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Behavioural (Learning) models of addictive behaviour

Three elements..

Poster - ActivityGroup 1. Classical conditioning = smoking IMR stimulus and responses

Group 2. Operant conditioning = gambling IMR ‘variable ratio’

Group 3. Social Cognitive Learning Theory= smoking ‘mere exposure effect’ IMR

1. Classical conditioning = stimulus and responses

2. Operant conditioning = reinforcement ( +/- )

= ‘variable ratio’ (gambling)

3. Social Cognitive Learning Theory=

observational learning

‘mere exposure effect’ (smoking)

Summary

info..

1. Classical Conditioning Theory of Addictive Behaviour

• Learning models of addictive behaviour are based upon the behaviourist theories of classical and operant conditioning.

• As you will remember these theories are based upon behaviour that is observed and can be measured. They do not take into account any cognitive processes as they assume behaviour is a direct response to a stimulus. These are also known as S-R theories.

• However Social Learning Theory (SLT) focuses on modelling and vicarious reinforcement and examines the role of cognitive processes that mediate the relationship between stimulus and response.

An example being…

…….Gambling with a slot / fruit machine…

Playing a fruit machine

UCS

Feeling of excitement/

arousalUCR

Playing a fruit machine

UCS+

Sights/sounds of fruit machine

CS

Sights/sounds of fruit

machine CS

Feeling of excitement/

arousalCR

Feeling of excitement/

arousalUCR

A possible explanation for initiation of gambling.Think about the sights and sounds of somewhere like Las Vegas too.

Do you think this is the most likely explanation of why someone gets addicted to gambling?

…. Now it’s your turn..

UCSUCR

UCS+

NS

Smoking CS

CR

UCR

A possible explanation for maintenance and relapse of smoking

How cues/triggers can develop which make it difficult to stop the addictive behaviour

Hanging out with friends

UCS

Arousal + relaxation

UCR

Hanging out with friends

UCS+

Smoking NS

Smoking CS

Recall of Arousal + relaxation

CR

Arousal + relaxation

UCR

A possible explanation for maintenance and relapse of smoking

How cues/triggers can develop which make it difficult to stop the addictive behaviour

Classical conditioning initiation

Classical conditioning- initiation

Classical conditioning maintenance and relapse

Classical conditioning maintenance and relapse

Evaluation of Classical Conditioning

X Not as good at explaining initiation for some chemical addictions, such as smoking and drugs, as biological explanations.

X It also cannot explain why many addictive behaviours are performed in the first place. For example, why does someone start smoking?

Classical conditioning can account for the physiological response that individuals with an addiction can experience when faced with environmental cues such as seeing others drink, smoke, etc or seeing pictures of cocaine, drink etc. This can also be applied to cravings that individuals with an addiction can experience.

Evaluation of Classical Conditioning

Helps to explain the maintenance and relapse of some addictive behaviours.

• A drug can be associated with certain emotions and situations.

• For example, individuals who feel sad or anxious may form the habit of drinking to excess or smoking when in a negative affective state.

• Similarly, certain situations can contribute to the maintenance of addictive behaviours, e.g. the sight of a hypodermic needle produced a sense of comfort for drug abusers (Meyer et al, 1995).

• Also Glautier et al (1991) found that alcohol related stimuli such as the sight and sounds of a pub, elicited many of the same physiological responses as alcohol itself, e.g. increased heart rate and arousal.

2. Operant Conditioning Theory of Addictive Behaviour

• As in all cases of operant conditioning the organism must perform some specified action in order to receive a particular positive reinforcement (reward).

• Operant conditioning is one of the best known explanations of gambling behaviour as it shows clearly the process of reinforcement and its influence on behaviour - in particular the idea of a variable ratio reinforcement schedule…

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The Importance of the ‘Variable Ratio’ (VR)

Skinner examined the effects on behaviour of how regularly reinforcements are presented, identified by Ferster and Skinner (1957) as the variable ratio (VR). A VR10 means that reinforcement is given every ten responses but the number varies from trial to trial (but over all the trials averages out at 10).

So the number of responses required on any one occasion is unpredictable.

In rat studies (pressing levers for food) a VR schedule produces a very high – and steady – response rate (they press at a faster rate, over considerable periods of time);

It also produces the highest resistance to extinction (difficult for the behaviour to stop) of any schedule.

How the VR works in relation to

Gambling Addiction

• If a gambler is used to wining only on a certain proportion of occasions that s/he gambles, then not winning on any particular occasion will come as no surprise and won’t cause the behaviour to extinguish (as might happen if they win every time).

• Tied to this irregularity of success is the unpredictability (the gambler doesn’t know when the next success will come so in other words they live in hope); not winning won’t ‘throw’ the gambler.

• However, wins and losses average themselves out over large numbers of bets (of course if they never won again, the behaviour would eventually cease).

Evaluation of Operant Conditioning

Activity: Use textbooks (pages 399 & 401) to add your own notes to the following;

Explains some aspects of initiation and maintenance.

• Notes from mesocorticolimbic dopamine pathway (Biological model)

• The positive reinforcement which may cause initiation and maintenance (particularly in chemical addictions) is the feelings experienced due to the activation of the dopamine pathway.

Evaluation of Operant Conditioning

Explains some aspects of maintenance and relapse.

• (Notes from withdrawal) • It explains maintenance as more and more of

the drug needs to be taken in order to get the positive reinforcement because of tolerance in the dopamine pathway.

• It also explains relapse through withdrawal as taking the drug again removes the unpleasant withdrawal symptoms (negative reinforcement)

Evaluation of Operant Conditioning

Variable ratio schedule helps to explain the maintenance of some addictive behaviours, e.g. gambling.

