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Berkshire Encyclopedia of
World History
Berkshire Encyclopedia of
World History
VOLUME2William H. McNeill
Senior Editor
Jerry H. Bentley, David Christian,David Levinson, J.R. McNeill,Heidi Roupp, Judith P. Zinsser
Editors
a berkshire reference work
Great Barrington, Massachusetts U.S.A.www.berkshireworldhistory.com
Copyright © 2005 by Berkshire Publishing Group LLC
All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means,electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any information storage and retrievalsystem, without permission in writing from the publisher.
Cover design: Lisa Clark, LKC Design
For information:Berkshire Publishing Group LLC314 Main StreetGreat Barrington, Massachusetts 01230www.berkshirepublishing.com
Printed in the United States of America
Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Berkshire encyclopedia of world history / William H. McNeill, senior editor ; Jerry H. Bentley ...[et al.] editorial board.
p. cm.Summary: “A comprehensive encyclopedia of world history with 538 articles that trace the develop-ment of human history with a focus on area studies, global history, anthropology, geography, science,arts, literature, economics, women’s studies, African-American studies, and cultural studies related toall regions of the world”—Provided by publisher.Includes bibliographical references and index.ISBN 0-9743091-0-9 (alk. paper : v. 1)
1. World history—Encyclopedias. I. McNeill, William Hardy, 1917– II. Bentley, Jerry H., 1949–III. Christian, David, 1946–
D23.B45 2004903—dc22
2004021830
PP rroojjeecctt DDiirreeccttoorrKaren Christensen
EEddiittoorriiaall aanndd PPrroodduuccttiioonn SSttaaffffKaren Advokaat, Rachel Christensen,Tom Christensen, Emily Colangelo, Sarah Conrick,Benjamin Kerschberg, Junhee (June) Kim,Jess LaPointe, David Levinson, Courtney Linehan,Janet Lowry, Marcy Ross, Gabby Templet
PPhhoottoo RReesseeaarrcchheerrGabby Templet
CCooppyyeeddiittoorrssFrancesca Forrest, Mike Nichols, Carol Parikh,Mark Siemens, Daniel Spinella, and Rosalie Wieder
IInnffoorrmmaattiioonn MMaannaaggeemmeenntt aanndd PPrrooggrraammmmiinnggDeborah Dillon and Trevor Young
DDeessiiggnneerrssLisa Clark and Jeff Potter
PPrriinntteerrssThomson-Shore, Inc.
MMaapp MMaakkeerrXNR Productions
CCoommppoossiittiioonn AArrttiissttssSteve Tiano, Brad Walrod, and Linda Weidemann
PP rroodduuccttiioonn CCoooorrddiinnaattoorrssBenjamin Kerschberg and Marcy Ross
PP rrooooffrreeaaddeerrssMary Bagg, Sue Boshers, Robin Gold, Libby Larson,Amina Sharma, and Barbara Spector
IInnddeexxeerrssPeggy Holloway and Barbara Lutkins
Editorial & Production Staff
List of Entries, ixReader’s Guide, xv
How to Spell It and How to Say It:100 Important People, Places, and Terms in World History, xxv
Entries
VOLUME I:
Abraham—Coal1
VOLUME II:
Cold War—Global Imperialism and Gender 376
VOLUME III:
Global Migrations in Modern Times—Mysticism844
VOLUME IV:
Napoleon—Sun Yat-sen1327
VOLUME V:
Tang Taizong—Zoroastrianism 1802
This Fleeting World: An Overview of Human History, TFW–1
CHAPTER ONE: Foraging Era, TFW–2
CHAPTER TWO: Agrarian Era, TFW–15
CHAPTER THREE: Modern Era, TFW–36
Index, 2123vii
Contents
This Fleeting World,by David Christian
Agrarian EraForaging (Paleolithic) EraModern Era
AbrahamAbsolutism, EuropeanAdolescenceAfricaAfrica, ColonialAfrica, PostcolonialAfrican ReligionsAfrican UnionAfrican-American and
Caribbean ReligionsAfro-EurasiaAge StratificationAgricultural SocietiesAIDSAirplaneAkbarAksumAlchemyAlcoholAlexander the Greatal-Khwarizmial-RaziAmerican EmpireAndean StatesAnimism
AnthropologyAnthroposphereApartheid in South AfricaArab CaliphatesArab LeagueArchaeologyArchitectureAristotleArt—AfricaArt—Ancient Greece and RomeArt—Central AsiaArt—East AsiaArt—EuropeArt—Native North AmericaArt—OverviewArt—RussiaArt—South AsiaArt—Southeast AsiaArt—West AsiaArt, PaleolithicAsiaAsian MigrationsAsokaAssociation of Southeast
Asian NationsAssyrian EmpireAugustine, St.AurangzebAustro-Hungarian EmpireAutomobileAztec Empire
Babi and Baha’iBabylonBalance of PowerBands, Tribes, Chiefdoms,
and StatesBarterBeninBerlin ConferenceBiological ExchangesBolívar, SimónBritish East India CompanyBritish EmpireBuddhismBullroarersByzantine Empire
Caesar, AugustusCaesar, JuliusCapitalismCaravanCarrying CapacityCartographyCatherine the GreatCatholicism, RomanCeltsCerealsCharlemagneCharles VChild, LydiaChildhoodChina
ix
Entries
x berkshire encyclopedia of world history
Chinese Popular ReligionChurchill, WinstonCinchonaCitizenshipCivil DisobedienceCivil LawCivilization, Barbarism, SavageryClimate ChangeCoalCoffeeCold WarColonialismColumbian ExchangeColumbus, ChristopherCominternCommunication—OverviewCommunism and SocialismComparative Borders and
FrontiersComparative EthnologyComparative HistoryComputerConfucianismConfuciusCongress of ViennaConstantine the GreatConsumerismContainmentContraception and Birth ControlContract LawCreation MythsCrusades, TheCultural and Geographic AreasCultural EcologyCultureCyrus the Great
Dance and DrillDaoismDarwin, CharlesDating MethodsDecipherment of Ancient Scripts
DecolonizationDeforestationDelhi SultanateDemocracy, ConstitutionalDescartes, RenéDesertificationDétenteDiasporasDictionaries and EncyclopediasDiplomacyDisease and NutritionDiseases—OverviewDiseases, AnimalDiseases, PlantDisplaced Populations,
Typology ofDressDrugsDu Bois, W. E. B.Dutch East India CompanyDutch Empire
Early Modern WorldEarthquakesEastern EuropeEconomic Growth, Extensive and
IntensiveEcumenicismEducationEgypt—State FormationEgypt, AncientEinstein, AlbertElectricityElizabeth IEmpireEnergyEngines of HistoryEnlightenment, TheEquatorial and Southern Africa,
4000 BCE–1100 CE
ErosionEsperanto
Ethnic NationalismEthnicityEthnocentrismEurocentrismEuropeEuropean UnionExpansion, EuropeanExpeditions, ScientificExploration, ChineseExploration, SpaceExtinctions
