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Benchmarking Urban Air Quality Management in Asian Cities
Cornie Huizenga, May Ajero and Herbert Fabian, CAI-Asia Secretariat
Gary Haq, and Dieter Schwela, Stockholm Environment Institute
Lahore Clean Air Workshop
13-15 December 2004Lahore, Pakistan
Overview of Presentation
• CAI-Asia• Air Quality Management Context in Asia• Strategic Framework for Air Quality
Management in Asia• Benchmarking of Air Quality
Management Capabilities in Asia
Part 1
CAI-Asia
CAI-Asia
• The Clean Air Initiative promotes and demonstrates innovative ways to improve the air quality of Asian Cities through sharing experiences and building partnership- Sharing knowledge and experiences on air quality
management- Capacity building- Improving policy and regulatory frameworks at the
regional level - Assisting cities in formulating and implementing
integrated air quality management systems - Piloting projects to encourage innovation
“Create an Air Quality Management Community in Asia”
CITIESBangkok,ThailandChiang Mai,ThailandChengdu,PRCChittagong,BangladeshChongqing,PRCColombo,Sri LankaDhaka, BangladeshGuangzhou,PRCHaiphong, Viet NamHangzhou,PRCHanoi,Viet NamHarbin,PRCHo Chi Minh City,Viet NamHong Kong, SAR, ChinaHyderabad, IndiaIslamabad,PakistanKathmandu,NepalLahore, PakistanMakati,PhilippinesMetro Manila, PhilippinesMumbai, IndiaNaga,PhilippinesPhnom Penh,CambodiaPune, IndiaSingapore, (NEA)Surabaya,IndonesiaTianjin,PRCUlaanbaatar, MongoliaYogyakarta,Indonesia
NGAsAndhra Pradesh Pollution Control Board, IndiaAustralia Department of Environment and HeritageBalochistan EPA, PakistanCentral Pollution Control Board, IndiaDepartment of Environment, Bangladesh Department of Forests, Ecology and Env’t, Karnataka State, IndiaDepartment of Environment and Natural Resources, PhilippinesDepartment of Energy, PhilippinesDepartment of Transportation and Communications, PhilippinesDhaka Transport Coordination Board, BangladeshEnvironmental Protection Agency Karachi, PakistanMinistry of Environment, CambodiaMinistry of Environment, IndonesiaMinistry of Public Works and Transport, Cambodia Ministry of Road Transport and Highways, IndiaPollution Control Department, ThailandState Environmental Protection Administration (PRC focal point)Viet Nam Register, Viet NamDEVELOPMENT AGENCIESAsian Development BankAustralian Department for Environment and HeritageGerman Agency for Technical CooperationThe William and Flora Hewlett FoundationUnited States-Asia Environmental PartnershipSidaWorld Bank
FULL PRIVATE SECTOR MemberFord Motor ShellCompany CDT Inc.ASSOCIATE PRIVATE SECTOR MemberAVL Corning ETIACFA DEKRA ESPCerulean EMITEC IPIECAMAHA SGS JM
50 NGOs and
Academic Institutions
in the Region
CAI-Asia Membership
What does CAI-Asia do ?
KnowledgeManagement
CapacityBuilding
RegionalPolicy andStandards
IntegratedAir QualityStrategies
Pilot Projects
Workshops
• cleanairnet.org/caiasia
• CAI-Asia Listserv• Benchmarking
Study• AQM Best Practices
• CATNet Asia• Distance learning
course• Special Training
Courses
• Strategic Framework for AQM
in Asia
• CAI-Asia Oil Industry Dialogue
• Priority Agenda for AQM in Asia
•Country and City based AQM strategies
•Country and city based local networks
• PAPA Project• Poverty and Air
Pollution
• Diesel• Emission Factor
Development
• PSUTA (sustainable transport)
• Fuel additives
• BAQ 2002• BAQ 2003• BAQ 2004
• Sustainable
Transport, Vietnam• Sustainable Urban
Dev., Shanghai
• Heating, Ulaanbaatar
• Clean Air Congress, London
Part 2
The Air Quality Management Context in Asia
Air Quality Management Status • Drivers: trends with respect to factors contributing to
increase/decrease in emissions• Pressure: trends with respect to emissions from different
sources• State: trends with respect to concentrations of
pollutants in the atmosphere• Impact: trends with respect to health, environmental
and economic impacts• Response: trends with respect to the development of
capacity to manage air quality– Air quality measurement capacity– Data assessment and availability– Emissions estimates– Management enabling capabilities
AQM StatusAsia
AQM StatusAsia: drivers
Source: United Nations, World Urbanization Prospects, The 1999 Revision.
