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Benefits of Early Intervention
Benefits societyReduces need for institutional placement
Reduces need for special education
Saves money
Early Childhood
Helps children with disabilitiesGains in cognitive, physical, language, and social skills
Benefits familiesHelps families manage the child
Reduces stress
Learning Disabilities in Preschool Children
PRECURSORS OF ACADEMIC FAILURE—
DEFICITS IN THE FOLLOWING:
• Communication and oral language skills
• Phonological awareness
• Rapid naming skills
• Knowledge of the alphabet
• Visual-motor integration
• Fine- and gross-motor skills
• Social skills
Early Childhood
Preschool Children: Ages 3-5
Preschoolers may have a developmental delay in one or more of the following areas:
1. Physical development
2. Cognitive development
3. Communication development
4. Social or emotional development
5. Adaptive development
Early Childhood
The reauthorized Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) continues the early childhoodspecial education policies and practices and incorporates the earlier early childhood laws (PL 99-457 and PL 102-119). There are two age groups of young children with disabilities identified in the legislation:
Early Childhood
Legislation for Young Children with Disabilities
(1) preschoolers, ages 3 through 5 (2) infants and toddlers, ages birth to 2.
The provisions in the law are different for these two groups.
•Each state must provide a free, appropriate, public education, along with related services, to all eligible children with disabilities ages 3 through 5.
Law for Preschoolers with Disabilities:
Infants and Toddlers: Birth through age 2
• The policies for infants and toddlers with disabilities, birth through age 2, are contained in Part C of IDEA-2004. Services for infants and toddlers with disabilities are not mandated, but Part C authorizes financial assistance to the states through state grants.
• The family system is recognized as critical in the child's development. The teams must use an individualized family service plan (IFSP), which includes plans for the family as well as for the child.
Early Childhood
Legislation for Young Children with Disabilities
Preschoolers Infants/ToddlersLaw Part B Part C
Mandatory Permissive
Age 3 through 5 Birth through 2
Plan IEP or IFSP IFSP
Early Childhood
Preschoolers Infants/Toddlers
Lead State education Agency appointedAgency agency by governor
Transition To general or To preschoolspecial program program
Orientation Developmental Family, parent/infantmental learning interactionof child
Legislation for Young Children
Components of the Individualized Family Services
Plan: Part C of PL 105-17 (IDEA)
The IFSP must
1. Be based on a multidisciplinary assessment of the unique strengths and needs of the infant or toddler and identify the appropriate services to meet those needs
IFSP
The IFSP must
2. Include a family-directed assessment of the resources, priorities, and concerns of the family and identify the supports and services necessary to enhance the family’s capacity to meet the developmental needs of the infant or toddler
IFSP
The IFSP must
3. Be developed in writing by a multidisciplinary team that includes the infant or toddler’s parents
IFSP
The IFSP must also include
1. A statement of the child’s present levels of physical, cognitive, communication, social or emotional, and adaptive development, based on objective criteria
2. A statement of the family’s resources, priorities, and concerns relative to enhancing the development of the family’s infant or toddler
IFSP
The IFSP must also include
3. A statement of the major outcomes expected to be achieved for the infant or toddler and the family, and the criteria, procedures, and timelines used to determine the extent to which progress toward achieving the outcomes is being made and whether modifications or revisions of the outcomes or services are necessary
IFSP
The IFSP must also include
4. A statement of the specific early intervention services necessary to meet the unique needs of the infant or toddler and the family, including the frequency, intensity, and method of delivering services
IFSP
The IFSP must also include
5. A statement of the natural environments in which early intervention services shall be provided appropriately, including justification of the extent, if any, to which services will not be provided in the natural environment
IFSP
The IFSP must also include
6. The projected dates for initiation of services and anticipated duration of services
7. Identification of the service coordinator who will be responsible for implementing the plan and coordinating with other agencies and persons
IFSP
The IFSP must also include
8. The steps to be taken to support the toddler’s transition to preschool or other appropriate services
IFSP
Service Delivery Models
The educational needs of young children with disabilities differ from those of their school-age counterparts. To meet the diverse needs of younger children, greater flexibility and variety in service delivery options are needed in a coordinated plan