FamineFascismFestivalsFeudalismFireFirearmsFirst, Second, Third, Fourth
WorldsFoodForaging Societies, ContemporaryForms of Government—OverviewFreedomFrench EmpireFrontiersFur Trade
Galileo GalileiGama,Vasco daGamesGandhi, MohandasGay and Lesbian Rights
MovementGeneral Agreement on Tariffs
and TradeGeneticsGenghis KhanGenocideGeographic ConstructionsGerman EmpireGlass
Global CommonsGlobal Imperialism and GenderGlobal Migration in Modern
TimesGlobalizationGold and SilverGrand TourGreece, AncientGreen or Environmental
MovementsGreen RevolutionGregory VIIGuevara, CheGuildsGum Arabic
HammurabiHan WudiHanseatic LeagueHarappan State and Indus
CivilizationHarun al-RashidHatshepsutHausa StatesHenry the NavigatorHerodotusHinduismHitler, AdolfHo Chi MinhHolocaustHomerHong MerchantsHorticultural SocietiesHudson’s Bay CompanyHuman Evolution—OverviewHuman Rights
Iberian Trading CompaniesIbn BattutaIbn KhaldunIbn SinaImperialism
Inca EmpireIndigenous PeoplesIndigenous Peoples MovementsIndo-European MigrationIndustrial TechnologiesInformation SocietiesInitiation and Rites of PassageInner EurasiaInternational Court of JusticeInternational Criminal CourtInternational LawInternational Monetary SystemsInternational Organizations—
OverviewInterregional NetworksInterwar Years (1918–1939)Isabella IIslamIslamic LawIslamic World
JainismJapanese EmpireJefferson, ThomasJesusJoan of ArcJudaismJustinian I
Kamehameha IKanem-BornuKangxi EmperorKenyatta, JomoKhmer KingdomKing, Martin Luther, Jr.KinshipKongoKushan Empire
Labor Systems, CoerciveLabor Union MovementsLanguage, Classification of
Language, Standardization ofLaoziLatter-day SaintsLeague of NationsLeisureLenin,VladimirLeonardo da VinciLetters and CorrespondenceLiberalismLibrariesLincoln, AbrahamLiterature and WomenLocke, JohnLogisticsLong CyclesLuther, Martin
Macedonian EmpireMachiavelli, NiccoloMagellan, FerdinandMahaviraMalariaMaliManichaeismManorialismMansa MusaMao ZedongMaritime HistoryMarriage and FamilyMarx, KarlMass MediaMathematicsMatriarchy and PatriarchyMehmed IIMenciusMercantilismMeroëMesoamericaMesopotamiaMetallurgyMigrationsMilitary Engineering
list of entries xi
Military Strategy and TacticsMilitary Training and DisciplineMillennialismMiranda, Francisco deMissionariesMississippian CultureModernityMoneyMongol EmpireMosesMotecuhzoma IIMughal EmpireMuhammadMultinational CorporationsMuseumsMusic—GenresMusic and Political ProtestMysticism
NapoleonNapoleonic EmpireNationalismNation-StateNative American ReligionsNatural GasNatural LawNatureNavigationNewton, IsaacNkrumah, KwameNonviolenceNorth Atlantic Treaty
OrganizationNubians
OilOral HistoryOrganization of American StatesOrientalismOrthodoxy, ChristianOsman IOttoman Empire
Pacific, Settlement ofPaleoanthropologyPan-AfricanismPaperParliamentarianismPastoral Nomadic SocietiesPaul, St.Peace Making in the Modern EraPeace ProjectsPentecostalismPeriodization—OverviewPeriodization, Conceptions ofPersian EmpirePeter the GreatPilgrimagePiracyPlasticsPlatoPolitical ThoughtPolo, MarcoPopulationPopulation Growth as Engine
of HistoryPorcelainPortuguese EmpirePostcolonial AnalysisPostmodernismProduction and ReproductionProgressProperty Rights and ContractsProtestantism
Qin Shi HuangdiQuinine
Race and RacismRadioRailroadRamses IIRaynal, Abbé GuillaumeRed Cross and Red Crescent
Movement
Religion—OverviewReligion and GovernmentReligion and WarReligious FreedomReligious FundamentalismReligious SyncretismRenaissanceRevolution—ChinaRevolution—CubaRevolution—FranceRevolution—HaitiRevolution—IranRevolution—MexicoRevolution—RussiaRevolution—United StatesRevolutions, CommunistRicci, MatteoRoman EmpireRoosevelt, EleanorRoosevelt, Franklin DelanoRubberRumiRussian-Soviet Empire
Sacred LawSailing ShipsSaladinSaltSasanian EmpireScience—OverviewScientific InstrumentsScientific RevolutionSecondary-Products RevolutionSecularismSenghor, LéopoldSex and SexualityShaka ZuluShamanismShintoSiddhartha GautamaSikhismSilk Roads
xii berkshire encyclopedia of world history
Sima QianSlave TradesSmith, AdamSocial DarwinismSocial HistorySocial SciencesSocial WelfareSociologySocratesSokoto CaliphateSonghaiSpanish EmpireSpice TradeSportsSrivijayaStalin, JosephState Societies, Emergence ofState, TheSteppe ConfederationsSugarSui WendiSui YangdiSüleymanSumerian SocietySun Yat-sen
Tang TaizongTeaTechnology—OverviewTelegraph and TelephoneTextilesThomas Aquinas, St.ThucydidesTimberTime, Conceptions ofTimurTotemismTourismTrade Cycles
Trading Patterns, Ancient AmericanTrading Patterns, Ancient EuropeanTrading Patterns, China SeasTrading Patterns, Eastern
EuropeanTrading Patterns, Indian OceanTrading Patterns, MediterraneanTrading Patterns, MesoamericanTrading Patterns, PacificTrading Patterns, Trans-SaharanTransportation—OverviewTravel GuidesTreaty of VersaillesTúpac AmaruTurkic EmpireTutu, Desmond
Ugarit‘Umar ibn al-KhattabUnited NationsUniverse, Origins ofUrban IIUrbanizationUtopia
VictoriaViking Society
Wagadu EmpireWar and Peace—OverviewWarfare—AfricaWarfare—ChinaWarfare—EuropeWarfare—Islamic WorldWarfare—Japan and KoreaWarfare—Post-Columbian Latin
AmericaWarfare—Post-Columbian North
America
Warfare—Pre-Columbian Meso-america and North America
Warfare—Pre-Columbian SouthAmerica
Warfare—South AsiaWarfare—Southeast AsiaWarfare—Steppe NomadsWarfare, AirWarfare, ComparativeWarfare, LandWarfare, NavalWarfare, Origins ofWarsaw PactWaterWater ManagementWestern CivilizationWomen’s and Gender HistoryWomen’s Emancipation
MovementsWomen’s Reproductive Rights
MovementsWomen’s Suffrage MovementsWorld Cities in History—
OverviewWorld Maps, ChineseWorld System TheoryWorld War IWorld War IIWriting Systems and MaterialsWriting World History
YijingYongle Emperor
Zheng HeZhu YuanzhangZimbabwe, GreatZionismZoroastrianism
list of entries xiii
AfricaAfricaAfrica, ColonialAfrica, PostcolonialAfrican ReligionsAfrican UnionAfrican-American and Caribbean