-
500.0
1000.0
1500.0
2000.0
2500.0
3000.0
1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2002
MT
OE
Energy consumption
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy 2003
Urb
an
izati
on
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
U.S. Current Level
Veh
icle
Pop
ula
tion
(m
illi
ons)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
1995 2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030
U.S. Current Level
Veh
icle
Pop
ula
tion
(m
illi
ons)
Vehicle growth scenario China
Source: Dongquan He, Energy Foundation 2004
Motorization
Emissions and Change in Technology
Country 95 96 97 98 99 2000 01 02 03 04 05 06 07 08 09 10
European Union
Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4 Euro 5
Bangladesh Euro 2 (under discussion)
Hong Kong, China
Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro 4
Indiaa Euro 1 Euro 2 E3
Indiab E1 Euro 2 Euro 3
Indonesia Euro 2
Malaysia Euro 1 Euro 2
Nepal Euro 1
Philippines Euro 1
PRCa Euro 1 Euro 2
PRCc Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3
Singaporee Euro 1 Euro 2
Singaporeg Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 4
Sri Lanka Euro 1
Taipei,China US Tier 1 US Tier 2 for dieseld
Thailand Euro 1 Euro 2 Euro 3 Euro4
Viet Name Euro 1
Viet Namf Euro 1
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
Chi na i ndust ry coal fi red power
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Pb
Co
nten
t in
Gas
olin
e (g
/l)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Aver
age
Pb
Air C
once
ntra
tion
(g/
m3 )
Pb C on tent in G aso line Pb A ir Co ncentratio n
0
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0.25
0.3
0.35
0.4
0.45
0.5
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001
Pb
Co
nten
t in
Gas
olin
e (g
/l)
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
Aver
age
Pb
Air C
once
ntra
tion
(g/
m3 )
Pb C on tent in G aso line Pb A ir Co ncentratio n
Although there is strong growth in motorization, the introduction of cleaner engines and fuels has slowed down the overall growth in emissions and there is considerable potential to slow down the increase in emissions from transport even further
Removal of lead from gasoline has drastically reduced lead being emitted per vehicle
Energy switch e.g Coal to natural gas has contributed to lowering SO2 emissions in urban areas in China.
