Best Answer - Chosen by Voters

Correlation research is a form of analysis in which you correlate one variable with another to determine if there is a relationship between them.

Correlation research is used:

1) as a first step prior to experimentation2) when experiments cannot be conducted (for ethical or practical reasons)

It is different to an experiment because in correlation research you do not manipulate a variable, you gather information through:

1) Observation2) Surveys or Questionnaires3) Archived Information

5 years ago

Research Methods

To understand the use of statistics, one needs to know a little bit about experimental design or how a researcher conducts investigations. A little knowledge about methodology will provide us with a place to hang our statistics. In other words, statistics are not numbers that just appear out of nowhere. Rather, the numbers (data) are generated out of research. Statistics are merely a tool to help us answer research questions. As such, an understanding of methodology will facilitate our understanding of basic statistics.

Validity

A key concept relevant to a discussion of research methodology is that of validity. When an individual asks, "Is this study valid?", they are questioning the validity of at least one aspect of the study. There are four types of validity that can be discussed in relation to research and statistics. Thus, when discussing the validity of a study, one must be specific as to which type of validity is under discussion. Therefore, the answer to the question asked above might be that the study is valid in relation to one type of validity but invalid in relation to another type of validity.

Each of the four types of validity will be briefly defined and described below. Be aware that this represents a cursory discussion of the concept of validity.

Each type of validity has many threats which can pose a problem in a research study. Examples, but not an exhaustive discussion, of threats to each validity will be provided. For a comprehensive discussion of the four types of validity, the threats associated with each type of validity, and additional validity issues see Cook and Campbell (1979).

Statistical Conclusion Validity: Unfortunately, without a background in basic statistics, this type of validity is difficult to understand. According to Cook and Campbell (1979), "statistical conclusion validity refers to inferences about whether it is reasonable to presume covariation given a specified alpha level and the obtained variances (p. 41)." Essentially, the question that is being asked is - "Are the variables under study related?" or "Is variable A correlated (does it covary) with Variable B?". If a study has good statistical conclusion validity, we should be relatively certain that the answer to these questions is "yes". Examples of issues or problems that would threaten statistical conclusion validity would be random heterogeneity of the research subjects (the subjects represent a diverse group - this increases statistical error) and small sample size (more difficult to find meaningful relationships with a small number of subjects).

Internal Validity: Once it has been determined that the two variables (A & B) are related, the next issue to be determined is one of causality. Does A cause B? If a study is lacking internal validity, one can not make cause and effect statements based on the research; the study would be descriptive but not causal. There are many potential threats to internal validity. For example, if a study has a pretest, an experimental treatment, and a follow-up posttest, history is a threat to internal validity. If a difference is found between the pretest and posttest, it might be due to the experimental treatment but it might also be due to any other event that subjects experienced between the two times of testing (for example, a historical event, a change in weather, etc.).

Construct Validity: One is examining the issue of construct validity when one is asking the questions "Am I really measuring the construct that I want to study?" or "Is my study confounded (Am I confusing constructs)?". For example, if I want to know a particular drug (Variable A) will be effective for treating depression (Variable B) , I will need at least one measure of depression. If that measure does not truly reflect depression levels but rather anxiety levels (Confounding Variable X), than my study will be lacking construct validity. Thus, good construct validity means the we will be relatively sure that Construct A is related to Construct B and that this is possibly a causal relationship. Examples of other threats to construct validity include subjects

apprehension about being evaluated, hypothesis guessing on the part of subjects, and bias introduced in a study by expectencies on the part of the experimenter.

External Validity: External validity addresses the issue of being able to generalize the results of your study to other times, places, and persons. For example, if you conduct a study looking at heart disease in men, can these results be generalized to women? Therefore, one needs to ask the following questions to determine if a threat to the external validity exists: "Would I find these same results with a difference sample?", "Would I get these same results if I conducted my study in a different setting?", and "Would I get these same results if I had conducted this study in the past or if I redo this study in the future?" If I can not answer "yes" to each of these questions, then the external validity of my study is threatened.

Types of Research Studies

There are four major classifications of research designs. These include observational research, correlational research, true experiments, and quasi-experiments. Each of these will be discussed further below.

Observational research: There are many types of studies which could be defined as observational research including case studies, ethnographic studies, ethological studies, etc. The primary characteristic of each of these types of studies is that phenomena are being observed and recorded. Often times, the studies are qualitative in nature. For example, a psychological case study would entail extensive notes based on observations of and interviews with the client. A detailed report with analysis would be written and reported constituting the study of this individual case. These studies may also be qualitative in nature or include qualitative components in the research. For example, an ethological study of primate behavior in the wild may include measures of behavior durations ie. the amount of time an animal engaged in a specified behavior. This measure of time would be qualitative.

Surveys are often classified as a type of observational research.

Correlational research: In general, correlational research examines the covariation of two or more variables. For example, the early research on cigarette smoking examine the covariation of cigarette smoking and a variety of lung diseases. These two variable, smoking and lung disease were found to covary together.

Correlational research can be accomplished by a variety of techniques which include the collection of empirical data. Often times, correlational research is considered type of observational research as nothing is manipulated by the experimenter or individual conducting the research. For example, the early studies on cigarette smoking did not manipulate how many cigarettes were smoked. The researcher only collected the data on the two variables. Nothing was controlled by the researchers.

It is important to not that correlational research is not causal research. In other words, we can not make statements concerning cause and effect on the basis of this type of research. There are two major reasons why we can not make cause and effect statements. First, we don¹t know the direction of the cause. Second, a third variable may be involved of which we are not aware. An example may help clarify these points.

In major clinical depressions, the neurotransmitters serotonin and/or norepinephrine have been found to be depleted (Coppen, 1967; Schildkraut & Kety, 1967). In other words, low levels of these two neurotransmitters have been found to be associated with increased levels of clinical depression. However, while we know that the two variables covary - a relationship exists - we do not know if a causal relationship exists. Thus, it is unclear whether a depletion in serotonin/norepinephrine cause depression or whether depression causes a depletion is neurotransmitter levels. This demonstrates the first problem with correlational research; we don't know the direction of the cause. Second, a third variable has been uncovered which may be affecting both of the variables under study. The number of receptors on the postsynaptic neuron has been found to be increased in depression (Segal, Kuczenski, & Mandell, 1974; Ventulani, Staqarz, Dingell, & Sulser, 1976). Thus, it is possible that the increased number of receptors on the postsynaptic neuron is actually responsible for the relationship between neurotransmitter levels and depression. As you can see from the discussion above, one can not make a simple cause and effect statement concerning neurotransmitter levels and depression based on correlational research. To reiterate, it is inappropriate in correlational research to make statements concerning cause and effect.

Correlational research is often conducted as exploratory or beginning research. Once variables have been identified and defined, experiments are conductable.

True Experiments: The true experiment is often thought of as a laboratory study. However, this is not always the case. A true experiment is defined as an experiment conducted where an effort is made to impose control over all other variables except the one under study. It is often easier to impose this sort of

control in a laboratory setting. Thus, true experiments have often been erroneously identified as laboratory studies.

To understand the nature of the experiment, we must first define a few terms:

1. Experimental or treatment group - this is the group that receives the experimental treatment, manipulation, or is different from the control group on the variable under study.

2. Control group - this group is used to produce comparisons. The treatment of interest is deliberately withheld or manipulated to provide a baseline performance with which to compare the experimental or treatment group's performance.

3. Independent variable - this is the variable that the experimenter manipulates in a study. It can be any aspect of the environment that is empirically investigated for the purpose of examining its influence on the dependent variable.

4. Dependent variable - the variable that is measured in a study. The experimenter does not control this variable.

5. Random assignment - in a study, each subject has an equal probability of being selected for either the treatment or control group.

6. Double blind - neither the subject nor the experimenter knows whether the subject is in the treatment of the control condition.

Now that we have these terms defined, we can examine further the structure of the true experiment. First, every experiment must have at least two groups: an experimental and a control group. Each group will receive a level of the independent variable. The dependent variable will be measured to determine if the independent variable has an effect. As stated previously, the control group will provide us with a baseline for comparison. All subjects should be randomly assigned to groups, be tested a simultaneously as possible, and the experiment should be conducted double blind. Perhaps an example will help clarify these points.

Wolfer and Visintainer (1975) examined the effects of systematic preparation and support on children who were scheduled for inpatient minor surgery. The hypothesis was that such preparation would reduce the amount of psychological upset and increase the amount of cooperation among thee young patients. Eighty children were selected to participate in the study. Children were randomly assigned to either the treatment or the control condition. During their hospitalization the treatment group received the special program and the control group did not. Care was take such that kids in the treatment and the control groups were not roomed together. Measures that were taken included heart

rates before and after blood tests, ease of fluid intake, and self-report anxiety measures. The study demonstrated that the systematic preparation and support reduced the difficulties of being in the hospital for these kids.

Let us examine now the features of the experiment described above. First, there was a treatment and control group. If we had had only the treatment group, we would have no way of knowing whether the reduced anxiety was due to the treatment or the weather, new hospital food, etc. The control group provides us with the basis to make comparisons The independent variable in this study was the presence or absence of the systematic preparation program. The dependent variable consisted of the heart rates, fluid intake, and anxiety measures. The scores on these measures were influenced by and depended on whether the child was in the treatment or control group. The children were randomly assigned to either group. If the "friendly" children had been placed in the treatment group we would have no way of knowing whether they were less anxious and more cooperative because of the treatment or because they were "friendly". In theory, the random assignment should balance the number of "friendly" children between the two groups. The two groups were also tested at about the same time. In other words, one group was not measured during the summer and the other during the winter. By testing the two groups as simultaneously as possible, we can rule out any bias due to time. Finally, the children were unaware that they were participants in an experiment (the parents had agreed to their children's participation in research and the program), thus making the study single blind. If the individuals who were responsible for the dependent measures were also unaware of whether the child was in the treatment or control group, then the experiment would have been double blind.

A special case of the true experiment is the clinical trial. A clinical trial is defined as a carefully designed experiment that seeks to determine the clinical efficacy of a new treatment or drug. The design of a clinical trial is very similar to that of a true experiment. Once again, there are two groups: a treatment group (the group that receives the therapeutic agent) and a control group (the group that receives the placebo). The control group is often called the placebo group. The independent variable in the clinical trial is the level of the therapeutic agent. Once again, subjects are randomly assigned to groups, they are tested simultaneously, and the experiment should be conducted double blind. In other words, neither the patient or the person administering the drug should know whether the patient is receiving the drug or the placebo.

Quasi-Experiments: Quasi-experiments are very similar to true experiments but use naturally formed or pre-existing groups. For example, if we wanted to

compare young and old subjects on lung capacity, it is impossible to randomly assign subjects to either the young or old group (naturally formed groups). Therefore, this can not be a true experiment. When one has naturally formed groups, the variable under study is a subject variable (in this case - age) as opposed to an independent variable. As such, it also limits the conclusions we can draw from such an research study. If we were to conduct the quasi-experiment, we would find that the older group had less lung capacity as compared to the younger group. We might conclude that old age thus results in less lung capacity. But other variables might also account for this result. It might be that repeated exposure to pollutants as opposed to age has caused the difference in lung capacity. It could also be a generational factor. Perhaps more of the older group smoked in their early years as compared to the younger group due to increased awareness of the hazards of cigarettes. The point is that there are many differences between the groups that we can not control that could account for differences in our dependent measures. Thus, we must be careful concerning making statement of causality with quasi-experimental designs.

Quasi-experiments may result from studying the differences between naturally formed groups (ie. young & old; men & women). However, there are also instances when a researcher designs a study as a traditional experiment only to discover that random assignment to groups is restricted by outside factors. The researcher is forced to divide groups according to some pre-existing criteria. For example, if a corporation wanted to test the effectiveness of a new wellness program, they might decide to implement their program at one site and use a comporable site (no wellness program) as a control. As the employees are not shuffled and randomly assigned to work at each site, the study has pre-existing groups. After a few months of study, the researchers could then see if the wellness site had less absenteeism and lower health costs than the non-wellness site. The results are again restricted due to the quasi-correlational nature of the study. As the study has pre-existing groups, there may be other differences between those groups than just the presence or absence of a wellness program. For example, the wellness program may be in a significantly newer, more attractive building, or the manager from hell may work at the nonwellness program site. Either way, it a difference is found between the two sites it may or may not be due to the presence/absence of the wellness program.

To summarize, quasi-experiments may result from either studying naturally formed groups or use of pre-existing groups. When the study includes naturally formed groups, the variable under study is a subject variable. When a study uses pre-existing groups that are not naturally formed, the variable that is

manipulated between the two groups is an independent variable (With the exception of no random assignment, the study looks similar in form to a true experiment). As no random assignment exists in a quasi-experiment, no causal statements can be made based on the results of the study.

Populations and Samples

When conducting research, one must often use a sample of the population as opposed to using the entire population. Before we go further into the reasons why, let us first discuss what differentiates between a population and a sample.

A population can be defined as any set of persons/subjects having a common observable characteristic. For example, all individuals who reside in the United States make up a population. Also, all pregnant women make up a population. The characteristics of a population are called a parameter. A statistic can be defined as any subset of the population. The characteristics of a sample are called a statistic.

Why Sample?

This brings us to the question of why sample. Why should we not use the population as the focus of study. There are at least four major reasons to sample.

First, it is usually too costly to test the entire population. The United States government spends millions of dollars to conduct the U.S. Census every ten years. While the U.S. government may have that kind of money, most researchers do not.

The second reason to sample is that it may be impossible to test the entire population. For example, let us say that we wanted to test the 5-HIAA (a serotonergic metabolite) levels in the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) of depressed individuals. There are far too many individuals who do not make it into the mental health system to even be identified as depressed, let alone to test their CSF.

The third reason to sample is that testing the entire population often produces error. Thus, sampling may be more accurate. Perhaps an example will help clarify this point. Say researchers wanted to examine the effectiveness of a new drug on Alzheimer's disease. One dependent variable that could be used is an Activities of Daily Living Checklist. In other words, it is a measure of functioning o a day to day basis. In this experiment, it would make sense to

have as few of people rating the patients as possible. If one individual rates the entire sample, there will be some measure of consistency from one patient to the next. If many raters are used, this introduces a source of error. These raters may all use a slightly different criteria for judging Activities of Daily Living. Thus, as in this example, it would be problematic to study an entire population.

The final reason to sample is that testing may be destructive. It makes no sense to lesion the lateral hypothalamus of all rats to determine if it has an effect on food intake. We can get that information from operating on a small sample of rats. Also, you probably would not want to buy a car that had the door slammed five hundred thousand time or had been crash tested. Rather, you probably would want to purchase the car that did not make it into either of those samples.

Types of Sampling Procedures

As stated above, a sample consists of a subset of the population. Any member of the defined population can be included in a sample. A theoretical list (an actual list may not exist) of individuals or elements who make up a population is called a sampling frame. There are five major sampling procedures.

The first sampling procedure is convenience. Volunteers, members of a class, individuals in the hospital with the specific diagnosis being studied are examples of often used convenience samples. This is by far the most often used sample procedure. It is also by far the most biases sampling procedure as it is not random (not everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected to participate in the study). Thus, individuals who volunteer to participate in an exersise study may be different that individuals who do not volunteer.

Another form of sampling is the simple random sample. In this method, all subject or elements have an equal probability of being selected. There are two major ways of conducting a random sample. The first is to consult a random number table, and the second is to have the computer select a random sample.

A systematic sample is conducted by randomly selecting a first case on a list of the population and then proceeding every Nth case until your sample is selected. This is particularly useful if your list of the population is long. For example, if your list was the phone book, it would be easiest to start at perhaps the 17th person, and then select every 50th person from that point on.

Stratified sampling makes up the fourth sampling strategy. In a stratified sample, we sample either proportionately or equally to represent various strata or subpopulations. For example if our strata were states we would make sure

and sample from each of the fifty states. If our strata were religious affiliation, stratified sampling would ensure sampling from every religious block or grouping. If our strata were gender, we would sample both men and women.

Cluster sampling makes up the final sampling procedure. In cluster sampling we take a random sample of strata and then survey every member of the group. For example, if our strata were individuals schools in the St. Louis Public School System, we would randomly select perhaps 20 schools and then test all of the students within those schools.

Sampling Problems

There are several potential sampling problems. When designing a study, a sampling procedure is also developed including the potential sampling frame. Several problems may exist within the sampling frame. First, there may be missing elements - individuals who should be on your list but for some reason are not on the list. For example, if my population consists of all individuals living in a particular city and I use the phone directory as my sampling frame or list, I will miss individuals with unlisted numbers or who can not afford a phone.

Foreign elements make up my second sampling problem. Elements which should not be included in my population and sample appear on my sampling list. Thus, if I were to use property records to create my list of individuals living within a particular city, landlords who live elsewhere would be foreign elements. In this case, renters would be missing elements.

Duplicates represent the third sampling problem. These are elements who appear more than once on the sampling frame. For example, if I am a researcher studying patient satisfaction with emergency room care, I may potentially include the same patient more than once in my study. If the patients are completing a patient satisfaction questionnaire, I need to make sure that patients are aware that if they have completed the questionnaire previously, they should not complete it again. If they complete it more that once, their second set of data respresents a duplicate.

Back to Statistics Page

Correlational Research Guidelines Conducting Correlational Research

by Dr. Janet Waters

Research Design

 In general, a correlational study is a quantitative method of research in which you have 2

or more quantitative variables from the same group of subjects, & you are trying to

determine if there is a relationship (or covariation) between the 2 variables (a similarity

between them, not a difference between their means). Theoretically, any 2 quantitative

variables can be correlated (for example, midterm scores & number of body piercings!) as

long as you have scores on these variables from the same participants; however, it is

probably a waste of time to collect & analyze data when there is little reason to think

these two variables would be related to each other.

Try to have 30 or more participants; this is important to increase the validity of the

research.

Your hypothesis might be that there is a positive correlation (for example, the number of

hours of study & your midterm exam scores), or a negative correlation (for example, your

levels of stress & your exam scores). A perfect correlation would be an r = +1.0 & -1.0,

while no correlation would be r = 0. Perfect correlations would almost never occur; expect

to see correlations much less than + or - 1.0. Although correlation can't prove a causal

relationship, it can be used for prediction, to support a theory, to measure test-retest

reliability, etc.

Data collection:

You may collect your data through testing (e.g. scores on a knowledge test (an exam or

math test, etc.), or psychological tests, numerical responses on surveys & questionnaires,

etc. Even archival data can be used (e.g. Kindergarten grades) as long as it is in a

numerical form.

Data Analysis:

With the use of the Excel program, calculating correlations is probably the easiest data to

analyze. In Excel, set up three columns: Subject #, Variable 1 (e.g. hours of study), &

Variable 2 (e.g. exam scores). Then enter your data in these columns. Select a cell for the

correlation to appear in & label it. Click "fx" on the toolbar at the top, then "statistical",

then "Pearson". When asked, highlight in turn each of the two columns of data, click

"Finish", & your correlation will appear. Charts in any statistics textbook can tell you if the

correlation is significant, considering the number of participants.

You can also do graphs & scatter plots with Excel, if you would like to depict your data

that way (See Chart wizard).

Presentation of your results in a Research Report:

Use the standard APA style lab report. In the Introduction, briefly review past research &

theory in your topic question (e.g. summarize current research on stress & academic

achievement). Use APA referencing style to cite your sources. Then in

the Methodsection, present a general description of the group of participants (their

number, mean age, gender, etc.) in the Participants section, any materials you may

have used (e.g. tests, surveys, etc.) in the Materials section, & in

the Procedure section, note that your general research strategy was a correlational

study, & describe your methods of data collection (e.g. survey, test, etc.).

In the Results section of the report, present your correlation statistic in both a table & in

words, & note whether or not it is significant. If you have more than 2 variables to

correlate, present a correlational matrix, showing the correlation between each of the

variables. In the following example, 4 variables were correlated in one study. The

correlation between Exam scores & hours of study, for example, is r = +.67, p <.01. This

indicates a significant positive relationship between the number of hours of study &

subsequent exam scores.

 

Number of hours of study & subsequent exam scores

Hours of study+.67* - -

Stress level- .45* -.10 -

# of Piercings-.15 -.2 +.18

 Exam Scores Hrs of Study Stress level

 

* p < .01

In the Discussion section, relate your results to past or current research & theory you

had cited & described in the Introduction. Do note the statistical significance of your

findings, & limits to their generalizability. Remember that even if you did not obtain the

significant differences you had hoped to, your results are still interesting, & must be

explained, with reference to other research & theory.

© Janet Waters

http://www.capilanou.ca/psychology/student-resources/research-guidelines/Correlational-Research-Guidelines/

KUMPULAN JUDUL KORELASI

1. HUBUNGAN ANTARA KEBIASAAN BELAJAR DAN HASIL BELAJAR MATEMATIKA SEMESTER I DENGAN HASIL BELAJAR PADA, 05

2. KORELASI ANTARA PENGETAHUAN ALAT PRAKTIKUM DENGAN KEMAMPUAN PSIKOMOTORIK SISWA KELAS XI IPA, 06

3. HUBUNGAN ANTARA PENGUASAA BAHASA INDONESIA DAN KETRAMPILAN HITUNG DENGAN KEMAMPUAN MENYELESAIKAN SOAL CERITA MATEMATIKA SISWA KELAS IV SD KANISIUS SE-KELURAHAN PURWOMARTANI KECAMATAN KALASAN TAHUN AJARAN 2004/2005, 04

4. HUBUNGAN ANTARA KEMANDIRIAN BELAJAR MOTIVASI BERPRESTASI DAN KEMAMPUAN NUMERIK DENGAN PRESTASI BELAJAR MATEMATIKA POKOK BAHASAN STATITISKA SISWA KELAS II SEMESTER II SMU NEGERI SE-KEC. SANDEN KAB. BANTUL TA 2003/2004/2003

5. HUBUNGAN ANTARA STATUS SOSIAL EKONOMI ORANG TUA KEMAMPUAN BERFIKIR LOGIS KEMAMPUAN NUMERIK DENGAN PRESTASI BELAJAR MATEMATIKA POKOK BAHASAN PERSAMAAN GARIS LURUS SISWA II SEMESTER II SLTP NEGERI SE-KECAMATAN DLINGO KABUPATEN BANTUL TAHUN PELAJARAN 2003/2004, 04

6. HUBUNGAN ANTARA KEMAMPUAN AWAL KEMAMPUAN NUMERIK DAN PERHATIAN ORANG TUA DENGAN PRESTASI BELAJAR MATEMATIKA PADA POKOK BAHASAN SISTEM PERSAMAAN LINIER DUA PEUBAH SISWA KELAS II SLTP NEGERI SE-KECAMATAN IMOGIRI BANTUL TAHUN PELAJARAN 2002/2003, 03

7. HUBUNGAN ANTARA KEMAMPUAN NUMERIK, MOTIVASI BELAJAR MATEMATIKA DAN PERHATIAN ORANG TUA DENGAN PRESTASI BELAJAR MATEMATIKA PADA POKOK BAHASAN KUADRAT DAN AKAR KUADRAT SUATU BILANGAN SISWA KELAS II SEMESTER I SLTP NEGERI SE-KECAMATAN PUNDONG KABUPATEN BANTUL TAHUN PELAJARAN 2003/2004, 03

8. HUBUNGAN ANTARA KETERLIBATAN ORANG TUA DENGAN PRESTASI BELAJAR BIOLOGI SISWA KELAS I CAWU 3 DI SMU NEGERI KEMIRI KABUPATEN PURWOREJO TAHUN AJARAN 1999/2000, 00

9. HUBUNGAN ANTARA TINGKAT PENGETAHUAN IBU TENTANG GIZI DENGAN STATUS GIZI BALITA DI POSYANDU MELATI PUTIH DESA MERAK KECAMATAN DEMPET KABUPATEN DEMAK PADA BULAN AGUSTUS TAHUN 1998, 98

10. ANALISIS KESALAHAN BUKU PENUNJANG MATEMATIKA SMU KELAS I CAWU I KURIKULUM 1994 DI KOTAMADYA SEMARANG TAHUN PELAJARAN 1999/2000, 00

11. HUBUNGAN ANTARA PENGUASAAN BAHASA INDONESIA DAN KETRAMPILAN HITUNG DENGAN KEMAMPUAN MENYELESAIKAN SOAL CERITA MATEMATIKA SISWA KELAS IV SD KANISIUS SE-KELURAHAN PURWOMANI KECAMATAN KALASAN TAHUN AJARAN 2004/2005, 04

12. KORELASI ANTARA POLA MAKAN DAN BERAT BADAN SISWA KELAS V SD NEGERI 02 LOSARI KAB. PEMALANG TAHUN PELAJARAN 2005/2006, 06

13. KORELASI KEMAMPUAN MEMECAHKAN MASALAH DENGAN HASIL BELAJAR PADA MATERI POKOK HORMON DI KELAS II SEMESTER II SMP MASEHI 3 PSAK SEMARANG TAHUN AJARAN 2004/2005, 05

CONTOH SKRIPSI BAHASA INGGRIS THE CORRELATION BETWEEN STUDENTS’ ACTIVITY IN WATCHING ENGLISH TV PROGRAMS AND STUDENT’S VOCABULARY MASTERLabel: THE CORRELATION BETWEEN STUDENTS’ ACTIVITY IN WATCHING ENGLISH TV PROGRAMS AND STUDENT’S VOCABULARY MASTERY

CONTOH SKRIPSI BAHASA INGGRIS  THE CORRELATION BETWEEN

STUDENTS’ ACTIVITY IN WATCHING ENGLISH TV PROGRAMS AND STUDENT’S

VOCABULARY MASTERY: THE CASE OF THE FOURTH

SEMESTER STUDENT OF ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

SEMARANG STATE UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Background of the Study

Brumfit (1981: 1) stated that English is an international language and the most

widespread medium of communication, both because of the number and

geographical areas of its speakers and because of the large number of non native

speakers who use it for part of their international contact. Thus, it is not surprising

that the teaching of English is carried out in many parts of the

world. For example, our country Indonesia treats English as the first

foreign language. English has some important roles in the development of Indonesia,

such as it is used as an instrument in developing modern science and technology

sources using English in their explanation to help people around the world in learning

them. English is one of the international languages used as a means of

communication among nations in the world. It is used in international trade, tourism

and other important international affairs. Indonesian language is a mother tongue,

thus, English language is not used commonly in a daily life by Indonesian people.

Therefore, to consider the

important role of English, the Indonesian government positions English as the first

foreign language. Realizing the importance of English in our country, many people in

Indonesia are learning the language. They learn it for many different purposes such

as business, science, technology, and communication and also for education. Besides

having different purposes in learning the language, people also have different

sources in learning it. Most of them learn the language in formal education such as:

schools, college and universities. In our country, English has been taught as a

compulsory subject since the students are in the Junior High School until the

University. It is also taught in some Elementary Schools and Kindergartens in

Indonesia as local content from now on. In addition to learning the language in formal

education, people also learn it in non-formal education. English courses and private

lessons are the examples of non-formal education institutions existing in our country.

People can choose one of them that are suitable with their purpose and funds.

Although they are learning the language from different sources, they have a same

basic wish in their learning process that they want to get a success on it in realizing

their wish; they use some media that can help them in the learning process. These

media can be books, magazines, newspapers, cassettes, radios and also television.

Television is one of the mass media that can also be used as a medium in learning

English. Why television? Because it is an interesting and enjoyable medium to learn

anything. The audience can learn anything they have not known before watching

television, because it always offers something actual and new to them through its

programs. As it is mentioned by Vernon S Gerlach / Donald P. Ely (1980:354)

“Television is an electronic system of transmitting still and moving images with

accompany in sound over a wire or through space. The system employs equip that

converts lights and sound into electrical impulses and reconverts them into visible

light rays and audible

sound”. From the quotation we know that the audience at home can know and learn

anything new and actual in the world through television. It is like a magic box that

gives something wonderful to its audience through its programs.

As one of the mass media, it gives so many benefits to its audience, such as

excitement, information and also knowledge. There are many kinds of knowledge

that can be obtained by them by watching television programs, for example

knowledge of environment, medicine, law, politic, culture and also language. As it is

mentioned on the previous paragraph, television can be used as a medium to

learning a foreign language, for example English language. It can happen because

television broadcast programs that are broadcast on their television channels. The

programs are broadcast everyday on television, from morning until night, of course

on specific times. This condition is very useful for the English learners in Indonesia,

included the students of the English Department of Semarang State University

because they can use the programs to add their English knowledge. There are many

English skills and knowledge that can be learned by

the students by watching English TV programs, such as listening, speaking and also

knowledge of vocabulary. There are many vocabularies that can be learning by them

by watching the programs, because the programs provide so many vocabularies of

many different fields. They can learn vocabularies of environment, social life, law,

politic, education etc from those programs. It is important for them to have a large

vocabulary because of the four English skills such as listening, reading, speaking and

writing need a large vocabulary. Mastering it will help them to improve the other

English knowledge, as it is mentioned by Charles B. Jennings (1978: 4): “If you

already have an interest in words (vocabulary) using them can improve your reading,

writing, talking, and thinking”. From the quotation above, we can take a reference

that the basic component, which must be mastered by them to get a success in

learning English is vocabulary. They will find some difficulties in their learning

process without mastering it, since most learning activities such as listening, reading,

thinking and talking need a large and solid vocabulary. As it is stated by Micheal

Bennet (1991:63) “Yet everyone, especially the English learners’ need a large

vocabulary to succeed in their learning process because reading and listening are the

ways they learn”. The students of English Department of Semarang State University

as a part of English learners in Indonesia should also have a large vocabulary.

Especially because they will become teachers in the future. As teachers, they should

have a good English knowledge because they will teach many students and they

should be responsible for their teaching. Moreover, they have a duty to correct the

mistakes that have been done by their students during the learning process.

Therefore, they really should have a good quality in English

correcting the students’ mistakes is not an easy work, since they should know both

the source of mistakes itself and the correct form. They can not do this duty, if they

have not a good English knowledge. It is really needed by them to become English

teachers. Since this profession has a heavy responsibility; both, responsibility for the

result and the responsibility for the learning process itself. Relating to the matter,

English students of Semarang State University really must have a good quality in

English. They can start to reach it by having a large vocabulary because it helps

them to master other English skills. Moreover, it is also helps them in communicating

with the teachers, other people and with their students. It is really needed in a

communication, as it is mentioned by Canale and Swain in Jack Richard and W.

Schmidt (1983: 5) “Communicative competence was understood as the underlying

system of knowledge and skill required for communication, e.g. knowledge of

vocabulary and skill in using the sociolinguistics of convention for a given language”.

From the quotation above, we know that mastery of the vocabulary of a foreign

language is the most required thing for communication. Nasr (1975:57) stated that

language is used to communicate ideas and experiences and vocabulary is an

element in a language that expresses units in our experiences. Realizing this fact, the

writer thinks that English TV programs are good media for the English students’ of

Semarang State University to enrich their vocabularies, also expression from those

programs. They can get that thing that they do not get in their classes and textbooks.

It is good for them to learn English language out of campus because it can help them

in their English learning process. Their English will develop better if they also learn it

out of campus. This fact will open their eyes that they should learn from many

different sources if they want to get a success in learning English. They can not learn

from one source only. Furthermore, learning English out of campus will help them in

conducting communication in English, because out of campus they can learn how to

practice their English. Moreover they can know that English in daily communication is

slightly different from English in the textbooks. Realizing this fact, learning and

listening from people who have a good quality in English is the right way for them to

add their English knowledge. They can increase English skills and knowledge, such as

speaking and vocabulary by listening them. Listening to the people who have a

better speech style, such as lecturers, presenters, teachers and eminent public

figures is a good way for them to build a large vocabulary. It is mentioned by Michael

Bennet (1991: 63) “That listening to intelligent people or native speakers is another

good way to acquire a solid vocabulary”. Furthermore, he stated that the context of

spoken language is ever more helpful than of written language. Since it includes body

language, facial expression and intonation (stress, pitch and juncture) to help the

learners to understand the meaning intended by the speaker (J Michael Bennet,

1991:63). Based on the statements above, we know that one of the ways in learning

vocabulary is by listening to the people who have a better knowledge and speech

style than we have. Relating to this matter, English TV Programs are exactly the right

media for the students of English Department Semarang State University to enrich

their vocabulary. It contains things that fulfill the requirements for a good way in

building a rich vocabulary. It also contains spoken language, which is supported by

facial expression and also the right intonation of the announcers, actors, and

actresses of the programs that condition will help the English students in

understanding the words or the sentences that are spoken by them by seeing their

factual expression and intonation. In this way, the English students can guess the

meaning of an unfamiliar word first before they know exactly the appropriate

meaning of the word. In addition, English TV Programs also help the English Students

of Semarang State University to learn the vocabulary in its context. So, they really

know how to use the word that exists in the program in daily life. Moreover, they can

understand that a word has different meaning according to its context. For example,

the word ‘cool’ has different meaning when it is used in music and climax contexts. In

the first context it means good or wonderful. Meanwhile, in the second context it

means chilly. From this example, we know that context is the most important thing in

determining the meaning of a word. It is also helps them in understanding a meaning

of an unfamiliar word without looking it up in the dictionary, Albert J. Harris and

Edward R. Sibay(1981: 139) mentioned “We can deduce the meanings of many words

without looking them up in a dictionary or other word book by studying them in

context, in the sentence which they use in a part”. Furthermore, Perrin(1957) also

has the same opinion about the meaning of the words, as it is cited by Gray C. Jack

(1963:1) that words have meaning only in a particular statements. From the two

statements above, we can conclude that two better ways to understand the meaning

of words are by studying them in their context and studying them in a particular

statement. Relating to the matter, the writer considers that English TV programs are

really good media for the students of the English Department of Semarang State

University to learn vocabulary in their contexts, so they will not get a difficulty in

choosing words in conducting communication in English In this thesis, the writer

wants to discuss the significant correlation between the students’ activity in watching

English TV programs and their vocabulary mastery. She takes the fourth semester

English students of Semarang State University to be examined because thinks that

students in this grade already have enough English knowledge to follow the

programs. She considers that the program is a really good program for them in

building the vocabulary. She hopes that she can find any significant correlation

between two things above because she has a hypothesis that there is a correlation

between them. To prove her opinion, then she conducted this research.