Explains how difficult it may be for an individual to break the habit.

• Powell (2000) found that when an individual decides to stop an addictive behaviour, it can produce a mixture of pleasant and unpleasant effects (rewards and punishments). Therefore the individual may find themselves I an approach-avoidance conflict, where motivation fluctuates between wanting to use and wanting to stop.

3. Social Learning Theory of Addictive Behaviour

• Bandura (1977) suggested that individuals learn through modelling and vicarious reinforcement, that is through observing others’ behaviour that is rewarded and/or punished.

• Observational learning takes place without any reinforcement – mere exposure to the model is sufficient for learning to occur.

Clip

I wanna be like you

The “mere exposure” effect ..

SLT - initiation

SLT – maintenance and relapse

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SLT - Smoking Activity: Using your Textbook (pages) 412-413 Write notes on the following

The influence of parents in the initiation of smokingLader & Matheson (1991) - children are twice as likely to smoke if parents smokeIf child sees parents are against smoking seven times less likely to smoke (Murray et al 1984)

The influence of peers in the initiation of smokingOgden - studies in USA – relationship between peer group identity and tobacco useProblem prone people (poor at school, alcohol/drug use) more likely to have smokedHowever, high rates smoking found in those seen as leaders with high self-esteem and popular with peers

Smoking and personalityFurnham & Heaven (1999) - individual as well as social factors need considerationSmokers higher extraversion (E) than non – associated with sensation seekingE and N correlated with smoking, deep inhalers most neuroticCurrent smokers scored high on psychoticism – female smokers significantly higher on P

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SLT- EXPLANATIONS OF GAMBLING

Greater access to gambling opportunities seems to increase both social and problem gambling. In the UK, the introduction of the National Lotteryin 1994 did not result in wide-spread gambling problems.

•65 per cent UK population played the Lottery in 1997 (GamCare 1998)•90 per cent in Sweden and New Zealand (Bennett 2006)•65 per cent claim to play regularly (Hill and Williamson 199

At end of first year Lottery ticket sales reached £3.3 billion ! (Griffiths, 1997)

Lottery clip

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SLT - GamblingBennett cites a study by Pols and Hawks who found that young game machine players persisted for twice as long when losing after drinking moderate amounts of alcohol as they did when sober..

Machin

Activity: Take notes on two more Social factors: (Pages 408/9)Conditioning: Fruit machines exploit idea of positive reinforcement through; • event frequency• result of gamble (win or loss)• pay-out interval (time between gambling and money received)• above contributes to ‘addictiveness’ of fruit machine gambling• high event frequency – brief loss period• No financial consideration - winnings re-gambled immediately

Familiarity• Acquisition of gambling - machine names important (Griffiths and Parke 1997)• Machines named after person, pace, event, video game, movie e.g. Indiana Jones• Familiar to player - can identify with names• Reasons for choosing machine - trust (Simpsons) Experience (cartoon characters) fun

Evaluation of Social Learning Theory

Helps to explain the initiation and maintenance of addictive behaviour.

• Activity: explain in your own words why

individuals may imitate desirable role models and peers and therefore initiate addictive behaviours..

Evaluation of Social Learning Theory

Real world applications

• Botvin (2000) suggests that effective forms of drug prevention programme should target beginner adolescents. It is at this crucial developmental period that adolescents are are most vulnerable to the influence of peers and therefore most in need of drug resistance skills and social skill development. Resistance training not only teaches adolescents how to refuse drugs such as cigarettes, but also informs them of the influences of peers and adults on drug use. Botvin argues that it is imperative to equip adolescents with the anti-smoking, anti-drug messages and arguments needed to counter the pro-smoking and pro-drug messages received from their environments.

“Outline learning explanations for addiction, making reference to initiation, maintenance and relapse”

(9 marks)

Question

AnswerClassical conditioningAddiction explained by association of Neutral Stimulus (NS) with Unconditioned stimulus(UCS) to bring about a conditioned response (CR) e.g. smoking associated with friends. Maintenance/relapse described by UCS, e.g. strong unbreakable bond with friends, difficult to relinquish. When the individual is presented with a trigger or cue (CS) the association with the addictive behaviour (CR) is strong and this makes it difficult for them to stop their addictive behaviour or makes relapse likely.

Operant conditioning

Addictive behaviour learnt through reinforcement of reward or punishment with variable ratio explaining the inconsistent nature of the immediate rewards needed (Ferster & Skinner, 1957). For example, gambling on the National lottery may require regular betting but infrequent winning. Initiation/maintenance can occur as the participant may associate positive rewards with the addictive behaviour (e.g. gambling) and so relapse is explained by the strong need for this same associational reward.

Social Learning theory Explains addiction as using observational learning to describe process of vicarious reinforcement of modelled addictive behaviour. For example, smoking behaviour by parents being seen to be rewarded (reinforced) and so is imitated by the child. Initiation/maintenance can be explained here by the observer gaining consistent reinforcement of their addictive (modelled) behaviour.

Sample exam question

“Combine the role of the pre-frontal cortex (biological approach) and classical conditioning (behaviourist approach) to suggest a possible explanation for maintenance/relapse.” (5 marks)

Suggested answer

“When the individual is presented with a trigger or cue (CS) the association with the addictive behaviour (CR) is strong and this makes it difficult for them to stop their addictive behaviour or makes relapse likely. If the Pre Frontal Cortex (PFC) has been weakened by the addiction, the individual will have decreased control over their behaviours. Therefore the power that the CS has over a person is increased even further and it is not likely to be over-ruled by the PFC. “