AQM StatusAsia: Pressure
Source: Wangwongwatana, BAQ 2002
Source: BAQ 2002
Source: CAI-Asia statistics 2004
Average Annual Air Pollution Concentrations (1990 - 1999) in selected Asian Cities(AMIS Database)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
Bangk
ok
Beijing
Kolkat
a
Chong
qing
Gua
ngzh
ou
Hong
Kong
Met
ro M
anila
Mum
bai
New D
elhi
Osa
ka
Seoul
Busan
Shang
hai
Taipe
i,Chin
aTo
kyo
co
nc
en
tra
tio
ns
in
µg
/m3
SO2
NO2
SPM
PM10
SPM Guidelines = 60-90 µg/m3 (WHO, 1979)
PM10 Limit = 50 µg/m3 (USEPA, 1997)
SO2 Guideline = 50 µg/m3 (WHO, 1999)
NO2 Guideline = 40 µg/m3 (WHO, 1999)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
Bangk
ok
Beijin
g
Busan
Colom
bo
Dhaka
Hanoi
Ho Chi
Min
h
Hong
Kong
Jaka
rta
Kathm
andu
Kolka
ta
Man
ila
Mum
bai
New D
elhi
Seoul
Shang
hai
Singa
pore
Surab
aya
Taip
ei,C
hina
Toky
o
conc
entr
atio
n in
µg/
m3
Average Annual Air Pollution Concentrations (2000 - 2003) in selected Asian Cities
SO2
NO2
SPM
PM10
SPM Guidelines = 60-90 µg/m3 (WHO, 1979)
PM10 Limit = 50 µg/m3 (USEPA, 1997)
SO2 Guideline = 50 µg/m3 (WHO, 1999)
NO2 Guideline = 40 µg/m3 (WHO, 1999)
SO2 NO2 SPM PM10
Bangkok ≥ > < <Beijing < ? ? <Busan < > ? ≥Colombo > < ? ≤Hong Kong > < < <Kolkata < > < <Manila ? ? < ?Mumbai < < < <New Delhi < < < <Seoul < > < <Shanghai < < < ?Taipei,China < < ? >Tokyo < ≤ ? <
Note:
≥ - about 5% increase
≤ - about 5%decrease
? - lack of data
2000 – 2003 compared with 1990 – 1999 Air Quality Data
Trends of Aggregated Annual Averages of SPM for selected Asian Cities (1993 - 2003)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
co
nc
en
tra
tio
ns
in
µg
/m3
SPM Guidelines = 60-90 µg/m3 (WHO, 1979)
BangkokBusan
Hong KongKolkataManila
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulShanghai
BangkokBusan
Hong KongKolkataManila
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulShanghai
BangkokBusan
Hong KongKolkataManila
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulShanghai
BangkokBusan
Hong KongKolkataManila
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulShanghai
BangkokBusan
Hong KongKolkataManila
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulShanghai
BangkokBusan
Hong KongKolkataManila
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulShanghai
BangkokBusan
Hong KongKolkataManila
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulShanghai
BangkokBusanHanoi
Hong KongJakartaKolkataManila
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulShanghai
BangkokHanoi
Hong KongJakartaKolkataManila
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulShanghai
BangkokHanoi
Hong KongKolkataManila
MumbaiNew DelhiShanghai
BangkokHong Kong
KolkataManila
MumbaiNew DelhiShanghai
Trend of Aggregated Annual Averages of PM10 for selected Asian Cities (1993 - 2003)
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
conc
entr
atio
ns in
µg/
m3
PM10 Limit = 50 µg/m3 (USEPA, 1997)
Hong KongMumbai
New DelhiSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
Hong KongMumbai
New DelhiSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BusanHong Kong
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BusanHong Kong
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBusan
Hong KongKolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
SingaporeTaipei,China
Tokyo
BangkokBusan
ColomboHong Kong
KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
SingaporeTaipei,China
Tokyo
BangkokBeijingBusan
ColomboHong Kong
KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
SingaporeTaipei,China
Tokyo
BangkokBeijingBusan
ColomboHanoi
Ho Chi MinhHong Kong
JakartaKolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBeijingBusan
ColomboHanoi
Ho Chi MinhHong Kong
JakartaKolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingaporeSurabaya
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBeijingBusan
ColomboHanoi
Ho Chi MinhHong Kong
JakartaKolkataManila
MumbaiNew Delhi
SeoulShanghaiSingaporeSurabaya
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBeijing
ColomboHanoi
Ho Chi MinhHong Kong
JakartaKolkataManila
MumbaiNew DelhiShanghaiSingaporeSurabaya
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
Trends of Aggregated Annual Averages of SO2 for selected Asian Cities (1993 - 2003)
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
con
cen
tra
tion
s in
µg
/m3
BusanHong Kong
KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BusanHong Kong
KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BusanHong Kong
KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBeijing Busan
Hong Kong KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBeijing Busan
ColomboHong Kong
KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBeijing Busan
ColomboHong Kong
KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBeijing Busan
ColomboHong Kong
KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBeijing Busan
ColomboHo Chi Minh
Hong Kong KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingapore
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBeijing Busan
ColomboHanoi
Ho Chi MinhHong Kong
KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingaporeSurabaya
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBeijing Busan
ColomboDhakaHanoi
Ho Chi MinhHong Kong
KolkataMumbai
New DelhiSeoul
ShanghaiSingaporeSurabaya
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
BangkokBeijing
ColomboDhaka
Ho Chi MinhHong Kong
KolkataSeoul
ShanghaiSingaporeSurabaya
Taipei,ChinaTokyo
SO2 Guideline = 50 µg/m3 (WHO, 1999)
Bangkok
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
concentr
ations in µ
g/m
3
SPM PM10 CO NO2 O3
Hong Kong
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
concentr
atio
n in
µg/m
3
SPM PM10 CO SO2 NO2 O3
Singapore
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
concentr
atio
n in
µg/m
3
PM10 CO SO2 NO2 O3
Shanghai
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1990 1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002 2004
conc
entr
atio
ns in
µg/
m3
SPM PM10 SO2 NO2
Mumbai
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
con
cen
tra
tion
in µ
g/m
3SPM RSPM SO2 NOx
New Delhi
0
50
100
150
200
250
300
350
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002
conce
ntr
atio
n in
µg/m
3
SPM RSPM SO2 NOx
Annual Averages of Criteria Pollutants in Asian Cities (1992 - 2003)
Source: PCD, 2004
Source: EPD, 2004
Source: NEA, 2004
Source: SEMC, 2004
Source: ESMAP, 2004
Source: ESMAP, 2004
Health Effects and Health Costs
Health Effects
1,025,0001,619,000Indoor Air
487,000799,000Urban
Outdoor Air
730,0001,730,000Unsafe
Water
Asian Estimate
Global Estimate
Risks
1,025,0001,619,000Indoor Air
487,000799,000Urban
Outdoor Air
730,0001,730,000Unsafe
Water
Asian Estimate
Global Estimate
RisksNumber of Premature Deaths
•Manila US$392M
•Shanghai US$880M
•Bangkok US$424M
•India US$14 to $ 191.6M
•Jakarta US$ 100 M
Health Costs (per year)
Exposure Risks
0.46 0.62 0.5
00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7
US (90 Cities)* Eur (21Studies)*
Asia (6Studies)
Perc
en
t In
crease
•Manila US$392M
•Shanghai US$880M
•Bangkok US$424M
•India US$14 to $ 191.6M
•Jakarta US$ 100 M
Health Costs (per year)
Exposure Risks
0.46 0.62 0.5
00.10.20.30.40.50.60.7
US (90 Cities)* Eur (21Studies)*
Asia (6Studies)
Perc
en
t In
crease
AQM StatusAsia: Impact
Source: WHO, 2002Source: Greenbaum and O’Keefe, BAQ 2003
Source: ADB 2002. Policy Guidelines on Reducing Vehicle Emissions
Part 3
Strategic Framework for Air Quality Management in Asia
A Strategic Framework for AQM in Asia
Aim:
To provide a regional approach to improving urban air quality by facilitating the setting of air quality priorities and providing direction on institutional development and capacity enhancement
Governmental authorities
Judiciary
Private sector
Civil society
NGOs
Media
Academia
Development agencies
Target Group of the Strategic Framework
Guide decision-makers
and stakeholders in Asia in the formulation and implementation of AQM
strategies and programmes
Provide a broad, high-level approach that is
flexible and adaptable to the needs of different
countries/cities
Highlight the most important components of
a comprehensive AQM system in a rational and
systematic manner
Strategic Framework Objectives
Key Sections of the Framework1. Air Quality Policies
2. Air Quality Governance
3. Emissions
4. Air Quality Monitoring
5. Air Quality Modelling
6. Health, Environmental & Economic Risk Assessments
7. Financing of AQM
SECTION OF THE SF OBJECTIVE
1Air Quality Policies
To include and/or strengthen the concept of AQM in relevant policies and legislation in cities/ countries in the region
2Air Quality Governance
To facilitate law enforcement, to inform, educate and strengthen stakeholder participation in all aspects of AQM to prevent and reduce the impacts of air pollution
3Emissions
To include and/or strengthen enforceable, affordable, sustainable and highly effective measures to assess and reduce emissions
Strategic Framework – Outline (1)
SECTION OF THE SF OBJECTIVE
4Air Quality Modelling
To support and strengthen national and local air quality estimates and allow source apportionment and estimations of transboundary air pollution
5Air Quality Monitoring
To establish and/or strengthen national and local air quality monitoring programmes
6Health, Environmental and Economic Risk Assessments
To establish and/or strengthen national and local programmes which monitor health, environmental and economic impact of air pollution in an harmonized way.