1.2 Reason for Choosing the Topic

The following are the reasons of choosing the topic:

1.2.1 The importance of vocabulary mastery for English students.

She realizes that vocabulary mastery in an important thing for English students

because a large vocabulary is needed by them to get a success in their English

learning process. Although there are four language skills, Such as listening, reading,

speaking, writing are started by vocabulary so it is a first thing that English students

must be familiar with.

1.2.2 The importance of the context and spoken language in learning the vocabulary.

She considers that context is the first thing that should be noticed by the English

students in learning vocabulary. It helps them in using the vocabulary in

communication. They will find some difficulties about how to choose an appropriate

vocabulary in daily life without understanding the context. Furthermore, she also

realizes that spoken language- especially from the people who have good speech

style is also a good way to enrich vocabulary. It is good since facial expression,

intonation and good performance of the speakers, will help the students in

understanding their speech, support it. She considers that English to programs

contain those entire things. Moreover, they also contain so many interesting things.

Therefore, students will not get boredom in learning vocabulary if they use the

program. Furthermore, she has an opinion that there is a significant correlation

between students’ activity in watching English TV program on their vocabulary

mastery. So, she chooses this topic in her thesis. The writer wants to know whether

there is the significant correlation between students’ activity in watching English TV

programs on the student’s vocabulary of English Department of Semarang State

University. For the sake of limitation, the writer chooses only the fourth semester

students as the subject of the

research.

1.3 Assumption and Limitation

In conducting this investigation, the writer has the following assumptions.

1.3.1 A students’ activity in watching English TV programs is indicated by the score of

the questionnaires concerning the students’ activity in doing it.

1.3.2 A students’ mastery of vocabulary is indicated by the score of vocabulary test.

1.3.3 The result of this study is only applied to the fourth semester English

Department students’ of Semarang State University in the academic year 2006.

1.4 Statements of the Problems

The problems stated in this thesis are:

1.4.1 What does ‘vocabulary’ and ‘vocabulary mastery’ mean?

1.4.2 What types of vocabulary are found in English TV Programs?

1.4.3 Is there any significant correlation between students’ activity in watching

English TV programs and their vocabulary mastery?

1.5 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are:

1.5.1 To understand what is vocabulary in learning language.

1.5.2 To find out vocabulary types those are found in English TV programs.

1.5.3 To find out whether there is a significant correlation between the students’

activity in watching English TV programs and their vocabulary mastery.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The result of this study will be useful for the readers. Especially for the students of

the English Department of Semarang State University. It may provide useful

information for them in conducting such a research. In addition, this information can

distribute to their knowledge of language research. This study may be helpful for the

English Department Students of Semarang State University. It helps them be more

alert to their vocabulary mastery. Furthermore, it may help them to understand that

vocabulary mastery is an important aspect in language learning. It is a key for them

to get a success in their learning language process. For the writer this thesis gives

awareness that vocabulary is an important aspect in language learning. Besides that,

this thesis also gives her a view that learning English out of school is very important

to the English Department Students of Semarang State University.

1.7 Outline of the Thesis

The outline of the thesis is as follows chapter I contains the introduction covering the

background of the study. The reasons for choosing the topic, assumption and

limitation, the statement of the problems, the objectives of the study, significance of

he study and outline of the thesis. In chapter II, she discusses the theory underlying

the writing of her thesis and the hypothesis. In chapter III, she writes about the

method of the investigation. It consists of the population and sample, the variables,

the method and procedure of collecting the data, the instruments of the research,

the administering of the test, the scoring technique and the method of data analysis.

In chapter IV, she presents the research findings, which consists of the data analysis

and the discussion of the result. The last chapter, that is chapter V, contains the

conclusions and the suggestions of the research.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Uses and Functions of English in Indonesia.

English has important uses and function, although it is not a second language (ESL).

For Indonesian people; it still has a significant role to play. It occupies important uses

in many fields, such as information, tourism, business and also education. It is an

important school subject that has been taught to the students since they are in Junior

high schools. In the information field, it is

becoming the second major language of printed information after the Indonesian

language. Most of Indonesia’s scientific, commercial, economic and technological

knowledge are written and published both in English and Indonesian language. This

condition happened because our country is a developing country that needs a broad

communication and corporation with other countries in order to build up itself. There

are many ways that have been done by the government. One of them is by exporting

and introducing our products to abroad. The products can be economical, commercial

or technological products. In this activity, Indonesia needs a means of communication

that can be understood by other countries. English it the right answers for the need.

Since it is becoming the major international language of printed information in the

world. Jack C. Richards (1983: 3) stated that a great deal of the word’s scientific,

commercial, economic and technological knowledge is written and published in

English, though the writers may be Chinese, Swedes or Italians.

2.2 Learning English in Indonesia

Since English has important uses and functions in our country. Many Indonesian

people learn the language. They realize whether they like it or not they will need

English someday. Furthermore, they need it more in this era when the

communication technology developed fast. The world has no limits and anything on it

is getting global. These condition force people around the world to have knowledge of

a language, in which the language is included into major language in the world and it

is used broadly in many world life aspects. English is one of the languages that fulfill

the requirements. In learning the language, Indonesian learners will be introduced to

many English components; one of them that should be mastered first in their English

learning process is vocabulary.

2.3 Why Study Vocabulary

In chapter I it is important for every English learner to master vocabulary, but why

they should it first before they study other English components?

The first reason for the question is the words or vocabularies or lexicons are the basic

tools for almost English skills such as listening, reading, speaking and writing.

Mastering them influence students ability in other English skills. As it is mentioned by

John Read (1988: 12) “Vocabulary

proficiency affects not only the students reading skills, but their speaking, listening

and writing as well”. From the statement above, we can conclude that vocabulary

proficiency helps the students or the English learners to master other English skills,

so they should focus their attention first to the vocabulary mastery in their learning

process. The second is that vocabulary plays an important role in writing activity.

Actually, most of English learners’ activities deal with writing

activities, for example; doing assignments, thesis and also taking writing test.

Therefore they should have a larger vocabulary in order to make their writing good,

coherent, and also understandable by their readers. Barli Bram (1995: 48) has an

opinion concerning with that matter. He stated that words or lexicons are the basic

tool for writing. To a great extent, it is word that determines whether a paragraph is

good or not. Furthermore he said that wrong words surely do not state the writer’s

message across. In essence, the diction or word choosing in a paragraph has an

important role. Readers can receive the messages that are conveyed by the writer if

she or he uses appropriate words in their paragraphs.

The last reason is that a large vocabulary helps the English learners in studying other

English subjects such as Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, Business

Correspondence, etc. It will help them to understand and define many concepts,

ideas, expressions that they get in such subjects. It is stated by Bella Fiore (1968: 1)

“The larger the vocabulary you build up, the better able

you are to define and refine the expression of the images and ideas”. Moreover, she

said “The more words you master richer become you thought process and the better

you distinguish between shades of word meanings, the subtler grows your expression

of ideas”. In conclusion, vocabulary learning is an unseparate thing from language

learning because whenever people think of it, they usually think of vocabulary

learning and vocabulary mastery. It is a key for the English learners to get a success

in their learning process.

2.4 Definition of Vocabulary

We have discussed so far about vocabulary, but do we know exactly what vocabulary

is? Here, the writer tries to present some definitions of vocabulary. Bella Fiore (1968:

1) defined “A word or vocabulary is a verbal label that represents a concept or idea.

It is the currency of thought”. Albert J Harris and Edward R Sibay (1981: 459-460)

also have a similar opinion with Bella Fiore about the definition the vocabulary. They

stated “A word or vocabulary is a verbal label that represents a concept or idea, as

children mature, the concept represented by the word gradually become refined and

accurate” Holt (1966 : 80) has a different definition about vocabulary. He said

“Vocabulary is an alphabetical list of the word used in a book, often including their

translation or definition”. Besides the definitions above, there is an interesting

definition of vocabulary that is stated by Rosalind Minor Ashley (1970: 126). She said

“the words or vocabularies are the alchemist’s tools, the mystical ingredients in a

magical brew which can intoxicate, hypnotize, incite, inflame, amuse, influence and

carry out our fellow human beings”.

From those definitions, the writer concludes that vocabulary is a tool or verbal that

represents concept or idea with its definitions in an alphabetical list, in which the tool

can amuse very amazing feelings to human beings.

2.5 Vocabulary Types

Language experts classify vocabulary into some different types. Robert A Butler

(1978: 70) classifies the vocabulary into working and recognition vocabulary. The first

type consists of the words that people use daily in their writing and speaking. On the

other hand, the second type consists of words that people recognize in the context of

reading matter, but does not actually

use in daily life. Meanwhile, Marry Finocchiaro Ph. D and Michael Bonomo have a

different classification. They are function and content words. The function words are

a closed class; we cannot add to prepositions or auxiliaries\ or modals or any other

structure word of the language. The content words on the other hand, can be added

to at any time as new scientific advances make new words and communication about

new invention necessary. Different classification of vocabulary also stated by Charles

B Jennings, Nancy King and Marjorie Stevenson. They divided the vocabulary into

active and recognition vocabulary, which is made up of the words that people use in

speaking and writing. Meanwhile, the second type is a vocabulary which is composed

of the words which people understand when they hear or read them, but which they

do not ordinarily use in speaking and writing. Harris J Albert and Edward R Sibay also

had a different point of view about vocabulary types. They divided vocabulary into

writing and meaningful vocabulary. Writing vocabulary consists of words that people

hear or they use in writing, whereas the second type is the sum of all words that

people can understand or use correctly whether in listening, speaking, reading or

writing. The last classification that is stated by the experts in English language is a

classification of traditional vocabulary, which contains verb, adjective, noun and

adverb. From those classifications I can conclude that there are six types of

vocabulary. They are working or active vocabulary, recognition vocabulary,

meaningful vocabulary that covers active and recognition vocabulary, content word,

function word and the last is traditional vocabulary. It covers verb, adjective, noun

and adverb.

2.6 General Meaning of Vocabulary Mastery

The vocabulary mastery is a thing that is difficult enough to be defined. Fries (1945:

3) stated that the mastery of language is meant as the ability to use or to understand

all the words of the language, but when we read a newspaper or a magazine we often

find words we do not know. Therefore, we can never master a through vocabulary or

even the vocabulary of our own language. Furthermore, he also said that the

vocabulary mastery of a foreign language is also bound by our actual experience. It

takes time to learn them\ and there is no short cut to attain mastery of the complete

vocabulary of a foreign language. However, we can learn few hundreds lexical items

that are most useful in situations and really master them first. So, one can really

master a limited number of very useful vocabulary items in a short time. In essence,

vocabulary mastery is people ability to use or to understand words of a language that

they have learned and heard in certain situations in which they really have

experienced the situations in their life.

2.7 General Concepts of Media (Audiovisual)

Teaching media is needed in the teaching learning processes to help students to

become active. Gerlach and Ely (1980:281) propose that establishes conditions which

enable learners or students to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes. They also

claim that the term instructional media includes a wide range of materials,

equipment and technique: chalkboards, bulletin boards, filmstrips, slides, motion

picture, TV, programmed instruction, models, demonstrations, charts, maps, book

and combination of these. Hornby (1974: 528) defines media as mass

communications, e.g. television, radio and the press. There are a lot of media in

teaching and learning processes. Gerlach and Elly (1980:247) classify media into six

types:

1. Still picture

They form as photographs of any objects or events which can be presented in

textbook illustration, bulletin board materials, slides, filmstrip frames or overhead

transnsparancies.

2. Audio recording

They are made on magnetic tape on discs or a motion picture sound tract.  These are

the actual events or sound effects reproductions.

3. Motion picture or video tape recording

It is a moving image produced in color or black and white from live action or graphic

representation, objects or events can be in normal, slow, timelapse or stop motion.

4. All types of audio-video electronic distribution system eventually appear on a

cathode ray tube (television monitor) included or television.

5. Real things, simulation and models

They include people, events, objects and demonstration. Real things are the actual

objects or events. Simulation is a copy of real situation designed to be as similar as

possible to the actual events.

6. Programmed and computer-assisted instructions

They are sequences of information (verbal, visual or audio) designed to elicit

predetermined responses. The most common examples are\ programmed textbooks

or instructional programs prepared for computers.

The audiovisual aids can be interpreted as any substances which play an important

role in teaching and learning process. They help the students or learners master the

material more interestingly. Audiovisual aids as one of the media are not new things

in the instructional world. Things such as television and video compact disk are often

found in the teaching-learning processes.

2.8 Television in Indonesia

Television is one of mass media that has a great attractive power for its audience. It

offers so many interesting things for them such as knowledge, information,

experience and also excitement. It is also an actual medium that gives something

different to them compared with other medium. George Comstock (1978: 9) stated

that television is an actual medium that can be seen anytime and it also brings to its

audience places, events and situations that could not be seen otherwise. A wonderful

box has amazing influences its audience through it programs. Gerlach and Elly

(1980:354) states that the rapid growth of television over the last twenty five years

has brought about a number of changes in education. Many teachers feel that they

are competing with television in teaching students how the world works. Some

educators believe the television

distorts the real world; others feel that television glorifies anti social behavior such as

crime and violence. Whatever we may think, we must be aware that commercial and

educational television affects students for better or worse.

From the definitions above, I conclude that television in general is a means of

communication and it can function as an entertainment, learning media, especially in

learning English because there are many English programs on television.

According to Gerlach S. Vernon (1980 :366-368) television has several\ advantages

for the English learners to enlarge their vocabulary. They can practice them if they

want to be successful in learning vocabulary. Those advantages are:

a. Television offers a means for providing a common base of experience for all who

see a given program at the same time.

b. It brings to the classroom people, places, and events that could not be seen

otherwise.

c. Preconditioned learners come to school as confirmed TV consumers.

d. The reality and concreteness of the visual image are as present in television as in

other audiovisual media.

e. A television signal can originate from one source but can be distributed to several

areas at the same time.

f. Television makes it possible for the teacher to be in two places at the same time.

g. Immediate feedback of results and performance by teachers and students alike is

possible with television.

h. Television can instantly magnify small objects so that all class members can see

them at the same time.

In this era, the technology television development in the world is so wonderful. There

so many TV stations with variations of program throughout the world right now. In

Indonesia there are many television channels recently. There are TVRI, RCTI, SCTV,

ANTV, INDOSIAR, METRO TV, TV 7, TRANS TV, TV GLOBAL Etc. Each of them has

specific characteristics. All of them offer interesting programs such as films, news,

sports and also music program to attract its audience’s attention. Among so many

programs which are broadcast by them, the writer is interested in English TV

programs to be examined in her thesis. She considers that the programs are good

programs for English learners in Indonesia, especially for the fourth semester

students of English Department of Semarang State University to develop their English

knowledge, especially in mastering vocabulary.

2.9 English TV Programs

English TV Programs are the English programs which are broadcast by our television

channels everyday. The programs include English music, news and films programs. In

this thesis, the writer wants to discuss two of the programs; they are English news

and films. She chooses the two programs to be examined because of two reasons:

a. The two programs contain larger and broader vocabulary compared with the first

program; that is English music program.

b. The two programs contain vocabulary of many different fields. This condition will

help the English learners, especially the fourth semester students of English

Department of Semarang State University.

2.9.1 English News Programs

Two of many television channels broadcast the program; they are METRO TV and

TVRI. They broadcast the program with different names and times. METRO TV

broadcast the program everyday at 7.30 a.m. The name of\ the program is METRO

This Morning. Meanwhile, TVRI broadcast the program at the name time, it is at 15.00

p.m. The name of the program is English News Service. The duration of the program

in the three television channels is 30 minutes.

2.9.2 English Film programs

The English film programs have many variations of the theme, such as love, family,

friendship, adventure, science, criminals, corps etc. All of them have different specific

characteristics, both the stories and the stars. All of our television channels broadcast

the program. The duration of English film is two hours.

In general, each television channels broadcast it twice a week with different names.

RCTI broadcast its English films in a program with the name Layar Emas and Film

Sabtu Siang. SCTV with Gala Sinema. Trans TV with Sinema Gemilang. Lativi with

Sinema Malam Minggu. ANTV with Film TV Special. INDOSIAR with Film Sabtu Malam.

Meanwhile TPI broadcasts with the name Film tengah malam. Etc. The writer consider

that the programs are really good programs to the English learners, especially the

English students to learn the vocabulary. They contain so many useful vocabularies,

both from the announcers and the actors/ actresses. Listening to them video jockey

is a good way for the English students to enlarge their vocabulary, because listening

to the intelligent people who have a better speech style than we have will help us in

learning vocabulary. It is mentioned by Robert A Butler (1978: 7) “…… A good

vocabulary results from years of listening to intelligent people talk and of reading a

wide variety of good books”. From the quotation, we know that listening to the

intelligent people talk is one of the ways that can be used by the English learners in

enriching their vocabulary.

2.10 Types of Vocabulary Found in English TV Programs

Based on the types of vocabulary that have been discussed in section 2.5 (types of

vocabulary), the writer considers that vocabularies which are found in English TV

programs are included into active or working vocabulary. The vocabularies that

appear in the programs are the vocabularies that people use daily in their speaking

and writing. The words like: “keep your eyes”, “he is as cool as ….”, “take a round”,

she is really a fair girl”, “hello mam”, “the victory of republic party….” , “keep on

moving….”, “I want to establish a business….”, “They postpone their wedding and

the winner is….”, “I dedicate\ my love to….”, “My father will discipline me….”,

“Welcome back in school”, and others are the words that are familiar with the people

in communication They use the words in their daily life. Both in oral and writing

communication. The audience will not get a difficulty to understand those words

because the speakers on those programs speak in an interesting and a right

expression and intonation. So, they will know about how to pronounce the words in a

right and good pronunciation. Moreover, they will learn to determine appropriate

meaning of words by seeing their contexts.

2.11 Student’s Activity in Watching English TV Programs.

Students’ activity in watching English TV Programs that the writer mentioned in her

thesis is the daily activity which is done by the fourth semester students of English

Department of Semarang State University in watching English TV programs.

Watching in this context does not mean watching only, but also covers the activities

such as: thinking, writing and discussing that are done by them after they watched

the English TV programs. Their intensity in doing the activity is expressed by their

responses to the statements on the questionnaires concerning with the matter.

2.12 Hypothesis

In this thesis the writer stated the working; the alternative hypothesis is there is a

significant correlation between the students’ activity in watching English TV

programs and their vocabulary mastery.

CHAPTER III

METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

As long as the title of this final project is concerned, the main purpose of this

research is to find out the correlation between the fourth semester students activity

in watching English TV programs and their vocabulary mastery. Besides the purpose

of the research, this chapter also describes the population and sample of the

research, the variables, the method of collecting data and the instruments that were

used to collect the data.

3.1 Population and Sample

3.1.1 Population

The population of this research was the fourth semester students of the English

Department of Semarang State University in the academic year 2005/2006. They

were chosen as subjects of her research for the following reasons:

a. The students were in the same grade and have been studying English for the same

period of time.

b. The students have been familiar with vocabulary items that exist in English TV

programs.

3.1.2 Sample

The samples for the research were selected from the total population of

399 fourth semester students of the English Department of Semarang State

University. The total samples used in this study were 40 students taken from the

population by applying random sampling technique. This means, if the sample is

random that all possible sampling of 40 students have the same probability of being

selected. In determining the size of sample. Arikunto (2002:112) says that “If the

population is 100 or less, it is better to take the whole population as the sample, if

the population is more than 100 respondents, the researcher can take 10-15 % or 20-

25 % or more than 25% of the population based on the capability of a researcher”

(Translated from Metode Penelitian, 2002:112). In selecting the samples, the writer

took one of Moser Graham’s procedures called the “lottery method”. First of all, she

wrote all the students’ names of each class on a small piece of paper and they were

rolled and put into 8 glasses. Glass A for class A, glass B for class B, glass C for class

C, glass D for class D, glass E for class E, glass F for class F, glass G for class G and

glass H fo class H. Secondly she mixed the rolled papers in each glass and let 5 rolls

drop out of each glass. After having the total number of the samples, she stopped it.

3.2 Variables of Investigation

The variables are the condition or characteristics that a researcher manipulates

controls or observer. There are two kinds of variables; the independent variable X

and the dependent variable Y. The independent is the presumed effect. Whereas the

dependent variable is the consequent of independent variable and it is the variable

predicted to. Whereas the independent variable is predicted from. In this research,

the two variables investigated were:

a. The students’ activity in watching English TV programs.

This is the independent variable. The students’ activity in watching English TV

programs is indicated by the following indicators:

- Interest

- Frequency

- Focus

- Time

- Effect

b. The students’ vocabulary mastery (Y)

This is the dependent variable. The students’ vocabulary mastery is indicated by the

students’ scores of vocabulary test from those which were available vocabulary

subject concerning with the vocabularies that appeared in the\ English TV programs.

3.3 Method and Procedure of Collecting Data

Arikunto (2002: 197) said that there are five methods in collecting the data. They are

questionnaire, interview, observation, test and documentation methods. In this

research, the writer used two of the five methods; they are questionnaire and test

method. She considers that two methods are test method for collect the data in this

research.

The procedure of collecting the data of this research involved several steps. The first

step was arranging the questionnaire. The second was trying-out the questionnaire to

measure whether or not it needed improvement. The third step was collecting and

analyzing it for its validity and reliability. The fourth was distributing the

questionnaire to the respondents and then collecting it. It was organized on May 15,

2006. After she collected the questionnaire, she analyzed them. The fifth one was

obtaining scores of vocabulary test from the vocabulary material and the last one

was computing the data.

3.4 Instrument

In this research, the instruments used were questionnaires and vocabulary test.

3.4.1 The Questionnaire

The questionnaire is a number of questions or statements used to gain information

from respondents about the respondents themselves or their knowledge, belief, etc.

(Suharsimi Arikunto, 2002: 128). The questionnaire in this research is used to

measure the students’ activity

in watching English TV programs. In this research, the writer used a rating scale form

of questionnaire i.e. a statement followed by columns indicating always, often,

sometimes and never.

The questionnaire consists of 20 items were consisting the positive and negative

statements. All of students concerning to the students’ activity in watching English

TV program. Each item has five scales. The scoring technique of the questionnaire

the writer used was Likert scale type. The Likert scale type presents a number of

positive and negative statements regarding the attitude of the respondents. In

responding to the items on these scales the respondents indicate whether they

Always, Often, Sometimes or Never with each statements. The numerical value

assigned to each response depends on the degree of agreement or disagreement

with individual statements. A subject’s score is determined by summing the values

assigned to individual responses. The response is usually expressed in terms of the

following five categories; the response option are assigned of four points to each

response indicating always with favorable statements, a value of three for often with

these statements, two for sometimes and one for never. For an unfavorable

statement one reverses the scoring procedure, since never with the unfavorable

statement is assumed psychologically equivalent to agreement with always of a

favorable statement. It makes no difference whether four is high and one is low or

vice versa. The main consideration is that the response be scored consistently in

term of the attitude the represent, whether strongly approve or strongly disapprove

is the favorable attitude depends on the content of the statement. The outline of

scoring of the questionnaire can be seen as follows;

3.4.2 Vocabulary Test

The second instrument used in this research was vocabulary test. To have a valid and

reliable vocabulary test, the researcher decided to take the test materials from the

vocabulary materials.

The vocabulary test in this research is used to measure the vocabulary mastery. The

vocabulary item used in this test is vocabularies of five human aspects. They are;

education, social, law, medicine and politic. The researche chose these aspects

because she considered that they often appeared in English TV programs, both in

English news and films.

3.5 Try out of the Questionnaire and the Vocabulary Test.

Before the questionnaire and the vocabulary test were used to collect the data, it had

been tried out to measure its validity, reliability and difficulty of an item It was

conducting on June 6, 2006.The researcher used twenty students of the fourth

semester student of English Department Semarang State University.

3.6 The Condition of the Test

3.6.1 Validity of Instrument

Suharsimi Arikunto (2002: 145) stated that to get a valid instrument, a researcher

should take a careful effort in arranging it from the beginning. He or she has to follow

a right procedure to acquire its validity. If he or she has done the procedure carefully,

it can be assumed that he or she has acquired the validity. The researcher took the

following steps in arranging the questionnaire. First, she has broken the variable into

some indicators. From these indicators then, questions of the questionnaire were

formulated. She has done all the steps carefully in order to obtain an instrument with

logic validity, which means that the instrument was a result from a very careful effort

that was done by the researcher in order to acquire validity. The questionnaire and

vocabulary test said to be valid when the result rxy are greater than rtable. To

measure the validity of the instrument the researcher using the formula :

 (Arikunto, 2002: 146) The result of analysis validity can be seen in the appendix 5

and 8. To the questionnaire, there are five of invalid items from twenty items. So, the

questionnaire becomes fifteen items. From fifty items of vocabulary test, there are

ten of invalid items. So, the items of vocabulary test become forty items.

3.6.2 Reliability of the Instrument

Reliability of the questionnaire indicates the stability of the questionnaire score when

it is used to collect the data. In other words, the questionnaire measures

respondents’ responses consistently. Harris mentioned that to have confidence in

measuring instrument, the researcher needs to make sure the reliability of the

scoring of the test (1969: 14) The questionnaire said to be reliable when

approximately the same results are obtained on different occasions. To measure the

validity of the instrument used in this research, the researcher applied an internal

reliability of questionnaire

test using the formula of Alpha and the result was as the following: The way of

computing the reliability was making a preparatory table that can be seen in

appendix 7. By conducting a try-out to 20 respondents of the population, the

researcher obtained its internal reliability. From the Alpha formula, the value of

questionnaire was obtained 11 r = 0,811. Concerning to the amount of subjects for

the try out. She considers that is are enough amount for the requirement of a try-out.

Relating to the matter, Suharsimi Arikunto (1996: 210) stated that the researcher in a

small or large scale could do a try-out. A small-scale try-out can be done to 4-5

respondents. On the other hand, a large-scale try-out is done to 15-50 respondents.

Furthermore, she stated the subjects of the try-out could be taken from the

population or outside the population. If the researcher took the respondents outside,

the population for the try-out, she should take the subjects who have the similar

characteristics with the population. Then the reliability of vocabulary test using the

formula K – R 20 as

follows :

r11 = Index reliability

k = the number of item

p = Proportion of the subject answering the item correctly

q = Proportion of the subject answering the item incorrectly

= 0,926

From the computation above, it was obtained 11 r was 0,926. Whereas the critical

value for ‘r’ with the 5% significant level of 20 respondents is 0,444. So, we can

conclude that the value resulted from the computation is higher than its critical

value. From the result, we can conclude that the instrument used in this research is

reliable with significant level 5%. An instrument is said as a reliable instrument, if the

value resulted from the computation, r is higher than its critical value. On the

contrary, an instrument is called, as unreliable instrument if the value resulted from

the computation is lower than its critical value.

3.6.3 Practicality of the Instrument

Practicality is concerned with the administration of the questionnaire in this research.

The questionnaire used in this research was practical enough. Since the respondents

were only required to give a checklist in the columns provided in each question

according to their responses. Furthermore, the respondents only needed a little time

to do it, which was about 20 minutes. On the other hand, it was also practical enough

for the researcher, since it did not involve many persons to administer it.

3.7 The Method of Analysis the Data

The main objective of the research is to find out whether there is a significant

correlation between the students’ activity in watching English TV programs and their

vocabulary mastery. The researcher examined the opinion by computing the data by

applying the formula of the Pearson in which :

Σ XY : the sum of XY

Σ X : the sum of the X

Σ Y : the sum of Y

Σ X2 : the sum of square of X

Σ Y2 : the sum of square of Y

N : the amount of subjects

Other objective of her research is to find out whether there is significan correlation

between the students’ activity in watching English TV programs on their vocabulary

mastery. The researcher examined the opinion by computing the data by applying

the formula By using the equation, it can be found the significant correlation

coefficient between the students’ activity in watching English TV programs on the

vocabulary mastery of the fourth semester students of English department of\

Semarang State University. Then we used the distribution t and its table t distribution

with dk\ denumerator (n) with the 5 % significant level, If t in Ho area, that’s

(1−1/ 2 )( −2) (1−1/ 2 )( −2) − < < n n t t t α α , it means not significant. The writer

uses the 5% significant level, because the field of her is language subject not an

exact subject. In the language study, it is better to use the 5% significant level. On

the other hand, for an exact study it is better to use the 1% significant level.

A COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE TEXTBOOK USEDFOR FIRST YEAR STUDENTS OF SMPN 1 SAKRA TIMUR

AND MTs. NW MENCEH ACADEMIC YEAR 2008/2009

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1  Background

            Learning English is very important because English is an international

language. Parts of society have realized that English is very important in their life. If

they go to abroad, they will use English to communicate to other because they can

not use their native language there due to the fact that people there don’t

understand it, so they use English to communicate to others because English is an

international language.

            Nowadays, English is one of the subjects at schools. In learning English at

schools, textbooks are the key component. Textbook is an important resource. For

the teacher in the assisting students to learn English. It is foundations of school

instruction and the primary source of information for students and teachers.

Textbook serves as one of the main instruments for shaping knowledge, attitudes

and disciplines of our students.

            In Indonesia, textbook serve as the basic for much of the language input that

the learners receive and the language practice that take place in classroom. In some

situations, textbooks may function as a supplements to teacher’s instruction in the

ESL teaching and learning process. For most teachers, textbooks provide the

foundation for the content of lesson, the balance of the skills taught, as well as the

kinds of language practice that the students engage in during class activities. For ESL

learners, textbooks become the major source of contact that they have with the

language apart from the input provided by the teacher.

            In language learning, textbook takes a significant role during the process of

teaching and learning. It is absolutely a difficulty for teacher to teach systematically

without a textbook. A textbook also provide a guarantee for students on their

systematic revision about what they have learn and guarantee for them about what

they are going to learn.

            Textbook is designed with following the curriculum. This curriculum is

arranged by the government and the textbooks always been redesigned based on

the curriculum that is approved by the government. When the curriculum is

redesigned automatically the publishers of the textbook also redesign their display of

their textbooks.

            Curriculum will have meaning and function to develop students, when it is

applied and transformed by the teachers to their students in an activity called

“teaching and learning process”. In other words teaching and learning process is the

implementation of a curriculum.

            According to the explanation above the writer concludes that learning English

is very important because English is international language, to support this students

need textbook to support teaching learning process in classroom. Textbooks are key

component to support teaching learning process, beside that textbook should based

on the curriculum that arranged by government.

            As we know that commonly urban school have better facilities than rural

school, due reason maybe because the position of urban school near to the central

information. As a result, the students can easily find supporting materials, such as

the textbook used. The writer decided to investigate the textbook used in urban

school and suburb school because at this time the societies always interpret that

urban school is better than suburb school. In this case is textbooks used in SMPN 1

Sakra Timur and MTs. NW Menceh.

1.2  Statement of Problems

            In this research, the writer is going to answer some problems related to the

textbook analysis. The problems is elaborated into several research questions as

follow:

1.      What textbooks are used for the first year students of SMPN 1 Sakra Timur and for

those of MTs. NW Menceh?

2.      Do the schools use different or similar textbooks? In what ways are the textbooks

different or similar?

3.      Are the textbook relevant with the expectation of the current policy on curriculum.

1.3  Objective of Study

            The objectives of doing this research are as follow:

1.      To identify the textbook those are used for the first year students of SMPN 1 Sakra

Timur and MTs. NW Menceh.

2.      To compare or contras the textbooks that are used for the first year students ofSMPN

1 Sakra Timur and MTs. NW Meneh.

3.      To explain the relevancy of the textbooks expectation based on curriculum.

1.4  Scope and Limitation

            This research take place in SMPN 1 Sakra Timur and MTs. NW Mencehe on the

academic year 2008/2009 for the first year students.

1.5  Significance of Study

            The findings of the research are expected to be significant for:

1.      The teacher

Teacher can determine the appropriate textbook related to the students’ needs.

2.      The students

Textbooks used are suitable with student needs so the textbook can motivate

students to learn.

3.      The school

School can determine the kind of facilities used by students and teachers to improve

their competencies.

1.6  Definition of Key Terms

            There are some key terms that the writer wants to clarify them are:

1.      Textbook

             Textbook is a book used at school or colleges for the formal study of a

subject in addition textbook is defined as a manual of instruction a standard book in

any branch of study.

2.      Comparative study

             Comparative study is the act of comparing two or more variables with a view

to discovering something about one or all of the variables being compared. In other

definition, comparative study looks at two or more similar focuses on a few specific

characteristics. This method can also be used to compare the same group, condition

or individual over time. Comparisons may be qualitative or quantitative. In this study

analysis requires the descriptive of textbooks. Therefore, it is necessary to clarify the

definition of descriptive study. Based on descriptive study is a study that focuses on

a particular situation or set of situation, reports on important aspects observed, and

attempts to determine the interrelationship among them. In addition descriptive

study is involves collecting data in order to test hypothesis or to answer question

about opinions of people about a topic or issue.

             Based on the statement above, comparative study is to compare two or more

variables to look for the similarities or differences between variable. In this research

the writer is going to compare two textbooks from two different schools and the

writer look for the similarities and differences between both textbooks, but not only

the similarities and differences but also the content of textbook with the curriculum.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1  Language and Language Teaching

            Whenever we talk about language, we start asking for ourselves of what

really mean term language. Several experts try to explain about a language, based

on some specific elements in a language.

            A language is a system of sound and meaning. “As a language is systematic,

the learners of the language can make a systematic approach to the language by

making sentences asking, question, negative sentences or using grammar of the

language” (Frankin cited in Nur Asiah (2005)).

            Language is as medium of communication. Human being uses the language

to communicate with other. Language can be studied from numerous points of views.

Some linguists define it differently. Anderson and Stageberg (cited in Nur Asiah 2005)

said that language is purely human and non instinctive method of communicative

ideas, emotion and desires by mean a system of voluntary produced symbol.

            This opinion seems to be supported by Finochiaro (cited in Widya, 2006), she

said that language is a system or arbitrary vocal symbol which permit all people in

given culture, to communicate or to interact.