Advantages & Disadvantages of Programming Models
Advantages DisadvantagesHome-based
Rapport with family is more easily established
Parents who may lack skills are responsible for implementingmuch of the intervention
Family routines are less likely to be disrupted
Teachers spend potential planning and instructional time traveling from site to site
Children are more at ease, less frightened in familiar surroundings
No opportunity exists for peer interaction and socialization
Materials can be designed to meet the needs of the natural setting
Building and maintenance costs are unnecessary
Advantages DisadvantagesCenter-based
All primary and support services are housed in one location
Cost of providing facilities and range of services is high
Teachers have more time for planning and instruction
Center may need to provide transportation and bus aides, which increases cost
Situation promotes peer interaction and socialization
Families may move and time may be lost in reorganizing busroutes or locating the family
Advantages DisadvantagesCombination
Greater flexibility in deliveringservices is possible
Same as with home- and center- based models
Same as with home- and center- based models
Advantages DisadvantagesConsultation
More efficient use of staff time
Parents are responsible for implementation of the intervention
Imposes on parents to transport children
Limited amount of service can be provided to child or family
Stages of the Assessment Process
1. CHILD-FIND: Locate children. Increase public awareness.
2. SCREENING: Identify children who need further study.
3. DIAGNOSING: Determine extent of delay. Plan intervention.
4. EVALUATING: Measure progress. Plan for transition.
Child-Find
This first phase refers to ways of finding young children with disabilities in the community. Emphasis is on making initial contact and increasing the public’s awareness of services. Preschool children are not usually in the public school system, and communities must therefore make a concerted effort to seek them out.
Early Identification/Assessment Phases
Screening
This second phase attempts to identify children who need further study. Emphasis is on ways of quickly surveying many children to identify those who may need special services.
Early Identification/Assessment Phases
Diagnosing
The third phase consists of determining the extent of developmental delay and devising an intervention program. The emphasis is on methods of comprehensively examining a child through formal and authentic measures to determine whether the child’s problems warrant special education services.
Early Identification/Assessment Phases
Evaluating
The fourth phase concentrates on measuring progress, judging whether a child should remain in a special education program, and planning for transition.
Early Identification/Assessment Phases
Categories of Risk
Three categories of risk are:
1. Established Risk
2. Biological Risk
3. Environmental Risk
Early Childhood
Established Risk: The established risk category includes children with an established diagnosis of developmental delay that results in disability or developmental delay.
Categories of Risk
Biological Risk: The biological risk category refers to children who have a diagnosed physical or mental condition that has a high probability of resulting in a developmental delay, such as a very low birth weight.
Categories of Risk
Environmental Risk: The environmental risk category includes children who are biologically sound but whose early life experiences have been so limiting that they impart a high probability for delayed development. Such experiences include parental substance abuse; significant family social disorganization; extreme poverty; parental intellectual impairment; disturbed parent-child interaction; low parental education; family isolation and lack of support; and a history of inadequate prenatal care, child abuse, or neglect.
Categories of Risk
Developmentally Appropriate Practice (DAP)
The National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC) (1991) recommends a set of guidelines for a curriculum for typical young children called developmentally appropriate practice (DAP).
Early Childhood
The Brain: Its Structure and Functions
All human behavior is mediated by the brain and the central nervous system. The process of learning is one of the most important activities of the brain.
The Cerebral HemispheresThe human brain is composed of two halves, the right hemisphere and the left hemisphere, which appear on casual inspection to be almost identical in construction and metabolism. Each cerebral hemisphere contains a frontal lobe, a temporal lobe, an occipital lobe, a parietal lobe, and a motor area. The motor area of each hemisphere controls the muscular activities of the opposite side of the body.
The Brain
Right Brain, Left Brain: Differences in Function
Although the two halves of the brain appear almost identical in structure, they differ in function, and these differences appear very early in life.