Strategic Framework – Outline (2)
SECTION OF THE SF OBJECTIVE
7Financing of AQM
To establish mechanisms for financial sustainability in regional, national and local air quality, environmental and health programmes including financing from private sector and other sources
Strategic Framework – Outline (3)
Part 4
Benchmarking of Air Quality Management Capabilities in Asia
Review• Both city profile and
questionnaire to be reviewed by air quality experts in the city
• Overall review panel (e.g. WHO, World Bank and ADB, etc)
Benchmarking of AQM capacity
1. Air quality measuremen
t capacity
4. Management
enabling capabilities
3. Emissions estimates
2. Data assessment
and availability
Cities covered in Benchmarking StudyJakarta
Karachi
Kathmandu
Manila
Mumbai
New Delhi
Kolkata
Osaka
Seoul
Shanghai
Surabaya
Singapore
Taipei
Tokyo
Yogyakarta
Bangkok
Beijing
Busan
Colombo
Dhaka
Hanoi
Hong Kong
Ho Chi Minh
AQM Profile15-20 page document:• general information• description of pollution sources• Air Quality Data• Impacts of air pollution• Policies, Programs and Projects• Conclusions
AQ
M
Qu
est i
on
nai r
e
AQM StatusAsia: Response
AQM Indicator RatingsAir quality
measurement capacity
Data assessmen
t and availability
Management enabling capabilities
Emissions estimates
1. Chronic health effects
2. Acute health effects (continuous 24-hour monitoring)
3. AQ trends
4. Spatial distribution
5. Kerbside concentration
6. Data quality
1. Analysis of data
2. Data dissemination
1. Legislation on AQ standards
2. Utilization of AQ information
1. Total emissions of pollutants
2. Accuracy of emissions estimates
3. Availability of emissions estimates
4. Emissions estimates from different sources
3
2.5
3
11
2.5
3
14
11
2
9
8
6
8
17
AQM StatusAsia: Response
Air Quality Measurement Capacity
AQM Capability Indices
• Only in few cases are monitoring stations linked in a network
• Routine regulatory monitoring generally does not (yet) include ozone and PM 2.5
• QA/QC programs are not institutionalized in most cases
Bangkok Manila
Beijing Mumbai
Busan New Delhi
Colombo Osaka
Dhaka Seoul
Hanoi Shanghai
Ho Chi Minh
Singapore
Hong Kong Surabaya
Jakarta Taipei,China
Karachi Tokyo
Kathmandu Yogyakarta
Kolkata
AQM StatusAsia: Response
Legend: Minimal Limited Moderate Good Excellent
AQM StatusAsia: Response
Data Assessment and Availability
AQM Capability Indices
Bangkok Manila
Beijing Mumbai
Busan New Delhi
Colombo Osaka
Dhaka Seoul
Hanoi Shanghai
Ho Chi Minh
Singapore
Hong Kong Surabaya
Jakarta Taipei,China
Karachi Tokyo
Kathmandu Yogyakarta
Kolkata
• A few cities have APIs, but not all publish AQ information on a regular basis. API’s in most cases do not include pollutants of concern such as PM10 or Ozone.