            When talking about second language teaching and learning, our association

runs to a complex and systematic process of transferring values and rules to the

learners. Brown (cited in Widya, 2006) defines that “teaching” is guiding and

facilitating learning, enabling learners to learn and setting the condition for teaching,

the condition for learning. In other hand, many experts agree that language teaching

has means as both what is being taught and the means by which it is being taught

(Allwright and Bailey, 1991, Cook: 1991, Ellis: 1992 in Widya, 2006). In term of

teaching, all of language teaching activities are aimed to construct the language use

through discussion, communication task and role plays (Littlewood, 1994). Through

these activities it is expected that English language teaching achieved its objectives.

2.2  Language Teaching and Textbook

            Hutchinson and Torres (cited in Widya, 2006) say that there is no teaching

learning situation is complete until it has its relevant textbook. It means that the

textbook itself is created right just before the curriculum, or the curriculum creates

the textbook, which is relevant. Even most of time, textbook and the curriculum are

created in the quite same time. It is because that the curriculum and the textbook

are integrated and as a range of system in teaching and learning.

            The textbook itself helps the teachers to teach their students systematically.

Grant (cited in Widya, 2006) explains that most of general English teachers find some

difficulties in teaching material without a textbook. For teachers, a textbook is

needed. It is may be a different thing for ESP classroom that needs of the learners.

But if there are teachers that do not need a textbook, they probably have plenty of

time to prepare the material or they are genius people.

            For students, as Grant (cited in Widya, 2006) states that, a textbook offer the

students fully arranged revision about tasks that they have done. And also it givens

the students a brief explanation about the tasks that they are going to do for the

next meeting. Or, at least a textbook gives the students and also the teachers a clear

guideline and description about what the materials is going to talk about for their

next meeting. In other hand, a handful folder used in a classroom that seems to

failed in order to fulfill the needs of the teachers and the students about a systematic

book.

            It is answering the question of what a textbook can do. Furthermore, Grants

(cited in Widya, 2006) explains that the textbook itself is able to give the students

and the teacher about what should be taught or learned. Also, a textbook provides

the description of the method that is going to be used by the teacher on the next to

be taught materials. For the students, a textbook is an aid in learning a second

language.

            Other researchers also sign about the side effects of the textbook, such as

Swan (cited in Hutchinson and Torres in Widya 2006). He states about it as just a tool

to loosen the teachers’ responsibilities in participating in daily decision about

materials that will be given and the method that will be used in teaching the next

given materials. The teacher can be easily ignoring their actual job by only sitting

back behind the table and given the responsibility in teaching the students to the

textbook. They just order their students to do the exercise. Or, the teachers are

easily relaxing at their office and let the students and the textbooks run the system.

            Finocchiaro (cited in Widya, 2006) n writes that English curriculum

programmed, from general English specified English is designed effectively and

efficiently that enable the learners to meet completion at the end of the course. Or,

the learners want to continue studying and in the purpose of self-learning. Even, it

enables the learners to improve their skills and giving a specialization in any aspects

of English based on the learners’ choice.

            Finnochiario (cited in Widya, 2006) in describe that, although each sides of

English skills or its feature maybe practiced not in the same time. But it can also be

practiced in real life situations. The four integrated skills are used together by the

learners so that they can be aware of independency or the skills relationship in real

life.

2.3  The Nature of  Textbook

            Textbooks are so many, and so varied, that it is very difficult to make

accurate generalizations about them. According to Neville Grant (1992) that there

are two very broad categories of textbooks. It is not always possible to place

particular textbooks firmly within either of these categories, as there is a continuum

from are categories to another. The two categories are traditional textbooks, and

communicative textbook.

            Traditional textbook tries to get students to learn the language as a system.

Once they have learned the system, it is hoped that they are then quipped to use the

language for their own purposes in any way they think fit.

            Traditional textbooks have all or most of these characteristics:

1.      They tend to emphasize of the forms, or patterns, of language (the grammar) more

than the communicative functions of language-the jobs, we do using it. For example,

asking for information, making requests, apologizing, asking the way, etc.

2.      They tend to focus on reading and writing activities, rather than listening and

speaking activities.

3.      They often make use of great deal of first language.

4.      They emphasize the important of accuracy.

5.      They tend to focus rather narrowly on a syllabus and examinations.

6.      They are often attractive to some teachers, because they seem easy to use, and are

highly examination-orientated.

            And the communicative textbook tries to solve this program by creating

opportunities for the students to use the language in classroom, as a sort of ‘halfway

house’ before using in real life.

            Communicative textbooks vary quite a lot, but very broadly they have the

following characteristic:

1.      They emphasize the communicative functions of language the job people do using

the language - not just the forms.

2.      They try to reflect the students’ need and interest.

3.      They emphasize skills in using the language, not just the forms of the language, and

they are therefore activity-based.

4.      They usually have a good balance among the four language skills, but many

emphasize listening and speaking more than a traditional textbooks does.

5.      They tend to be very specific in their definition of aims.

6.      Both content and methods reflect the authentic language of everyday life.

7.      They encourage work in groups and pairs, and therefore make heavier demands on

teachers’ organizational abilities.

8.      They emphasize fluency, not just accuracy.

            According to Tarigan and Tarigan (in Maini Hariati, 2006) there are 4 criteria

used to classifying a textbook:

1.      Based on the subject in SD, SMP, SMU and SMK

2.      Based on the subject in the college

3.      Based on the writing of textbook

4.      Based on the writer’s number of textbook.

2.4  The Analysis of Textbook

            How necessary is a textbook? The answer to this question depends on the

teachers’ own teaching style. The resources available to them, the accepted

standards of teaching in every language school, etc.

            No textbook is perfect. Therefore, teachers should have the opinion of

assigning supplementary material based on their own specific needs in their own

specific teaching situation.

            As teacers, many of us have had at the responsibility of evaluating textbooks.

Often, we have not been confident about what to base our judgment on, how to

qualify our decisions, and how to report the result of our assessment, it seems to us

that to date textbook selection has been made in haste and with a lack of

systematically applied criteria.

            Two types of criteria are introduced in this scheme: internal criteria which are

language-related and external criteria which give a broader view of the book. Under

the pronunciation criterion, the presentation of pronunciation requires attention to:

(1) completeness of presentation which refers to the coverage of the sounds and

suprasegmentals, (2) appropriateness of presentation which concerns whether or not

students are from a single language background, and (2) adequacy of practices

which deals with both the quality and quantity of practice. By quality what is meant is

practice in a context, i.e. sounds practiced in words, words in sentences, etc.

            Under grammar criterion, (a) adequacy of pattern inventory deals with how

much of the structures should be presented and how well it is presented, (b)

appropriate sequencing refers to the organization of presentation, that is to say,

simple sentence patterns should come first, introduction of new structures must rest

on already-mastered simpler patterns, etc, and (c) adequacy of drill and of practice

refers to judgments about how readily students can discern a form and about how

much practice is required to guarantee this adequacy.

            Twenty one years later, Penny Ur (1996, P. 186) in Ansary and Babaii offers

another checklist with more or less a similar focus and approach to EFL/ESL textbook

evaluation. A cursory look at its contents indicates that still O good’ pronunciation

practice, O good grammar, presentation, grading and sequencing, culture and

pedagogical concerns in presentation, vocabulary practice, topics being interesting to

different learners, etc. are emphasized as “grounds on which one might criticize or

reject a textbook” (P.184)

            Stradling (Nicholls in Widya, 2006) states there are some categories that

should be investigated. Those categories should be considered in analyzing a

textbook. The first one dealing with evaluation of a textbook content. The second one

is identifying the textbook’s pedagogical values. The third one is identifying the

intrinsic qualities in the history textbook. And the last one is dealing with the extrinsic

factors that may impact on the textbook.

            Another addition is formed by Nicholls (in Widya, 2006) who argues that the

addition of categories which evaluate the style form of a textbook is only the outside

of the analysis about the information that is included or omitted  only to find out how

the content of a textbook is present.

            The other researchers that have dealt with the materials analysis and

evaluation are Hutchinson and Water (in Widya, 2006). They argued that the

materials evaluation is done in order to seek the fitness of the specific purposes of

language learning. For example, they argued hat the evaluation of a textbook or

material given whether it is for the schools or course usage, will lead to a large

spending in money in published course. Or even it will lead to a large spending of

time in teacher produced or adapt materials. Even though, hey stated the end of the

course or of the academic years will make consequences of having a bad choice. The

careful evaluation and analysis on the material or the textbook will save the sense of

guild and frustrations of giving the wrong choice to the students.

            This careful evaluation and analysis, they argued has to be done as

objectively as possible if the teachers want to give their students the best choice of a

textbook or material that they are going to use. Beside that, the best way to be taken

by the teachers in analyzing and evaluating the textbook or the material is to be

taken a deep look on the needs and solution separately. It means that the final

purpose is the main consideration to be thought about by the teachers.

            It is still important to be able to evaluate the books you are using on some

sensible, principled basis. This process of evaluation is the first step to wards

deciding how a textbook should be most profitably used in your classroom and how it

should be adapted.

            According to Neville Grant (1992: 118-121) there are thee stages of

evaluation then are follows: (1) initial evaluation, (2) detailed evaluation, (3) in-use

evaluation.

            There are three stages of evaluation in more detail:

1.      Initial evaluation

             Once way of finding out whether a book is worth looking at more closely is to

apply the ‘CATALYST’ test. A textbook should act as a laboratory, it should facilitate

change. For this reason, the CATALYST test is very appropriately named. The eight

letters in the word CATALYST represent the eight criteria by which we can decide

whether a  textbook is suitable for our classroom.

             The words in the mnemonic represent the key question we should ask

ourselves:

1)      Communicative? Is the textbook communicative? Will the student to be able to use

the language to communicate the result of using the book? Many teachers regard

this as a fundamental question.

2)      Aims? Does it fit in with aims and objectives? These may be laid down by the

authorities, or devised by ourselves.

3)      Teachable? Does the course seem teachable? Does it seem reasonably easy to use,

well-organized, and easy to find your way around?

4)      Available add-ons? Are there only useful ‘add-ons’ – additional materials as teachers’

book, tapes, workbooks, etc? if so, are they available?

5)      Level? Does the level seem about right?

6)      Your impression? What is your overall impression of the course?

7)      Students’ interest? What is your student likely to find the book interesting?

8)      Tried and tested? Has the course been tried and tested in real classroom? Where? By

whom? What were the results? How do you know?

2.      Detailed evaluation

             Once we have applied the CATALYST test, and decided that a textbook will

do, we then have do decide how well it will do, and whether it is more, or less,

suitable then other textbooks that are available. Of course, it would be ideal to try

the course out. This is what many language schools do. After piloting a new course

for a term or so, they then decide whether to adopt it or not. If we evaluate more

than one textbook and decide one of them.

             Three conditions mentioned in detailed evaluation are:

1)      Does the course suit the students?

2)      Does it suit the teacher?

3)      Does it suit the syllabus?

3.      In-Use evaluation

             Once we have adopted a textbook, it is of course necessary to re-evaluation

it constantly. No questionnaire, however elaborate, can give a conclusive answer to

the final test: does it work in the classroom? This evaluation process should be

continuous, even in situations where you do not plan, for financial or other reasons,

to replace the textbook for some time.

             The other textbooks evaluation can we find in Jeremy Harmer (1998) there

are nine main areas which teachers will want to consider in the books which they are

looking at.

             Teacher should try to follow this 4-stage procedure.

Analysis                       :  the teacher can look through the various books on offer, analyzing each for answers

to the question. It helps to have a chart to write down the answers for this so that the

information is clearly displayed.

Piloting                        :  By far the best way to find a book’s strengths and weaknesses is to try it our with a

class, seeing which lesson work and which don’t. if teachers are teaching more than

one group at the same level, they may want to teach two different books to compare

them.

Consultation                :  Before choosing a book, teachers should try and find out if any of their colleagues

have used the book before and how well they got on with it. Through discussion, they

can get an idea about whether or not the book is likely to be right for them.

Gathering opinions      :  Anyone who might have an opinion on the book is worth speaking to, from the

publisher and bookshop owners, to colleagues and friends. It is also a good idea to let

students look through the book and see how they react to sight of it, if they express a

preference which you agree with, they are likely to be more committed to the

textbook.

             Furthermore, Celce-Murcia (in Maini Hariati, 2006) that several guidance

point to analysis a textbook are as follows:

1)      Bibliographical data

-          Title

-          Level of proficiency

-          Author (s)

-          Publisher

-          Data publication

-          Numbers of volumes

-          Number of pages

-          Price of textbook

-          Self-contained or part of series

-          The professional qualification of the authors

2)      Aims and Goals

-          Aims and goals

-          Distribution of emphasis among the language skills

-          How much material is covered

-          Distribution of new teaching point evenly dispersed through out the text

-          The text intends teacher or learners

3)      Topic and context of subject cover the theme of interest, situation of necessity and

linguistics’ need

-          The conceptual level (concrete vs. abstract)

-          How are the units and lessons organized.

-          Is the culture integrated in the text dialog and exercise and is it treads as

supplemental or optimal material.

2.5  The Characteristics of Good Textbook

            According to Jeremy Harmer (1998) states that students often feel more

positive about textbooks than some teachers. For them, the textbook is reassuring, it

allows them to look forward and back, giving them a chance to prepare for what’s

coming and reviews what they have done. Now that books tent to be much more

colorful then in the old days, students enjoy looking at the visual material in front of

them.

            For teacher too, textbooks have many advantages. In the first place, they

have a consistent syllabus and vocabulary will have been chosen with care. Good

textbooks, for example, to back them up. They have dependable teaching sequences

and, at the very least, they offer teachers something to fall back on when they run

out of ideas of their own.

            As stated previously that textbook plays the crucial role, especially it is

adopted as main aid in teaching learning process which also depends upon

individuals, their need and their relationship in classroom.

            Teacher plays a principle role, especially in teaching learning process his/her

responsibility is not only limited as a teacher, controller, motivator, but as facilitator

of learning. It means that teacher gives easiness to the student inactive learning. The

activities can be done in many forms, like: choosing the available resources and the

instrument of learning like textbook which is needed by the students.

            Tarigan and Tarigan (in Maini Hariati, 2006) stated that a good textbook has

to fulfill ten criteria as follows:

1.      Textbook has to interest student motivation. Good textbook can make interest

students motivations, so automatically the students want to learn. If the students

automatically want to learn by themselves, it can easier for them to understand the

subject.

2.      Textbook has to make interest illustration. Good textbook can make interest

illustrations, in the students’ opinion textbook it means study, so if in the textbook

there are interest illustration that can make change the students’ opinion.

3.      Textbook should be related to other subjects. Good textbook is related to other

subject for example textbook for vocational school the textbook that they used

related to other subject.

4.      Textbook should be able to stimulate personal activities of student. Good textbook

can able to stimulate personal activities of students. Every student has their own

interest so good textbook should be able to stimulate personal activities of students.

5.      Textbook motivate the students who use it. Good textbook can motivate the

students who use it.

6.      Textbook should be considered linguistics aspect which appropriate with the

students’ level. Good textbook should be considered linguistic aspect appropriate

with the students’ level; with appropriate the students’ level can make easier for the

student it selves.

7.      Textbook has to aware and firm   or clear to avoid students’ confusion about vague

concept. Good textbook has to aware and firm to avoid students’ confusion about

vague concept, of course if there is vague concept it can make confuse the students.

So good textbook should avoid a vague concept.

8.      Textbook has to have clear point of view. Good textbook has to have clear point of

view, this is not also for the students but also for the teachers. Textbook is like

guiding for teacher and students.

9.      Textbook has to be able to give emphasizing on the value of students’ age (children

value or adult value). Good textbook has able to give emphasizing on the value of

students’ age because at that age students easier to imitate what the students get it,

so with focusing on the value of students’ age good textbook can give good

examples.

10.  Textbook has to appreciate individual differences of students. Good textbook has to

appreciate individual differences of students because each student came from

different background, culture and level so good textbook can covered all the

students’ differences.

2.6  Relevant Study

            In this part, the writer states the relevant research which is possible in adding

the readers’ view on the textbook used. In this instance, actually the writer never

found out or listened about the same research on the textbooks used. However, the

writer found one research that is relevant with the recent study, that was done by

Widya (2006).

            There is no teaching learning situation is complete until it has its relevant

textbook. It means that the textbook itself is created right just before the curriculum,

or the curriculum creates the textbook, which is relevant. Even most of time,

textbook and the curriculum are created in the quite same time. It is because that

the curriculum and the textbook are integrated and as a range of system in teaching

and learning.

            The textbook itself helps the teachers to teach their students systematically.

Grant (in Widya 2006) explain that, most of general English teachers find some

difficulties in teaching material without a textbook. For teachers, a textbook is

needed. It is may be a different thing for ESP classroom that needs of the learners.

But if there are teachers that do not need a textbook, they probably have plenty of

time to prepare the material or they are genius people.

2.7  Theoretical Framework

            Textbook used is the most important is teaching learning process. Learning

without textbook is empty action an active process to get the information from the

book. Therefore, the teacher should have purpose of textbook used in teaching

learning process in classroom. In textbook used the students can apply some

techniques and strategies which are matching with the target of learning with used

textbook because without book is not easy activity, in order they can understand in

teaching learning process.

            The textbooks are used for the first year students of SMPN 1 Sakra Timur and

the first year students of MTs. NW Menceh, there are differences and similarities from

one another. In this case, the teachers are needed to prepare themselves as part of

the system. The teacher needs to prepare themselves as a facilitator and mediator.

Teachers need to be creative to make interesting material so the students can be

interested.

CHAPTERI III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

            In this chapter, the writer discusses about research design, research object,

sampling technique, research instrument and data analysis.

3.1  Research Design

            In this research, the writer used comparative method, which method that

used to compare two or more variables or events. Comparative research will find the

similarities or the differences of something, people, procedure of work, ideas…

(Arikunto, 1998: 247).

3.2  Research Object

            The object of this research is the textbook used for the first year students

atSMPN 1 Sakra Timur and for those at MTs. NW Menceh academic year of

2008/2009.

3.3  Sampling Technique

            Populations of the study are the textbooks used for the first year students

ofSMPN 1 Sakra Timur and MTs. NW Menceh academic year 2008/2009. For this

reason, the technique of sampling is purposive (sampling).

3.4  Data Collection Procedure

            In order to obtain data needed in this research, the writer uses the following

methods:

1.      Interview

Interview is a method, which is used to gain the data by making face-to-face

communication. In relation to this, it is said that interview is method to gain the data

by oral question.

2.      Questionnaire

Questionnaire is established for English teacher to gather the data about choosing a

good textbook. The questionnaire used in this research, consisted of closed-ended

and open-ended questions.

3.      Secondary resources

Secondary resources are the method to seek the data such as notes, transcripts,

book, magazines, etc.

3.5  Data Analysis

            In analyzing the data, the writer investigated the textbook. According to

Strading (2001) in Nicholls (2006) there are 4 steps to follow, namely:

1.      The writer identified the textbooks for the first year students used by the students

of SMPN 1 Sakra Timur and MTs. NW Menceh.

2.      The writer compared the textbooks in order to find out the similarities or the

differences between them. If the textbooks are different one from another the writer

identified what their difference are.

3.      In this step the writer analyzed the textbooks. The writer Neville Grant evaluation.

There are three stages of evaluation, they are as follows:

a.       Initial evaluation

In this evaluation the writer used CATALYST test. This test has been explained in the

review of related literature. The writer used CATALYST test to identify whether or not

the textbooks used in the classroom are suitable. In this evaluation the writer gave

questionnaire to the teacher, following the procedure on CATALYST test.

b.      Detailed evaluation

In this evaluation, the writer will use questionnaire to find out the answer of the

following questions:

1)      Does the course suit their students?

2)      Does it suit teacher?

3)      Does it suit the syllabus?

c.       In-use evaluation

In this evaluation the writer interviewed the teacher to support the information above

and to evaluate whether or not the textbooks work in classroom.

4.      At least the writer analyzed the textbooks used in both schools in terms of their

relevance the students’ needs and curriculum expectation.

REFERENCES

Ansary, Hasan and Babaii, Esmat. Universal Characteristics of EFL/ESL Textbooks: A Step Towards Systematic Textbook Evaluation.

Arikunto, Suharsimi. 2003. Dasar-Dasar Evaluasi Pendidikan. Jakarta: Bumi Aksara.Grant, Neville. 1987. Making the Most of Your Textbook: Longman Keys to Language

Teaching. Longman UK limitedHatiati, Maini, 2006. A Study on Textbook Influences Towards Teacher’s Method in Teaching

Reading Skill at MTs. NW Surabaya Sacra East Lombok in Academic Years 2006/2007.Hermer, Jeremy, 1998. How to Teach English. Longman UK Limited.Hindrawati, Ida Ayu Kadek, 2003. The Relevance of English for Communication by Brandon

Hisly with the Content of 1999 Curriculum.http:www.msdnaa.net/curriculum/glossary.aspx. accessed on July 8th 2007 at 17.00 PM.http:wwww.csc.noaa.gov/mpass/tools.comparativr.html. accessed on July 8th 2008 at 17.000.Noviyanti, Widya, 2006. The Analysis of “English on Sky” by Mukarto, M.Sc: A Study at

Seventh Grade of SMP Negeri 10 Mataram in academic year 2005/2006.Nurkencana, Wayan dan PPN. Sumartana. 1986. Evaluasi Pendidikan. Surabaya: Usaha

Nasional.

CONTOH SKRIPSI BAHASA INGGRIS  THE CORRELATION BETWEEN

STUDENTS’ ACTIVITY IN WATCHING ENGLISH TV PROGRAMS AND STUDENT’S

VOCABULARY MASTERY: THE CASE OF THE FOURTH

SEMESTER STUDENT OF ENGLISH DEPARTMENT

SEMARANG STATE UNIVERSITY

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 General Background of the Study

Brumfit (1981: 1) stated that English is an international language and the most

widespread medium of communication, both because of the number and

geographical areas of its speakers and because of the large number of non native

speakers who use it for part of their international contact. Thus, it is not surprising

that the teaching of English is carried out in many parts of the

world. For example, our country Indonesia treats English as the first

foreign language. English has some important roles in the development of Indonesia,

such as it is used as an instrument in developing modern science and technology

sources using English in their explanation to help people around the world in learning

them. English is one of the international languages used as a means of

communication among nations in the world. It is used in international trade, tourism

and other important international affairs. Indonesian language is a mother tongue,

thus, English language is not used commonly in a daily life by Indonesian people.

Therefore, to consider the

important role of English, the Indonesian government positions English as the first

foreign language. Realizing the importance of English in our country, many people in

Indonesia are learning the language. They learn it for many different purposes such

as business, science, technology, and communication and also for education. Besides

having different purposes in learning the language, people also have different

sources in learning it. Most of them learn the language in formal education such as:

schools, college and universities. In our country, English has been taught as a

compulsory subject since the students are in the Junior High School until the

University. It is also taught in some Elementary Schools and Kindergartens in

Indonesia as local content from now on. In addition to learning the language in formal

education, people also learn it in non-formal education. English courses and private

lessons are the examples of non-formal education institutions existing in our country.

People can choose one of them that are suitable with their purpose and funds.

Although they are learning the language from different sources, they have a same

basic wish in their learning process that they want to get a success on it in realizing

their wish; they use some media that can help them in the learning process. These

media can be books, magazines, newspapers, cassettes, radios and also television.

Television is one of the mass media that can also be used as a medium in learning

English. Why television? Because it is an interesting and enjoyable medium to learn

anything. The audience can learn anything they have not known before watching

television, because it always offers something actual and new to them through its

programs. As it is mentioned by Vernon S Gerlach / Donald P. Ely (1980:354)

“Television is an electronic system of transmitting still and moving images with

accompany in sound over a wire or through space. The system employs equip that

converts lights and sound into electrical impulses and reconverts them into visible

light rays and audible

sound”. From the quotation we know that the audience at home can know and learn

anything new and actual in the world through television. It is like a magic box that

gives something wonderful to its audience through its programs.

As one of the mass media, it gives so many benefits to its audience, such as

excitement, information and also knowledge. There are many kinds of knowledge

that can be obtained by them by watching television programs, for example

knowledge of environment, medicine, law, politic, culture and also language. As it is

mentioned on the previous paragraph, television can be used as a medium to

learning a foreign language, for example English language. It can happen because

television broadcast programs that are broadcast on their television channels. The

programs are broadcast everyday on television, from morning until night, of course

on specific times. This condition is very useful for the English learners in Indonesia,

included the students of the English Department of Semarang State University

because they can use the programs to add their English knowledge. There are many

English skills and knowledge that can be learned by

the students by watching English TV programs, such as listening, speaking and also

knowledge of vocabulary. There are many vocabularies that can be learning by them

by watching the programs, because the programs provide so many vocabularies of

many different fields. They can learn vocabularies of environment, social life, law,

politic, education etc from those programs. It is important for them to have a large

vocabulary because of the four English skills such as listening, reading, speaking and

writing need a large vocabulary. Mastering it will help them to improve the other

English knowledge, as it is mentioned by Charles B. Jennings (1978: 4): “If you

already have an interest in words (vocabulary) using them can improve your reading,

writing, talking, and thinking”. From the quotation above, we can take a reference

that the basic component, which must be mastered by them to get a success in

learning English is vocabulary. They will find some difficulties in their learning

process without mastering it, since most learning activities such as listening, reading,

thinking and talking need a large and solid vocabulary. As it is stated by Micheal

Bennet (1991:63) “Yet everyone, especially the English learners’ need a large

vocabulary to succeed in their learning process because reading and listening are the

ways they learn”. The students of English Department of Semarang State University

as a part of English learners in Indonesia should also have a large vocabulary.

Especially because they will become teachers in the future. As teachers, they should

have a good English knowledge because they will teach many students and they

should be responsible for their teaching. Moreover, they have a duty to correct the

mistakes that have been done by their students during the learning process.

Therefore, they really should have a good quality in English

correcting the students’ mistakes is not an easy work, since they should know both

the source of mistakes itself and the correct form. They can not do this duty, if they

have not a good English knowledge. It is really needed by them to become English

teachers. Since this profession has a heavy responsibility; both, responsibility for the

result and the responsibility for the learning process itself. Relating to the matter,

English students of Semarang State University really must have a good quality in

English. They can start to reach it by having a large vocabulary because it helps

them to master other English skills. Moreover, it is also helps them in communicating

with the teachers, other people and with their students. It is really needed in a

communication, as it is mentioned by Canale and Swain in Jack Richard and W.

Schmidt (1983: 5) “Communicative competence was understood as the underlying

system of knowledge and skill required for communication, e.g. knowledge of

vocabulary and skill in using the sociolinguistics of convention for a given language”.

From the quotation above, we know that mastery of the vocabulary of a foreign

language is the most required thing for communication. Nasr (1975:57) stated that

language is used to communicate ideas and experiences and vocabulary is an

element in a language that expresses units in our experiences. Realizing this fact, the

writer thinks that English TV programs are good media for the English students’ of

Semarang State University to enrich their vocabularies, also expression from those

programs. They can get that thing that they do not get in their classes and textbooks.

It is good for them to learn English language out of campus because it can help them

in their English learning process. Their English will develop better if they also learn it

out of campus. This fact will open their eyes that they should learn from many

different sources if they want to get a success in learning English. They can not learn

from one source only. Furthermore, learning English out of campus will help them in

conducting communication in English, because out of campus they can learn how to

practice their English. Moreover they can know that English in daily communication is

slightly different from English in the textbooks. Realizing this fact, learning and

listening from people who have a good quality in English is the right way for them to

add their English knowledge. They can increase English skills and knowledge, such as

speaking and vocabulary by listening them. Listening to the people who have a

better speech style, such as lecturers, presenters, teachers and eminent public

figures is a good way for them to build a large vocabulary. It is mentioned by Michael

Bennet (1991: 63) “That listening to intelligent people or native speakers is another

good way to acquire a solid vocabulary”. Furthermore, he stated that the context of

spoken language is ever more helpful than of written language. Since it includes body

language, facial expression and intonation (stress, pitch and juncture) to help the

learners to understand the meaning intended by the speaker (J Michael Bennet,

1991:63). Based on the statements above, we know that one of the ways in learning

vocabulary is by listening to the people who have a better knowledge and speech

style than we have. Relating to this matter, English TV Programs are exactly the right

media for the students of English Department Semarang State University to enrich

their vocabulary. It contains things that fulfill the requirements for a good way in

building a rich vocabulary. It also contains spoken language, which is supported by

facial expression and also the right intonation of the announcers, actors, and

actresses of the programs that condition will help the English students in

understanding the words or the sentences that are spoken by them by seeing their

factual expression and intonation. In this way, the English students can guess the

meaning of an unfamiliar word first before they know exactly the appropriate

meaning of the word. In addition, English TV Programs also help the English Students

of Semarang State University to learn the vocabulary in its context. So, they really

know how to use the word that exists in the program in daily life. Moreover, they can

understand that a word has different meaning according to its context. For example,

the word ‘cool’ has different meaning when it is used in music and climax contexts. In

the first context it means good or wonderful. Meanwhile, in the second context it

means chilly. From this example, we know that context is the most important thing in

determining the meaning of a word. It is also helps them in understanding a meaning

of an unfamiliar word without looking it up in the dictionary, Albert J. Harris and

Edward R. Sibay(1981: 139) mentioned “We can deduce the meanings of many words

without looking them up in a dictionary or other word book by studying them in

context, in the sentence which they use in a part”. Furthermore, Perrin(1957) also

has the same opinion about the meaning of the words, as it is cited by Gray C. Jack

(1963:1) that words have meaning only in a particular statements. From the two

statements above, we can conclude that two better ways to understand the meaning

of words are by studying them in their context and studying them in a particular

statement. Relating to the matter, the writer considers that English TV programs are

really good media for the students of the English Department of Semarang State

University to learn vocabulary in their contexts, so they will not get a difficulty in

choosing words in conducting communication in English In this thesis, the writer

wants to discuss the significant correlation between the students’ activity in watching

English TV programs and their vocabulary mastery. She takes the fourth semester

English students of Semarang State University to be examined because thinks that

students in this grade already have enough English knowledge to follow the

programs. She considers that the program is a really good program for them in

building the vocabulary. She hopes that she can find any significant correlation

between two things above because she has a hypothesis that there is a correlation

between them. To prove her opinion, then she conducted this research.

1.2 Reason for Choosing the Topic

The following are the reasons of choosing the topic:

1.2.1 The importance of vocabulary mastery for English students.

She realizes that vocabulary mastery in an important thing for English students

because a large vocabulary is needed by them to get a success in their English

learning process. Although there are four language skills, Such as listening, reading,

speaking, writing are started by vocabulary so it is a first thing that English students

must be familiar with.

1.2.2 The importance of the context and spoken language in learning the vocabulary.

She considers that context is the first thing that should be noticed by the English

students in learning vocabulary. It helps them in using the vocabulary in

communication. They will find some difficulties about how to choose an appropriate

vocabulary in daily life without understanding the context. Furthermore, she also

realizes that spoken language- especially from the people who have good speech

style is also a good way to enrich vocabulary. It is good since facial expression,

intonation and good performance of the speakers, will help the students in

understanding their speech, support it. She considers that English to programs

contain those entire things. Moreover, they also contain so many interesting things.

Therefore, students will not get boredom in learning vocabulary if they use the

program. Furthermore, she has an opinion that there is a significant correlation

between students’ activity in watching English TV program on their vocabulary

mastery. So, she chooses this topic in her thesis. The writer wants to know whether

there is the significant correlation between students’ activity in watching English TV

programs on the student’s vocabulary of English Department of Semarang State

University. For the sake of limitation, the writer chooses only the fourth semester

students as the subject of the

research.

1.3 Assumption and Limitation

In conducting this investigation, the writer has the following assumptions.

1.3.1 A students’ activity in watching English TV programs is indicated by the score of

the questionnaires concerning the students’ activity in doing it.

1.3.2 A students’ mastery of vocabulary is indicated by the score of vocabulary test.

1.3.3 The result of this study is only applied to the fourth semester English

Department students’ of Semarang State University in the academic year 2006.

1.4 Statements of the Problems

The problems stated in this thesis are:

1.4.1 What does ‘vocabulary’ and ‘vocabulary mastery’ mean?

1.4.2 What types of vocabulary are found in English TV Programs?

1.4.3 Is there any significant correlation between students’ activity in watching

English TV programs and their vocabulary mastery?

1.5 Objectives of the Study

The objectives of the study are:

1.5.1 To understand what is vocabulary in learning language.

1.5.2 To find out vocabulary types those are found in English TV programs.

1.5.3 To find out whether there is a significant correlation between the students’

activity in watching English TV programs and their vocabulary mastery.

1.6 Significance of the Study

The result of this study will be useful for the readers. Especially for the students of

the English Department of Semarang State University. It may provide useful

information for them in conducting such a research. In addition, this information can

distribute to their knowledge of language research. This study may be helpful for the

English Department Students of Semarang State University. It helps them be more

alert to their vocabulary mastery. Furthermore, it may help them to understand that

vocabulary mastery is an important aspect in language learning. It is a key for them

to get a success in their learning language process. For the writer this thesis gives

awareness that vocabulary is an important aspect in language learning. Besides that,

this thesis also gives her a view that learning English out of school is very important

to the English Department Students of Semarang State University.

1.7 Outline of the Thesis

The outline of the thesis is as follows chapter I contains the introduction covering the

background of the study. The reasons for choosing the topic, assumption and

limitation, the statement of the problems, the objectives of the study, significance of

he study and outline of the thesis. In chapter II, she discusses the theory underlying

the writing of her thesis and the hypothesis. In chapter III, she writes about the

method of the investigation. It consists of the population and sample, the variables,

the method and procedure of collecting the data, the instruments of the research,

the administering of the test, the scoring technique and the method of data analysis.

In chapter IV, she presents the research findings, which consists of the data analysis

and the discussion of the result. The last chapter, that is chapter V, contains the

conclusions and the suggestions of the research.

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Uses and Functions of English in Indonesia.