ReligionsAfro-EurasiaAksumApartheid in South AfricaArt—AfricaBeninDiasporasEgypt—State FormationEgypt, AncientEquatorial and Southern AfricaHausa StatesKanem-BornuKenyatta, JomoKongoMaliMansa MusaMehmed IIMeroëNkrumah, KwameNubiansPan-AfricanismPastoral Nomadic SocietiesSenghor, LéopoldShaka ZuluSlave Trades
Sokoto CaliphateSonghaiTrading Patterns, Trans-SaharanTutu, DesmondWagadu EmpireWarfare—AfricaZimbabwe, Great
AmericasAmerican EmpireAndean StatesArt—Native North AmericaAztec EmpireBiological ExchangesBolívar, SimónChild, LydiaDu Bois, W. E. B.Einstein, AlbertFur TradeGuevara, CheHudson’s Bay CompanyInca EmpireJefferson, ThomasKing, Martin Luther, Jr.Latter-day SaintsLincoln, AbrahamMississippian CultureMotecuhzoma IINative American ReligionsOrganization of American StatesPentecostalismRevolution—Cuba
Revolution—HaitiRevolution—MexicoRevolution—United StatesRoosevelt, EleanorRoosevelt, Franklin DelanoSlave TradesSugarTrading Patterns, Ancient AmericanTrading Patterns, MesoamericanTúpac AmaruWarfare—Post-Columbian Latin
AmericaWarfare—Post-Columbian North
AmericaWarfare—Pre-Columbian
Mesoamerica and North America
Warfare—Pre-Columbian SouthAmerica
Western Civilization
AsiaAfro-EurasiaAkbarArt—Central AsiaArt—East AsiaArt—South AsiaArt—Southeast AsiaArt—West AsiaAsiaAsian MigrationsAsoka
xv
Reader’s Guide
xvi berkshire encyclopedia of world history
Association of Southeast AsianNations
AurangzebBabi and Baha’iBritish East India CompanyBuddhismChinaChinese Popular ReligionConfucianismConfuciusCyrus the GreatDaoismDelhi SultanateDutch East India CompanyGenghis KhanHan WudiHarappan State and Indus
CivilizationHinduismHo Chi MinhHong MerchantsInner EurasiaIslamic LawIslamic WorldJainismJapanese EmpireKhmer KingdomKushan EmpireLaoziMahaviraMao ZedongMenciusMesopotamiaMongol EmpireMughal EmpireOrientalismPacific, Settlement ofPastoral Nomadic SocietiesPersian EmpirePolo, MarcoPorcelainQin Shi Huangdi
Revolution—ChinaRevolution—IranRevolutions, CommunistRicci, MatteoRumiSasanian EmpireShintoSiddhartha GautamaSikhismSilk RoadsSima QianSpice TradeSrivijayaSteppe ConfederationsSui WendiSui YangdiSüleymanSun Yat-senTang TaizongTeaTimurTrading Patterns—China SeasTrading Patterns—Indian OceanTrading Patterns—PacificTurkic Empire‘Umar ibn al-KhattabWarfare—ChinaWarfare—Islamic WorldWarfare—Japan and KoreaWarfare—South AsiaWarfare—Southeast AsiaWarfare—Steppe NomadsWorld Maps, ChineseYijingYongle EmperorZheng HeZhu YuanzhangZoroastrianism
EuropeAfro-EurasiaAlexander the Great
Art—EuropeArt—RussiaBerlin ConferenceBritish East India CompanyBritish EmpireCaesar, AugustusCaesar, JuliusCatherine the GreatCatholicism, RomanCeltsCharlemagneCharles VChurchill, WinstonColumbian ExchangeColumbus, ChristopherCongress of ViennaCrusades, TheDarwin, CharlesDescartes, RenéDétenteDutch East India CompanyDutch EmpireEarly Modern WorldEastern EuropeElizabeth IEnlightenment, TheEurocentrismEuropeEuropean UnionExpansion, EuropeanFascismFeudalismFrench EmpireGalileo GalileiGama,Vasco daGerman EmpireGrand TourGreece, AncientGregory VIIGuildsHanseatic LeagueHenry the Navigator
HerodotusHitler, AdolfHolocaustHomerIberian Trading CompaniesIndo-European MigrationInterwar Years (1918–1939)Isabella IJoan of ArcLenin,VladimirLeonardo da VinciLocke, JohnLuther, MartinMacedonian EmpireMachiavelli, NiccoloMagellan, FerdinandManorialismMarx, KarlMercantilismNapoleonNapoleonic EmpireNewton, IsaacNorth Atlantic Treaty OrganizationOrthodoxy, ChristianOttoman EmpireParliamentarianismPeter the GreatPlatoPolo, MarcoPortuguese EmpireProtestantismRaynal, Abbé GuillaumeRenaissanceRevolution—FranceRevolution—RussiaRoman EmpireRussian-Soviet EmpireSmith, AdamSocratesSpanish EmpireStalin, JosephThomas Aquinas, St.
ThucydidesTrading Patterns, Ancient
EuropeanTrading Patterns, Eastern
EuropeanTrading Patterns, MediterraneanTreaty of VersaillesUrban IIVictoriaViking SocietyWarfare—EuropeWarsaw PactWorld War IWorld War II
Arts andLiteratureArt—AfricaArt—Ancient Greece and RomeArt—Central AsiaArt—East AsiaArt—EuropeArt—Native North AmericaArt—OverviewArt—RussiaArt—South AsiaArt—Southeast AsiaArt—West AsiaArt, PaleolithicBullroarersChild, LydiaCreation MythsDance and DrillDictionaries and EncyclopediasEnlightenment, TheLetters and CorrespondenceLeonardo da VinciLibrariesLiterature and WomenMuseumsMusic—GenresMusic and Political Protest
RenaissanceWriting Systems and MaterialsWriting World HistoryYijing
BiographyAbrahamAkbarAlexander the Greatal-Khwarizmial-RaziAristotleAsokaAugustine, St.AurangzebBolívar, SimónCaesar, AugustusCaesar, JuliusCatherine the GreatCharlemagneCharles VChild, LydiaChurchill, WinstonColumbus, ChristopherConfuciusConstantine the GreatCyrus the GreatDarwin, CharlesDescartes, ReneDu Bois, W. E. B.Einstein, AlbertElizabeth IGalileo GalileiGama,Vasco daGandhi, MohandasGenghis KhanGregory VIIGuevara, CheHammurabiHan WudiHarun ar-RashidHatshepsut
reader’s guide xvii
Henry the NavigatorHerodotusHitler, AdolfHo Chi MinhHomerIbn BattutaIbn KhaldunIbn SinaIsabella IJefferson, ThomasJesusJoan of ArcJustinian IKamehameha IKangxi EmperorKenyatta, JomoKing, Martin Luther, Jr.LaoziLenin,VladimirLeonardo da VinciLincoln, AbrahamLocke, JohnLuther, MartinMachiavelli, NiccoloMagellan, FerdinandMahaviraMansa MusaMao ZedongMarx, KarlMehmed IIMenciusMiranda, Francisco deMosesMotecuhzoma IIMuhammadNapoleonNewton, IsaacNkrumah, KwameOsman IPaul, St.Peter the GreatPlato
Polo, MarcoQin Shi HuangdiRamses IIRaynal, Abbé GuillaumeRicci, MatteoRoosevelt, EleanorRoosevelt, Franklin DelanoRumiSaladinSenghor, LéopoldShaka ZuluSiddhartha GautamaSima QianSmith, AdamSocratesStalin, JosephSui WendiSui YangdiSüleymanSun Yat-senTang TaizongThomas Aquinas, St.ThucydidesTimurTúpac AmaruTutu, Desmond‘Umar ibn al-KhattabUrban IIVictoriaYongle EmperorZheng HeZhu Yuanzhang