The Brain
Left HemisphereReacts to and controls language-related activities. For more than 90 percent of adults, language function originates in the left hemisphere, regardless of whether the individual is left-handed, right-handed, or a combination of the two. Language is located in the left hemisphere in 98 percent of right-handed people and in a bout 71 percent of left-handed people
The Brain
Right Hemisphere
Deals with nonverbal stimuli. Spatial perception, mathematics, music, directional orientation, time sequences, and body awareness are located in the right brain.
The Brain
Right Brain/ Left Brain
This duality of the brain has led to speculation that some people tend to approach the environment in a “left-brained” fashion whereas others use a “right-brained approach.” Left-brained individuals are strong in language and verbal skills while “right-brained” individuals have strengths in spatial, artistic, and mechanical skills.
The Brain
Concepts About Motor Learning
• Human learning begins with motor learning
• There is a natural sequence of developmental motor stages
• Many areas of academic and cognitive performance are based on successful motor experiences
Perception
• Perception: refers to the cognitive ability of the individual to both recognize and integrate external stimuli. It is a process that occurs essentially in the brain. Perception is a learned skill, which implies that it can be taught.
Perceptual- Motor Systems
• Basic Rationale: Higher level mental processes for the most part develop out of and after adequate development of the motor system and the perceptual system.
Auditory Perception
• Auditory perception—interpreting what is heard
• Phonological awareness
• Auditory discrimination
• Auditory memory
• Auditory sequencing
• Auditory blending
Types of Auditory Discrimination
• Auditory Memory: is the ability to store and recall what one has heard. For example, the student could be asked to do three activities, such as close the window, open the door, and place the book on the desk. Is the student able to store and retrieve through listening to such directions?
Types of Auditory Discrimination
• Auditory Sequencing: is the ability to remember the order of items in a sequential list. For example, the alphabet, numbers, and the months of the year are learned as an auditory sequence.
• Auditory Blending: is the ability to blend single phonic elements or phonemes into a complete word. Students with such disabilities have difficulty blending, for example, the phonemes m-a-n to form the word man.
Visual Perception
• Visual perception—interpreting what is seen• Visual discrimination• Figure-Ground perception• Visual closure• Spatial relations• Object-letter recognition• Reversals• Whole-part perception
Visual Discrimination
• Visual Discrimination refers to the ability to differentiate one object from another. In a preschool readiness test, for example, the child may be asked to find the rabbit with one ear in a row of rabbits with two ears.
• The skill of matching identical letters, words, numbers, pictures, designs, and shapes is another visual discrimination task.
Types of Visual Discrimination
• Figure Ground Discrimination: refers to the ability to distinguish an object from its surrounding background.
• Visual Closure: is a task that requires the individual to recognize or identify an object even though the total stimulus is not presented. For example, a competent reader is able to read a line of print when the top half of the print is covered.
Types of Visual Discrimination
• Spatial Relations: refers to the perception of the position of objects in space. In reading, for example, word must be perceived as separate entities surrounded by space.
• Object and Letter Recognition: is the ability to
recognize the nature of objects when viewing them. This includes recognition of alphabetic letters, numbers, words, geometric shapes (such as a square), and objects (such as a cat, a face, or a toy).
Z 5
• Newell Kephart– Perceptual-Motor Training includes the use of (1) the
walking board, (2) the balance board, (3) the trampoline, (4) angels in the snow, (5) a variety of stunts and games, and (6) certain rhythm activities.
• Marianne Frostig– Developmental Test of Visual Perception
• Jean Ayers– Sensory Integration Theory
Theorists
Language Forms and Integrated Language Core
Listening Speaking
ReadingWriting
Integrated Language
Core
Relationship to the Four Forms of Language
ListeningReading
IntegrativeProcess
SpeakingWriting
Input orReceptiveSkills
Output orExpressiveSkills
Theories of How Children Acquire Language
• Behavioral theories contribute the explanation that language is learned through the environmental influences and behavioral principles that shape all kinds of learning. According to Skinner (1957), language is learned through imitation and reinforcement. The infant begins with no knowledge of language but gradually acquires language skills, largely through the reinforced imitation of the language models that are produced by language users in the child’s environment.