English has important uses and function, although it is not a second language (ESL).

For Indonesian people; it still has a significant role to play. It occupies important uses

in many fields, such as information, tourism, business and also education. It is an

important school subject that has been taught to the students since they are in Junior

high schools. In the information field, it is

becoming the second major language of printed information after the Indonesian

language. Most of Indonesia’s scientific, commercial, economic and technological

knowledge are written and published both in English and Indonesian language. This

condition happened because our country is a developing country that needs a broad

communication and corporation with other countries in order to build up itself. There

are many ways that have been done by the government. One of them is by exporting

and introducing our products to abroad. The products can be economical, commercial

or technological products. In this activity, Indonesia needs a means of communication

that can be understood by other countries. English it the right answers for the need.

Since it is becoming the major international language of printed information in the

world. Jack C. Richards (1983: 3) stated that a great deal of the word’s scientific,

commercial, economic and technological knowledge is written and published in

English, though the writers may be Chinese, Swedes or Italians.

2.2 Learning English in Indonesia

Since English has important uses and functions in our country. Many Indonesian

people learn the language. They realize whether they like it or not they will need

English someday. Furthermore, they need it more in this era when the

communication technology developed fast. The world has no limits and anything on it

is getting global. These condition force people around the world to have knowledge of

a language, in which the language is included into major language in the world and it

is used broadly in many world life aspects. English is one of the languages that fulfill

the requirements. In learning the language, Indonesian learners will be introduced to

many English components; one of them that should be mastered first in their English

learning process is vocabulary.

2.3 Why Study Vocabulary

In chapter I it is important for every English learner to master vocabulary, but why

they should it first before they study other English components?

The first reason for the question is the words or vocabularies or lexicons are the basic

tools for almost English skills such as listening, reading, speaking and writing.

Mastering them influence students ability in other English skills. As it is mentioned by

John Read (1988: 12) “Vocabulary

proficiency affects not only the students reading skills, but their speaking, listening

and writing as well”. From the statement above, we can conclude that vocabulary

proficiency helps the students or the English learners to master other English skills,

so they should focus their attention first to the vocabulary mastery in their learning

process. The second is that vocabulary plays an important role in writing activity.

Actually, most of English learners’ activities deal with writing

activities, for example; doing assignments, thesis and also taking writing test.

Therefore they should have a larger vocabulary in order to make their writing good,

coherent, and also understandable by their readers. Barli Bram (1995: 48) has an

opinion concerning with that matter. He stated that words or lexicons are the basic

tool for writing. To a great extent, it is word that determines whether a paragraph is

good or not. Furthermore he said that wrong words surely do not state the writer’s

message across. In essence, the diction or word choosing in a paragraph has an

important role. Readers can receive the messages that are conveyed by the writer if

she or he uses appropriate words in their paragraphs.

The last reason is that a large vocabulary helps the English learners in studying other

English subjects such as Sociolinguistics, Psycholinguistics, Business

Correspondence, etc. It will help them to understand and define many concepts,

ideas, expressions that they get in such subjects. It is stated by Bella Fiore (1968: 1)

“The larger the vocabulary you build up, the better able

you are to define and refine the expression of the images and ideas”. Moreover, she

said “The more words you master richer become you thought process and the better

you distinguish between shades of word meanings, the subtler grows your expression

of ideas”. In conclusion, vocabulary learning is an unseparate thing from language

learning because whenever people think of it, they usually think of vocabulary

learning and vocabulary mastery. It is a key for the English learners to get a success

in their learning process.

2.4 Definition of Vocabulary

We have discussed so far about vocabulary, but do we know exactly what vocabulary

is? Here, the writer tries to present some definitions of vocabulary. Bella Fiore (1968:

1) defined “A word or vocabulary is a verbal label that represents a concept or idea.

It is the currency of thought”. Albert J Harris and Edward R Sibay (1981: 459-460)

also have a similar opinion with Bella Fiore about the definition the vocabulary. They

stated “A word or vocabulary is a verbal label that represents a concept or idea, as

children mature, the concept represented by the word gradually become refined and

accurate” Holt (1966 : 80) has a different definition about vocabulary. He said

“Vocabulary is an alphabetical list of the word used in a book, often including their

translation or definition”. Besides the definitions above, there is an interesting

definition of vocabulary that is stated by Rosalind Minor Ashley (1970: 126). She said

“the words or vocabularies are the alchemist’s tools, the mystical ingredients in a

magical brew which can intoxicate, hypnotize, incite, inflame, amuse, influence and

carry out our fellow human beings”.

From those definitions, the writer concludes that vocabulary is a tool or verbal that

represents concept or idea with its definitions in an alphabetical list, in which the tool

can amuse very amazing feelings to human beings.

2.5 Vocabulary Types

Language experts classify vocabulary into some different types. Robert A Butler

(1978: 70) classifies the vocabulary into working and recognition vocabulary. The first

type consists of the words that people use daily in their writing and speaking. On the

other hand, the second type consists of words that people recognize in the context of

reading matter, but does not actually

use in daily life. Meanwhile, Marry Finocchiaro Ph. D and Michael Bonomo have a

different classification. They are function and content words. The function words are

a closed class; we cannot add to prepositions or auxiliaries\ or modals or any other

structure word of the language. The content words on the other hand, can be added

to at any time as new scientific advances make new words and communication about

new invention necessary. Different classification of vocabulary also stated by Charles

B Jennings, Nancy King and Marjorie Stevenson. They divided the vocabulary into

active and recognition vocabulary, which is made up of the words that people use in

speaking and writing. Meanwhile, the second type is a vocabulary which is composed

of the words which people understand when they hear or read them, but which they

do not ordinarily use in speaking and writing. Harris J Albert and Edward R Sibay also

had a different point of view about vocabulary types. They divided vocabulary into

writing and meaningful vocabulary. Writing vocabulary consists of words that people

hear or they use in writing, whereas the second type is the sum of all words that

people can understand or use correctly whether in listening, speaking, reading or

writing. The last classification that is stated by the experts in English language is a

classification of traditional vocabulary, which contains verb, adjective, noun and

adverb. From those classifications I can conclude that there are six types of

vocabulary. They are working or active vocabulary, recognition vocabulary,

meaningful vocabulary that covers active and recognition vocabulary, content word,

function word and the last is traditional vocabulary. It covers verb, adjective, noun

and adverb.

2.6 General Meaning of Vocabulary Mastery

The vocabulary mastery is a thing that is difficult enough to be defined. Fries (1945:

3) stated that the mastery of language is meant as the ability to use or to understand

all the words of the language, but when we read a newspaper or a magazine we often

find words we do not know. Therefore, we can never master a through vocabulary or

even the vocabulary of our own language. Furthermore, he also said that the

vocabulary mastery of a foreign language is also bound by our actual experience. It

takes time to learn them\ and there is no short cut to attain mastery of the complete

vocabulary of a foreign language. However, we can learn few hundreds lexical items

that are most useful in situations and really master them first. So, one can really

master a limited number of very useful vocabulary items in a short time. In essence,

vocabulary mastery is people ability to use or to understand words of a language that

they have learned and heard in certain situations in which they really have

experienced the situations in their life.

2.7 General Concepts of Media (Audiovisual)

Teaching media is needed in the teaching learning processes to help students to

become active. Gerlach and Ely (1980:281) propose that establishes conditions which

enable learners or students to acquire knowledge, skills and attitudes. They also

claim that the term instructional media includes a wide range of materials,

equipment and technique: chalkboards, bulletin boards, filmstrips, slides, motion

picture, TV, programmed instruction, models, demonstrations, charts, maps, book

and combination of these. Hornby (1974: 528) defines media as mass

communications, e.g. television, radio and the press. There are a lot of media in

teaching and learning processes. Gerlach and Elly (1980:247) classify media into six

types:

1. Still picture

They form as photographs of any objects or events which can be presented in

textbook illustration, bulletin board materials, slides, filmstrip frames or overhead

transnsparancies.

2. Audio recording

They are made on magnetic tape on discs or a motion picture sound tract.  These are

the actual events or sound effects reproductions.

3. Motion picture or video tape recording

It is a moving image produced in color or black and white from live action or graphic

representation, objects or events can be in normal, slow, timelapse or stop motion.

4. All types of audio-video electronic distribution system eventually appear on a

cathode ray tube (television monitor) included or television.

5. Real things, simulation and models

They include people, events, objects and demonstration. Real things are the actual

objects or events. Simulation is a copy of real situation designed to be as similar as

possible to the actual events.

6. Programmed and computer-assisted instructions

They are sequences of information (verbal, visual or audio) designed to elicit

predetermined responses. The most common examples are\ programmed textbooks

or instructional programs prepared for computers.

The audiovisual aids can be interpreted as any substances which play an important

role in teaching and learning process. They help the students or learners master the

material more interestingly. Audiovisual aids as one of the media are not new things

in the instructional world. Things such as television and video compact disk are often

found in the teaching-learning processes.

2.8 Television in Indonesia

Television is one of mass media that has a great attractive power for its audience. It

offers so many interesting things for them such as knowledge, information,

experience and also excitement. It is also an actual medium that gives something

different to them compared with other medium. George Comstock (1978: 9) stated

that television is an actual medium that can be seen anytime and it also brings to its

audience places, events and situations that could not be seen otherwise. A wonderful

box has amazing influences its audience through it programs. Gerlach and Elly

(1980:354) states that the rapid growth of television over the last twenty five years

has brought about a number of changes in education. Many teachers feel that they

are competing with television in teaching students how the world works. Some

educators believe the television

distorts the real world; others feel that television glorifies anti social behavior such as

crime and violence. Whatever we may think, we must be aware that commercial and

educational television affects students for better or worse.

From the definitions above, I conclude that television in general is a means of

communication and it can function as an entertainment, learning media, especially in

learning English because there are many English programs on television.

According to Gerlach S. Vernon (1980 :366-368) television has several\ advantages

for the English learners to enlarge their vocabulary. They can practice them if they

want to be successful in learning vocabulary. Those advantages are:

a. Television offers a means for providing a common base of experience for all who

see a given program at the same time.

b. It brings to the classroom people, places, and events that could not be seen

otherwise.

c. Preconditioned learners come to school as confirmed TV consumers.

d. The reality and concreteness of the visual image are as present in television as in

other audiovisual media.

e. A television signal can originate from one source but can be distributed to several

areas at the same time.

f. Television makes it possible for the teacher to be in two places at the same time.

g. Immediate feedback of results and performance by teachers and students alike is

possible with television.

h. Television can instantly magnify small objects so that all class members can see

them at the same time.

In this era, the technology television development in the world is so wonderful. There

so many TV stations with variations of program throughout the world right now. In

Indonesia there are many television channels recently. There are TVRI, RCTI, SCTV,

ANTV, INDOSIAR, METRO TV, TV 7, TRANS TV, TV GLOBAL Etc. Each of them has

specific characteristics. All of them offer interesting programs such as films, news,

sports and also music program to attract its audience’s attention. Among so many

programs which are broadcast by them, the writer is interested in English TV

programs to be examined in her thesis. She considers that the programs are good

programs for English learners in Indonesia, especially for the fourth semester

students of English Department of Semarang State University to develop their English

knowledge, especially in mastering vocabulary.

2.9 English TV Programs

English TV Programs are the English programs which are broadcast by our television

channels everyday. The programs include English music, news and films programs. In

this thesis, the writer wants to discuss two of the programs; they are English news

and films. She chooses the two programs to be examined because of two reasons:

a. The two programs contain larger and broader vocabulary compared with the first

program; that is English music program.

b. The two programs contain vocabulary of many different fields. This condition will

help the English learners, especially the fourth semester students of English

Department of Semarang State University.

2.9.1 English News Programs

Two of many television channels broadcast the program; they are METRO TV and

TVRI. They broadcast the program with different names and times. METRO TV

broadcast the program everyday at 7.30 a.m. The name of\ the program is METRO

This Morning. Meanwhile, TVRI broadcast the program at the name time, it is at 15.00

p.m. The name of the program is English News Service. The duration of the program

in the three television channels is 30 minutes.

2.9.2 English Film programs

The English film programs have many variations of the theme, such as love, family,

friendship, adventure, science, criminals, corps etc. All of them have different specific

characteristics, both the stories and the stars. All of our television channels broadcast

the program. The duration of English film is two hours.

In general, each television channels broadcast it twice a week with different names.

RCTI broadcast its English films in a program with the name Layar Emas and Film

Sabtu Siang. SCTV with Gala Sinema. Trans TV with Sinema Gemilang. Lativi with

Sinema Malam Minggu. ANTV with Film TV Special. INDOSIAR with Film Sabtu Malam.

Meanwhile TPI broadcasts with the name Film tengah malam. Etc. The writer consider

that the programs are really good programs to the English learners, especially the

English students to learn the vocabulary. They contain so many useful vocabularies,

both from the announcers and the actors/ actresses. Listening to them video jockey

is a good way for the English students to enlarge their vocabulary, because listening

to the intelligent people who have a better speech style than we have will help us in

learning vocabulary. It is mentioned by Robert A Butler (1978: 7) “…… A good

vocabulary results from years of listening to intelligent people talk and of reading a

wide variety of good books”. From the quotation, we know that listening to the

intelligent people talk is one of the ways that can be used by the English learners in

enriching their vocabulary.

2.10 Types of Vocabulary Found in English TV Programs

Based on the types of vocabulary that have been discussed in section 2.5 (types of

vocabulary), the writer considers that vocabularies which are found in English TV

programs are included into active or working vocabulary. The vocabularies that

appear in the programs are the vocabularies that people use daily in their speaking

and writing. The words like: “keep your eyes”, “he is as cool as ….”, “take a round”,

she is really a fair girl”, “hello mam”, “the victory of republic party….” , “keep on

moving….”, “I want to establish a business….”, “They postpone their wedding and

the winner is….”, “I dedicate\ my love to….”, “My father will discipline me….”,

“Welcome back in school”, and others are the words that are familiar with the people

in communication They use the words in their daily life. Both in oral and writing

communication. The audience will not get a difficulty to understand those words

because the speakers on those programs speak in an interesting and a right

expression and intonation. So, they will know about how to pronounce the words in a

right and good pronunciation. Moreover, they will learn to determine appropriate

meaning of words by seeing their contexts.

2.11 Student’s Activity in Watching English TV Programs.

Students’ activity in watching English TV Programs that the writer mentioned in her

thesis is the daily activity which is done by the fourth semester students of English

Department of Semarang State University in watching English TV programs.

Watching in this context does not mean watching only, but also covers the activities

such as: thinking, writing and discussing that are done by them after they watched

the English TV programs. Their intensity in doing the activity is expressed by their

responses to the statements on the questionnaires concerning with the matter.

2.12 Hypothesis

In this thesis the writer stated the working; the alternative hypothesis is there is a

significant correlation between the students’ activity in watching English TV

programs and their vocabulary mastery.

CHAPTER III

METHOD OF INVESTIGATION

As long as the title of this final project is concerned, the main purpose of this

research is to find out the correlation between the fourth semester students activity

in watching English TV programs and their vocabulary mastery. Besides the purpose

of the research, this chapter also describes the population and sample of the

research, the variables, the method of collecting data and the instruments that were

used to collect the data.

3.1 Population and Sample

3.1.1 Population

The population of this research was the fourth semester students of the English

Department of Semarang State University in the academic year 2005/2006. They

were chosen as subjects of her research for the following reasons:

a. The students were in the same grade and have been studying English for the same

period of time.

b. The students have been familiar with vocabulary items that exist in English TV

programs.

3.1.2 Sample

The samples for the research were selected from the total population of

399 fourth semester students of the English Department of Semarang State

University. The total samples used in this study were 40 students taken from the

population by applying random sampling technique. This means, if the sample is

random that all possible sampling of 40 students have the same probability of being

selected. In determining the size of sample. Arikunto (2002:112) says that “If the

population is 100 or less, it is better to take the whole population as the sample, if

the population is more than 100 respondents, the researcher can take 10-15 % or 20-

25 % or more than 25% of the population based on the capability of a researcher”

(Translated from Metode Penelitian, 2002:112). In selecting the samples, the writer

took one of Moser Graham’s procedures called the “lottery method”. First of all, she

wrote all the students’ names of each class on a small piece of paper and they were

rolled and put into 8 glasses. Glass A for class A, glass B for class B, glass C for class

C, glass D for class D, glass E for class E, glass F for class F, glass G for class G and

glass H fo class H. Secondly she mixed the rolled papers in each glass and let 5 rolls

drop out of each glass. After having the total number of the samples, she stopped it.

3.2 Variables of Investigation

The variables are the condition or characteristics that a researcher manipulates

controls or observer. There are two kinds of variables; the independent variable X

and the dependent variable Y. The independent is the presumed effect. Whereas the

dependent variable is the consequent of independent variable and it is the variable

predicted to. Whereas the independent variable is predicted from. In this research,

the two variables investigated were:

a. The students’ activity in watching English TV programs.

This is the independent variable. The students’ activity in watching English TV

programs is indicated by the following indicators:

- Interest

- Frequency

- Focus

- Time

- Effect

b. The students’ vocabulary mastery (Y)

This is the dependent variable. The students’ vocabulary mastery is indicated by the

students’ scores of vocabulary test from those which were available vocabulary

subject concerning with the vocabularies that appeared in the\ English TV programs.

3.3 Method and Procedure of Collecting Data

Arikunto (2002: 197) said that there are five methods in collecting the data. They are

questionnaire, interview, observation, test and documentation methods. In this

research, the writer used two of the five methods; they are questionnaire and test

method. She considers that two methods are test method for collect the data in this

research.

The procedure of collecting the data of this research involved several steps. The first

step was arranging the questionnaire. The second was trying-out the questionnaire to

measure whether or not it needed improvement. The third step was collecting and

analyzing it for its validity and reliability. The fourth was distributing the

questionnaire to the respondents and then collecting it. It was organized on May 15,

2006. After she collected the questionnaire, she analyzed them. The fifth one was

obtaining scores of vocabulary test from the vocabulary material and the last one

was computing the data.

3.4 Instrument

In this research, the instruments used were questionnaires and vocabulary test.

3.4.1 The Questionnaire

The questionnaire is a number of questions or statements used to gain information

from respondents about the respondents themselves or their knowledge, belief, etc.

(Suharsimi Arikunto, 2002: 128). The questionnaire in this research is used to

measure the students’ activity

in watching English TV programs. In this research, the writer used a rating scale form

of questionnaire i.e. a statement followed by columns indicating always, often,

sometimes and never.

The questionnaire consists of 20 items were consisting the positive and negative

statements. All of students concerning to the students’ activity in watching English

TV program. Each item has five scales. The scoring technique of the questionnaire

the writer used was Likert scale type. The Likert scale type presents a number of

positive and negative statements regarding the attitude of the respondents. In

responding to the items on these scales the respondents indicate whether they

Always, Often, Sometimes or Never with each statements. The numerical value

assigned to each response depends on the degree of agreement or disagreement

with individual statements. A subject’s score is determined by summing the values

assigned to individual responses. The response is usually expressed in terms of the

following five categories; the response option are assigned of four points to each

response indicating always with favorable statements, a value of three for often with

these statements, two for sometimes and one for never. For an unfavorable

statement one reverses the scoring procedure, since never with the unfavorable

statement is assumed psychologically equivalent to agreement with always of a

favorable statement. It makes no difference whether four is high and one is low or

vice versa. The main consideration is that the response be scored consistently in

term of the attitude the represent, whether strongly approve or strongly disapprove

is the favorable attitude depends on the content of the statement. The outline of

scoring of the questionnaire can be seen as follows;

3.4.2 Vocabulary Test

The second instrument used in this research was vocabulary test. To have a valid and

reliable vocabulary test, the researcher decided to take the test materials from the

vocabulary materials.

The vocabulary test in this research is used to measure the vocabulary mastery. The

vocabulary item used in this test is vocabularies of five human aspects. They are;

education, social, law, medicine and politic. The researche chose these aspects

because she considered that they often appeared in English TV programs, both in

English news and films.

3.5 Try out of the Questionnaire and the Vocabulary Test.

Before the questionnaire and the vocabulary test were used to collect the data, it had

been tried out to measure its validity, reliability and difficulty of an item It was

conducting on June 6, 2006.The researcher used twenty students of the fourth

semester student of English Department Semarang State University.

3.6 The Condition of the Test

3.6.1 Validity of Instrument

Suharsimi Arikunto (2002: 145) stated that to get a valid instrument, a researcher

should take a careful effort in arranging it from the beginning. He or she has to follow

a right procedure to acquire its validity. If he or she has done the procedure carefully,

it can be assumed that he or she has acquired the validity. The researcher took the

following steps in arranging the questionnaire. First, she has broken the variable into

some indicators. From these indicators then, questions of the questionnaire were

formulated. She has done all the steps carefully in order to obtain an instrument with

logic validity, which means that the instrument was a result from a very careful effort

that was done by the researcher in order to acquire validity. The questionnaire and

vocabulary test said to be valid when the result rxy are greater than rtable. To

measure the validity of the instrument the researcher using the formula :

 (Arikunto, 2002: 146) The result of analysis validity can be seen in the appendix 5

and 8. To the questionnaire, there are five of invalid items from twenty items. So, the

questionnaire becomes fifteen items. From fifty items of vocabulary test, there are

ten of invalid items. So, the items of vocabulary test become forty items.

3.6.2 Reliability of the Instrument

Reliability of the questionnaire indicates the stability of the questionnaire score when

it is used to collect the data. In other words, the questionnaire measures

respondents’ responses consistently. Harris mentioned that to have confidence in

measuring instrument, the researcher needs to make sure the reliability of the

scoring of the test (1969: 14) The questionnaire said to be reliable when

approximately the same results are obtained on different occasions. To measure the

validity of the instrument used in this research, the researcher applied an internal

reliability of questionnaire

test using the formula of Alpha and the result was as the following: The way of

computing the reliability was making a preparatory table that can be seen in

appendix 7. By conducting a try-out to 20 respondents of the population, the

researcher obtained its internal reliability. From the Alpha formula, the value of

questionnaire was obtained 11 r = 0,811. Concerning to the amount of subjects for

the try out. She considers that is are enough amount for the requirement of a try-out.

Relating to the matter, Suharsimi Arikunto (1996: 210) stated that the researcher in a

small or large scale could do a try-out. A small-scale try-out can be done to 4-5

respondents. On the other hand, a large-scale try-out is done to 15-50 respondents.

Furthermore, she stated the subjects of the try-out could be taken from the

population or outside the population. If the researcher took the respondents outside,

the population for the try-out, she should take the subjects who have the similar

characteristics with the population. Then the reliability of vocabulary test using the

formula K – R 20 as

follows :

r11 = Index reliability

k = the number of item

p = Proportion of the subject answering the item correctly

q = Proportion of the subject answering the item incorrectly

= 0,926

From the computation above, it was obtained 11 r was 0,926. Whereas the critical

value for ‘r’ with the 5% significant level of 20 respondents is 0,444. So, we can

conclude that the value resulted from the computation is higher than its critical

value. From the result, we can conclude that the instrument used in this research is

reliable with significant level 5%. An instrument is said as a reliable instrument, if the

value resulted from the computation, r is higher than its critical value. On the

contrary, an instrument is called, as unreliable instrument if the value resulted from

the computation is lower than its critical value.

3.6.3 Practicality of the Instrument

Practicality is concerned with the administration of the questionnaire in this research.

The questionnaire used in this research was practical enough. Since the respondents

were only required to give a checklist in the columns provided in each question

according to their responses. Furthermore, the respondents only needed a little time

to do it, which was about 20 minutes. On the other hand, it was also practical enough

for the researcher, since it did not involve many persons to administer it.

3.7 The Method of Analysis the Data

The main objective of the research is to find out whether there is a significant

correlation between the students’ activity in watching English TV programs and their

vocabulary mastery. The researcher examined the opinion by computing the data by

applying the formula of the Pearson in which :

Σ XY : the sum of XY

Σ X : the sum of the X

Σ Y : the sum of Y

Σ X2 : the sum of square of X

Σ Y2 : the sum of square of Y

N : the amount of subjects

Other objective of her research is to find out whether there is significan correlation

between the students’ activity in watching English TV programs on their vocabulary

mastery. The researcher examined the opinion by computing the data by applying

the formula By using the equation, it can be found the significant correlation

coefficient between the students’ activity in watching English TV programs on the

vocabulary mastery of the fourth semester students of English department of\

Semarang State University. Then we used the distribution t and its table t distribution

with dk\ denumerator (n) with the 5 % significant level, If t in Ho area, that’s

(1−1/ 2 )( −2) (1−1/ 2 )( −2) − < < n n t t t α α , it means not significant. The writer

uses the 5% significant level, because the field of her is language subject not an

exact subject. In the language study, it is better to use the 5% significant level. On

the other hand, for an exact study it is better to use the 1% significant level.

THE SECOND YEAR STUDENTS’ MOTIVATION IN LEARNING ENGLISH AT SMPN 4 MATARAM IN ACADEMIC YEAR 2009/2010

CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background of study

Many factors affect students’ successful in learning. Motivation of English

learners was regarded as one of the most important aspect to determine the

successful learning. It was believed that students with higher motivation of learning

foreign languages tend to perform better than those who have low motivation (Chang

2005). The first summary of L2 motivation research was first proposed by Robert

Gardner and Wallance Lambert in 1972. Motivation is commonly considered to be an

inner drive, impulse, emotion or desire that moves one to apparticular action; or “In a

general sense, motivation can be defined as the dynamically changing cumulative

arousal in a person that initiates, directs, coordinates, amplifies, terminates, and

evaluates the cognitive and motor processes whereby initial wishes and desires are

selected, prioritized, operationalised and (successfully or unsuccessfully) acted out”

(Dornyei, 1998). Gardener defined “motivation” as “the combination of effort plus

desire to achieve the goal of learning the language plus favorable attitudes towards

learning the language”.

According to Keller, motivation is “the choices people make as to what

experiences or goals they will approach or avoid and the degree of effort they will

exert in that expect” (Keller, 1983). It has an undoubted evident effect on second

language teaching and learning and it is generally accepted as one of the major

determinants of second language teaching and learning.

Motivation is the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and

sustained (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002), it is one of the keys that influence the rate and

success of language learning (Dorney, 1998). Virtually all language teachers want to

motivate their students to study languages.

The Indonesia government has been aware of the importance English. It is

really realized that English plays an important role in international interaction. Having

qualified in English now days might give wide opportunities to get a good jobs are as

one of its requirement. The conditions lead learners to another motivation to learn

English. They learn English not only for the shake of their rank in the class but also

for future purposed that is to enable them to get jobs. This condition rises up the

learners’ motivation to study English. Based on the explanation the teacher has the

importance role to motivate the students learned including facilitating, guiding and

showing something to learn.

1.2 Statement of problem

                        The research is intended to answer the following research question:

1.      What is the students’ motivation in learning English?

2.      What factors that influence the students’ motivation in learning English?

1.3 Purpose of study

The purposes of this study are:

1.      To find out the students’ motivation in learning English

2.      To identify the factors influencing the students’ motivation in learning English.

1.4 Assumption of study

1.      Student’s have the same background of learning.

2.      In the teaching the are many various efforts have been used by teacher to increase

the motivation.

1.5 Scope of study

Based on the researcher determined the scope of this research that was

directed to find out the kind of factors influence the students’ motivation in learning

English. The subject of this research was the second year students of SMA DARUL

HIKMAH Mataram.

1.6 Significance of study

            Thus hopefully, the result of this investigation could be applied by both

teachers and students and other education institutions in motivating the students to

learn English and also to improve the quality of teaching and learning English. So, the

students would be able to use either spoken or written English on the next level of

education such as senior high school and even university.

1.7 Definition of Key terms

To avoid misunderstanding and misinformation on the side of the readers, it

was necessary to define the key terms in this study were as follows;

1. Motivation

According to Keller, motivation refers to “the choice people make as to what

experiences or goals they will approach or avoid, and the degree or effort they will

exert in that expect” (Keller, 1983).

Motivation, “the process whereby goal-directed activity is instigated and

sustained” (Pintrich & Schunk, 2002), is one of the keys that influence the rate and

success of language learning (Dorney, 1998).

2. Learning

Learning is the lifelong process of transforming information and experience into

knowledge, skills, behaviors, and attitudes

Many cognitive psychologist, who focus on the change in knowledge, believe that

learning is an internal mental activity that cannot be observed directly, it only can be

observed from the activities which are done by the learner in getting an information

or knowledge, such as reading, listening, or showing his attention toward the certain

object.

3.   The second year students

        The second year students of SMA DARUL HIKMAH Mataram in Academic year

2011/2012

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1 Motivation in Learning

According to Zhang Rui1, FU Liang2 (2008) in his article, motivation was

divided into two basic types: intrinsic motivation and extrinsic motivation.

            1. Intrinsic motivation

Intrinsic motivation is raised up from the students themselves when they were

born and it is raises factually when it is needed. Intrinsic motivation reflects the

desire to do something because it is enjoyable. If we are intrinsically motivated, we

would not be worried about external rewards such as praise or awards. If we are

intrinsically motivated, the enjoyment we experience would be sufficient for us to

want to perform the activity in the future.

            2. Extrinsic motivation

         Extrinsic motivation comes from outside the students themselves. Extrinsic

motivation reflects the desire to do something because external rewards such as

award, money and praise. People who are extrinsically may not enjoy certain

activities. They may only wish to engage in certain activities because wish to receive

some external reward. There are three aspects of extrinsic motivation, namely:

a. Parent aspect

Parent of the students play important role to stimulate their children in learning

English.

b. Peers aspect

Friend also can stimulate the students in study, the students who has friend with high

motivation in study will bring good effect to their interest in learning.

c. Environment aspect

Environment in which the students live can stimulate the students to study English

better. The students who live in big town, in which there are many library, there are

many book stores, and other equipment that can complete the students need will has

effect on students’ motivation.

B. The Previous Study on the Students’ Motivation in Learning English

Al-Tammy, A. (2009) has investigated Petroleum Engineering students’

motivation and attitudes towards learning the English language. The study

investigated students’ motivation in terms of three motivational constructs:

instrumental motivation, integrative motivation and personal motivation based on

Gardner’s (1985) and Cooper and Fishman’s (1977) works. To achieve this objective,

two research tools were used namely, questionnaire and interviews. The target

students’ population in this study was all the students who studied in the academic

year 2006-2007 in the Department of Petroleum Engineering (DPE) at HUST, Yemen.

The total number of the students was 191 males. The data collected in the present

study was of two types i.e. quantitative and qualitative. For the students’ motivation,

the results showed that instrumental motivation was the primary source of the

petroleum engineering students’ motivation toward learning the English language.

Personal reasons were also regarded as important motives to the students. However,

in regards to the integrative reasons, the results provided evidence that learning

English to be part of the culture of its people had the least impact in students’

English language motivation.

Carreira, J.M. (2006) has investigated a combination of motivation and foreign

language anxiety among Japanese university students. The participants were 91

sophomores majoring in English at a women’s private college in Japan. The main

purpose was to investigate the relationship between motivation for EFL and foreign

language anxiety. This study indicates that students who have practical reasons and

intellectual satisfaction tend to have lower levels of foreign language anxiety.

Although this study did not reveal strong correlations between motivation and foreign

language anxiety, it would be unwise to conclude that motivation and foreign

language anxiety do not interact. Further research is needed to explore possible links

between motivation and foreign language anxiety. The results of the current study

suggest that foreign language anxiety is only related to a small extent to motivation,

and then the low level of variance explained suggests that other variables play more

important roles.

Chen, W.C.D. (2008) has to investigate some freshmen cadets’ orientations of

motivation on English learning. The result showed that theLinguistic self-

confidence orientation got the highest score. To obtain the data, this research utilized

statistical means of descriptive statistics. There were 61 subjects in total

participating. The limit of this research is that the study was conducted at a military

academy in southern Taiwan. The finding will not be applicable to the orientations of

other students’ motivation on learning English in Taiwan. However, this study

provides a general perspective towards the orientations of some freshman cadets’

motivation on English learning. For the in-depth discussion, further interviews with

cadets or even with teachers toward the motivational aspect of students’ English

learning will be recommended.

Kam, C.K.M. (2006) tries to identify the factors affecting the second language

acquisition and their relative contribution to the determination of language learning

outcomes. Participants were drawn 247 students attending week-end Chinese

schools in Sydney. 628 students were drawn from 17 classes; 10 classes from

primary school and 7 classes from secondary schools. Participants were also required

to attempt short tests in Chinese and English, the performances were captured as

Chinese and English scores. Each participant was asked to complete a questionnaire

consisting of 65 items together with a self-perception rating of English performance

in four domains, namely, reading, writing, listening and speaking. After collection of

the questionnaires, participants were asked to attempt English and Chinese papers to

assess their language proficiency. They were validated assessment instruments

gauging the students’ language proficiency. The opinion data from questionnaires

were subjected to factor analyzed using SPSS package with Principal Axis Factoring

to determine the factor structures, followed by confirmatory factor analysis using

LISREL package to ascertain the scales for latent variables. The relationship between

goals and motivation was not significant. The present study represents an initial

attempt to describe the relationship between the motivational attitudes and the

second language learning for ethnic Chinese students in Sydney.

Kasami, N. (2006) tries to identify motivational enhancements in the Bulletin

Board System (BBS)-based intercultural exchange project. The exchange project was

carried out by the 386 students of 14universities in 9 countries, Japan, Korea, Taiwan,

Brazil, Indonesia, UAE, Burkina Faso, Mexico, and Namibia in 2005. This research

deals with Japanese student’s motivation for English and culture learning

systematically in terms of Keller’s ARCS Model of Motivational Design. Based on

analyses of questionnaires and English tests, it is indicated that the exchange project

sustained students’ motivation for learning and enhanced students’ English writing

and intercultural communicative competence.

Kimura, Y., Nakata, Y., & Okumura, T. (2001) explore the types of language

learning motivation possessed by Japanese EFL learners from diverse learning

milieus. Research on L2 motivation has long been conducted within the paradigm of

social psychology. However, the revival of interest in L2 motivation in the 1990s

shows a clear shift to an educational focus in which L2 learners’ cognitive, affective

characteristics and classroom considerations have become major areas of concern.