Commerce—Organizationsand InstitutionsBritish East India CompanyDutch East India CompanyGuildsHanseatic LeagueHong MerchantsHudson’s Bay Company
Iberian Trading CompaniesMultinational Corporations
Commerce—Systems andPatternsBarterCapitalismColumbian ExchangeEconomic Growth, Intensive and
ExtensiveGeneral Agreement on Tariffs and
TradeInternational Monetary SystemsLabor Systems, CoerciveMercantilismMoney PiracyProperty Rights and Contracts Silk RoadsSlave TradesTrade CyclesTrading Patterns, Ancient
AmericanTrading Patterns, Ancient
EuropeanTrading Patterns, China SeasTrading Patterns, Eastern
EuropeanTrading Patterns, Indian OceanTrading Patterns, MediterraneanTrading Patterns, MesoamericanTrading Patterns, PacificTrading Patterns, Trans-SaharanWorld System Theory
Commerce—Trade Goods and ProductsAlcoholCerealsCoal
xviii berkshire encyclopedia of world history
CoffeeDrugsFoodFur TradeGlassGold and SilverGum ArabicNatural GasOilPaperPlasticsPorcelainRubberSaltSlave TradesSpice TradeSugarTeaTextilesTimber
CommunicationCommunication—OverviewDictionaries and EncyclopediasEsperantoLanguage, Classification ofLanguage, Standardization ofLetters and CorrespondenceLibrariesMass MediaRadioTelegraph and TelephoneWriting Systems and Materials
Conflict andPeace Making—Diplomacy andPeace MakingBalance of PowerBerlin ConferenceCold WarCongress of Vienna
ContainmentDétenteDiplomacyInterwar Years (1918–1939)NonviolencePeace Making in the Modern EraPeace ProjectsTreaty of Versailles
Conflict andPeace Making—War and Conflict Cold WarCrusades, TheFirearmsGenocideHolocaustLogisticsMilitary EngineeringMilitary Strategy and TacticsMilitary Training and
DisciplineReligion and WarRevolution—ChinaRevolution—CubaRevolution—FranceRevolution—HaitiRevolution—IranRevolution—MexicoRevolution—RussiaRevolution—United StatesRevolutions, CommunistWar and Peace—Overview Warfare—AfricaWarfare—ChinaWarfare—EuropeWarfare—Islamic WorldWarfare—Japan and KoreaWarfare—Post-Columbian
Latin AmericaWarfare—Post-Columbian
North America
Warfare—Pre-Columbian Meso-america and North America
Warfare—Pre-ColumbianSouth America
Warfare—South AsiaWarfare—Southeast AsiaWarfare—Steppe NomadsWarfare, AirWarfare, ComparativeWarfare, LandWarfare, NavalWarfare, Origins ofWorld War IWorld War II
Cultural Contactand RelationsColonialismComparative Borders and
FrontiersDecolonizationDiasporasDisplaced Populations,
Typology ofEthnic NationalismEthnicityEthnocentrismEurocentrismExpansion, EuropeanExpeditions, ScientificExploration, ChineseExploration, SpaceGrand TourIndigenous Peoples Interregional NetworksMaritime HistoryMissionariesNavigationOrientalism PilgrimageRace and RacismSlave Trades
reader’s guide xix
Social DarwinismTourismTravel GuidesWorld System Theory
Daily LifeAdolescenceAge StratificationChildhoodDressEducationFestivalsGamesInitiation and Rites of PassageKinshipLeisureMarriage and FamilySex and SexualitySportsTextiles
Disciplines andFields of StudyAnthropologyArchaeologyCartographyComparative EthnologyComparative HistoryGeneticsMuseumsPaleoanthropologySocial HistorySocial SciencesSociologyWomen’s and Gender History
Environment and EcologyAnthroposphereBiological ExchangesClimate ChangeDeforestation
DesertificationEarthquakesEnergyErosionExtinctionsFamineFireGreen or Environmental
MovementsGreen RevolutionNatureTime, Conceptions ofWater Water Management
Eras, Empires,States, andSocietiesAfrica, ColonialAfrica, PostcolonialAksumAmerican EmpireAndean StatesAssyrian EmpireAustro-Hungarian EmpireAztec EmpireBabylonBeninBritish EmpireByzantine EmpireCeltsChinaDelhi SultanateDutch EmpireEarly Modern WorldEgypt—State FormationEgypt, AncientFrench EmpireGerman EmpireGreece, AncientHarappan State and Indus
Civilization
Hausa StatesInca EmpireIslamic WorldJapanese EmpireKanem-BornuKhmer KingdomKongoKushan EmpireMacedonian EmpireMaliMeroëMesoamericaMesopotamiaMississippian CultureMongol EmpireMughal EmpireNapoleonic EmpireNubiansOttoman EmpirePersian EmpirePortuguese EmpireRoman EmpireRussian-Soviet EmpireSasanian EmpireSokoto CaliphateSonghaiSpanish EmpireSrivijayaState Societies, Emergence ofState, TheSteppe ConfederationsSumerian SocietyTurkic EmpireUgaritViking SocietyWagadu EmpireZimbabwe, Great
EvolutionExtinctionsForaging (Paleolithic) Era (please
see This Fleeting World)
xx berkshire encyclopedia of world history
Human Evolution—OverviewPaleoanthropologyUniverse, Origins of
Government,Politics, and LawAbsolutism, EuropeanArab CaliphatesBands,Tribes, Chiefdoms, and StatesCitizenshipCivil DisobedienceCivil LawCommunism and SocialismConfucianismContract LawDemocracy, ConstitutionalFascismFeudalismForms of Government—OverviewGlobal CommonsGlobal Imperialism and GenderHuman RightsImperialismInternational LawIslamic LawLiberalismManorialismNationalismNatural LawParliamentarianismReligion and GovernmentSacred LawSecularismSocial WelfareUtopiaZionism
Health andDiseaseAIDSBiological ExchangesCinchona
Disease and NutritionDiseases—OverviewDiseases, AnimalDiseases, PlantMalariaQuinine
Internationaland RegionalOrganizationsAfrican UnionArab LeagueAssociation of Southeast Asian
NationsCominternEuropean UnionInternational Court of JusticeInternational Criminal CourtInternational Organizations—
OverviewLeague of NationsNorth Atlantic Treaty
OrganizationOrganization of American StatesRed Cross and Red Crescent
MovementUnited NationsWarsaw Pact
MigrationAsian MigrationsDiasporasDisplaced Populations,
Typology ofEquatorial and Southern Africa,
4000 BCE–1100 CE
Expansion, EuropeanGlobal Migration in Modern
TimesIndo-European MigrationMigrationsPacific, Settlement of
Pastoral Nomadic SocietiesUrbanization
PeriodizationAgrarian Era (please see This
Fleeting World)Civilization, Barbarism, SavageryForaging (Paleolithic) Era (please
see This Fleeting World)Long CyclesModern Era (please see This
Fleeting World)Periodization, Conceptions ofPeriodization—Overview