• Cities with API do not appear to use API as management tool, e.g. issue air quality alerts
• Comprehensive overview of air quality data in Asia is not available
Emissions estimates AQM Capability Indices
Bangkok Manila
Beijing Mumbai
Busan New Delhi
Colombo Osaka
Dhaka Seoul
Hanoi Shanghai
Ho Chi Minh
Singapore
Hong Kong Surabaya
Jakarta Taipei,China
Karachi Tokyo
Kathmandu Yogyakarta
Kolkata
AQM StatusAsia: Response
• Inventories in many of the cases were conducted by outside groups: academe or consulting firms
• Level of detail/ disaggregation varies greatly
• Reliability of activity data and Emission factors used is questionable for many of the cities
• Caution in using current emission estimates as basis for policy development
Management Enabling capabilities
AQM Capability Indices
AQM StatusAsia: Response
Bangkok Manila
Beijing Mumbai
Busan New Delhi
Colombo Osaka
Dhaka Seoul
Hanoi Shanghai
Ho Chi Minh
Singapore
Hong Kong Surabaya
Jakarta Taipei,China
Karachi Tokyo
Kathmandu Yogyakarta
Kolkata
• AQ ambient standards are in place and generally follow WHO guidelines
• Emission standards are in place but enforcement generally weak
• Mobile sources of pollution receive disproportionate attention compared to area sources and stationary sources.
Stage 4 – Mature capacity. AQM is increasingly comprehensive and well structured; external, donor involvement limited only to special areas; AQ levels approaching WHO guidelines as well as NAAQS; continuous AQ monitoring; development of medium-term AQM strategies; emerging emphasis on prevention of pollution; enforcement of standards becoming standard practiceStage 3 – Evolving capacity. Systematic approach to AQM being put in place, often with still extensive foreign support; AQ monitoring increasingly through continuous monitoring; air pollution levels high but stable; more structured approach to enforcement emerging.
Stage 2 – Basic capacity. Initial legislation, standards and control measures; heavy dependence on foreign support; AQ levels high and still increasing; few, often manual type stations for monitoring; often very weak AQ regulations enforcementStage 1 – Minimal capacity. No established AQM capacity; increasing air pollution levels; no comprehensive AQ legislation and standards; limited ad-hoc AQ monitoring and pollution control
Source: Benchmarking Study Urban Air Quality Management and Practice in Major and Mega Cities of Asia – Stage 2 (draft)
AQM Management CapacityStage 5 – Excellent capacity. AQM is a routine activity; well established local institutional capacity; typically stable AQ levels and under WHO guidelines and NAAQS; strong emphasis on pollution prevention; AQ and emission standards are routinely enforced.
Hong Kong, Osaka, Seoul, Singapore, Tokyo and Taipei
Bangkok, Beijing, Busan, New Delhi and Shanghai
Dhaka, Hanoi, Surabaya and Yogyakarta
Ho Chi Minh, Jakarta, Kathmandu, Kolkata, Manila and Mumbai
Colombo and Karachi
Classification according to stages is based on AQ capability questionnaire, AQ levels and City profile.
AQM StatusAsia: Response
Conclusion• Cities with high levels of economic activity and well-
developed AQM systems tend to have better air quality than those cities with a poorly developed AQM system
• More emphasis needs to be given to the development of standard methodologies for conducting emission inventories and source apportionment studies
• The identified stages of development in terms of AQM capability can assist cities in setting priorities and developing strategies for strengthening their AQM capability
• This Benchmarking Study is a useful tool for policy-makers and AQM experts, but methodologies should be modified to adapt to the current situation and new priorities in AQM