Following this trend, the present study employed a 50-item motivational

questionnaire based on several motivational components from educational and social

psychology. The questionnaire was administered to 1,027 participants from various

learning contexts. Exploratory factor analysis confirmed six motivational factors and

the follow-up multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated that some factors

are characteristic of certain language learning milieus, while others are common to

all situations. The results are discussed in terms of the motivational characteristics of

EFL learners in Japan.

Liu, M. (2007) has investigated Chinese university students’ attitudes towards

and motivation to learn English and the correlations of the said variable with the

students’ English proficiency. The participant was 202 third-year students (51 female

and 151 males) in six classes were randomly selected for the study in a southern

university in China. The result of this study revealed that the students who had more

positive attitudes toward learning English tended to score higher in the proficiency

test and that the students who were more instrumentally or travel motivated tended

to perform better in the test and both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations contribute to

the learning of a second/foreign language. Other research methods such as

interviews and reflective journal can be employed to supplement the survey so that

the change or differences in attitudes and motivation among students can be

explained.

Man_fat, M.W. (2004) focuses on the relationship between integrative

motivations an L2 achievement among Chinese L2 learners in Hong Kong. Integrative

motivation has been found to be correlated number of factors, such as perservance

and classroom behaviors, in addition to L2 achievement. Therefore, having a deeper

understanding of the relationship between integrative motivation and L2 linguist

achievement in Hong Kong allows teachers, curriculum planners and policy makers to

improve teaching practices and polices.

Rui1, Z., & Liang2, F. (2008) have aim to put forward the motivation theories

and their implications in language teaching, meanwhile studies the motivational

factors and presents several motivational strategies. Questionnaire survey is to be

conducted among the adult non-English learners in Xingjian Normal University in

order that non-English learners’ motivation and motivational factors could be

generally identified. Statistical data analysis is to be done after the survey and the

factors affecting the non-English adult learners’ English study are expected to be

exposed to the readers. Based on the analysis of the data and statistics, some

practical implications are provided. The purpose of this essay is to cope with the

following two research questions: (1) What motivates the non-English learners to

study English and how? (2) What can be done to enhance non-English learners’

motivation in learning English? 60 learners with ages from 20 to 35, selected

randomly from the Law Department and Economics Department, Xingjian Normal

University took part in the quantitative questionnaire survey. They have been

studying in the university for 2 years. Among the subjects, 42 were females and 18

were males. They at least have learned English for 8 years. In conclusion, through the

research work, it is easy for us to detect that there are some problems in existence in

adult learners’ English learning, in particular, the low motivation in language

learning. However, if we adopt the right way to arouse their motivation and prompt

them to learn, they would make great progress in learning and upgrade the level of

English study.

Vaezi, Z. (2008) describes and examines Iranian's undergraduate students'

integrative and instrumental motivation toward learning as a foreign language. In the

study, 79 non-major students from the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) were selected to

complete a questionnaire reflecting their motivation for learning. In order to

determine the students’ tendency towards the two kind of motivation a modified 25-

item survey was administered to undergraduate students in a university located in

east of Iran. The results have shown that Iranian students had very

highmotivation and positive attitudes towards learning and they were more

instrumentally motivated. Finally, based on the findings some suggestions and

recommendations for teachers have been highlighted.

Wong, R.M.H. (2008) has investigated how gender differences place impact on

a group of Chinese immigrant students’ motivation to learn English. This study aimed

to investigate how Chinese immigrant students’ motivation in relations to age

differences affected the teaching and learning of English as a second language. The

questionnaire included items on different motivational constructs at different levels,

based on the conceptual framework mentioned in the last section. Data collected

from the questionnaire was analyzed using SPSS. Descriptive analyses were mainly

used to project participants’ motivation and learning strategies for English learning.

Chinese immigrant students were found to have stronger motivation to learn English,

as they grow older, especially for a group of Chinese immigrant students who are

over 16 years old. While for those who are less than 15 years old, their motivation to

learn English tend to be weaker. According to both quantitative and qualitative

results, both pointed at a direction that older Chinese immigrant students have

stronger sense of self-efficacy in dealing with a difficult task in comparison with the

younger ones. Older Chinese immigrant students tended to believe that paying

sufficient effort could lead to academic success and they had stronger confidence in

their study methods while the younger Chinese immigrant students were still

searching for a good way to learn English in Hong Kong.

Wu, M.V., & Wu, P.H.N. (2008) use quantitative methodology to explore the

perceptions of students at a Taiwanese technical university concerning its EFL

learning environment in three aspects the physical environment, instructional

arrangements, and social interaction. The paper concludes with recommendations by

the researchers for improving practice. The participants were 593 freshman students

selected from the population using a two-stage random sampling procedure, it takes

place in Taiwan. The researchers used the software SPSS to analyze the quantitative

data. The result of this study revealed that students had a low motivation and it

indicates a neutral impression of their own motivation. This study more contact with

native speakers. If instructors are not able to bring foreigners to the classroom, they

could assign students to conduct their own interviews with foreigner living in the

community.

Yihong, G., Yuan, Z., Ying, C., and Yan, Z. (2007) have investigated the

relationship between English learning motivation types and self-identity changes

among university students in the People’s Republic of China. The sample obtained

from a stratified sampling consisted of 2,278 undergraduates from 30 universities in

29 regions. The instrument was a Likert-scale questionnaire which included 30 items

of motivation types based on free responses, and 24 items of self-identity changes in

six predefined categories: self-confidence, subtractive, additive, productive, split, and

zero changes. An exploratory factor analysis revealed seven motivation types:

intrinsic interest, immediate achievement, individual development, information

medium, going abroad, social responsibility, and learning situation. A canonical

correlation test found that motivation types and self-identity changes were correlated

through four pairs of canonical variables. Among these, intrinsic interest was

correlated with productive and additive changes, individual development with self-

confidence change, social responsibility with productive and split changes.

Theoretical and pedagogical implications of the results are discussed.

One of the most general and well-known distinctions in motivation theories is

that of intrinsic versus extrinsic motivation. Deci (1985) defined intrinsic motivation.

Intrinsically motivated activities deal with behavior performed for its own sake in

order to experience pleasure and satisfaction, such as the joy of doing a particular

activity or satisfying one’s curiosity. According to Vallerand (1983) and his colleagues

, there are three subtypes of intrinsic motivation: (1) to learn (engaging in an activity

for the pleasure and satisfaction of understanding something new, satisfying one’s

curiosity and exploring the world); (2) towards achievement (engaging in an activity

for the satisfaction of surpassing oneself, coping with challenges and accomplishing

or creating something); (3) to experience stimulation (engaging in an activity to

experience pleasant sensations). For extrinsically motivated behavior, on the other

hand, is carried out in anticipation of a reward from outside and beyond the self, such

as passing an exam, obtaining financial rewards and even certain type of positive

feedback are likely to be extrinsic. According to Deci and Ryan (1985), there are four

types of extrinsic motivation in existence: (1) External regulation refers to the least

self-determined form of extrinsic motivation, coming entirely from external sources

such as rewards or threats; (2) Interjected regulation involves externally imposed

rules that the student accepts as norms to be followed in order not to feel guilty; (3)

Identified regulation occurs when the person engages in an activity because he or

she highly values and identifies with the behavior, and sees its usefulness; (4)

Integrated regulation is the most developmentally advanced form of extrinsic

motivation, involving optional behavior that is fully assimilated with the individual’s

other values and needs.

On account of the various educational, social and psychological backgrounds,

language learners vary in each other and learners’ differences influence their

studying outcomes. Of all these differences, eight have been mainly focused and

discussed. Respectively they are motivation, intelligence, aptitude, personality, age,

sex, first language and learning strategies (Ellis, 1997). Of the eight differences

mentioned above, motivation plays an essential part in language learning, Skehan

(1989) points out that motivation is the second most powerful factor in forecasting

language learning effects and it is only after aptitude. For motivation determines the

degree of effort the language learners make in learning foreign language. The more

motivation they have, the positive attitude they would adopt and the more efforts

they would make in learning the target language.

In conclusion, integrative orientation or intrinsic motivation plays a more

important role in second/foreign language learning than instrumental or extrinsic

motivation.

With reference to the above review, the writer want to find out the students’

motivation in learning English and to identify the factors that influence the students’

motivation in learning English at SMA DARUL HIKMAH Mataram.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Research Design

This study conducted with descriptive qualitative method which adapts Vaezi,

Z (2008) combine with writer method to analyze the data. Method of this study was

used to describe the motivation of second year students of SMP 4 Mataram in

Learning English.

3.2 Population and Sampling Technique

Regarding of the population, arikunto said if the population is less than 100

people, we can take all the population as the subject of the research. If the number of

population is more than one hundred, we can take 10%-15% or 20%-25% of the

population for the subject of the study. The number of population is representative

enough for the subject of the research. (arikunto : 1991:107).

The population in this research is the motivation of the second years students

of SMA DARUL HIKMAH MATARAM, all students are 31 students as a population.

No. Class Population

1. VIII BIL 30

2. VIII1 36

3. VIII2 36

4. VIII3 36

5. VIII4 37

6. VIII5 35

7. VIII6 37

TOTAL 247

3.2.2 Samples

In this research, the numbers of population were 247 students. According

to  Arikunto (2006) “if the population is less than 100, it is suggested taking all as

sample, but if they are more than 100, we can take only 10-15%, 20-25%, 30-35%,

etc”. Because the number of students was more than 100, the writer takes only 10 %

of 247 students.

No. Class Samples

1. VIII BIL 3

2. VIII1 4

3. VIII2 4

4. VIII3 4

5. VIII4 4

6. VIII5 4

7. VIII6 4

TOTAL 27

                       

3.3 Data Collection Procedure

This study was tried to find out the motivation of the second year students

of SMPN 4 Mataram. The writer was used the questionnaire technique for this

research. The data were obtained through spreading out questionnaires for the

second year students of SMPN 4 Mataram. The researchers adapted and modified

these questions from Al-Tamimi, A. (2009), Liu, M (2007), Rui1, Z., & Liang2, F.(2008)

and Vaezi, Z.(2008). Questionnaires were translated in Indonesian to make easy for

the participants who were investigation according to Al-Tamimi who did investigation

in Arab and translated questionnaire into Arabic. The questionnaire consists of 30

items divided into two parts, the first part contain of the students intrinsic motivation

while the second part of questionnaire related the students extrinsic motivation.

Every question has choice of “YES” and ”NO”.

3.4 Data Analysis Procedure

                  After collected through questionnaires the data was then analyzed based

on the steps below:

1.      Spread out the questionnaire which consists of 30 statements.

2.      Identifying the answer from the questionnaire. This means that the answer will be

grouped into “YES” and “NO”.

3.      List the answers. How many students answer “YES” and how many of them

answering “NO” for the whole question. The answer will be drawn into a table for the

easiness in computing.

4.      Percentage the data to find the result.

5.      Clarify the percentage.

6.      Take conclusion.

 CHAPTER IV

DATA ANALYSIS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Data Analysis 

As the writer stated in previous chapter, the data gathered were classified. In

this chapter some motivations with the same categories were isolated and analyzed

as the influencing to student’s English learning.

There were two categories of students motivation considered to analyze. They

are intrinsic and extrinsic motivation on the second year of SMPN 4 Mataram.

4.1.1 The Student’s Intrinsic Motivation Result

Motivation Yes No

You learn English because of your own desire 89% 11%

You learn English because you really like English subject 59% 41%

You learn English because you are interested in mastering

it

93% 7%

You learn English with pleasure 78% 22%

You learn English outside of school as well 15% 85%

You learn English diligently 67% 33%

You learn English because you want to master about the

structure of English

89% 11%

You learn English because you want to master as much as

possible English vocabularies

96% 4%

You learn English because you want to be brighter in writing and reading in English

100% 0%

You learn English because you are really interested with English books

70% 30%

You learn English because you like to listen news paper or English songs

81% 19%

You learn English because you want to be able to speak English fluently

96% 4%

You learn English in order to be able to communicate with foreign people/native speaker

85% 15%

You learn English because you want to continue your study on abroad

63% 37%

You learn English because you want to be an English teacher

59% 41%

Table above shows student’s response for intrinsic motivations aspect in

learning English. The intrinsic motivations related to “You learn English because of

your desire”, 24 students (89%) stated “YES” and 3 students (11%) stated “NO”.

Towards the second motivation “You learn English because you really like English

subject”, 16 students (59%) stated “YES” and 11 students (41%) stated “NO”.

Towards the third motivation “You learn English because you are interested to

master it”, 25 students (93%) stated “YES” and 2 students (7%) stated “NO”. Toward

the fourth motivation “You learn English with pleasure”, 21 students (78%) stated

“YES” and 6 students (22%) stated “NO”. While motivation number five “You learn

English outside of school as well”, 4 students (15%) stated “YES” and 23 students

(85%) stated “NO”.

Furthermore there more 18 (67%) of students’ stated “YES” on motivation

number 6 and 9 students (33%) stated “NO”, while 24 students (89%) stated “YES”

and 3 students (11%) stated “NO” on motivation number 7. On motivation number 8,

26 students (96%) stated “YES” and 1 student (4%) stated “NO”. On number 9 that

27 (100%) of the students’ answered “YES”. While on motivation number 10, 19

(70%) of students’ stated “YES” and 8 students (30%) stated “NO”. Then, on

motivation on number 11, 22 students (81%) answered “YES” and 5 students (19%)

answered “NO”. There were 26 students (96%) of students’ stated “YES” on

motivation number 12 and 1 student (4%) stated “NO”. It is also found the motivation

number 13, 23 students (85%) stated “YES” and 4 students (15%) stated “NO”. In

addition in relation to motivation number 14, there were 17 students (63%) stated

“YES” and 10 students (37%) stated “NO”. And then, 16 (59%) of students’ answered

“YES” and 11 students (41%) answered “NO”.    

Observing closer the table, it was explicitly that the second year students’ of

SMPN 4 Mataram have intrinsic motivation in learning English at school. It was proved

that there were 15 intrinsic motivational statements offered to the students were

chosen positively. Another word, a great part of the students’ answered “YES”

instead of disagrees “NO” of those inner motivation statements offered to them. Take

for example there were 27 (100%) students want to be able to write and read

English.

Another evidence showed that 24 (89%) students want to master about the

structure of English, and 26 (96%) of them want to master as much as possible

English vocabularies.

However, the students probably do not like to study English because there

were still studying at school and do not like studying at home, join in course, not

have an appreciation in English, etc. These can be seen from table above that there

Motivation Yes No

You learn English because of forced by your friends 11% 89%

You learn English because you posses a friend from

abroad

11% 89%

You learn English in order to get award in English

competition

4% 96%

You learn English because you are afraid not to pass in

English

48% 52%

You learn English because you like west culture 26% 74%

You learn English because it is a main subject at school 89% 11%

You learn English because of forced by your parents 11% 89%

You learn English in order to receive good value 89% 11%

You learn English because of forced by your teacher 11% 89%

You learn English to compete in globalization era 63% 37%

You learn English in order to understand English television

program

74% 26%

You learn English in order to understand English magazine

and English news paper

56% 44%

You learn English because it is an international language 89% 11%

You learn English in order to get respect full from your

friends

11% 89%

You learn English in order that you get a job easily 100% 0%

were 4 (15%) of the students’ agreed or chose “YES” on the statement number 5”

You learn English out of school as well”.

4.1.2 The Student’s Extrinsic Motivation Result

Table above showed that student’s responses for extrinsic motivations aspect

in learning English. The extrinsic motivation related to “You learn English because of

forced by your friends”, 3 students (11%) stated “YES” and 24 students (89%) stated

“NO”. Toward the motivation no. 17 “You learn English because you posses a friend

from abroad”, 3 students (11%) sated “YES” and 24 students (89%) stated “NO”.

Toward the motivation no. 18 “You learn English in order to get award in English

competition”, 7 (26%) of students’ answered “YES” and 20 students (74%) answered

“NO”. There were 13 (48%) of students’ stated “YES” on motivation no. 19 and 14

students (52%) stated “NO”. Toward the motivation no.20 “You learn English because

you like west culture”, 7 (26%) of students’ answered “YES” and 20 students (74%)

answered “NO”. Toward the motivation no.21 “You learn English because it is a main

subject at school”, 24 students (89%) stated “YES” and 3 students (11%) stated

“NO”.

Furthermore, there were 3 (11%) of students stated “YES” and 24 (89%)

stated “NO” on motivation no. 22. Moreover, 24 students (89%) stated “YES” and 3

students (11%) stated “NO” on motivation no. 23. It also found that 3 (11%) of

students answered “YES” and 24 students (89%) answered “NO” on motivation no.

24. Then, 17 (63%) of students stated “YES” and 10 students (37%) stated “NO” on

motivation no. 25. It also found that 20 (74%) of students answered “YES” and 7

students (26%) answered “NO” on motivation no. 26. There were 15 students (56%)

stated “YES” and 12 (44%) stated “NO” on motivation no. 27 (You learn English in

order to understand English magazine and English news paper). In addition, in

relation to motivation “You learn English because it is an international language”,

there were 24 (89%) of students stated “YES” and 3 students (11%) stated “NO”.

While motivation no. 29 relating to “You learn English in order to get respect full from

your friends”, there were 3 students (11%) answered “YES” and 24 students (89%)

answered “NO”. Finally, 27 (100%) of students answered “YES”.  

Observing closer the table, it was explicitly that the second year students of

SMPN 4 Mataram had extrinsic motivation in learning English at school. It was proved

that there were fifteen extrinsic motivation statements offered to the students were

chosen negatively. Another word, a great part of the students answered “NO” instead

of agrees “YES” of those extrinsic motivational statements offered to them. For

example, there were 24 (89%) students want to learn English because of forced by

their teacher.

Another evidence showed that 24 students (89%) want to learn English

because of forced by their parents, and 24 students (89%) want to learn English to

get respect full from their friends. However, the students probably want to learn

English in order to get award, it can be seen from table on the statement no.18 “You

learn English in order to get award in English competition”.

In brief, the students’ motivation to study English was divided into two types.

They were intrinsic and extrinsic motivations that have a close related with students’

ability in learning English. As what was researched with data of class VIII shown that

they had a motivation in studying English.

4.2  Discussion

From the in-depth observation the writer found that second year students’

motivation had several differences which were influenced by two factors that were

intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. It is similar to Liu,M’s (2007) statement in her study

that intrinsic and extrinsic motivations contribute to the learning of a second/foreign

language and also stated by Skehan (1989) that motivation plays an essential part in

language learning.

The table showed that second year students of SMPN 4 Mataram had intrinsic

motivation in learning English at the school. It was proved that there were intrinsic

motivation statements offered to the students were chosen positively. Another word,

a great part of the students answer  “Yes” of those intrinsic motivation statements

offered to them. For example there were 27 (100%) students wanted to be able to

write and read English. The table also shows that second year students of SMPN 4

Mataram had extrinsic motivation in learning English at the school. It was proved that

there were fifteen extrinsic motivations statements offered to the students were

chosen negatively. Another word, a great part of the students answered “No” instead

of agrees “Yes” of those extrinsic motivation statements offered to them. For

examples there were 24 students (89%) want to learn English because of force. It is

different from Hao, Liu & Hao, (2004) stated that Chinese students are often highly

motivated to study English. In brief, the students of SMPN 4 Mataram had high

motivation.

In addition, the tables revealed that the students’ intrinsic motivation had

more essential role than the extrinsic motivation, it was similar to Gardner et al.,

(1987); Gardner et al., (1989); Noels et al., (2001) stated that integrative orientation

or intrinsic motivation plays a more important role in second/foreign language

learning than instrumental or extrinsic motivation. But it may not be true in all

learning situations. According to Vaezi, Z (2008) in his study has found that Iranian

students had very high motivation and positive attitudes towards learning and they

were more instrumentally motivated and also stated by Liu, M (2007) in her article

that as China’s economy is developing fast and Chinese people are in more contact

with those from other cultures in various ways (such as attending conferences,

studying and traveling), English is becoming more important. It plays a major role in

determining what university middle school graduates can choose and in selecting

college graduates for further education. It is also an influential factor in deciding what

jobs and salaries people can get in the job market.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

5.1  Conclusion

            The research reveals that there were various motivations in the

second year students of SMPN 4 Mataram in academic year 2009/2010 in learning

English at the second class. Some of them had intrinsic motivations and extrinsic

motivations. The intrinsic motivations were statements numbers 1-15. Motivation

number 9 was 27 (100%) of the students agreed “Yes” of learning English because

they want to be able to write and read English.

            Moreover, there were extrinsic motivations. The extrinsic motivations were

statement numbers 16-30. Motivation number 16 was 24 (89%) of the students

disagreed “No” to learn English because of forces from their friends. Statements

number 22 was 24 (89%) of the students disagree “No” to learn English because of

forces from their parents. Finally, motivation number 24 was 24 (89%) of the

students disagree “No” to learn English because of forces from their teacher.

            The level of students’ motivation can be divided into several categories, such

as:

1.      High Motivations Category

                  The high motivation of the students can be measured from their answer

of “Yes” that shown in the questionnaires. The number of students that are included

into this category is about 80% to 100%.

2.      Medium Motivations Category

                  The students who refer to this category are those who answer the

questionnaires “Yes” about 60% to 79%.

3.      Low Motivations Category

                  The students that categorized into low motivations are those who answer

the questionnaires about 0% to 59%.

            Among those three kinds of motivations above were influenced by intrinsic

motivations that appear from the learners themselves and the other one was

influenced by extrinsic motivations which the factors were out of learners’ mind or

those were influenced by their environment.

            In this case, the students were more intrinsically than extrinsically motivated

to learn English, which was different from Liu,M (2007) claim that the students were

more instrumentally or extrinsically than integratively or intrinsically motivated to

learn English.

5.2  Suggestions

            Observing the conclusion above, it was provided some suggestions to the

students, teacher and parents are as follows:

a.       Students

-       Should be able to have an interest to learn English in improving their motivation.

-          The students hoped to keep their motivation which is important for their learning

activities.

b.      Teachers

-          Teachers have to observe the students intrinsic and extrinsic motivations because

those are the basic that influence their interest in learning, and always tell the

students the advantages of English to increase their interest in learning English.

-          Bearing in mind the importance of students’ motivation and attitude in the success

or failure in learning teaching process. Teachers have to accommodate and

anticipate it by improving and developing the teaching strategies those later enable

students to take part actively in the class.

c.       Parents

-          The parents must care of their children motivations. The parents have to support

their children to learn more (intrinsic motivation), and also reserve their motivations

with many things connected with their needs. For example: in learning English

children need dictionary, tape recorder etc and also join with English course (extrinsic

motivation).

-          The parents should give more attention to their children motivation as unique

individual with specific capability, strength, limitation and weakness. The parents

should also make children feel loved and needed by giving positive evaluation on

their abilities and not enforcing them to fulfill all their expectations without

considering their abilities.

-          BIBLIOGRAPHY

-          Al-Tamimi, A. (2009). Motivation and attitudes towards learning English: A study of

Petroleum Engineering Undergraduates at Hadhramout University of Sciences and

Technology. GEMA Online Journal of Language Studies Volume 9(2) 2009,pp 29-53.

-           

-          Arikunto, S. (2006). Prosedur penelitian suatu pendekatan praktik. Jakarta. PT

Rineka  Cipta.

-           

-          Carreira, J.M. (2006). Relationships between motivation for learning English and

foreign language anxiety: A Pilot Study.JALT Hokkaido Journal, Vol. 10 pp. 16-28.

-           

-          Chang, H. (2005). Motivators that do not motivate: The case of Chinese EFL learners and the influence of

culture on motivation. TESOL Quarterly 39(4): 609-659.

-           

-          Chen, W.C.D. (2008). A study of ROCMA Freshmen Cadets’ motivation on English

learning. WHAMPOA - An Interdisciplinary Journal, No 54, pp 139-146.

-           

-          Cooper, R.L, & Fishman, J.A. (1977). A study of English attitude. In J.A. Fishman, R.L.

Cooper, & A.W. Conrad (Eds), the spread of English. (pp. 239-276). Rowley, MA:

Newbury House.

-           

-          Deci, E.L., & Ryan, R.M. (1985). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human

behavior. New York: Plenum.

-           

-          Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching, 31(3), 117-

135.

-           

-          Ellis, R., 1997. The study of second language (Eds.), Proceedings of the First National

ESP/EAP acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Conference, 2, Tehran.

-           

-          Gardner, R (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: the role of

attitude and motivation. London: Edward Arnold.

-           

-          Gardner, R., & Lambert,W. (1972). Attitudes and motivations in second language

learning. Rowley, Massachusetts: Newbury house.

-           

-          Gardner, R. C., Lalonde, R. N., Moorcroft, R., and Evers, F. T. (1987). Second

language attrition: The role of motivation and use. Journal of Language and Social

Psychology, 6, 29-47.

-           

-          Gardner, R. C., Moorcroft, R., and Metford, J. (1989). Second language learning in an

immersion program: Factors influencing acquisition and retention. Journal of

Language and Social Psychology, 8, 287-305. 

-           Hao, M., Liu, M., Hao, R. P. (2004). An Empirical Study on Anxiety and Motivation in

English as a Foreign Language.Asian Journal of English Language Teaching, 14, 89-

104.

-           

-          Kasami, N. (2006). Students’ motivation and satisfaction in learning English and

culture in the BBS-Based intercultural exchange project. Institute for Language

Education Research and Development, J. F. Oberlin University, 3758 Tokiwa machi,

Machida-shi, Tokyo 194-0294, Japankasami@obirin.ac.jp

-           

-          Kam, C.K.M. (2006). English learning motivation for ethnic Chinese students in Hong            Kong and

Sydney. available athttp://www.google.com/May_2006_ymc.php

-           

-          Keller, J. M. (1983). Motivational design of instruction. In reigeluth, C.M.

(ed.): Instructional design theories and models: An overview of their current status.

(pp.383-434). Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

-           

-          Kimura, Y. Nakata, Y. Okumura, T. (2001). Language learning motivation of EFL

learners in Japan—A cross-sectional analysis of

various learning Milieus. http://www.jalt-publications.org/archive/jj/2001a/art3.pdf.

-           

-          Liu, M. (2007). Chinese students’ motivation to learn English at the tertiary

level. Asian            EFL Journal. Volume 9, issue1, article 7.

-           

-          Man-fat, M.W. (2004). An exploration of the role of integrative motivation in the

achievement of English language learners in Hong Kong. Karen’s linguistic issues.

-           

-          Noels, K. A., Clėment, R., and Pelletier, A. G. (2001). Intrinsic, extrinsic, and

integrative orientations of French Canadian learners of English. The Canadian

Language Review, 57, 424-442.

-           

-          Pintrich, P.R. & Schunk, D.H. (2002). Motivation in education: Theory, research, and

application. (2nd, ed.). New Jersey: Merrill Prentice Hall.  

-           

-          Rui1, Z., & Liang2, F.(2008). Survey of college non-English adult learners’ English

learning motivation and its implications. US-China Foreign Language, Volume 6, No.

3(54).

-           

-          Skehan, P. (1989). Individual differences in second-language learning. London:

Edward Arnold.

-           

-          Vaezi, Z.(2008). Language learning motivation among Iranian undergraduate

students. World Applied SciencesJournal 5 (1): 54-61, 2008.

-           

-          Vallerand. (1983). Motivation: Reopening the research agenda. Language learning.

-           

-          Wong, R.M.H.(2008). Motivation to learn English and age differences: The case of

Chinese immigrants. Asia Pacific Education Researcher, 17(1), 45-60.

-           

-          Wu, M.V., & Wu, P.H.N. (2008). Creating and authentic EFL learning environment to

enhance student motivation to study English. Asian EFL Journal, Volume 10, issue 4,

article 11.

-           

-          Yihong, G. Yuan, Z. Ying, C. Yan, Z. (2007). Relationship between English learning

motivation types and self-identitychanges among Chinese

students.http://www.stanford.edu/~yuanzhao/tesol07.

-           

THE TEACHERS’ STRATEGIES IN TEACHING ENGLISH VOCABULARY AT THE FIFTH GRADE THE ELEMENTARY

SCHOOL: A CASE STUDY AT SDN 40 MATARAM IN ACADEMIC YEAR 2011/2012

CHAPTER IINTRODUCTION

1.1         Background of Study

In presenting English, especially vocabulary, the teacher should be creative in

choosing the materials and able to stimulate the students interest. The teacher needs to

manipulate some strategies to support the teaching and learning process. Palmberg

(1986:15) states vocabulary acquisition in foreign language learning has received rather

insufficient attention from applied linguistics and has been largely neglected by recent

development in research.

Vocabulary is the most important factors in English. We need to master it well. The

learner should comprehend and high confident to use it in front of speaker especially how

to communicate with a good vocabulary building in each vocabulary. Vocabulary has

important role to use as tool of communication. Since vocabulary is very important for

the student who study English, higher interest should be given to it.

There are several studies in teaching vocabulary strategies in elementary school,

this methodology has been tested by  Alfitra Gaeda (2009) who found that use guessing

word strategies in teaching English vocabulary making the transition to independent

learning can be easier and more efficient.

Second, Edelma Concha Pique (2000), reveals that ruled the ball of vocabulary

learning by turning the classroom into a positive and fun learning experience, making

language both more significant and more memorable. It also encourages students to be

active, enthusiastic, and animated.

However, only a few research discuss the teachers’ strategies teaching English

vocabulary, it is a need to help English teacher to improve skill in teaching vocabulary.

Teaching vocabulary is one away to improve the students’ knowledge in order to be

able to build a grammatical sentence and is also teaching vocabulary is one difficult item

complemented by teacher because many things should be concerned and it has to take

good handling in order to students can understand what is the vocabulary itself.

This research is conducted to find out the information about condition of the

English subject, especially in Teaching English vocabulary at SDN 40 Mataram. By

knowing the strategies the teacher may achieve the purpose of teaching learning process

at the fifth grade of SDN 40 Mataram in Academic Year 2011/2012.

1.2.   Statement of the Problem

From the background of the study stated above, the writer formulates the question

as follows:

1.        What strategies are used by the English teacher in teaching vocabulary at the fifth grade

of SDN 40 Mataram in Academic Year 2011/2012?

2.        What are the students’ response toward the implementation of teacher strategies in

teaching vocabulary?

1.3.   Purpose of the Study

In according with the statement of the problem above this study is aimed at:

1.        Finding the strategies in teaching English vocabulary at the fifth grade at SDN 40

Mataram in Academic Year 2011/2012.

2.        Finding the students’ response of the teacher strategies in teaching English vocabulary at

the fifth grade at SDN 40 Mataram in Academic Year 2011/2012.

1.4.   Significance of Study

The result of the study will help English teachers to improve skill in teaching

vocabulary. It is hoped that the result of this study can give some contributions to the

success of the teaching learning English at the elementary especially related to the effort

of enriching students vocabulary in learning new vocabulary. The teacher is able to select

the most appropriate strategy to overcome the problem and the student can understand

easily.

1.5.   The Scope of the Study

a.    This study is conducted to the English teacher at the fifth grade of SDN 40 Mataram in

Academic 2011-2012.

b.    This study is only dealing with the teachers’ strategies in teaching vocabulary in SDN 40

Mataram.

1.6.   Definition of Key Terms

a.    Strategies

     According to Gony and Kingsmey (1974:12) the strategy is a process of individual

behavior which modified or changed through practice or learning on the other hand.

b.    Teaching

     Teaching is transfer knowledge consciously (Oxford Dictionary)

c.    English

     English is the mean of England the test of Britain, North America, a great pane of the

British command wealth and some other cannot raise, according the password by

Karnarman, (1987:26).

d.   Vocabulary is a list of words with their meaning, responses which accompanies text book

in a foreign language. (Hornby, 1976:11)

CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

2.1.       The Concept of Vocabulary

Vocabulary is acquired incidentally though indirect exposure to word and

intentionally though explicit instruction in specific word and word-learning strategies.

And it also vocabulary is the knowledge of words and words meaning. (Linda Diamond

and Linda Gultohn, 2006).

As Steven Stall (2005) puts it, “vocabulary knowledge is knowledge; the

knowledge of a word not only implies a definition, but also implies how that word first

into the word”.Following are some generalization of what people have agree about the vocabulary

according Hornby are:-   Vocabulary is the total number of words that make up the language.-   Vocabulary is the body of words known to a person or used in particular book, subject, etc.-   Vocabulary is a list of word with their meaning, response which accompanies a text book in a foreign language. (Hornby, 1976).

Vocabulary is the combination of lexical word that knows by somebody or others,

or it is some part of certain language one lexical word defined as combination of all

lexical word is understood by people and perhaps the lexical word would be used by the

people to construct new sentence. (Wikipedia Bahasa Indonesia, Ensiklopedia Bebas).

Vocabulary is attaching a new name to a familiar object for which there is an

equivalent word in their own language. (Ruth Gairn and Stuart Redman: 1986).

By this definition, the writer can accumulate that vocabulary is the bones of a

language. It make possible on could express something or message to another, read

different books or subject, and also deals with foreign language.

2.2.        Types of English Vocabulary

When we see the real use of English language and other languages, it seems that

vocabulary is the list of words which have meanings, forms, and orientation our mind

consequence of involving the two kinds of divisions. One really covers the whole aspects

of language. It items that it can generally or fully be used for unlimited business or

affairs. And the last, that vocabulary is only used in certain area, while for the other area

is not.

The reality seems to be focused by Allen and Corder (1988) and device the

vocabulary into two major types:

a.    General vocabulary that is used in all subjects.

b.    Technical vocabulary that consists of words have special meaning in particular areas

such as mathematics, social studies, and science.

2.3.        Kinds of Vocabulary

There are many fact different kinds of vocabulary items or word. This is especially

true when nonnative learners eye target language as linguistic outsiders. One simple way

to take at vocabulary for second learners is single word, set phrases, variable phrases,

phrases verbs, and idiom. ( Lewis, 1997). Below is his explanation those items above:

1.    Single Words

This is the group that most people think of first. By far, this group includes not only

more items but also more frequently used items:

                        Animals: Elephant, cat, dog, bird, etc

Time Period: January, February, today, yesterday, etc

Counters: Dozen, box, plenty, decade, etc

2.    Set Phrases

These phrases consist of more than one word and do not usually change. For example:

In the set phrases in other words, we cannot say with other word or in other remarks or in

other phrases might seem to be also to fit.