Philosophy,Thought,and IdeasAnthroposphereCivilization, Barbarism, SavageryConfucianismCultureFreedomModernityOrientalismPolitical ThoughtPostcolonial AnalysisPostmodernismProgressWestern CivilizationWorld Maps, Chinese
PopulationAge StratificationCarrying CapacityContraception and Birth ControlPopulation Population Growth as Engine
of HistoryUrbanizationWorld Cities in History—
Overview
reader’s guide xxi
Religion and BeliefSystemsAfrican ReligionsAfrican-American and Caribbean
ReligionsAnimismBabi and Baha’iBuddhismCatholicism, RomanChinese Popular ReligionCreation MythsDaoismEcumenicismHinduismIslamJainismJudaismLatter-day SaintsManichaeismMillennialismMissionariesMysticismNative American ReligionsOrthodoxy, ChristianPentecostalismPilgrimageProtestantismReligion—OverviewReligion and GovernmentReligion and WarReligious FreedomReligious FundamentalismReligious SyncretismSacred LawShamanismShintoSikhismTotemismZionismZoroastrianism
ResearchMethods Cultural and Geographic AreasCultural EcologyDating MethodsDecipherment of Ancient ScriptsOral HistoryPeriodization, Conceptions ofPostcolonial AnalysisWriting World History
Social andPoliticalMovementsApartheid in South AfricaConsumerismContraception and Birth ControlDecolonizationEthnic NationalismGay and Lesbian Rights MovementGreen or Environmental
MovementsHuman RightsIndigenous Peoples MovementsLabor Union MovementsPan-AfricanismReligious FundamentalismRevolution—ChinaRevolution—CubaRevolution—FranceRevolution—HaitiRevolution—IranRevolution—MexicoRevolution—RussiaRevolution—United StatesRevolutions, CommunistWomen’s Emancipation
MovementsWomen’s Reproductive Rights
MovementsWomen’s Suffrage Movements
Technology and ScienceAlchemyArchitectureComputerElectricityEnergyEnlightenment, TheExpeditions, ScientificIndustrial TechnologiesInformation SocietiesMathematicsMetallurgyPaperRenaissanceScience—OverviewScientific InstrumentsScientific RevolutionSecondary-Products
RevolutionTechnology—OverviewWater Management
Themes—Models andProcessesEmpireEngines of HistoryFirst, Second, Third, Fourth
WorldsGlobalizationLong CyclesMatriarchy and PatriarchyNation-StateProduction and ReproductionState, TheWorld System Theory
Themes—PlacesAfricaAfro-Eurasia
xxii berkshire encyclopedia of world history
AsiaEastern EuropeEuropeFrontiersGeographic ConstructionsInner Eurasia
TransportationAirplaneAutomobileCaravanNavigationRailroadSailing ShipsTransportation—
Overview
Ways of LivingAgricultural SocietiesForaging Societies, ContemporaryHorticultural SocietiesIndigenous PeoplesInformation SocietiesPastoral Nomadic Societies
Women andGenderAIDS ChildhoodContraception and Birth ControlDressGay and Lesbian Rights
Movement
Global Imperialism and Gender
Human RightsInitiation and Rites of PassageKinshipLetters and CorrespondenceLiterature and WomenMarriage and FamilyMatriarchy and Patriarchy Sex and SexualityWomen’s and Gender HistoryWomen’s Emancipation
MovementsWomen’s Reproductive Rights
MovementsWomen’s Suffrage Movements
reader’s guide xxiii
Ralph Waldo Emerson once said, “A foolish con-sistency is the hobgoblin of little minds.” Each
time Berkshire Publishing Group sets to work on cre-ating an encyclopedia, we review our guidelines onhow we will present the names and terms that havechanged in the course of history or through languagealterations. We strive for consistency, though not thefoolish kind against which Emerson warned.
Languages and geographic terms evolve regularly,and sometimes staying current means that we can’t becompletely consistent. Adding to the challenge is thefact that words in languages not based on the Latinalphabet (e.g., Chinese, Japanese, Arabic, Hebrew)must be transliterated—spelled in the language ofanother alphabet or “romanized” into English. Andeven within a language, transliteration systems change.Many people who grew up knowing the Wade-Gilessystem of Chinese romanization (with such spellings asPeking and Mao Tse-tung) had to become accustomedto seeing words using the pinyan romanization systemintroduced in the 1950s (with new spellings such asBeijing and Mao Zedong).
By and large, we look to Merriam-Webster’s CollegiateDictionary, 11th Edition (known as M-W 11), as ourspelling authority, with Merriam-Webster’s BiographicalDictionary and M-W’s Geographic Dictionary for termsnot in M-W 11. However, sometimes we overruleMerriam-Webster for a compelling reason. For example,historian Ross Dunn—who wrote the Berkshire Ency-
clopedia of World History’s article on Ibn Battuta (andwho is a leading expert on Battuta)—spells the namewithout the final “h,” while M-W spells it “Battutah.” Inanother case, the West African town of Timbuktu is sowell known by that spelling that we opted for it in pref-erence to M-W’s preferred “Tomboctou.”
Finally, there is the matter of using diacriticalmarks—accent marks, ayns (‘) and hamzas (’), andother markings—that provide phonetic distinctions towords from other languages. The use of diacritics isalways a big question for a publisher on internationaltopics. We—and the scholars we work with—tend toprefer to use various marks, from European-languageaccent graves to Japanese macrons and Arabic ums andahs. But we have found that they can distract, and evenintimidate, the general reader, so our policy has gen-erally been to minimize their use. In time, as U.S. stu-dents become more comfortable with non-Englishforms and as we publish for global audiences, we willbe able to make greater use of these marks, which aredesigned to be helpful to the reader.
That said, we thought it would be useful (and fun)to provide a listing of the “Top 100” terms—suggestedby our editors—that have alternate spellings and names.We’ve also listed pronunciations for non-Englishnames and terms. (The syllable in capital letters is theaccented one; note, however, that Chinese and otherlanguages do not necessarily stress syllables as is donein English.)