Behavioral Theories
Theories of How Children Acquire Language
• The innatist theories offer another explanation of language development, which is based on the biological foundations of language (Lennebert, 1967) and psycholinguistic views of language learning (Pinker, 1995; Chomsky, 1965). This explanation emphasizes that children are biologically predisposed to learn and use language and that human beings have developed an innate capacity for dealing with the linguistic universals common to all languages.
Innatist Theories
• Cognitive theories provide another view of language learning that highlights the linkages among language, thinking, and experiences proposed that a child (even an infant) begins with some prelinguistic thoughts or existing knowledge base and that the development of language and thinking are independent. Further language development requires interpersonal and social experiences. Piaget (1970) theorized that language is acquired as the child takes in (assimilates) the language in the environment and then modifies (accommodates) it with his or her own thoughts and knowledge.
Cognitive Theories
Theories of How Children Acquire Language
Linguistic Systems
• Phonology: phonemes (sound units)
• Morphology: morphemes (meaning units)
• Syntax: grammar (sentence structure)
• Semantics: word meaning (vocabulary)
• Pragmatics: social side of language (intonation)
• Phonology: is the system of speech sounds in a language. The smallest unit of sound is a phoneme. For example, the word cat contains three phonemes: k - a - t.
• Morphology: is the system of meaning units in a language. The smallest unit of meaning is a morpheme. In standard English, for example, the word boy is one morpheme or meaning unit; and the word boys contains two morphemes or meaning units.
Linguistic Systems
• Syntax: refers to the grammar system of language- the way the words are strung together to form sentences. In the English language (unlike some other languages), word order is extremely important to convey meaning.
• Semantics: refers to word meaning in language.
Pupils who have meager vocabulary understanding or usage and those who have difficulty relating a string of words to a meaningful association may have a semantic language disorder.
Linguistic Systems
• Pragmatics: is the social side of language, dealing with the relationship between the speaker and the context.
• The poor ability of students with learning disabilities to interpret, infer, compare, and respond to the language of others may be the cause of many of their social difficulties. Students with learning disabilities often have more difficulty in the social use of language, are less effective in their communication attempts, and do poorly in the listening role of a conversation, interrupting the speaker more frequently in order to insert their own ideas in the conversation.
Linguistic Systems
Listening
• Listening is an often neglected element of language learning. Students are typically expected to acquire the ability to listen without special instruction. However, many students do not acquire functional skills in listening by themselves. Over half the people referred to medical hearing specialists for suspected deafness have no defect in hearing acuity and no organic pathology that would cause their seeming hearing impairment.
Language Disorders
• A language disorder differs from a speech disorder. Speech disorders are abnormalities of speech, such as articulation difficulties (for example, the child cannot pronounce the r sound), Voice disorders (for example, a very hoarse voice), or fluency difficulties (stuttering). Language disorders are much broader, encompassing disorders of the entire spectrum of communication and verbal behavior, including such problems as delayed speech; disorders of vocabulary, word meanings, or concept formations, the misapplication of grammatical rules and syntax, and poor language comprehension.
• The process of producing spoken language is called oral expressive language, and a disorder in this process is called expressive aphasia. Children with this disorder depend on pointing and gesturing to make their wants known. Children with oral expressive language disorders can understand speech and language produced by others, they do not have a muscular paralysis that prevents them from talking, and they do well on nonverbal tasks. Yet these children have difficulty in producing speech or in talking.
Language Disorders
Expressive Language Disorders
Nonstandard English
• A language difference, in contrast to a language disorder, can also affect school learning. For example, the student's language may be a dialect of standard English, such as an Appalachian dialect or Black English. The student's language is similar to that of others in the students immediate environment, is appropriate for the surroundings, and causes no difficulty in communicating with others within this environment. These students do not have a language disorder, but their language difference can interfere with understanding and using standard English and with school learning.