3.    Variable Phrases

While most of component in variable phrases will stay the same, there is some

variation. The variation often involves personal pronouns or some sort of possessive. For

example, a usual from of the opening line of many business letters, especially from

companies writing to inform you of a problem, is it has come to our attention that if were

coming from your boss or coworker.

4.    Phrases Verb

Your awareness of phrase verbs is critical to you ability as a native speaker to provide

comprehensible input for your ESL students. Native speakers have no idea that they using

phrasal verbs, nor do they see why these words are so hard for ESL students to deal with

it.

A phrasal verb consists of two or three words. The first word is always a verb. The

second word in a phrasal verb is a preposition or article/adverb. If there is a third word, it

is usually a preposition. A good example is put up with, meaning to tolerate or stand.

5.    Idiom

All languages features idiomatic expressions, and each idiomatic expressions, or

idiom, is a vocabulary items. The test of whether a “chunk” is an idiom or not is whether

the sum of the meanings of individual words is equal to or similar to the meaning of the

whole phrase.

2.4.       The Importance of Teaching Vocabulary

The importance of vocabulary has made the applied to solve this problem by

making it efficient. One way to measure the importance of vocabulary is to find out how

much times we spend each day in the role of learn vocabulary. A large vocabulary opens

students up to a wider range of reading materials. A rich vocabulary also improves

students’ ability to communicate through speaking, listening, and writing.

Stahl and Fairbanks (1986) suggest that teaching students 350 word each year may

improve learning by as much as 10 to 30%. Further, in 1982, Beck, Pertefi, and Mckeown

found that students who were given direct instruction in word meaning were better able to

discern the meaning of untaught words than control subjects.

Though no particular method for teaching vocabulary has been identified as best

(Beck and Mckeown, 1991), a number instructional strategies such as identifying

synonyms and antonyms, providing examples and no examples, and relating words to

one’s own life, have yielded growth in students’ vocabulary. For these reasons,

vocabulary A-Z has developed a five day vocabulary teaching plan that focuses on

teaching words based on context and meaning, not memorization.

2.5.       Problem in Teaching English Vocabulary

Edelma Concha Pique in the Department of Language, Literature (March, 2000)

stated that there is problem of method in teaching vocabulary that the teacher must turned

classroom into a positive and fun learning experience. It follow the natural approach to

learning a second language by providing students with a real life experiences geared to

learning vocabulary in a meaningful context, make language both more significant and

more memorable. It also encourages students to be active, enthusiastic and animated. It

avoids repeating boring drills, memorizing long list, translating, and learning vocabulary

in isolation. The teacher also should increase the students’ interest in the subject, then,

motivating them to pay more attention and to learn more. Even though the students are

constantly challenged with the learning of the new language, almost all of the activities in

teaching vocabulary are achievable to avoid frustration.

2.6.       Strategies in Teaching English Vocabulary.

The more creative teacher will produce better result. In fact, student in the class, the

teacher has to make decision on how to manage the class or even to teach the material.

There are any methods to teach language, but teaching in front of class depends on

teacher themselves or their technique in teaching.

Freeman (1986) said method comprising principle and strategies. The strategies are

the behavioral manifestation of principle, in other words, one classroom activities and

procedures are derived from an application of the principle. They additionally said

although certain strategies are associated with particular principles most strategies can be

adapted to any teaching style and situation.

English teacher has to know various strategies of presenting the vocabulary, in

order the students can be understand what the teacher expects then to do. The strategies

function not only to assist the students to grasp meaning of new the words easily, but also

make the variation of teaching in order to avoid the passive class.

Lado (1994: 120-125) pointed out some ways to teach vocabulary to the students

who are learning foreign language. Steps are as follow:

a.         Hearing a word. Chance to hear the word in solution two or three repetition can be given

in order that they hear to correct pronunciation.

b.        Pronunciation the word. The students should be given chance to pronounce the word

since it will help them remember the word longer and identify it more readily when they

hear and see it.

c.         Grasping the meaning. The teacher should help the student get the meaning of the word

without using translation.

According to Lado (1994), there are many kinds of strategies that can be applied in

teaching vocabulary. These strategies are:

a.    Self-defining context.

The context makes the situation clear. Example: I have a ticket to the jazz concert

on Saturday night.

b.    Definition

Definition in the target language may be used effectively if they are expressed in

the words that are better known by the students.

Example: library, a place where student can borrow and read books.

c.    Identifying picture.

Many kind of picture have been successfully used to show the meaning of word

and utterances.

Example: the pictures fruits, animals, flowers, etc.

d.   Opposite.

When one number of opposite is known, the meaning of the other can be made

clear through it.

Example: strong and weak, short and tall, etc

e.    Synonyms.

When the synonyms are better known, the word being thought, it can help a lot.

Example: calm, quite.

Some alternative strategies in teaching vocabulary:

a.    Coordination

It shows that words of the same category linked together. For example: when

seeing the word apple, people would think about orange, banana, pineapple.

b.    Collocation

It shows that words are likely to be found together if they are used together in the

speech. For example: phone and number are collocated together because of the use

of phone number.

c.    Super Ordination

It shows that a word can stimulate the word that includes it. For example: when

seeing the word English, people would think aboutlanguage.

d.   Context Clues ( Guessing Word)

Hirsh and Nation (1992) state that guessing vocabulary form context is the most

frequent way to discover the unfamiliar word meaning.

e.    Word Morphology

Morphology also offers clues for determining word meaning. It has been popular

in vocabulary lesson to introduce lists of terms and affixes with their meaning for

students to memorize (Natinnger, 1988).

The strategies is as follow:

-       Look at the word

-       Say the word

-       Cover the word

-       Write the word

-       Check the word with the original

-       Try it again if it is not correct

f.     Enhance Memory

The second task is teaching comprehension is helping students remember word or

more precisely, helping them store words in memory. Research in memory suggests that

words are stored and remembered in a net work of associations. (Stevick, 1987).

g.    Idiom

Idioms are multiword units that are completely fixed. They are further

distinguished as having a unitary meaning that cannot be derived from the meanings of

the component parts.

Example: to have a good heart (to be a kind person).h.    Odd Word Out

List words in groups of four or five. In the group their should be one word that

does not fit in that particular group. Students need to choose which word does not fit

and explain why.

2.7.       Vocabulary Building Techniques

Varying research does figure out the best strategies to building up the vocabulary

mastery. Peter Yogqi (2003), says that the purpose of vocabulary learning should include

both remembering words and the ability to use them automatically in a wide range of

language context the need arises. ( Peter Yogqi: 2003)

In Peter Yogqi (2003), reviews the empirical research on vocabulary learning

strategies in a second/foreign language. In searching the best strategies that produce the

best result, the learners tent to utilize a variety of strategies in combination. The chose,

use, and effectiveness of vocabulary learning strategy very much depend on the task (e.g.,

breadth or depth), the learner (e.g., cognitive and culture style of learning, motivation),

and context.

The strong established relationship between students’ vocabulary knowledge and

their ability to successfully comprehend what they read places a heavy demand on

classroom teacher curriculum planners. Program developers, organizers of staff

development plans, reading researchers, and on parent outreach program.

Qian (2000) study explored the relationship between depth and breadth of

vocabulary knowledge and reading comprehension in English as a second language

(ESL). Using multivariate analyses, the study examined the role of depth and breadth of

vocabulary knowledge in assessing the performance of a group of young adult ESL learn

with a minimum vocabulary size of 3.000  word families in carrying out general

academic reading comprehension tasks.

The following vocabulary building techniques designed for English language

learners, but are helpful to all students. With use lots of pictures and labels (the use of

visual reinforcement supports comprehension and retention), Teach definitional

information (When you read definitions with students, be sure they understand how to

read pronunciation keys, parts of speech, etc.), Use repetition (Repeating words as much

as possible helps clarify pronunciation and provides opportunities to transfer words from

working memory to long-term memory). Present words in multiple contexts (Expose

students to vocabulary words often, and in various contexts. This gives students a model

for how words are used appropriately), Use direct instruction of word learning strategies

(including structural analysis. In structural analysis, students examine the component

parts of a word - e.g. the root word, suffix, and prefix -to determine the word’s meaning.

Teaching students this strategy can empower them to decode unfamiliar words),Conduct

collaborative group work, Build on students’ prior knowledge (An important part of this

is identifying students’ misconceptions and addressing them), Engage students in

instructional conversations (In instructional conversations, students have discussions with

other students and the teacher on topics that are relevant and have meaning to them. The

goal of this student-centered technique is not to get correct answers to test questions, but

instead to explore ideas), Integrate technology into your instruction (It is helpful to

engage students -particularly ELLs -with a variety of visual and aural alternatives. The

use of technology can help to reinforce word meanings and provide students with multi-

sensory connections), Pair students with peers during reading, Use active voice when

introducing or discussing concepts (ELL students understand active voice better than

passive voice. “Animals use oxygen,” for example, rather than “Oxygen is used by

animals”).

Teachers can add variety to the techniques employed in the classroom by

alternating other activities with language games that recycle vocabulary, e.g., Scrabble,

Word Bingo, Concentration, Password, Jeopardy. Language games have the added

advantage of being fun, competitive, consequently, and memorable. These games are also

activities that students can be encouraged to do on their own.

The ways of incorporating the theory to actual testing practices in order to increase

the usefulness of vocabulary test need to be explored. Several attempt have been made to

address discourse competence via the use of adapted doze test. (Alderson, 1979).

2.8.       Students’ Response Toward the Implementation of Teachers’ Strategy in Teaching

Vocabulary.

Response is a reaction or feedback communicant as a result

or the influence of the message, either directly or

indirectly. Immediate feedback is delivered communicant

verbal, that is to say the sentences directly and non-verbal

through facial expressions or body movements (Supartini, 2004).

Each response is essentially a behavioral response or a reply (response) to stimuli

or stimulus (Sarlito, 1995). According Gulo (1996), the response is a reaction or response

that depends on the stimulus or the result of the stimulus. Human individuals participate

as a controller between stimulus and response so that determines the shape of individual

response to the stimulus is a stimulus and individual factors themselves (Anwar, 1988).

Interactions between multiple factors outside of objects, people, and in a manner, death

and emotional influences of the past and some forms of behavior that ultimately

determines a person is displayed.

The response comes from the response, which means the response orthe

response (reaction). Response is a psychological term used to call thereaction to

the stimuli received by the five senses. It is a measure ofunderlying support and the

response is the attitude, perception, andparticipation. Preceded the response in the

process because the attitude of aperson's attitude or willingness of a

person's tendency to behave when faceda specific stimulus. So, talk about the

response or no response apart from the discussion of attitudes. Response is

also interpreted as a behavior orattitudes that shape well before a

detailed understanding, research, influenceor rejection, likes and dislikes as well as the

utilization of a particularphenomenon (Sobur, 2003).

According Sarlito (1987), each behavior is essentially a response /reply

(response) to the stimulus. Opinions expressed by Mar'at tune (1984)which states that the

response is a reaction caused by receipt of the stimulus,which stimulus is

the news, knowledge, information, before it is processed or received by

the senses. Individual human beings act as the controllingelement between stimulus and

response, so that determines the shape ofindividual response to the stimulus is

a stimulus and individual factorsthemselves (Miftah Toha, 1988).

According Berlo, 1960 (in Reza Yogaswara), formulate a responseas

something done by one person as a result of or due to receive a stimulus.The stimulus is

something that can be received by a person through one of the sensory. Responses are

classified into two types, namely the responsedoes not appear (covert response) and the

apparent response (covertresponse). Response is manifested by a person into

the visible aspects

ofcognition (knowledge) and affective (attitude). Apparent response translated

into psychomotor aspects (behavior). Among the visible response and the response does

not appear there is a linkage, but there

is a harmoniousrelationship and there are not aligned. Cognitive system that

is aligned andeffective components of the same nature in all its

aspects the situation arisesthat is consistent with the psychomotor and there is

no impetus for change,while the cognitive system that is not consistent and effective

componentsthat have aspects that cannot run together, then there arises

the unconformityand the pressures that drive to change the cognitive system such that

theachievement of a state of harmony (Sarlito, 1987).

Learning is central to the study of behavior. Behavior is controlled by the

stimulation and the responses given student. The understanding of the behavioral

responses of students who were born as a result inclusion of a given stimulus or a

response to her teacher learn something with good feelings. Therefore, the student

response is one important factor that will determine success learning of English.

The lack of student responses to learning English will inhibit students 'learning

process is not necessarily low response sources of error in studentteaching

materials, teachers' ability to deliver material that may lead

toinadequate classroom becomes less attractive and tend boring for

students.Sound is less harsh teachers, teachers who are less assertive, less precisemethods

of learning, or the position of teacher in teaching a lot of sitting canbring an atmosphere

that does not attract attention, make the students

become frightened and unhappy responses that lead to a reduction in learningEnglish.

In summary based on the theories above, this study investigate the students’

response as a reaction toward the implementation of teacher strategies in teaching

vocabulary.

2.9.       Related Study

As the comparison of this research, here are some researches of teaching

vocabulary strategies in elementary school. First, Alfitra Gaeda (2009) with title “Some

Strategies in Teaching English Vocabulary (A Case Study at SDN 1 Cakranegara

academic year 2008/2009), she finds that the English teacher at SDN 1 Cakranegara, the

purpose of the study in to find the learning vocabulary strategies to increase students’

vocabulary mastery. The researcher use descriptive method, it concern with the actual

solving. The teacher use strategies identifying object when the teacher asking students

group the object appropriate group and the teacher pictures the names of the object. And

then, the students were asked to guess the animal’s names when the teacher explain and

the last, the teacher identifying object. The data need for this research is obtained by

observation and interview. The finding this research that use guessing word strategies in

teaching English vocabulary making the transition to independent learning can be easier

and more efficient.

Second, Edelma Concha Pique (2000), with title Teaching English Vocabulary to

Elementary School Students in Fun Way. She use the method of vocabulary learning by

turning the classroom into a positive and fun learning experience, making language both

more significant and more memorable. It also encourages students to be active,

enthusiastic, and animated. The first activity is introducing the animal’s name. As the

teacher posts the felt animals, she says the important for second language students

because it promotes forming a mental picture of what it is said. Students learn form the

very beginning to think in the foreign language. Thus, avoiding translation, then, the

teacher introduces the diminutives form of each animals name for a later use in the farm

song. Sentence structure accompany by gesture is taught afterwards. Finally, teacher

plays an audio-tape about the farm animals and the children attempt to sing as they mimic

the action.

The second activities consist of game. The teacher has three different games this

related to the same these “farm animals”. The first game is called “ruled the ball”.

Students sit in a circle with the teacher in the middle holding the ball. The teacher rolls

the ball to any student randomly. A student catches the ball. Then, the teacher shows an

animal figure to the student who has the ball. The student has to say the English name for

it. If the student does not know the animals name, the teacher will ask “who knows?”.

The third method is matching, cutting, and pasting. This exercise can be done in two

ways: a) children are asked to cut the name of the animals, which are written at the

bottom of the page, and paste them according to the animal’s name, or b) children can

draw a line from the animal to the animal word. With the farm animals theme, the teacher

is using different materials that are interesting and that are arrange according to the

students age. The use of colorful felt (flannel) animals on aboard makes the learning

process more animated. The use of audio-tape brings enthusiasm to the class. Playing

games like “wave”, “rolling the ball”, and “group contest”, keeps the activity level high.

The games have the advantage of being fun, competition, and consequently, memorable.

With use games activities that students can be encouraged to do on their own.

 There are many research results about strategies or technique of teaching

vocabulary. Because when we are talking about strategies or techniques, we will find that

it is going to be different about what strategies to use between one student to other

student, one teacher to other teacher, and between one school to other school. It usually

depends on students’ ability and also facility that schools have. Therefore, the result of

this research is different from the previous study.

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHOD

3.1.    Research Design

Stated the introduction that the purpose of this study are to investigate the strategies

in teaching English vocabulary and to find out the students perception of the teacher

strategies in teaching English vocabulary at the fifth grade at SDN 40 Mataram in

academic year 2011-2012. The writer therefore needs method of research. So, the writer

use descriptive qualitative method to get her aim. In qualitative method validity refers to

the “trustworthiness” of study (Cresswell, 2005). Descriptive method is the effort to

observe, notify, analyze, and interpret the condition happening. Ainin (2007) notified that

the purpose of descriptive method is to make description about the fact, characteristics,

and relation of current cases systematically, factually, and accurately.

  Based on the statement above, this study is categorized as descriptive research

because the study refers to the qualitative with one variable. In this case, descriptive

qualitative method uses to describe English teachers’ strategies in teaching English

vocabulary and the students’ perception toward teachers’ strategies in teaching English

vocabulary at the fifth grade of SDN 40 Mataram in academic year 2011-2012. On the

other word, this is describes about strategies of English teacher in teaching vocabulary in

their class.

3.2.   Population and Sample

The specification of the population which the inquiry affect decision that researcher

may make both sampling and resources which give sufficient resources to contact every

member of the design group, sampling decisions. (Yursa: 2000)

1.    Population

Population is a number of individuals that have at least the same characteristics (Hadi,

1987). In SDN 40 Mataram in School Year 2011-2012, there are 30  students  at the fifth

grade and there are only one English teacher who teach English Language at the fifth

grade. Related to the explain above, the researcher tries to concentrate the subject of this

research to an English teacher who teaches at the sixth grade of SDN 40 Mataram in

Academic Year 2011/2012.

2.    Sample

Sample is a technique of take a representative sample from the population. Since the

population of this study is less than 100 percent. In the case, there is only one teacher. So

the writer takes that teacher and 2 students directly as sample of this study. This in line’s

with Arikunto statement in his book, “ if the subject is more than 100 percents, it is

suggested to take 10-15% or 20-25% as a sample, but if the subject is less than 100

percents, it is suggested to take all of the subjects” (Arikunto:1990). In this study, the

writer use purposive method as the sampling procedure.

3.3.   The Method of Collecting Data

Data of the research are collected by observation and interview.

a.         Observation.

Observation is the way of survey some interactions done by the teachers and students

during the teaching and learning process. The steps are the writer will observe by watch

the teacher while they are teaching English vocabulary. The observation will purpose to

find what strategies that the fifth grade English teacher at SDN 40 Mataram uses in

teaching vocabulary.

b.        Interview

Interview is the way of asking some information related to research conducting. In

this case, the writer as the interviewer will ask some information to the teacher about the

strategies that the English teacher uses in teaching English vocabulary.

The questions of interview the question that ask for explanation. It consists of five

questions. Not only had that but writer also ask some information that might help here in

completing the data. All the result of the observation and interview is regard as data.

3.4.   The Method of Analysis Data

The data of this study is the list of the technique used by the teacher in teaching

vocabulary and the result of interview between the writer and teacher.

The data will be analyzed based on the following steps:

a.         Observation

The data are analyze descriptively due to the reason stated by Cresswell (1994) that

the data emerge from qualitative study are descriptive, that is data are reported in words

(primarily the participants’ word). The analysis process is the researcher is participate as

long as the learning process while observation how is the activities of the students and the

teacher in classroom. From the observation the researcher wants to know what techniques

are applied English teacher to teach vocabulary. During the learning process, the

researcher does the activity by matching the data with the research questions.

b.      Interview

The data from interview are analyze in steps. First, the interview are transcribe or

convert in written form. The transcripts, then, are read many times and condensed or

compressed into briefer statement in which the main sense of what is said is rephrased in

few words (Kvale,1997). Afterwards, the data are code and categorize. Finally, the

interview data are interpreting to find out whether the teacher actualized strategies in

teaching vocabulary.

CHAPTER IV

FINDING AND DISCUSSION

In this chapter the researcher will explain the result and the discussion about

teacher’ strategies and students’ perception based on the observation and interview. There

is one teacher that was investigated.

4.1. The Result of Interview

The result in the first meeting (on August 30 th, 2012), the teacher Mr. Jayandi of

the fifth class uses synonyms in teaching vocabulary. He says“synonym is strategy will

make students to think more interactive and interesting with the new words”. The teacher

believes that strategies are able to his students and can improve ability of the students’

vocabulary.

The possess reason used this strategy in teaching vocabulary. He said “this

strategy is simple and easy to pronounce and remembering of the words”. To more clear

we can see following the table:

Table 4.1.1. Interview of the researcher to the teacher in teaching English vocabulary

No. THE LIST OF QUESTIONS

THE ENGLISH TEACHER’S ANSWER

1. What the strategies you applied in teaching vocabulary?

Synonym strategy

2. Based on the result of observation, you applied using synonym strategy, why you applied this strategy?

Because this strategy will make students to think more interactive and interesting with new words

3. From the strategy you applied, did you can improve ability of the students’ vocabulary?

Yes, I did.

4. What did you reason apply this strategy in teaching vocabulary?

Because this strategy is simple and easy to pronounce and remembering of the words

5. Did you have difficulty in teaching vocabulary to your students?

No, I didn’t

The second times (on the August 6th, 2012), the teacher uses identifying pictures

strategies in teaching English vocabulary. Media in teaching learning process is very

useful to get students interest. The teacher says “I choose identifying pictures strategies

from picture in textbook because most page of textbook contains various kinds of

pictures. For example pictures of part our body, plants, things around us, animal, etc.

Here, identifying pictures applied by showing the pictures to the students to investigate

pictures name”.

He has reason used identifying picture in teaching English vocabulary. He says

“this strategies were not only assist the students to grasp the meaning of the new words

easily but also makes variation of teaching in order to avoid the boredom in teaching

especially for vocabulary”. The strategies make students active in answering the question

especially for students who afraid to speak because elementary students are very interest

with something new and funny. To more clear we can see following the table:

4.1.2. Table Interview of the researcher to the teacher in teaching English

vocabulary

No. THE LIST OF QUESTIONS

THE ENGLISH TEACHER’S ANSWER

1. What the strategies you applied in teaching vocabulary?

Identifying picture strategy

2. Based on the result of observation, you applied using synonym strategy, why you applied this strategy?

Because I choose identifying pictures strategies from picture in textbook because most page of textbook contains various kinds of pictures. For example pictures of part our body, plants, things around us, animal, etc. Here, identifying pictures applied by showing the pictures to the students to investigate pictures name

3. From the strategy you applied, did you can improve ability of the students’ vocabulary?

Yes, I did.

4. What did you reason apply this strategy in teaching vocabulary?

Because this strategies were not only assist the students to grasp the meaning of the new words easily but also makes variation of teaching in order to avoid the boredom in teaching especially for vocabulary

5. Did you have difficulty in teaching vocabulary to your students?

No, I didn’t

The result in the third meeting (on September 13th, 2012), the teacher Mr. Jayandi

of the fifth class uses opposite in teaching vocabulary. He says“opposite is strategy will

make students to think more interactive and interesting with the new words”. The teacher

believes that strategies are able to his students and can improve ability of the students’

vocabulary.

The possess reason used this strategy in teaching vocabulary. He said “this

strategy is simple and easy to pronounce and remembering of the words”.

 The second times (on the August 6th, 2012), the teacher uses identifying pictures

strategies in teaching English vocabulary. Media in teaching learning process is very

useful to get students interest. The teacher says “I choose identifying pictures strategies

from picture in textbook because most page of textbook contains various kinds of

pictures. For example pictures of part our body, plants, things around us, animal, etc.

Here, identifying pictures applied by showing the pictures to the students to investigate

pictures name”.

He has reason used identifying picture in teaching English vocabulary. He says

“this strategies were not only assist the students to grasp the meaning of the new words

easily but also makes variation of teaching in order to avoid the boredom in teaching

especially for vocabulary”. The strategies make students active in answering the question

especially for students who afraid to speak because elementary students are very interest

with something new and funny. To more clear we can see following the table:

4.1.2. Table Interview of the researcher to the teacher in teaching English vocabulary

No. THE LIST OF QUESTIONS THE ENGLISH TEACHER’S ANSWER

1. What the strategies you applied in teaching vocabulary?

Identifying picture strategy

2. Based on the result of observation, you applied using synonym strategy, why you applied this strategy?

Because I choose identifying pictures strategies from picture in textbook because most page of textbook contains various kinds of pictures. For example pictures of part our body, plants, things around us, animal, etc. Here, identifying pictures applied by showing the pictures to

the students to investigate pictures name

3. From the strategy you applied, did you can improve ability of the students’ vocabulary?

Yes, I did.

4. What did you reason apply this strategy in teaching vocabulary?

Because this strategies were not only assist the students to grasp the meaning of the new words easily but also makes variation of teaching in order to avoid the boredom in teaching especially for vocabulary

5. Did you have difficulty in teaching vocabulary to your students?

No, I didn’t

4.2. The Result of Observation

Based on the data collection and data analysis, the study wanted by report finding

resulted from observation related to the strategies in teaching English vocabulary and

than using the strategies in learning English vocabulary in elementary school. The

observation has been conducted for four times.

The fifth class has thirty students. From the observation it was obtained that Mr.

Jayandi S.Pd, the teacher who teaches at fifth class used synonym and opposite in

teaching vocabulary. First, Mr. Jayandi told the theme on that day. He explained about

kind of the adjective. Next, he asked the students to mention kind of adjective. He also

asked to student to write adjective word because the teacher will explain the word. This

purpose is to get the students attention to the material. Next the teacher told the students

that they will play guessing game about adjective. Next, he began to give a clue to his

student. The teacher asked the students to spell the words and helped them to read it in

English. He asked the students to follow him read the adjective word. After that, the

teacher divided their students to five groups. Situation student in the class at the time

were very happy because each students very enthusiastic to tried to answer.

And the last times, Mr. Jayandi in teaching vocabulary with used identifying

pictures. Before Mr. Jayandi thought, he showed pictures of the things in the classroom

and the school in front of the class and named them. Then he pronounced the word and

asked the students to repeat his orally until they produced clear and right pronunciation.

The purpose of this activity is to get the students attentions to the words. The teacher

showed things around us in the classroom as a sample, for example: broom, chair, table,

whiteboard, etc. The next divided his student to eight groups and the name of the group

are A and B. He asked two groups standing on the right side and left side. Each student in

group A who stand on the right side takes a picture of things in the classroom and the

group B who stand on the left side have to mentioned the picture’ name in English. Next,

the first student in the group raise up the picture and the first student in group B answered

it, if it wrong the others group helped him or her. If it’s over group A and group B change

their position, group toke the picture and group A answered. This activity repeated until

all of the groups got the turn. The students very enthusiastic and interested got their turn

to take the picture and answered.

4.3. Students’ Perception

In the case, this study explores the students’ perception about the teachers’

strategies in teaching vocabulary. They are outline based on the result of interview.

In this interview, the students at the elementary school asking about synonym and

opposite. This strategies applied by the teacher attractively, it makes the students

enthusiastic to answer every clue from the teacher. When this study interviewed them,

most of the students in this class agree and interest with the strategies that teacher used

and about thirty students said they are like it. It can see from some of the student

statement below.

Interview 1: “we are understands with the material about adjective with uses synonym and opposite.

We can add new vocabulary and we happy because we study with the funny method. And

we like studying English”.

Interview I shows that the students are interest to study English vocabulary by

synonym and opposite strategies. Therefore, they are attractive and motivated to learn it.

The students’ perception about this strategies is very nice therefore they were enjoying

learn it.

The second interview, this study interviewed the students at fifth grade. This class

used identifying pictures to increased students vocabulary. These strategies used card

picture to support the material to get students’ interest.

Interview II: “We like studying by picture and very interesting can learn vocabulary with the picture.

And we are happy because we get add new vocabulary”.

It shows that the students like studying English with the picture. Because they

were interested in learning process in teaching vocabulary by used of identifying picture.

CHAPTER V

CONCLUSION AND SUGGESTION

This chapter present several conclusions based on the research result and several

suggestion as the input for school in generally and for the teachers in specifically.

5.1.       Conclusion

Based on description after analyze data, the writer make some conclusion as follows:

1.    There are two kinds of strategies that analyze used by the student in learning vocabulary

are synonyms, opposite, and identifying picture.

2.    All strategies can increase the students motivate in vocabulary learning strategies.

3.    Students fells more fun when learning vocabulary with the identifying picture, synonym,

and opposite

4.    A few students that ever used translation as their strategies in learning vocabulary.

5.2.       Suggestion

Based on the data analysis, discussion and conclusion the writer has suggestion are

follows:

1.      The fifth students of SDN 40 Mataram should be more interest to learning vocabulary if

they want to master it.

2.      The English teacher especially in teaching vocabulary to be more creative in improving

and modifying their strategies of teaching.

3.      The teacher should know ability of their students to decide what strategies the teachers

used for teach. For choosing the strategies they should give attention to student

conditions and students needs.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Alwasilah, Drs., A, Cheadar. 1985. Beberapa Mahdab dan Dikotomi Teori Linguistik, AngkasaArifin, Bustanul dan Abdul Rani. 2000. Prinsip – Prinsip Analisis Wacana. Jakarta: Departemen

Pendidikan NasionalArikunto, Suharsimi. 1991. Prosedur Penelitian Suatu Pendekatan Praktik. Jakarta: Rineka Cipta

Fromkin, R., Collins, B. 1985. An Introduction to Language. Australia: Hard Harcount and Company Australia

Sahidu, A., Kanim. 1990. Bahasa  dan Identitas Sosial. An Unpublished Paper. Mataram: Universitas Mataram.

Pique, Concha, Edelma. 2000. Teaching English Vocabulary to Elementary Students in Fun Way. Boston: Department of Literature and Language.

Oxford Dictionary.Freeman, Diana Larsen. 1986. Techniques and Principle in Language Teaching

Al – Khaufaishi. 1988. Vocabulary Necessary Not Luxury. ELT Forum. Vol. III Edition March.Brown. H. D. 1980. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. New York: Person Education

Company.Gaeda, Alfitra, 2009. Some Strategies in Teaching English Vocabulary. An Unpublished Paper.

Mataram: IKIP MataramAnny, L., Sonka, 1981. Skillful Reading. Boston University Printice III

Ellis, R, 1985. Understanding Second Language Acquisition, Toronto: Oxford University PressKurniawan, 2009. Improving Students Ability In Vocabulary Through Communicative Approach. An

Unpublished Paper. Mataram: Universitas Muhammadiyah MataramCresswell, J.W, 2008. Educational Research (planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and

qualitative research). New Jersey: Pearson Education, Inc.Cressweel, J.W, 1994. Research Design Qualitative and Quantitative Approaches. California: SAGE

Publication, Inc.Finocchiaro. 1974. English as A Second Language: From Theory to Practice. New York: Regent

Publishing Company.

Charty, Michael. 1995. Discourse Analysis for Language Teachers. New York: McMillan Inc.Sarlito, W. 1987. Teori-teori Psikologi Sosial. CV. Rajawali. Jakarta.

Supartini, Y. 2004. Buku Ajar Konsep Dasar Keperawatan Anak. Penerbit  Buku Kedokteran, EGC.

Jakarta

Sarwono, Sarlito W. (1995). Psikologi Lingkungan Jakarta : Grasindo

Gulo, W. 2004. Strategi Pembelajaran. Jakarta: Balai PustakaAnwar Yasin. Standar Kemampuan Profesional Guru SD. IKIP Malang , 1998

Alex Sobur. (2003). Psikologi Umum. Bandung: Pustaka Setia.

Sarwono, Wirawan Sarlito, 1997. Psikologi Remaja. Raja Grafindo Persada, Jakarta.

Mar’at,  1984.  Sikap  Manusia  :  Perubahan  Serta  Pengukurannya.  Jakarta  :  Ghalia Indonesia

Miftah Thoha, Kepemimpinan dalam Manajemen Suatu Pendekatan Perilaku,

Jakarta:Raya Srafindo Pustaka, 1993

Berlo, David K. 1960. The Process of Communication: An Introduction to Theory and Practice.

Holt, Rinehart and Winston, New YorkSTUDI KORELASI ANTARA PENGUASAAN KOSA KATA DENGAN PRESTASI BELAJA BAHASA INGGRIS KELAS III NURUL ULUM DEMAK, 97

HUBUNGAN ANTARA PENGUASAAN VOCABULARY DENGAN KEMAMPUAN WRITING PADA SISWA KELAS III SLTP NEGERI 23 SURABAYA – 01

HUBUNGAN PENGUASAAN TENSES DENGAN KEMAMPUAN MENULIS BAHASA INGGRIS SISWA KELAS II SLTP NEGERI 39 SURABAYA – 

STUDI KORELASI ANTARA PRESTASI MATA PELAJARAN BAHASA INGGRIS TERHADAP PRESTASI MATA PELAJARAN KOMPUTER BAGI SISWA KELAS II JURUSAN ADMINISTRASI PERKANTORAN DI SMK NEGERI 10 SURABAYA – 01

Hubungan penguasaan kosa kata dengan kemampuan menulis cerita pengalaman siswa kelas IV di gugus 2 Kecamatan Sampung Kabupaten Ponorogo oleh Dheny Wahyuningtyas

Penulis Wahyuningtyas, Dheny

Pembimbing 1. Muhana Gipayana ; Rumidjan

Penerbitan 2012, S1 Program Studi Pendidikan Guru Sekolah Dasar.

Subyek 1. BAHASA INDONESIA (PENDIDIKAN DASAR) - KOSAKATA

Label Rs 372.659221 WAH h

AbstrakKata Kunci : penguasaan kosakata, menulis cerita, SD.

Penguasaan kosakata adalah kemampuan yang dimiliki oleh siswa Kelas IV di Gugus 02, Kecamatan Sampung, Kabupaten Ponorogo dalam memahami kosakata yang

meliputi morfologi, fungsi sintaksis, dan ejaan. Penguasaan kosakata sangat penting dalam menulis cerita pengalaman. Untuk itu diperlukan kemampuan penguasaan kosakata untuk menulis cerita pengalaman tersebut.