xxv
How to Spell It and How to Say It:100 Important People, Places,
and Terms in World History
xxvi berkshire encyclopedia of world history
PeoplePreferred form Pronunciation Alternates
Alexander the Great Alexander, Alexander of Macedon
Asoka a-SHO-ka Ashoka
Augustine, St. Augustine of Hippo
Aurangzeb or-ang-ZEB ‘Alamgir
Caesar, Augustus Augustus Caesar, Caesar Augustus
Chiang Kai-shek chang kye-shek Jiang Jieshi
Confucius con-FYU-shus Kong Fuzi, K’ung Fu-tzu
Gandhi, Mohandas GHAN-dee, mo-HAN-des Mahatma Gandhi
Galileo Galilei ga-li-LAY-o ga-li-LAY not Galilei, Galileo
Genghis Khan JEN-gis kon Chinghis, Chinghiz, Chingiz
Han Wudi hon woot-see Han Wu-ti
Ibn Battuta ib-un ba-TOO-ta Ibn Battutah
Ibn Sina ib-un see-na Avicenna
Jesus Jesus Christ, Jesus of Nazareth
Kangxi emperor kong-hsee K’ang-hsi
Khubilai Khan KOO-blah kon Kublai, Qubilai
Laozi laud-zuh Lao-tzu, Lao Tzu
Leonardo da Vinci le-o-NAR-do da VIN-chee da Vinci, Leonardo
Mao Zedong mao zeh-DON Mao Tse-tung
Mencius MEN-chee-us Mengzi, Meng-tzu, Meng Tzu
Moses Moshe
Motecuhzoma II mo-tek-w-ZO-ma Montezuma II; Moctezuma
Muhammad mo-HA-med Mohammad, the Prophet Muhammed,Mehemet
Napoleon na-POLE-eon Napoleon Bonaparte
Qin Shi Huangdi chin sher hwang-dee Ch’in Shih Huang-ti
Saladin SAL-a-den Salah al-Din, Selahedin
Siddhartha Gautama si-DAR-ta GAU-ta-ma Buddha,The
Sima Qian suma chee-en Ssu-ma Ch’ien
Sui Wendi sway wen-dee Sui Wen-ti
Sui Yangdi sway yahng-dee Sui Yang-ti
Süleyman soo-lay-MON Süleyman the Magnificant, Süleyman I,Suleiman the Lawgiver
Sun Yat-sen soon yat-sen Sun Yixian
Tang Taizong tahng taizong T’ang T’ai-tsung
how to spell it and how to say it xxvii
People (continued)Preferred form Pronunciation Alternates
Thomas Aquinas, St. a-KWY-nas not Aquinas,Thomas
Timur TEE-more Timur Lenk,Tamerlane,Tamburlaine
Urban II Otho also Otto, Odo, Eudes—of Lagery
Zheng He jeng huh Cheng Ho
Zhu Yuanzhang joo you-ahn-jahng Chu Yüan-chang
PlacesPreferred form Pronunciation Alternates
Afro-Eurasia Afroeurasia; Africa, Europe, and Asia
Aksum Axum
Beijing bay-jin Peking
Bukhara boo-KAR-a Bokhara, Boukhara
Cambodia Khmer Republic, Kampuchea
Chang River chan Yangzi,Yangtze
Czech Republic and Slovakia chek, slow-VA-kee-a Czechoslovakia
East Indies Insular Southeast Asia
Egypt United Arab Republic
Guangzhou gwang-joe Canton
Habsburg Hapsburg
Huange River hwang Huange He,Yellow River
Inner Asia Central Asia
Iran Persia
Iraq Mesopotamia
Istanbul iss-tan-BULL Constantinople, Byzantium
Kandahar KON-da-har Qandahar
Kara-Kum ka-ra-KOOM Karakum
Kazakhs kah-zaks Khazaks
Khwarizm KWA-ra-zem Kwarezm, Khwarazm, Khuwarizm
Kongo Congo
Kushan empire koosh-an Kushana, Kusana
Mesoamerica Middle America, Central America
Mughul Moghol, Mogol
Mumbai MUM-bye Bombay
Myanmar MY-AN-mar Burma
Samarqand SA-mar-kand Samarkand
(Continues on next page)
xxviii berkshire encyclopedia of world history
Places (continued)Preferred form Pronunciation Alternates
Shilla kingdom shil-la Silla kingdom
Songhai Songhay
Sri Lanka shree LAN-ka Ceylon
Thailand TIE-land Siam
Timbuktu tim-BUCK-too Timbukto,Tombouctou
USSR Soviet Union, Soviet Empire, Russia
Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia known collectively as Indochina
West Indies Caribbean
Religious , Political, and Cultural Terms
Preferred form Pronunciation Alternates
al-Jazeera as-jah-ZEER-a Al Jazeera, Al-Jazeera
al-Qaeda al-KAY-da Al Qaeda, al-queda
al-Razi al-rah-zee ar-Razi
Analects of Confucius Sayings of Confucius
Bhagavad Gita ba-ga-vad GEE-ta Bhagavadgita
Bible, The Old and New Testaments
Brahma Brahman, Brahmin
czar tsar
Daoism Taoism
indigenous peoples primitive, native, nonindustrial
Latter-day Saints Mormons
Muslim Moslem
Native Americans Indians, American Indians
Persian Achaemenian, Achaemenid empire
Qing dynasty ching Ch’ing dynasty
Quran Qur’an, Koran
Sasanian Sassanian, Sasanid, Sassanid empire
Shia SHEE-a Shi’a
Sharia sha-REE-a Shari’a, Islamic law
Siva SHEE-va Shiva
Song dynasty Sung dynasty
Tang dynasty T’ang dynasty
how to spell it and how to say it xxix
Religious , Political,and Cultural Terms (continued)
Preferred form Pronunciation Alternates
Torah Five Books of Moses
Vodun voo-DOO Voodoo,Vodou
World War I First World War,The Great War
World War II Second World War
Yijing I-ching, Yi-jing
© Berkshire Publishing Group 2005 All Rights Reserved
September 2004.Version 1.
The five-page How To Spell It and How To Say It maybe copied and distributed free of charge in itsentirety for noncommercial educational use only.No more than thirty copies can be distributed at atime without written permission. It may not be
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Cold War
Following World War II, a new kind of war, a so-called“Cold War,” broke out.This new war centered on ide-
ological and political conflicts, particularly the conflictbetween capitalism and Communism. This Cold War,which turned hot several times, particularly in Korea andVietnam, endured for nearly fifty years and affected mostof the globe as countries increasingly had to choose sideswith one of the superpowers (the United States and theSoviet Union) in an increasingly bipolar world. Duringconferences at Yalta (1943) and Potsdam (1945) itbecame clear that the individual nations that made up theallied powers had very different views regarding theshape of the postwar world.
On 5 March 1946, the year after the war ended, the for-mer British Prime Minister Winston Churchill made aspeech in Fulton, Missouri, (now known as his “Iron Cur-tain Speech”) in which he defined the terms of this newconflict. According to Churchill, “From Stettin in theBaltic and Trieste in the Adriatic, an iron curtain hasdescended across the Continent.” In this speech, Churchillharshly criticized the actions of the Soviet Union. Fromthis moment on, the same Stalin who had been referredto as “Uncle Joe” during the war effort was now once againtransformed into a dangerous and dictatorial enemy.
The Cold War in Europe and the United StatesIn the United States, Cold War policies were set out inseveral early government documents. The first of these,which came to be known as the Truman Doctrine, waspromoted in a speech on 12 March of 1947. In thisspeech, President Harry Truman declared, “I believe thatit must be the policy of the United States to support freepeoples who are resisting attempted subjugation byarmed minorities or by outside pressures. I believe thatwe must assist free peoples to work out their own des-tinies in their own way.” In June of 1947, Secretary ofState George Marshall set out the European RecoveryProgram (later known as the Marshall Plan), which pro-
vided for economic aid to back up the ideology of theTruman Doctrine. The final plank in the Cold War plat-form of the United States was set out by George Kennanin an article in Foreign Affairs. The “containment policy”that Kennan espoused became the rationale for mostUnited States foreign policy behavior in the next fortyyears. Kennan’s policy of “containing” Communistnations later gave rise to the “Domino Theory,” that is, theidea that if one country fell to Communism, otherswould follow (particularly in Asia).
The earliest strain in the Cold War came in Germanyas the United States and Western nations merged theirzones to create a West German federal government andworked to rebuild West Germany while denouncing theSoviet Union’s policies in East Germany. The introduc-tion of a new currency in West Germany led to a Sovietblockade of West Berlin, which lay within East Germanyand thus within the Soviet zone of occupation. Inresponse to the blockade, the Allies managed to supplyWest Berlin through a massive airlift that lasted for overa year. Ultimately, Germany was divided between eastand west and in 1961 the Berlin Wall went up, physicallydividing the city of Berlin into two zones of power.
The Cold War also led to the creation of NATO(North Atlantic Treaty Organization), an organizationthat provided for the mutual defense and assistance ofWestern European nations against any hostile action bythe Soviet Union.The Soviet Union responded by creat-ing an alliance with Eastern European countries, knownas the Warsaw Pact.
AsiaThe agreements made at Yalta had provided a structurefor postwar cooperation in Asia but these initial agree-ments soon fell apart. The Soviet Union had agreed toenter the war in the Pacific three months after the defeatof Germany and Stalin abided by this agreement. Roo-sevelt had agreed to allow the Soviet Union to establisha base at Port Arthur, China, in exchange for Stalin’sagreement to sign a treaty of alliance with Chiang Kai-shek’s Republic of China. A Communist movement,viewed as a direct attempt by the Soviet Union to achieve
376 berkshire encyclopedia of world history
the worldwide revolution that had been advocated byLenin, had emerged in China in the 1930s. The Com-munist and non-Communist parties in China hadattempted to cooperate after the Japanese invasion buthad been largely unsuccessful and both groups wereanticipating a renewed struggle after the defeat of Japan.In 1949, the Nationalist government fled to Taiwan andMao Zedong proclaimed the People’s Republic of China.The United States refused to recognize Mao’s govern-ment, instead maintaining ties to the Nationalist govern-ment in Taiwan.The United States lamented the “loss ofChina” and vowed to take whatever steps were necessaryto prevent the spread of Communism throughout Asia.
The situation in Korea also deteriorated rapidly. Theremoval of Korea from Japanese control had been one ofthe stated objectives of the allies inWorldWar II. Prior tothe surrender of Japan in 1945, the United States and theSoviet Union had occupied the country, temporarilydividing it at the thirty-eighth parallel.The allies plannedto hold elections after the restoration of peace and allowthe newly elected government to rule an independentKorea. However, tensions between the United States andthe Soviet Union had led to the establishment of separategovernments in North and South Korea.The Communistgovernment in North Korea, with the approval of Stalinand the Soviet Union, invaded South Korea on 25 June
cold war 377
Dividing Berlin during the Cold WarThe exchange below took place during the week afterthe closing of the border between East and West Berlinand the erection of the Berlin Wall. For the next eight-een years, East Germans would be forbidden fromcrossing into West Germany.
United States Note to the U.S.S.R. on Berlin,August 17, 1961
The Embassy of the United States presents its com-pliments to the Minister of Foreign Affairs and uponinstructions of its Government has the honor todirect the most serious attention of the Governmentof the U.S.S.R. to the following.
On August 13, East German authorities put intoeffect several measures regulating movement at theboundary of the western sectors and the Soviet sectorof the city of Berlin.These measures have the effect oflimiting, to a degree approaching complete prohibi-tion, passage from the Soviet sector to the westernsectors of the city.These measures were accompaniedby the closing of the sector boundary by a sizabledeployment of police forces and by military detach-ments brought into Berlin for this purpose. . . .
By the very admission of the East German author-ities, the measures which have just been taken aremotivated by the fact that an ever increasing numberof inhabitants of East Germany wish to leave this ter-ritory. The reasons for this exodus are known. Theyare simply the internal difficulties in East Germany.
Soviet Reply To Identic Notes Dated August 17of United States, United Kingdom, and Franceon Berlin, 18 August 1961
In connection with the note of the Government of theUnited States of America in August 17, 1961, theGovernment of the Union of Soviet Socialist Repub-lics considers it necessary to state the following:
The Soviet Government fully understands and sup-ports the actions of the Government of the GermanDemocratic Republic which established effective con-trol on the border with West Berlin in order to bar theway for subversive activity being carried out fromWest Berlin against the G.D.R. and other countries ofthe socialist community. . .
West Berlin has been transformed into a center ofsubversive activity, diversion, and espionage, into acenter of political and economic provocationsagainst the G.D.R., the Soviet Union, and othersocialist countries. Former and present West Berlinmunicipal leaders have cynically called West Berlinan “arrow in the living body of the German Demo-cratic Republic,” a “front city,” a “violator of tran-quility,” the “cheapest atom bomb put in the centerof a socialist state” . . .
Source: Lincoln,W. B. (1968). Documents in world history, 1945–1967 (pp. 70–72). SanFrancisco: Chandler Publishing Company.
1950.As a result of a boycott of the U.N. Security Coun-cil by the Soviet Union, the United States was able to passa resolution that labeled North Korea as an aggressivenation and called for U.N. forces to be sent to Korea.TheU.N. forces, led by American general Douglas MacArthur,defeated North Korean troops and expelled them fromSouth Korea. Subsequently, MacArthur and the U.N.forces crossed the thirty-eighth parallel and adopted anew mission, which aimed to unite all of Korea under anon-Communist government. China had issued severalwarnings that they might intervene if U.N. forces crossedthe thirty-eighth parallel but these warnings were ignored.When the Chinese made good on their threat to supplyboth men and matériel, U.N. forces had to retreat backinto South Korea. A defensive line was established nearthe thirty-eighth parallel. Peace negotiations dragged onwithout result and the KoreanWar eventually ended in astalemate.At the end of the war, Korea remained divided.
The other major “hot” war in the post–World War IIperiod was also fought through the lens of Cold War ten-sions. The initial war in French Indo-China began as aresult of the French decision to try to reestablish controlof their colony after the war.War broke out between theFrench and Ho Chi Minh’s Indo-Chinese CommunistParty in 1946.After the French fortress at Dien Bien Phufell to Communist forces the French agreed to negotia-tions and the Geneva Conference in 1954 brought anend to the first Indochina war.The United States had sentconsiderable aid to the French in order to prevent thespread of Communism, while pressuring the French toagree to Vietnamese independence at a future date. TheGeneva agreements had called for elections in Vietnambut as it became clear that free elections would mostlikely result in a Communist victory, the United Statessought other solutions. The United States was increas-ingly unwilling to risk another Asian domino to theCommunists. Thus, the United States supported NgoDinh Diem, who refused to agree to the elections calledfor by the Geneva Accords. Despite U.S. assistance SouthVietnam was on the verge of collapse by 1963. TheUnited States responded by sending military advisers and
increased material supplies. In 1965, the United Statesunder President Lyndon Johnson began to send U.S.troops to Vietnam. President Nixon, under increasingpressure to end the war, bombed not just Vietnam butalso Laos and Cambodia.The Treaty of Paris in Januaryof 1973 ended the conflict. Two years after the warended, South Vietnam fell to the Communists.
The spread of the Cold War to Asia led SoutheastAsian nations to form an alliance in 1954, the SoutheastAsia Treaty Organization (SEATO).This alliance was aneffort to cooperate economically and also to resist furtherCommunist encroachment in Southeast Asia. It includedrepresentatives of Australia, France, Great Britain, NewZealand, Pakistan, the Philippines, Thailand, and theUnited States.
AfricaAfrica was more indirectly affected by Cold War tensions.Both the United States and the Soviet Union directed eco-nomic assistance plans and policies aimed at securingCold War alliances. But in the postwar world, Africannations were occupied by the struggle for independenceand faced significant challenges upon obtaining inde-pendence. Independence was achieved earlier in northand central Africa, where there were fewer white settlers,than in South Africa, where the white-dominated gov-ernment struggled to maintain its position of power andthe policies of apartheid.