Tujuan penelitian ini untuk mendeskripsikan: (1) tingkat penguasaan kosakata siswa kelas IV di Gugus 2 Kecamatan Sampung Kabupaten Ponorogo, (2) tingkat kemampuan menulis cerita pengalaman siswa kelas IV di Gugus 2 Kecamatan Sampung Kabupaten Ponorogo, dan (3) ada tidaknya hubungan penguasaan kosakata dengan kemampuan menulis cerita pengalaman siswa kelas IV di Gugus 2 Kecamatan Sampung Kabupaten Ponorogo.

Penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kuantitatif dengan rancangan deskriptif korelasional. Populasi penelitian adalah siswa kelas IV SDN di Gugus 2 Kecamatan Sampung Kabupaten Ponorogo yang berjumlah 60 orang dan semuanya diteliti, sehingga disebut sampel total. Data dikumpulkan menggunakan instrumen soal tes pilihan ganda untuk menghitung tingkat penguasaan kosakata siswa dan uraian untuk menghitung kemampuan menulis cerita pengalaman siswa. Data yang terkumpul dianalisis secara deskriptif kuantitatif dan korelasional yang menggunakan teknik korelasi product moment. Instrumen sebelum digunakan untuk mengumpulkan data dilakukan uji validitas dan reliabilitas. Hasil analisis validitas dan reliabilitas semua soal dinyatakan valid dan reliabel.

Hasil analisis deskriptif terhadap penguasaan kosakata siswa tergolong baik terbukti dengan sebanyak 76,6% siswa mendapatkan nilai 60 sampai dengan 100. Sedangkan hasil kemampuan menulis cerita pengalaman siswa tergolong baik sekali terbukti dengan hasil analisis yang menunjukkan bahwa siswa yang memperoleh nilai 61 sampai dengan 100 mencapai 100% yang berarti bahwa semua siswa mempunyai kemampuan dalam menulis cerita. Dari hasil penelitian diketahui bahwa rhitung lebih besar dari rtabel yaitu 0,637>0,330 pada taraf signifikansi 1%. Jadi dapat dikatakan bahwa ada korelasi yang positif dan signifikan antara penguasaan kosakata dengan kemampuan menulis cerita pengalaman siswa kelas IV di Gugus 2 Kecamatan Sampung Kabupaten Ponorogo.

Parent Involvement and Student Achievement

What Does Research Tell Us About the Influence of Parental Involvement on Student Achievement?

The evidence is now beyond dispute:When schools work together with families to support learning, children tend to succeed not just in school, but throughout life. In fact, the most accurate predictor of a student's achievement in school is not income or social status, but the extent to which that student's family is able to:

1. Create a home environment that encourages learning;2. Express high (but not unrealistic) expectations for their children's achievement and future

careers;3. Become involved in their children's education at school and in the community (1:1).

Henderson (1:23-152) reviewed 66 studies involving parent involvement and student achievement and found that, when parents are involved in their children's education at home they do better in school. When parents are involved at school, their children go farther in school and the schools they go to are better.

Using data from a nationally representative sample of 21,814 students and their parents participating in the National Education Longitudinal Study (2), Keith, et. al., concluded that "parental involvement has a powerful effect on eighth graders' achievement" and that although its effect was slightly stronger in math and social studies, it was a powerful influence on student success in all subject areas (3:490).

Student achievement improves in a home environment which encourages learning. Walberg (4:399) concluded from an analysis of over 2,500 studies on learning that an

academically stimulating home environment is one of the chief determinants of learning. From these studies, Walberg selected 29 which were conducted during the last decade. He found commonalities which he called a "curriculum of the home" (4:400) which has an average effect on achievement that is twice as large as family socioeconomic status (SES). This curriculum includes informed parent-child conversations about everyday events, encouragement and discussion of leisure reading, monitoring and joint analysis of televiewing, deferral of immediate gratification to achieve long-range goals, expressions of affection, and interest in children's academic and personal growth.

Sattes (5:2), from a review of 30 studies on the connection between family background and school achievement, concluded that parent involvement factors such as reading to children, having books available, taking trips, guiding TV watching, and providing stimulating experiences contribute to school achievement. "The fact that family SES is related to school achievement doesn't mean that rich kids are born smarter. It means that, in more affluent families, children are more likely to be exposed to experiences that stimulate intellectual development."

Student achievement improves when parents express high (but not unrealistic) expectations for their children's achievement and future careers.

Reynolds, et. al., (6) found that the most consistent predictors of children's academic achievement and social adjustment were parent expectations of their child's educational attainment and satisfaction with their child's education at school. Data for this finding were collected from the sixth year evaluation of the "Longitudinal Study of Children at Risk," an ongoing study of low-income, minority children in the Chicago public schools.

Clark (7:85-105) drew a sample of 1,141 high- and low-achieving third-graders from 71 Los Angeles elementary schools and analyzed parental data gathered through questionnaires. He found that parents of the high-achieving students set higher standards for their children's educational activities than parents of low-achieving students.

Student achievement improves when parents become involved in their children's education at school and in the community.

Recent research has shown that, particularly for students who have reached high school, the type of parent involvement that has the most impact on student performance requires their direct participation in school activities (8).

Steinberg's (8) three-year study of 12,000 students in nine high schools revealed that the following types of parent involvement draw parents into the schools physically and are most effective in improving academic achievement: attending school programs, extracurricular activities, conferences, and 'back to school' nights. It was concluded that "When parents come to school regularly, it reinforces the view in the child's mind that school and home are connected-and that school is an integral part of the whole family's life (8)."

Eagle (9:12) analyzed data from a High School and Beyond national survey of 11,227 participants who were high school seniors in 1980 and participated in a follow-up survey in 1986. She studied the effects upon student achievement of a number of family background factors and concluded that, when SES is controlled, "parent involvement during high school" had the most significant positive impact upon student achievement of the factors studied.

Snow (10) in her two-year study of home and school influences on literacy achievement among children from low-income families, found that the single variable most positively connected to all literacy skills was formal involvement in parent-school activities such as PTA participation, attending school activities, and serving as a volunteer.

From their survey of 2,317 inner-city elementary- and middle-school parents, Dauber and Epstein (11:61) found that the strongest and most consistent predictors of parent involvement at school and at home are the specific school programs and teacher practices that encourage parent involvement at school and guide parents in how to help their children at home.

Student achievement improves when parents are enabled to play four key roles in their children's learning.

As teachers, parents create a home environment that promotes learning, reinforces what is being taught at school, and develops the life skills children need to become responsible adults.

As supporters, parents contribute their knowledge and skills to the school, enriching the curriculum, and providing extra services and support to students .

As advocates, parents help children negotiate the system and receive fair treatment, and work to make the system more responsive to all families.

As decision-makers, parents serve on advisory councils, curriculum committees, and management teams, participating in joint problem-solving at every level (1:15).

Characteristics of Families Whose Children Are Doing Well in School

Henderson (1:9) observed from her 1994 review of current literature that families whose children are doing well in school exhibit the following seven characteristics:

Establish a daily family routine Examples: Providing time and a quiet place to study, assigning responsibility for household chores, being firm about times to get up and go to bed, having dinner together (1:9).

From her analysis of data collected through a large national survey conducted by the National Center for Educational Statistics, Eagle (9:12 ) identified "providing a place to study" as one of three family characteristics which were significantly related to student achievement.

Monitor out-of-school activities Examples: Setting limits on TV watching, checking up on children when parents are not home, arranging for after-school activities and supervised care (1:9).

Data from The 27th (1995) Annual Phi Delta Kappa/Gallup Poll of the Public's Attitudes Toward the Public Schools (12:54,55) indicates that parents may already be involved in monitoring some of their children's important out-of-school activities:

95% said that during the past school year they made sure that homework assigned to their children was completed;

94% said that they defined limits on the amount of TV any of their children could watch.

Keith, et. al., (3:487) concluded that homework and time spent watching TV during the week are intervening or mediating variables which can be under the control of parents and are, therefore, means through which parental involvement may affect learning directly. They also found that students who spend more time on homework watch less TV during the week; this additional time spent on homework, in turn, increases student achievement (3:488).

Model the value of learning, self-discipline, and hard work Examples: Communicating through questioning and conversation, demonstrating that achievement comes from working hard, using reference materials and the library (1:9).

Caplan, et. al., (13:39) studied the family characteristics of Vietnamese, Laotian, and Chinese-Vietnamese children who emigrated to the United States in the late 1970s and early 1980s. The researchers identified several significant family practices that are both embedded in the Southeastern-Asian cultural heritage and related to high achievement:

"Love of learning" was rated most often by both parents and students as the factor accounting for academic success.

The families emphasized education as the key to social acceptance and economic success.

Relative equality between the sexes, both among parents and children, was one of the strongest predictors of high GPAs. In households where fathers and boys helped with family chores, grades were significantly higher.

The families believed strongly in their potential to master their own destiny, not that luck or fate determines success.

Express high but realistic expectations for achievement Examples: Setting goals and standards that are appropriate for children's age and maturity, recognizing and encouraging special talents, informing friends and family about successes (1:9). (See supporting research references on page 2.)

Encourage children's development and progress in school Examples: Maintaining a warm and supportive home, showing interest in children's progress at school, helping with homework, discussing the value of a good education and possible career options, staying in touch with teachers and school staff (1:9).

Rumberger, et. al., (14:295), in a study of family influences on dropout behavior, found that parents of high school dropouts were less engaged in their children's schooling than were the parents of students who did not drop out prior to graduation. Variables studied included parent attendance at parental school activities (e.g., PTA meetings and open house programs), attendance at student school activities (e.g., athletic events and drama and music productions) helping with homework, and total number of contacts with the school.

Fehrmann, et. al., (15:337) concluded from their analysis of data collected from the High School and Beyond study cited above that "Parents might well help their high school children achieve higher grades through monitoring their daily activities, by keeping close track of how they are doing in school, and by working closely with their students concerning planning for post-high school pursuits.

The same authors (15:335) observed that, "given the results indicating the important influence of homework on grades, a more focused parent involvement aimed at encouraging students to spend more time on homework might well lead indirectly to higher grades."

Encourage reading, writing, and discussions among family members Examples: Reading, listening to children read, and talking about what is being read; discussing the day over dinner; telling stories and sharing problems; writing letters, lists, and messages (1:9).

The California English-Language Arts Framework (16:4) envisions ". . . a home environment where parents model effective listening, speaking, reading, and writing and offer appropriate help with their children's homework."

Dornbusch, et. al., (17:1245 ff) tested a theory adapted from one originally formulated by Baumrind (1971) that adolescents' school performance is influenced by the parenting style of their parents. Three parenting styles were compared: authoritarian, permissive, and authoritative. Authoritarian parents provide advice and tell children that their parents are correct and should not be questioned; they discourage verbal give-and-take with their children. Permissive parents tend to be uninvolved with their child's education; they also seldom participate in give-and-take communication with their children. Authoritative parents encourage open, give-and-take communication and encourage the child's independence and individuality. Using a large (N=7,836) sample of high school students, Dornbusch found that authoritative parenting was positively correlated with good grades, while there was a strong negative correlation between both authoritarian and permissive parenting and good grades (significant at the .001 level of confidence). Parent involvement in their children's education appears to be enhanced by the open, give-and-take communication used by authoritative parents in such activities as family reading, writing, and discussions.

Through her analysis of the previously referenced High School and Beyond national survey, Eagle (9:12 ) found "reading to the student in early childhood" to be one of the three characteristics of family backgrounds significantly related to student achievement.

Previously cited research on recently emigrated Southeastern-Asian families Caplan, et. al., (13:39) found that in almost half of the random sample of 200 families studied, the parents read aloud to their children, either in English or their native language; students from those families earned significantly higher grades.

Relationship between broken homes and academic achievement of secondary school students in Oredo Local Government Area of Edo State, Nigeria.Ads by Google

Free Journal ResearchSearch the global online library on ethics. Sign up for free.www.globethics.net/libraryArticle Type:

Report

Subject:

Children of divorced parents (Education)

Academic achievement (Research)

Broken homes (Research)

Authors:

Alika, Henrietta Ijeoma

Edosa, Ogboro Samson

Pub Date:

06/01/2012

Publication:

Name: College Student Journal Publisher: Project Innovation (Alabama) Audience: Academic Format: Maga

zine/Journal Subject: EducationCopyright: COPYRIGHT 2012 Project Innovation (Alabama) ISSN: 0146-

3934

Issue:

Date: June, 2012 Source Volume: 46 Source Issue: 2

Topic:

Event Code: 310 Science & research

Geographic:

Geographic Scope: Nigeria Geographic Code: 6NIGR Nigeria

Ads by Google

Academic Journals in U.S.Submit & Publish Papers, Journals. Faster Review & Rapid Publication.www.iiste.orgResearchers WantedFind Emerging Technologies Be Paid For Successwww.ideaconnection.comPhD in EducationOnline Doctorate Program, Earn your PhD in Education.www.aiu.eduEducational TechnologyInternational Master's Program 100% Online - Apply Nowwww.met.ubc.ca

Accession Number:

297135944

Full Text:

The study investigated the relationship between broken homes and academic achievement of students.

Three research hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. The study was correlational because the

study sought to establish the extent of relationship between broken homes and academic achievement. The

statistical method used in analyzing the data was the Pearson product moment correlation coefficient (r).

Reliable and validated questionnaires which were designed to elicit information on the hypotheses of study

were used. Six senior secondary schools were randomly selected for the study. One hundred and fifty

respondents from single parent homes were used for the study. 25 respondents were randomly selected

from six schools. Results showed a significant relationship between broken homes and academic

achievement of students. It was also discovered that female students from broken homes perform better in

their studies than the male students, moreover, the result showed that low socio-economic status, also had

an adverse effect on the academic performance of children from broken homes. It is recommended that

personal social counselling should be rendered to students from broken homes, with a view to counselling

students who are experiencing some challenges

Keywords: Stable homes, broken homes, Academic achievement, gender and socio-economic status.

Introduction

The family is the child's first place of contact with the world. The child as a result, acquires initial education

and socialization from parents and other significant persons in the family. Agulana (1999) pointed out that

the family lays the psychological, moral, and spiritual foundation in the overall development of the child.

Structurally, family/homes is either broken or intact. A broken home in this context, is one that is not

structurally intact, as a result of divorce, separation, death of one parent and illegitimacy. According to

Frazer (2001), psychological home conditions arise mainly from illegitimacy of children, the label of adopted

child, broken home, divorce and parental deprivation. Such abnormal conditions of the home, are likely to

have a detrimental effect on school performance of the child he asserts.

Life, in a single parent family or broken home can be stressful for both the child and the parent. Such

families are faced with challenges of inadequate financial resources (children defense fund, 1994). Schultz

(2006) noted that if adolescents from unstable homes are to be compared with those from stable homes, it

would be seen that the former have more social, academic and emotional problems. Scales and

Roehlkepartain (2003), are of the opinion that the family and its structure play a great role in children's

academic performance. Levin (2001), also states that parents are probably the actors with the clearest

undimentional interest in a high level of their children's academic performance. To some extent, there is

simple evidence to show that marital instability brings about stress, tension, lack of motivation and

frustration. Obviously, these manifestations act negatively on a child's academic performance. Johnson

(2005) asserts that children of unmarried parents/separated families often fail and are at risk emotionally.

However, this may not be completely applicable in all instances of broken homes. Some children

irrespective of home background or structure may work hard and become successful in life. Moreover,

Ayodele (2006) stated that the environment where a child finds himself/herself goes a long way in

determining his learning ability and ultimately his academic performance in school.

Gender and Academic Performance

The influence of sex (gender) on academic performance has, also, been an issue of concern to most

researchers. This is because "gender" appear to have some powerful effect on learning. However, studies

by Fausto-Sterling (1995) and Friedman (1985) suggest no significant difference in cognitive ability between

males and females. Although research results vary widely, the following conclusions have been drawn.

Males are more abstract learners, females have more anxiety about study success, males are more intuitive,

females are more analytical and organized (Bielinskia & Davidson, 2001). Supporting the finding above

Hamilton (1999) finds that boys consistently scored higher than girls on questions requiring knowledge

learned outside of schools. On the other hand, Orestein (1995) finds that there is a decrease in confidence

and academic risk-taking as girls get older. Okoye (1983) postulated that sex differences may have little or

no effect on academic performance, rather, he submit that eventual achievement by learners is predicated

more on personal effort than sex variable. However, the overall picture suggests that males and females

may learn differently.

Socio-economic Status of Parents & Academic Performance

Another factor that may affect academic performance of students is socio-economic background, This

background refers to parents' educational attainment, occupation, level of income and social class

placement. When a child's needs are not properly addressed, his learning ability could be affected due to

lack of motivation. Bliss (2004) is of the view that many students from low socio-economic homes respond

uncomprehensively to classroom teaching because their home environment has not exposed them to the

kinds of materials used in schools. If home environment is not intellectually stimulating, some students find it

difficult to cope in school and may eventually dropout of school. Health (1990) asserts that irrespective of

national equality of opportunity, children of parents in higher socio-economic status tend to achieve greater

academically than children of parents from lower socio-economic status.

Furthermore, the home has been identified as an overwhelming factor affecting student's performance

academically. It would appear, then, that, broken homes may present a very real danger to the emotional,

personality, and mental adjustment of the young adolescent. These impinge on students' academic

achievement.

Ads by Google

High School Online

Self-paced online courses help you Finish High School your way.

www.aiuhs.org

Indonesian Translation

English-Indonesian translation. Translate text and webpage for free

www.citcat.com

Scientific Journals

Publish Research Papers In TJPRC's Open Access International Journals

www.tjprc.org

Research Problem

There is a global awareness of the importance of the home environment on students' academic

achievement. In Nigeria, most homes are not intact as a result of issues of incompactibility of the couples,

death of a parent and the quest for oversea trips to make more money, and at times marital infidelity. This

has resulted in the separation of couples and children. In some states in the federation, this is quite

prevalent, in that most young ladies abandon their homes, and embark on oversea trips with a view to

making money. Some men who travel abroad, abandon their homes and would not communicate with

families back home, so children from such homes are in a dilemma, especially in terms of adjustment.

Ichado (1998) notes that the environment in which the students come from can greatly influence his

performance in school. Ajila and Olutola (2007), Nzewuawah (1995) are of a similar opinion that the home

environment has been recognized as having a relationship with the academic achievement of students.

The effects of broken homes may impact greatly on the internal organization of the family and by extension,

affect a child's emotion, personality and academic achievement. Bearing in mind the role of the family in a

child's education, the failure of the family to perform its duties could hinder the child's academic

achievement. Any nation that is desirous of advancing technologically will no doubt ensure that the future of

her future leaders (the adolescents) is well guided, protected and guaranteed. Efforts would be made by

such a nation to ensure that children from broken homes are identified, counselled and encouraged so as to

develop their innate potentials, and contribute towards national development. Therefore, there is the need

for this study in Nigeria, as the issue of broken homes are with us in the society, moreso, as economic

hardship has been seen as a contributory factor to this phenomenon (Ordedi 2001 & UNICEF, 2004). It

becomes imperative that a study on the relationship between broken home and student academic

achievement should be investigated, in view of the fact that the youths are the leaders of tomorrow. Their

academic and emotional well-being, if given the appropriate attention, will go a long way in ensuring that

their potentials are harnessed, and put into use for national development

Consequently, the major problem of this study is to determine the relationship between broken homes and

students' academic achievement.

Purpose of the Study

The objective of this study is to determine the relationship between broken homes and academic

achievement of students, and also to find out the relationship between broken homes and academic

achievement of males and females. The study will also determine the relationship between socio-economic

status of parents on academic achievement of students from broken homes.

Hypotheses

To guide the study, the following research hypotheses were formulated:

1. There is no significant relationship between broken homes and academic performance of secondary

school students.

2. There is no significant relationship between gender and academic achievement of secondary school

students from broken homes.

3. There is no significant relationship between socio--economic status of parents and academic achievement

of students from broken homes.

Research Design

The study was correlational because the study sought to establish the extent of relationship between the

independent variable and the dependent variables. Correlational studies investigates mutual relationships of

interdependence between two or more variables, this is what the study was designed to investigate.

Participants

The population of the study consists of all adolescents in senior secondary school in Oredo Local

Government Area of Edo State. This local government area has high concentration of private and public

secondary schools.

The sample comprised of 150 students from broken homes, who were volunteers, and from six (6) randomly

selected secondary schools in Oredo Local Government Area of Edo State. It was observed that certain

schools in the population area are either Boys only or Girls only, while others are co-educational (Mixed).

The researcher then, adopted the use of stratified random sampling by sharing the schools on this basis into

three groups and then selected two schools from each group. However, in selected mixed schools, both

sexes were used. This was done to maintain an equal distribution of sample. The research study was

restricted to only senior secondary school class, because the researcher felt they are more predisposed to

respond to the questionnaire appropriately.

Instruments

The instrument used was a questionnaire which was designed to elicit information from students on the

relationship between broken homes and academic achievement of students. The instrument is based on a

four point modified likert scale of strongly agree (SA), Agree (A) Disagree (D), Strongly disagree (SD).The

research hypotheses served as the controlling factor in preparing the questionnaire, this was to ensure that

the items in the questionnaire reflect on the hypotheses of the study. The questionnaire was made up of

three sections:

Section 1 was designed to elicit information on the demographic data of the respondents. Selected students

were requested to indicate their sex and whether they are from single parent homes. The academic

performance of the students was determined using the Junior School National Examination result scores in

their cumulative record folders. Selected students overall performance in ten subjects were computed, and

the average score of each student was recorded, this served as a basis for ranking their performance very

good, good or poor.

Section 2 was designed to elicit information on the level of academic achievement of both male and female

students from broken homes also Junior School National Examination scores were used.

Section 3 was designed to elicit information on the effects of socio-economic status of parents on the

academic performance of children from broken homes. The socio-economic status of parents was

determined by sending through the respondents a form to their parents to indicate their monthly income,

information given by parents was later incorporated into a categorized salary structure based on high,

middle and low socio-economic status. This was done in order to obtain an accurate information on income

of respondents parents.

Validity of the Instrument

Content validation was carried out in order to determine what proportion of the test items, reflects the

expected subject matter content. To this end, experts in the area of study, modified the instrument by

removing certain items that were not necessary.

Reliability of the Instrument

To determine the reliability of the questionnaire, it was administered to two groups of senior secondary

school students in Oredo Local Government Area, these schools were not included in the study. A two week

test re-test reliability method was carried out on the sample. The two weeks interval was to ensure that the

respondents do not remember exactly their previous responses and that the traits being measured are

relatively stable among respondents in order to show consistency in scores in both tests, hence the use of

test retest method. The scores obtained were correlated and the reliability co-efficient of 0.76 was obtained,

thus indicating that the instrument was adequate for the study.

Method of Data Collection

The researcher with the aid of three research assistant and teachers from the selected schools administered

the instrument, so as to ensure orderliness and honesty. Instruction on how to fill the questionnaire followed

their distribution. The respondent filled the questionnaire immediately and returned them on the spot.

Data Analysis

The data generated from the study were analyzed by testing the research hypotheses formulated for the

study. The statistical method employed was Pearson product moment correlation coefficient (r).

Results

The data collected from the respondents are presented in the table above.

Hypothesis I states that there is no significant relationship between broken homes and academic

performance of secondary school students.

Table I shows that when academic achievement was correlated with broken home of secondary school

students, academic achievement had an r value of .125 at p < 0.05 which was a negative significant

relationship. The r value indicates that there was a negative significant relationship between academic

achievement and broken homes. Consequently, the null hypothesis is rejected. This indicates that broken

home negatively determine academic achievement of secondary school students which translates to poor

academic achievement.

Hypothesis 2: There is no significant relationship between gender and academic achievement of secondary

school students.

The table reveals that when sex of students was correlated with academic achievement the r value was .260

at p < 0.05 which shows a significant relationship. Findings indicate that females from broken homes

perform better in terms of academic achievement than their male counterparts.

Hypothesis 3: there is no significant relationship between socio-economic status of parents and academic

achievement of students from broken homes.

The table reveals that when socio-economic status of parent was correlated with the academic achievement

of secondary school students from broken homes it had an r value of .296 at p < 0.05 which shows a

significant relationship. This indicates that socio-economic status of parents plays a vital role in determining

academic achievement of secondary school students from broken homes. In order words, the higher the

economic status of parents the more likely it is that students will perform better in school and the lower the

socioeconomic status of parents the less likely it is that students may perform well academically in school.

Discussion

The study has attempted to investigate the relationship between broken homes and academic achievement

of students. The findings showed that there was a negative significant relationship between academic

achievement and broken homes. This finding is in agreement with that of Scales and Roehlkepartain (2003)

who found that the family and its structure play a great role in students' academic performance. A broken

home could be a great obstacle to a student, his ability and maturation to succeed academically. Moreover,

this finding is in agreement with that of Ayodele (2006) who asserted that the environment where a child

finds himself goes a long way in determining his learning ability and ultimately his academic performance in

school.

The study also revealed that there was a significant relationship between gender and academic

achievement of students from broken homes. It was found that a higher percentage of males from broken

homes have a low academic achievement when compared to females from such homes, with high academic

performance. This finding does not agree with that of Fansto-Sterling (1995) and Friedson (1985) who found

no significant difference in cognitive ability between males and females. That female from broken homes

performed better academically when compared to the males, could be attributed to the assertion that

females have more anxiety about study success. As a result of the anxiety to succeed the female child may

work harder in order to perform well academically.

The study also revealed that the socioeconomic status of parents determines academic achievement of

students from broken homes, because students of single parents with low socio-economic status did not

perform well academically. This finding is in line with the findings of Bliss (2004) who found that many

students from low socio-economic homes respond uncomprehensively to the lessons teachers try to develop

in the classroom, because their home environment has not exposed them to the kinds of materials used in

schools. Their home environment is less intellectually stimulating; therefore, they sometimes find it difficult to

cope in school. Supporting the finding, Munsincer (1999) found that the socio-economic status of parents

may affect students academic achievement, as the purchase of vital school materials, attending good

schools, may depend largely on the financial state of the parents because, if there is limited finance to take

care of the family, schooling therefore will be affected. This implies that the socio-economic status of parents

significantly affects academic achievement of students from broken homes.

Conclusion and Recommendations

The conclusion drawn from this study is that broken homes significantly determines academic achievement

of students from such homes. Moreover, it was also found that girls from broken homes perform better in

school than boys from broken homes. The study also revealed that the socio-economic status of parents

significantly relates to academic performance of students from broken homes. It is recommended that

secondary schools should have guidance counsellors, who could counsel students from broken homes,

experiencing challenges from home, especially the boys who may be adversely affected as a result of

broken homes. Parents should be made to stand up to their responsibilities by making provision for

adequate school materials for their wards. There is the need for personal social counselling in group or on

individual basis where children with challenges from broken homes are counselled.

References

Agulana, G.G. (1999). Family structure and prevalence of behavioural problems among Nigerian

adolescents,. The Counsellor, 17(1), 154-161.

Ajila, C. & Olutola, A. (2007). Impact of Parents' socio-economic status on University student's academic

performance: Ife Journal of Educational studies. 7(1), 31-39.

Ayodele S.O. (2006). Educational opportunities for Nigerian learner; How do we fare thus far? A paper

presented at the workshop organized by Network for Gender Sensitive Educational Management in Africa

and the British Counsul in Nigeria.

Bielinski, T., & Davidson, M.I. (2001). A sex difference by item difficulty interaction in multiple choice item

administered to national probability samples. Journal of Educational Measurement, 38, 51-77.

Bliss, I. (2004). Social class differences in conception of the use of Toys. London: Macquibben Kee, 45-47.

Children's Defence Fund (1994). The state of America's children. Year Book, Wahington D.C. 21.

Fausto-Sterling, A. (1995). Myths of gender New York: Basic Books.

Frazer, W.J. (2001). Family structure, Parental Practices and High School Completion. American Sociology

Review, (56), 309-320.

Friedman, I. (1985). The space factor in Mathematics Gender Difference? Review of Educational Research

6(1), 22-50.

Halmilton, H.J. (1999). Detecting Gender based differential item, functioning on a constructed Response

Science Test. Applied measurement in Education. 12(3), 211-235.

Health, S.B. (1990). The Wider Society and Education. Boston Allyn and Bacon Inc.

Ichado, S.M. (1998). Impact of Broken Home on Academic Performance of Secondary School Students in

English Language. Journal of Research in Counselling Psychology. 4(1), 84 -87.

Levin, J. (2001). For whom the Redundant Counts: A Quantile Regression Analysis of family influence on

scholastic Achievement Empirical Economics, 26(1), 221-246.

Munsincer, H. (1999). Fundamentals of Child Development. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanrich Inc.

Nzewuawah, P.N. (1995). The effects of single-parenthood on the Academic Performance of students.

Unpublished M.Ed. Project. University of Lagos.

Okoye, N.N. (1983). Are Boys better than Girls in Mathematics and English Language Performance?

Psychology for every day living. 2, 21-27.

Ordedi, D. (2001). The girl: developing the potentials of the girl child. A national challenge the regent.

Orenstein, P. (1995). School Girls: Young women, self esteem and the confidence Gap, New York: Double

Day.

Scale, EC. & Roehlkepartain, E.C. (2003). Boosting Student's Achievement. New Research on the Power of

Developmental Assets. Search Institute Insights Evidence. 1(1), 1-10.

Schultz, G. (2006). Broken family structure leads to Educational Difficulties for children. Journal of

Educational Psychology. 27, 70-80.

UNICEF (2004). The state of the World's children, Girls education and development 4, 34-35.

HENRIETTA IJEOMA ALIKA PH.D

Department of Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies

Faculty of Education

University of Benin

Benin City

OGBORO SAMSON EDOSA

Department of Educational Psychology and Curriculum Studies

Faculty of Education

University of Benin

Benin City

Table I: Inter-correlation matrix between broken home, sex, socio-

economic status and academic achievement of secondary school

students.

Socio-

Broken Sex Economic Academic

home Status Performance

Broken home 1

Sex .120 ** 1

Socio-economic Status .136 ** .159 1

Academic achievement .125 ** .260 ** .296 * 1

Correlations indicated with asterisk are significant at p < 0.05 all

corrections are based on N = 150.

Gale Copyright:

Copyright 2012 Gale, Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.

Education Research InternationalVolume 2011 (2011), Article ID 915326, 10 pagesdoi:10.1155/2011/915326

Review ArticleA Review of the Relationship between Parental Involvement and Secondary School Students' Academic AchievementValerie J. Shute,1 Eric G. Hansen,2 Jody S. Underwood,3 and Rim Razzouk1

1Department of Educational Psychology and Learning Systems, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA2Research and Development, Educational Testing Service, Princeton, NJ 08541, USA3Intelligent Automation, Inc., Rockville, MD 20855, USA

Received 24 October 2010; Revised 6 February 2011; Accepted 7 March 2011

Academic Editor: L. Kyriakides

Copyright © 2011 Valerie J. Shute et al. This is an open access article distributed under the Creative Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract

This paper reviews the research literature on the relationship between parental involvement (PI) and academic achievement, with special focus on the secondary school (middle and high school) level. The results first present how individual PI variables correlate with academic achievement and then move to more complex analyses of multiple variables on the general construct described in the literature. Several PI variables with correlations to academic achievement show promise: (a) communication between children and parents about school activities and plans, (b) parents holding high expectations/aspirations for their

children's schooling, and (c) parents employing an authoritative parenting style. We end the results section by discussing the findings in light of the limitations of nonexperimental research and the different effects of children's versus parents' perspectives on academic achievement.

1. Introduction

An important issue in identifying points of leverage in improving students’ academic achievement is determining how and to what degree parental involvement (PI) affects student achievement. Such knowledge might inform parenting practices as well as school-based policies, practices, and interventions that involve working with parents. For example, such research might help in the design and development of interventions that maximize parental involvement, where it has been shown to have the most positive and powerful effect. To assist in this endeavor, we reviewed the literature about the types of PI that might have an impact. We found that the literature on PI is quite “knotty”—complex and sometimes contradictory. This paper attempts to disentangle the knot by closely examining the current literature on the relationship between PI and academic achievement at the middle and high school levels.

The idea that parental involvement engenders students’ academic achievement is intuitively appealing to the point that society in general, and educators in particular, have considered PI an important ingredient for the remedy of many ills in education today. In the 1980s and early 1990s, studies were published that suggested the importance of parental involvement in school. In the mid-1990s, the popular press, policy makers, and school administrators actively advocated PI. Legislation was enacted, such as the Goals 2000: Educate America Act and the reauthorized Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) in the United States, which has made parents’ involvement in their children’s education a national priority [1]. Schools have been encouraged to reexamine their parental involvement policies and programs and to demonstrate innovative approaches in order to obtain federal education dollars. For example, eligibility for Title I funding is now contingent on the development of agreements where families and schools assume mutual responsibility for children's learning.

Many practitioners and researchers support the policy direction of increased PI in their children’s academic lives, yet confusion persists regarding an appropriate definition of PI and the activities, goals, and desired outcomes of various PI programs and policies. Less is known about PI than is commonly assumed. Early studies suggesting the importance of PI are, unfortunately, treated as definitive, regardless of the equivocal nature of the data, and they are used to support the position that virtually all types of PI are important. According to Sui-Chu and Willms [2], PI has been treated too long as a one-dimensional construct.

It is apparent that identifying the influence of PI on academic achievement is complicated by at least three factors: (a) researchers use different definitions for the PI construct, (b) there is a paucity of experimental studies in the PI research literature, and (c) mediating factors and interacting variables in the PI-academic achievement story are often ignored. Any effort to clarify the role of PI in academic achievement must consider these issues.

2. Purpose

This paper examines the research literature on the relationship between PI and academic achievement, with particular focus on the middle and high school level. Research has shown that in addition to students’ personal goals and expectations in this age group, other variables such as PI might exert considerable influence on the students’ academic achievement and behavior [3–5].

This paper will examine how PI has been defined, describe the relationships between PI variables and academic achievement, attempt to generalize the results, and finally discuss key areas of controversy and areas for further research.

3. Methodology

3.1. Procedure

We began this literature review process by gathering and reviewing many books, reviews, meta-analyses, and individual articles relating to the PI literature. The following online databases were employed to search and collect these sources.