The Middle EastThe Middle East achieved its independence after WorldWar II. Regional differences, territorial disputes, and theBritish mandate that divided territory between Palestineand the newly created nation of Israel contributed toinstability in the area. The Arab-Israeli conflict also con-tributed to violence in the region. Arab nations cooper-ated in an attempt to defeat the Israelis and reclaim theterritory occupied by the citizens of that nation.The emer-gence of various militant religious groups radically alteredthe nature of many Middle Eastern governments, partic-ularly in Iran. During the Cold War, regional problems
378 berkshire encyclopedia of world history
Whether you like it or not, history is on our side. We willbury you! • Nikita Khrushchev (1894–1971)
were further complicated by the political interests of theUnited States and the Soviet Union, both of whom val-ued the region, partly because of the vast oil resources inthe Middle East. Its strategic location and vast productionof petroleum made the Middle East of value to all indus-trialized nations. The United States contributed moneyand material aid to the Israeli government and intervenedin the area in an attempt to maintain its interests, botheconomic and military, in the area while the Soviet Unionfought and lost a war in Afghanistan.
Latin AmericaThe United States had inaugurated a policy of noninter-vention in Latin America in the 1930s but reversed thispolicy after World War II. Communist movements andfear of the spread of Communism in addition to eco-nomic interests in the area were primarily responsible forthe change in policy. In Guatemala, Jacobo ArbenzGuzmán came to power and began to reduce the influ-ence and interests of U.S. businesses. The United FruitCompany, controlled by U.S. interests, noted that theCommunists were involved in the changes and asked forassistance. A U.S.-led military operation successfullydeposed Arbenz Guzmán and the new governmentrepealed his land reform measures and jailed and mur-dered Communists.A small guerrilla movement of Com-munists and other nationalists emerged and violencecontinued for three decades.
In 1959, Fidel Castro came to power in Cuba, enact-ing a social and political revolution in Cuba based onMarxist ideas. He also initiated land reform, seizing allland from owners who had more than 165 acres. Eco-nomic sanctions by the United States and other countrieswho refused to trade with Cuba caused a rapid decline inthe Cuban economy.
Cuba became a key nation in the Cold War strugglebetween the United States and the Soviet Union. TheUnited States attempted to overthrow Castro by landingCuban exiles at the Bay of Pigs in 1961. After this failedinvasion, Castro sought protection from the Soviet Unionand vowed to spread Communism to other areas in Latin
America. Although Castro failed to bring other Commu-nist governments to power in Latin America, his alliancewith the Soviet Union brought the world to the edge ofa nuclear war during the Cuban missile crisis.The SovietUnion had agreed to install missiles in Cuba and to sup-port Castro against further actions by the United States.In response, President John Kennedy ordered a navalblockade of Cuba, to prevent missiles from being sent toCuba. Ultimately, Nikita Khrushchev backed down andagreed to dismantle existing sites and pledged not toinstall missiles at a future date.This direct confrontationand the realization of how close the world had come tonuclear war led to the installation of a direct phone linebetween the United States and the Soviet Union and sub-sequently to a thaw in relations and talks regarding thereduction of nuclear arms.
cold war 379
Developing Nations and the Cold WarDuring the Cold War era, economic developmentwas a key issue for many developing nations. InApril, 1955 delegates from 29 Asian and Africannations meet at Bandung, Indonesia and reachedthe following agreement on economic cooperation.
The Asian-African Conference recognized theurgency of promoting economic development inthe Asian-African region. There was generaldesire for economic cooperation among the par-ticipating countries on the basis of mutual inter-est and respect for national sovereignty. Theproposals with regard to the economic cooper-ation within the participating countries do notpreclude either the desirability or the need forcooperation with countries outside the region,including the investment of foreign capital. Itwas further recognized that the assistance beingreceived by certain participating countries fromoutside the region, through international orunder bilateral agreements, had made a valuablecontribution to the implementation of theirdevelopment programmes.
Source: Kahin, G. M. (1955). The Asian-African Conference, Bandung, Indonesia,April, 1955 (p. 76). Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
The End of the Cold WarAlthough there were earlier improvements in the relationsbetween the United States and the Soviet Union andagreements to limit nuclear weapons (SALT I and SALTII), real change occurred only with the collapse of Com-munism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union.WhenMikhail Gorbachev became premier of the Soviet Unionin 1985 he began attempting to reform the Communistsystem. The two best-known aspects of his reform pro-gram are perestroika, the attempted decentralization andrestructuring of the economy, and glasnost, a movetoward free speech and a free press. Instead of the reformand revival that Gorbachev hoped would transpire, rev-olutions occurred in Eastern Europe and when the SovietUnion did not send troops to restore order, the Commu-nist governments in Eastern Europe simply fell.The mostprominent symbol of the collapse of the Communist
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regimes in Eastern Europe was the dismantling of theBerlin Wall in 1989 and the subsequent reunification ofGermany in the 1990s. After an attempted Communistcoup in the Soviet Union in 1991, the Union of SovietSocialist Republics also collapsed. Individual republicssuch as the Ukraine withdrew from the union and Gor-bachev resigned as president of the union after anattempted coup by military and old-style Communists,which led to the rise of Boris Yeltsin as a political figure.
With the collapse of Communism, the Cold War thathad dominated European politics for nearly fifty yearswas essentially over. Although Communism itself stillexisted in China, Cuba, and a few other areas, the dis-mantling of the Soviet Union seemed to signify its declineand the victory of democracy. The decline of the rivalrybetween the United States and the Soviet Union easedtensions and pressure on nations in Asia and Latin Amer-
How to Spot a CommunistThese instructions were developed for the Americanpublic by the U. S. First Army Headquarters and dis-seminated through the popular media in the 1950s.
If there is no fool-proof system in spotting a Com-munist, there are, fortunately, indications that maygive him away.These indications are often subtle butalways present, for the Communist, by reason of his“faith” must act and talk along certain lines. While a certain heaviness of style and preference for longsentences is common to most Communist writing, adistinct vocabulary provides the . . . more easily rec-ognized feature of the “Communist Language.” Evena superficial reading of an article written by a Com-munist or a conversation with one will probablyreveal the use of some of the following expressions:integrative thinking, vanguard, comrade, hooten-anny, chauvinism, book-burning, syncretistic faith,bourgeois-nationalism, jingoism, colonialism, hooli-ganism, ruling class, progressive, demagogy, dialec-tical, witch-hunt, reactionary, exploitation, oppres-sive, materialist. . .
The “Communist Logic”. . . is diametrically op-posed to our own.Thus the Communist refers to the
iron curtain police states as “democracies,” and anydefensive move on the part of the Western powers iscondemned as “aggression.” The Communist thusbuilds for himself a topsy-turvy world with a com-pletely distorted set of values. For this reason, it ispractically impossible to win an argument with ahard-core Communist. . . .
The Communist mind cannot and will not engagein a detached examination of ideas. Talking to aCommunist about his own ideas, then, is like lis-tening to a phonograph record. His answers willinvariably follow a definite pattern because he cannever admit, even hypothetically, that the basis forhis ideas may not be sound. This attitude is typicalnot only for the individual but also on a nationalscale. . . . The answer is final and no arguments arepermitted so far as the Communists are concerned.
The Communist, then, is not really “logical.” Thefinality of his arguments and the completeness of hiscondemnation marks him clearly, whether as aspeaker, a writer or a conversation partner.
Source: U.S.A., An American magazine of fact and opinion. June 22, 1955 (supplement).