ERICA database that provides extensive access to educational-related literature from two printed journals: Resources in Education (RIE) and Current Index to Journals in Education (CIJE).PsychInfoAn online version of Psychological Abstracts that covers journal articles, book chapters, books, technical reports, and dissertations in psychology and psychological aspects of related disciplines.EBSCOhostAn online system that provides access to several periodical indexes or databases. These databases contain citations, abstracts and many full-text articles from magazines, journals, and newspapers.

In addition to these databases, Google Scholar, the Brigham Library at Educational Testing Service, and the Strozier Library at the Florida State University were used to search for and acquire specific references. Google Scholar is a web site providing peer-reviewed papers, books, abstracts, and articles from academic publishers, professional societies, universities, and other scholarly organizations. The Brigham Library at Educational Testing Service and the Strozier Library at Florida State University both house comprehensive collections of educational, psychological, sociological, and testing literature.

3.2. Inclusion Criteria

The focus of the search was to access full-text documents using various search terms and keywords such as parental involvement, parental influence, peer influence, personality, academic achievement, andparental involvement. The search was not limited to a particular date range. From the large set of documents that we collected, a total of 74 documents met the criteria for inclusion in the literature review. The inclusion criteria consisted of topical relevance, focus on secondary education, and papers that presented results in terms of prominent PI variables. Additional inclusion criteria were papers that studied any mediating factors and interacting variables in the PI-student academic achievement relationship.

The majority of the documents we obtained were fifty individual studies reported in journal articles, book chapters, and research reports, followed by eight books, six longitudinal studies, five

NELS:88 (i.e., the National Education Longitudinal Study of 1988, Institute of Education Sciences, n.d. [6]) reports, three extensive literature reviews, and two meta-analyses. We omitted qualitative studies and studies that did not meet the specified criteria.3.3. Defining Parental Involvement

Figure 1 depicts the prominent aspects of PI found in the literature. We have grouped these variables into the two main categories of home and school activities.

Figure 1: Prominent aspects of parental involvement enacted at home and at school.Many studies examine underlying aspects of PI, yet few do it in exactly the same way [1]. Such differences make it difficult to assess cumulative knowledge across studies and can also lead to contradictory findings. We will point these out in the results section as they arise.

4. Literature Review Results

The results of the literature review are presented in terms of how PI variables impact student academic achievement, in two sections: (a) findings around single PI variables and (b) findings of large-scale studies that analyze the PI construct in terms of a set of underlying variables. Then, we discuss the findings in light of the limitations of nonexperimental research and the different effects of children's and parents' perspectives on academic achievement.

4.1. Single Parental Involvement Variables

In this section, we look at the results of different studies on prominent PI variables, including parent-child discussions about school, parental aspirations and expectations, parenting style, reading at home, checking homework, school involvement, and home rules and supervision.

4.2. Parent-Child Discussions about School

The parent-child discussion variable refers to ongoing conversations between parents and their children concerning school-related activities, programs, near- and long-term school plans, and other academic issues. This variable frequently yields

the strongest positive association with academic achievement [2, 4,7–11]. McNeal [4], for example, found that the only dimension of parental involvement that was associated with improved achievement and reduced problematic behavior (e.g., truancy) was parent-child discussion. Parent-child discussion has a significant relationship to student achievement (, ) and a significant inverse relationship to truancy (, ).One interesting subtlety involving this variable is that talking with one’s mother is positively associated with academic achievement, but the association between talking with one’s father and academic achievement may depend on ethnicity and also on whether the child or parent is reporting [9, 12, 13]. For instance, talking with one’s father shows no correlation to academic achievement when data are collapsed across ethnicities, but talking with fathers for Black and Hispanic children is negatively related to achievement, while for Asian children talking with fathers is positively related to achievement.4.3. Parental Aspirations and Expectations

Parental aspirations and expectations are often described collectively or used interchangeably in the literature. Taken together, aspirations and expectations reflect the degree to which parents presume that their child will perform well in school, now and in the future. This variable appears in many PI research studies and is generally shown to have a positive relationship to academic achievement. For example, parental aspirations/expectations is the strongest dimension in the Fan and Chen [14] meta-analysis examining effects on academic achievement (overall ), as well as the strongest predictor () in the Singh et al. [15]) structural equation modeling study. Parental expectations also has the largest effect size () and is one of the strongest predictors in determining academic achievement () in Jeynes’ [10] meta-analysis on PI variables.To date, of the PI papers we reviewed, the articles and large-scale studies that focus on parental expectations report a generally positive effect on student achievement. More specifically, Baker and Soden [1] note that high aspirations/expectations, coupled with an effective parenting style (i.e., moderate levels of parental support and supervision) are positively related to academic achievement. Similarly, Kurdek et al. [16] examined the relationship between parental supervision (measured via student report) and sixth-grade students’ academic achievement. Their results showed a clear quadratic relationship (i.e., inverted U

function) between these two variables, where the highest levels of achievement (measured by grade point average) were associated with moderate levels of parental supervision, while worse achievement related to both low and high levels of supervision respectively. We now turn our attention to research involving parenting style.4.4. Parenting Style

This PI variable is defined as a complex set of behaviors and/or attitudes by which parents demonstrate and communicate the values, behaviors, and standards that their children are expected to adopt. According to various researchers [10, 17–20], parenting style may be viewed along two dimensions: responsive and demanding (see Figure 2).

Figure 2: A cross of responsive and demanding parenting, yielding four distinct styles.An authoritative parenting style is consistently and positively associated with student academic outcomes. This style is characterized by parents who are both responsive and demanding (lower right-hand corner of Figure 2). However, authoritarian and permissive styles (as well as indifferent styles) are negatively related to academic achievement [18, 21–24].

We examined 28 articles that studied parenting style in some form or another and its relationship to academic achievement. Representative characteristics of parenting style in the literature include authoritative style, joint decision making, PI in children’s lives, behavioral supervision, discussion of education with one’s children, firm disciplinary practices, permissive (or indifferent) styles, limit setting, strong communication, and maternal and paternal styles. The following are mixed findings in the literature on the variable of parenting style.

4.5. Positive Association

Authoritative parenting style is characterized by parents who develop and maintain close, warm relationships with their children while at the same time establishing structure and guidelines that are enforced as necessary. This parenting style was referred to in seven articles. They all reported a positive association with student achievement [25–30], except for one

study that showed no effect for first generation Chinese Americans [31]. Aunola et al. [26] similarly investigated the extent to which adolescents’ achievement is associated with parenting styles in their families. They found that adolescents from authoritative families showed significantly greater achievement compared to other adolescents who experienced different parenting styles ().In some studies, parental affective support appeared to be one of the strongest predictors of students’ academic achievement. For example, in a study by Deslandes et al. [27], they reported that parental affective support was a strong predictor of school achievement for both males (, ) and females (, ). A child's perception of parenting style was referred to in one article, which reported that child perceptions of parenting style, involvement, and teacher/school communication factors strongly predicted school achievement (, ) [30]. The recent meta-analysis conducted by Jeynes [10] showed a strong positive association () between parental style—defined as supportive, loving, helpful, and maintaining an adequate level of discipline—and academic achievement.These positive associations may be due to the ability of parents with an authoritative parenting style to be loving and supportive and yet maintain an adequate level of discipline in the household. Parents with this parenting style also demonstrate qualities such as trust and approachability that motivate children to discuss academic problems and expectations with their parents. Additionally, such parents are more likely to make contact with teachers when students have academic or behavioral problems [10, 27].4.6. No Association or Negative Association

PI in the form of behavioral supervision has shown either no association or a negative relationship with academic achievement [7]. For example, firm disciplinary practices were found to be unrelated to a child’s academic success [32], based on a sample of 59 6–11-year-old African Americans from homeless families. A survey with Korean American adolescents showed that differences in parenting styles did not significantly relate to adolescents’ academic achievement [33]. And McNeal [4] showed that PI in the form of supervision generally explained behavioral outcomes (e.g., truancy) (, ) but not cognitive outcomes (e.g., science achievement), and had greater effects for more affluent White students (, ) than for less-advantaged students of any

other race. This finding may be the result of minority parents feeling less comfortable getting involved in school-based activities and also being less likely to initiate meetings with school teachers when their child is facing an academic problem. Past negative experiences shape parents’ involvement with educational institutions [4].On the other hand, Deslandes et al. [28] and Chen [8] found a negative relationship between parental supervision and children’s achievement. This negative association might be related to the fact that some parents increase their support/supervision when they become concerned with their children’s underachievement. In other words, parents adopt strategies based on their children’s academic performance [4, 8].4.7. Other PI Variables

Fairly consistent associations between other PI variables and academic achievement include the following.(i)School involvement, which refers to participation in parent-teacher organizations (PTOs) or associations (PTAs), community involvement, volunteer work, and so on, has shown a positive association with academic achievement [11, 25]. For instance, Adeyemo [25] examined the effects of different parental involvement dimensions on academic achievement for 250 secondary school students and found that parental involvement in their child's school environment significantly affected students’ academic achievement (, ).(ii)Parent-teacher communication, described as parents’ communication with teachers regarding their child's progress, has shown a positive association with students’ academic achievement (, ) [10].(iii)Parents checking child’s homework, has shown a positive association with academic achievement in some studies [10, 11]. For instance, Keith et al. [11] found that students whose parents were involved in checking their homework showed higher achievement () than students whose parents were not involved in checking homework. Other studies, however, have shown a negative association between parents checking their children’s homework and academic achievement [34].(iv)Home supervision and rules, refers to moderate levels of parental support [10, 16], and when combined with appropriate monitoring of home-related behaviors (such as television viewing) has shown positive associations with academic achievement [11, 35]. Children of parents who closely monitor their activities spend less time watching television and more time on school-related activities, which in turn shows a

positive relationship with academic achievement () [11].(v)Reading at home, which reflects parental modeling and support of the child’s reading along with the provision of a stimulating literacy environment, has shown a positive association with academic achievement [3, 11, 25, 36]. For example, in a study by Chen [3], the effect size () suggested a strong relationship between parental involvement in their child’s reading at home and academic achievement ().

To summarize, there is seldom more than a small-to-moderate association between any individual PI variable and academic achievement. The strongest associations appear to be (a) discussions about school activities between parent and child (positive), (b) parents’ aspirations/expectations for their children (positive), and (c) parental styles, particularly authoritative style (positive) and authoritarian and permissive styles (negative).

While each of the PI variables presented in this section has shown some relationship to students’ academic achievement, it is also clear from recent research that the effects are complex. For instance, studies have found interactions between some of these PI variables and academic engagement/involvement (e.g., time spent on homework and paying attention in class), ethnicity, race, family structure, family characteristics (such as parents’ education), maternal employment status, socioeconomic status, and gender [9–11, 13, 27, 37–40]. Consequently, we can view these as potentially moderating or mediating variables in relation to student achievement. For example, in a longitudinal study conducted by Dearing et al. [13] involving 167 children, the effect of PI on the children’s academic achievement (i.e., reading) was moderated by maternal education. We now explore more complex analyses of the PI construct.4.8. Large-Scale Analyses of the PI Construct

In this section, we describe six large-scale studies that have been conducted in the area of PI and academic achievement: (1) Fan and Chen [14], (2) Jeynes [10], (3) Desimone [9], (4) Keith et al. [11], (5) Chen [8], and (6) Sui-Chu and Willms [2]. Each of these studies looks at how a set of underlying variables may illuminate the relationship between overall PI and student academic achievement.The first study is a meta-analysis conducted by Fan and Chen [14]. The sample consisted of 133,577 students in 25 different

studies, yielding 92 correlation coefficients. The method they used was to calculate average correlations between PI (overall construct as well as specific dimensions) and academic achievement. PI dimensions included educational aspirations/expectations for children, communication with children about school-related matters, parental supervision and home structure related to school matters, parental participation in school activities, and other/general PI activities.The result from their analysis regarding the correlation of overall PI to academic achievement is . Based on Cohen’s [41] guidelines about the magnitude of correlation as an effect-size measure, a correlation of  .25 is a “medium” effect size. The largest correlation was between parents’ aspirations and expectations for children’s educational achievement (average  about  .40), and the smallest correlation involved the variable parents’ supervision of the child at home (e.g., rules for watching TV and doing school work), with an average .Similarly, our second large-scale study reported by Jeynes [10] found a positive relationship between PI and academic achievement. In his meta-analysis, Jeynes included 52 studies that involved more than 300,000 participants. Jeynes aimed to determine the influence of PI on the educational outcomes of urban secondary school children. For this study, PI was defined as parental participation in the educational processes and experiences of their children. The specific PI variables included parental expectations, parent-child communication about school activities, parents checking homework before submission, and parental style (i.e., helpful and supportive parental approach).Results revealed that the general PI variable yielded statistically significant outcomes of  .50 to  .55 of a standard deviation unit. The Hedges’  measure of effect size was reported. Like the findings from the Fan and Chen [14] meta-analysis, this index indicated that for overall academic achievement, the effect size for parental expectations was the largest among all of the other variables (Hedges’s , which represents a large effect size). The remaining variables (i.e., parent-child communication, parents checking homework, and parental style) showed medium effect sizes (Hedges’ ,  .38, and  .40, resp.).Desimone [9] conducted a regression analysis examining 12 PI variables on one achievement variable (scores on a standardized test of mathematics) for a large sample () of 8th graders in the NELS: 88 data. The adjusted  for this regression is  .29, which

corresponds to an -value of  .54 for overall PI as considered by the set of individual variables. This falls in Cohen’s range of large effect sizes.

The regression results of the same 12 variables on two other achievement variables—scores on a standardized test of reading, and an average of self-reported grades in English, mathematics, science, and social studies—were similar to those reported for mathematics. These other regressions showed values of  .26 and  .22, respectively.

Among the 12 variables predicting mathematics outcome, the strongest predictors of achievement include (a) students reporting that they talk with their parents about school (positive relationship), (b) parents reporting contact with the school (negative relationship), and (c) students reporting that parents check their homework regularly (negative relationship).

One interesting finding from the study concerns whether the student or the parent was reporting onrules in the home (rules on homework, GPA, chores, TV, friends, etc.). That is, if the child perceives that parents have rules about doing chores, watching television, and going out with friends, there is a positive relationship to achievement. However, if the parent reports having rules in the home—such as maintaining grade average, doing homework, and being responsible for certain household chores —there is a negative relationship on math achievement. Similarly, there is an opposite relationship involving the variable talking about school. From the students’ report, this represents a positive relationship to math achievement, but from the parents’ report, this represents a negative relationship.

Desimone [9] further examined the data in terms of ethnicity and reported some interesting patterns of predictor variables. For example, the variable talk with father about school showed a positive relationship to math achievement for Asian children, a negative relationship for Black and Hispanic students, and no significant relationship for White students. The variable rules on homework, chores, TV, and so forth was positively related to math achievement if reported by Asian children and negatively associated with math achievement if reported by White parents. Finally, the variable parents check homework from the students’ perspective has a significant negative association with achievement across all ethnicities.

A fourth large-scale study that reported a positive relationship between PI and academic achievement was conducted by Keith et al. [11]. This widely cited structural analysis study attempts to establish causal relationships using a sample of about 22,000 8th grade students. This study uses the technique of structural equation modeling (SEM), which entails defining a causal model to which the data are fitted.Some of the variables that were shown to best fit the causal model relating PI and student achievement included (a) talking about school, (b) aspirations/expectations, (c) structure in the home in the form of rules, and (d) participation in school activities such as PTO. Figure 3 shows these four variables and example topics from the NELS: 88 survey.

Figure 3: Original four variables underlying the PI construct in the Keith et al. [11] study. Note: adapted from “Does parental involvement affect eighth-grade student achievement? Structural analysis of national data,” by T. Z. Keith, P. B. Keith, G. C. Troutman, P. G. Bickley, P. S. Trivette, and K. Singh, 1993, School Psychology Review, 22(3), pp. 483, 486.Results showed that these four variables are not significantly correlated to one another, and thus PI is multidimensional. In fact, when the structure and participation variables were removed and other variables added (e.g., family background, previous achievement, and ethnicity), as shown in the model depicted in Figure 4, the model fit better.

Figure 4: Keith et al.’s [11] structural equation model of parental involvement variables and student achievement. Note: from “Does parental involvement affect eighth-grade student achievement? Structural analysis of national data,” by T. Z. Keith, P. B. Keith, G. C. Troutman, P. G. Bickley, P. S. Trivette, and K. Singh, 1993,School Psychology Review, 22(3), p. 488.The student achievement variable (on the right of Figure 4) was derived from scores from short standardized tests of reading, math, science, and social studies (history, citizenship, and geography), developed for NELS by Educational Testing Service (ETS). The largest predictor of student achievement is, not

surprisingly, students’ previous achievement. However, Keith et al. [11] also found unique variance attributed to the PI variable.Additionally, Keith et al. [11] found unique variance attributable to ethnicity. The authors coded ethnicity as 1 for White and Asian and 0 for Black, Hispanic, and Native American. While White and Asian students showed generally higher achievement than Black, Hispanic, and Native American students, what is interesting is that parents of Ethnicity 0 reported more PI than parents of Ethnicity 1 (shown by the inverse relation between ethnicity and PI). Finally, the data for family socioeconomic status (SES, reflected by the family background variable) showed that higher SES was associated with higher student achievement.Our fifth large-scale study, conducted by Chen [8], was similarly a structural analysis investigating students in different grade levels (i.e., grades 9 to 11) in terms of their perceived academic involvement from their parents. This involvement was then examined relative to academic achievement directly and also indirectly through students’ self-reported academic engagement such as study time (which included hours that students reported doing their homework), studying during a typical week, and motivation to go to school.

Data were collected through questionnaires administered to 270 Hong Kong students in the three grade levels. Structural equation modeling (SEM) analysis revealed interesting findings regarding parental support. The first finding showed that the indirect relationship of the students' perceived PI to academic achievement was mediated by perceived academic engagement. This finding, however, was significant only for 9th grade students (). The second finding revealed that perceived PI was directly andnegatively related to academic achievement for all grade levels but statistically significant only for the 10th grade students. In short, (a) perceived PI appears to predict academic achievement, and (b) higher levels of perceived PI are associated with lower levels of achievement, especially for 10th graders in Hong Kong.

In our final large-scale study, Sui-Chu and Willms [2] computed regression and factor analyses to predict mathematics achievement using PI factors (i.e., home discussion, home supervision, school communication, and school participation), family variables (i.e., SES, number of siblings, number of parents, learning problem, and behavioral problem),

and ethnicity (i.e., White, Asian or Pacific Islander, Hispanic, Black, or Native American) using NELS: 88 data for mathematics.All of the variables were significant at the  level except for the nonsignificant effects of (a) number of parents in the home, and (b) home supervision (e.g., rules), both of which may be contrary to conventional wisdom (i.e., the deleterious effects of single-parent homes on achievement, and the importance of rules). Of the PI factors, the largest predictor of mathematics achievement is again the degree to which parents and their children talk about school (i.e., home discussion). Finally, Sui-Chu and Willms [2] reported that PI made a significant unique contribution to explaining variation in students’ academic achievement, over and above the effects associated with parental background.4.9. Limitations of Nonexperimental Research

After reviewing the PI literature, it is worth noting some of the main limitations of PI research in conjunction with their possible ramifications. These include the following:(i)Use of nonexperimental design leads to the inability to distinguish between correlation and causation.(ii)Inconsistent definitions of PI leads to difficulty in comparing/interpreting findings across studies that define this construct differently.(iii)Lack of isolation of PI effects leads to the inability to distinguish effects due to PI from genetic and other environmental variables.One observation from reviewing this literature concerns the need to be cautious about interpreting correlational data. For instance, we saw earlier that the variable parents checking homework is often negatively associated with student academic achievement. This is likely because parents tend to check homework more vigilantly when there are academic problems, making PI in the form of homework checking an effect rather than a cause of academic achievement. Further, actually doing homework (by the child) has been shown to be positively associated with academic achievement [11].In addition, there may be other mediating factors relating to PI effects on student achievement that have not yet been adequately researched. For example, as part of their research and analysis using structural modeling, Keith et al. [11] examined mediating variables involving PI and academic achievement. As shown in Figure 5, PI is characterized as exerting its effect on student achievement via the mediating variable of homework, where more PI is associated with doing more homework, which in turn is associated with higher achievement. Also, according to

this model, doing more homework is associated with less TV viewing.

Figure 5: Relationship between PI and achievement with homework and television viewing as mediating variables. Note: adapted from “Does parental involvement affect eighth-grade student achievement? Structural analysis of national data,” by T. Z. Keith, P. B. Keith, G. C. Troutman, P. G. Bickley, P. S. Trivette, and K. Singh, 1993, School Psychology Review, 22(3), p. 490.

The literature we reviewed has paid little attention to possible interactions among classes of important variables. In short, caution is warranted in attributing direct effects of parenting, genes, or social/environmental factors because all three may interact with each other in predicting academic achievement.

4.10. Children’s versus Parents’ Perspectives

As noted earlier, the literature shows that children’s perceptions about PI variables appear to be better predictors of student achievement than parents’ perceptions [8, 9, 42]. In addition, most of the studies show that PI and its probable influence on achievement declines as children progress through school [5,40]. There are several possible reasons for this decline: (a) middle and high schools become more complex, with more demanding curricula that can intimidate parents; (b) there are fewer school outreach efforts to involve parents in the secondary school years; (c) parents may exert progressively less influence over their adolescent children as they become more independent [8, 37, 43, 44]. Regarding the latter point, as students become older, they start to rely on peers for advice and support more than on their parents. Peer group influences have a powerful effect on children’s motivation to do well in school [45, 46].The fields of education and psychology appear to be adjusting to the challenge directed toward the more traditional view that parenting has a very large influence on children's development. What the emerging view will be remains to be seen. One possible view might be similar to the view expressed by Cohen [47], who argued that while both parent and peer influences are modest, the peer influence is smaller and parent influence is larger than estimated by Harris, who asserted that differences in parenting have essentially no lasting influence on how children turn out [44].

Despite the relative modesty of the influence of PI in the research cited in this paper, there is a need for caution in underemphasizing the importance of parents’ efforts on behalf of their children, academically and otherwise. Even Harris [44] warns that her theory (which does not attribute lasting parental influence) is not intended to imply that children can get along without their parents. In fact, “children are emotionally attached to their parents (and vice versa), are dependent on them for protection and care, and learn skills within home that may prove useful outside it; these facts are not questioned” [48, p. 461].Thus, Harris affirmed the key role of parents in protection, care, and support of learning. Furthermore, given that parents play a key role in selecting or otherwise determining a child’s home, school, neighborhood, and cultural group, we can see that parents have an importance that may not be fully captured in these studies. And, as Levitt and Dubner [49] have noted, “Clearly, bad parenting matters a great deal…[U]nwanted children—who are disproportionately subject to neglect and abuse—have worse outcomes than children who are eagerly welcomed by their parents” (pp. 153-154).

5. Conclusions

Parents appear to have an important opportunity to influence their children’s academic achievement though the influence may not be as great as traditionally believed. Correlational studies have found modest associations between various PI variables and student academic achievement, with some of the most consistent relationships being reported for (a) parents talking with their child about school [2, 4,8–11, 50], (b) parents holding high expectations for students’ academic achievement [1, 3, 10, 14], and (c) parents employing an authoritative (not authoritarian) parenting style [10, 17, 19, 20]. Citing the inability of correlational studies to determine causality, as well as the findings of twin and adoption studies, researchers have estimated the impact of PI variables on academic achievement as quite modest [44, 47–49]. Others have agreed that the influence of parents is modest but go on to assert that peer influence is likewise modest [47]. It seems that both parents and peers can have an influence on a child’s academic achievement.

Given that parents have limited influence over the child’s peer relationships, direct parental influence remains an opportunity to

leverage those factors for the benefit of the child, including their academic achievement. The design of policies, practices, and interventions should reflect an understanding of these findings about the nature and magnitude of parental influence on children’s academic achievement.

References

1. A. J. L. Baker and L. M. Soden, “ED419030 1998-04-00 the challenges of parent involvement research,” Tech. Rep. ERIC/CUE Digest Number 134, ERIC Clearinghouse on Urban Education, New York, NY, USA, 1998.

2. E. H. Sui-Chu and J. D. Willms, “Effects of parental involvement on eighth-grade achievement,”Sociology of Education, vol. 69, no. 2, pp. 126–141, 1996.

3. H-F. Chen, The longitudinal factor structure of parent involvement and its impact on academic achievement: findings from the ECLS-K dataset, ProQuest Dissertations, University of Denver, Denver, Colo, USA, 2009.

4. R. B. McNeal, “Parental involvement as social capital: differential effectiveness on science achievement, truancy, and dropping out,” Social Forces, vol. 78, no. 1, pp. 117–144, 1999.

5. E. N. Patrikakou, “Adolescence: are parents relevant to high school students’ achievement,” FINE network at Harvard Family Research Project, 2004,http://www.gse.harvard.edu/hfrp/projects/fine/resources/digest/adolescence.html.

6. Institute of Education Sciences. (n.d.), “National Longitudinal Study of 1988,” National Center for Educational Statistics Web site, http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/nels88/.

7. S. Catsambis, “Expanding knowledge of parental involvement in secondary education: effects on high school academic success,” Tech. Rep. 27, Johns Hopkins University, Center for Research on the Education of Students Placed at Risk, Baltimore, Md, USA, 1998.

8. J. J. L. Chen, “Grade-level differences: relations of parental, teacher and peer support to academic engagement and achievement among Hong Kong students,” School Psychology International, vol. 29, no. 2, pp. 183–198, 2008. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar

9. L. Desimone, “Linking parent involvement with student achievement: do race and income matter?” Journal of Educational Research, vol. 93, no. 1, pp. 11–30, 1999.

10. W. H. Jeynes, “The relationship between parental involvement and urban secondary school student academic achievement: a meta-analysis,” Urban Education, vol. 42, no. 1, pp. 82–110, 2007. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar

11. T. Z. Keith, P. B. Keith, G. C. Troutman, P. G. Bickley, P. S. Trivette, and K. Singh, “Does parental involvement affect eighth-grade student achievement? Structural analysis of national data,” School Psychology Review, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 474–496, 1993.

12. J. Battle, “Longitudinal analysis of academic achievement among a nationwide sample of Hispanic students in one- versus dual-parent households,” Hispanic Journal of Behavioral Sciences, vol. 24, no. 4, pp. 430–447, 2002.

13. E. Dearing, K. McCartney, H. B. Weiss, H. Kreider, and S. Simpkins, “The promotive effects of family educational involvement for low-income children's literacy,” Journal of School Psychology, vol. 42, no. 6, pp. 445–460, 2004. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar

14. X. Fan and M. Chen, “Parental involvement and students' academic achievement: a meta-analysis,” Educational Psychology Review, vol. 13, no. 1, pp. 1–22, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar

15. K. Singh, P. G. Bickley, P. S. Trivette, T. Z. Keith, P. B. Keith, and E. S. Anderson, “The effects of four components of parental involvement on eighth grade student achievement: Structural analysis of NELS-88 data,” School Psychology Review, vol. 24, pp. 299–317, 1995.

16. L. A. Kurdek, M. A. Fine, and R. J. Sinclair, “School adjustment in sixth graders: parenting transitions, family climate, and peer norm effects,” Child Development, vol. 66, no. 2, pp. 430–445, 1995.

17. D. Baumrind, “Current patterns of parental authority,” Developmental Psychology, vol. 4, no. 1, pp. 1–103, 1971. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar

18. E. E. Maccoby, “Parenting and its effects on children: on reading and misreading behavior genetics,” Annual Review of Psychology, vol. 51, pp. 1–27, 2000.

19. E. E. Maccoby and J. A. Martin, “Socialization in the context of the family: parent-child interaction,” in Handbook of Child

Psychology, Socialization, Personality and Social Development, P. H. Mussen and E. M. Hetherington, Eds., vol. 4, pp. 1–101, John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA, 4th edition, 1983.

20. S. E. Paulson, “Relations of parenting style and parental involvement with ninth-grade students' achievement,” Journal of Early Adolescence, vol. 14, no. 2, pp. 250–267, 1994.

21. D. Baumrind, “Parental disciplinary patterns and social competence in children,” Youth & Society, vol. 9, no. 3, pp. 239–251, 1978.

22. D. H. Demo and M. J. Cox, “Families with young children: a review of research in the 1990s,”Journal of Marriage and Family, vol. 62, no. 4, pp. 876–895, 2000.

23. S. M. Dornbusch, P. L. Ritter, P. H. Leiderman, D. F. Roberts, and M. J. Fraleigh, “The relation of parenting style to adolescent school performance,” Child Development, vol. 58, no. 5, pp. 1244–1257, 1987.

24. B. Radziszewska, J. L. Richardson, C. W. Dent, and B. R. Flay, “Parenting style and adolescent depressive symptoms, smoking, and academic achievement: ethnic, gender, and SES differences,”Journal of Behavioral Medicine, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 289–305, 1996. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar

25. D. A. Adeyemo, “Parental involvement, interest in schooling and school environment as predictors of academic self-efficacy among fresh secondary school students in Oyo State, Nigeria,”Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, vol. 3, no. 1, pp. 163–180, 2005.

26. K. Aunola, H. Stattin, and J. -E. Nurmi, “Parenting styles and adolescents' achievement strategies,”Journal of Adolescence, vol. 23, no. 2, pp. 205–222, 2000. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar · View at PubMed

27. R. Deslandes, P. Bouchard, and J.-C. St-Amant, “Family variables as predictors of school achievement: sex differences in Quebec adolescents,” Canadian Journal of Education, vol. 23, no. 4, pp. 390–404, 1998.

28. R. Deslandes, E. Royer, D. Turcotte, and R. Bertrand, “School achievement at the secondary level: influence of parenting style and parent involvement in schooling,” McGill Journal of Education, vol. 32, pp. 191–208, 1997.

29. S. D. Lamborn, N. S. Mounts, L. Steinberg, and S. M. Dornbusch, “Patterns of competence and adjustment among adolescents from authoritative, authoritarian, indulgent, and

neglectful families,” Child Development, vol. 62, no. 5, pp. 1049–1065, 1991.

30. G. J. Marchant, S. E. Paulson, and B. A. Rothlisberg, “Relations of middle school students' perceptions of family and school contexts with academic achievement,” Psychology in the Schools, vol. 38, no. 6, pp. 505–519, 2001. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar

31. R. K. Chao, “Extending research on the consequences of parenting style for Chinese Americans and European Americans,” Child Development, vol. 72, no. 6, pp. 1832–1843, 2001.

32. D. Miliotis, A. Sesma Jr., and A. S. Masten, “Parenting as a protective process for school success in children from homeless families,” Early Education & Development, vol. 10, no. 2, pp. 111–133, 1999.

33. K. Kim and R. P. Rohner, “Parental warmth, control, and involvement in schooling: predicting academic achievement among Korean American adolescents,” Journal of Cross-Cultural Psychology, vol. 33, no. 2, pp. 127–140, 2002.

34. J. Tizard, W. Schofield, and J. Hewison, “Collaboration between teachers and parents in assisting children's reading,” British Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 52, pp. 1–15, 1994.

35. R. Clark, “Homework-focused parenting practices that positively affect student achievement,” inFamilies and Schools in a Pluralistic Society, N. F. Chavkin, Ed., pp. 85–105, State University of New York, New York, NY, USA, 1993.

36. C. Snow, W. Barnes, J. Chandler, I. Goodman, and L. Hemphill, Unfulfilled Expectations: Home and School Influences on Literacy, Harvard University Press, Cambridge, Mass, USA, 1991.

37. E. H. De Bruyn, “Role strain, engagement and academic achievement in early adolescence,”Educational Studies, vol. 31, no. 1, pp. 15–27, 2005. View at Publisher · View at Google Scholar

38. V. Lee and R. Croninger, “The relative importance of home and school in the development of literacy skills for middle-grade students,” American Journal of Education, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 286–329, 1994.

39. A. Milne, “Family structure and the achievement of children,” in Education and the American Family, W. Wiston, Ed., SUNY University Press, New York, NY, USA, 1989.

40. N. Zill and C. W. Nord, Running in Place: How American Families Are Faring in a Changing Economy and an Individualistic Society, Child Trends, Washington, DC, USA, 1994.

41. J. Cohen, Statistical Power Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences, Lawrence Erlbaum, Hillsdale, NJ, USA, 2nd edition, 1988.

42. R. B. McCall, S. R. Beach, and S. Lau, “The nature and correlates of underachievement among elementary schoolchildren in Hong Kong,” Child Development, vol. 71, no. 3, pp. 785–801, 2000.

43. M. Azmitia and C. R. Cooper, “Good or bad? Peer influences on Latino and European American adolescents' pathways through school,” Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, vol. 6, no. 1-2, pp. 45–71, 2001.

44. J. R. Harris, The Nurture Assumption: Why Children Turn out the Way They Do, Simon & Schuster, New York, NY, USA, 1998.

45. A. J. Fuligni, J. S. Eccles, B. L. Barber, and P. Clements, “Early adolescent peer orientation and adjustment during high school,” Developmental Psychology, vol. 37, no. 1, pp. 28–36, 2001.

46. T. A. Kindermann, “Natural peer groups as contexts for individual development: the case of children's motivation in school,” Developmental Psychology, vol. 29, no. 6, pp. 970–977, 1993.

47. D. B. Cohen, Stranger in the Nest: Do Parents Really Shape Their Child's Personality, Intelligence, or Character?John Wiley & Sons, New York, NY, USA, 1999.

48. J. R. Harris, “Where is the child's environment? A group socialization theory of development,”Psychological Review, vol. 102, no. 3, pp. 458–489, 1995.

49. S. D. Levitt and S. J. Dubner, Freakonomics: A Rogue Economist Explores the Hidden Side of Everything, William Morrow, New York, NY, USA, 2005.

50. A. T. Henderson and K. L. Mapp, A New Wave of Evidence: The Impact of School, Family, and Community Connections on Student Achievement, Southwest Educational Development Laboratory, Austin, Tex, USA, 2002.