Beyond Universalism in Culture and Socialization

•The cross-cultural perspective has challenged the notion that the process of Culture and Socialization is completely universal. •Despite some similarities across cultures, research has shown important cultural variations that require theoretical clarifications and further empirical research. •Many questions reamin…

The Multi-Cultural Challenge

•As a starting point, the notion that a society (nation) is represented by a single culture which, in turn, influences socialization, personality and behavior is no longer viable.

•Reality is that most people in most societies are exposed to influences from more than one culture.

The Multi-Cultural Challenge (Cont.)

This is the primary reason that the “cross-cultural psychology” field rubric is increasingly being replaced by “multi-cultural psychology” or simply “cultural psychology.”

But. the psychological consequences of acculturation and assimilation have been studied by social scientist for nearly 100 years.

The Multi-Cultural Challenge (Cont.)

Theories abound:

• the melting pot– Inclusive– Selective

• Segregation– Separate and unequal– Separate but equal– Separate but not yet equal

The Multi-Cultural Challenge (Cont.)

• Embracing cultural diversity– The mosaic analogy– Celebrating all diversity

• Gender• Language• Height• Sexual orientation• Etc.

Acculturation in a Nutshell

The following two slides provide a succinct summary of the complex relationship between Acculturation and Environmental Stress

The role of the actual acculturation experience is emphasized to demonstrate different hypothetical outcomes.

Environmental Influences and Personal Choice

A Humanistic Perspective on Acculturation

Raymond T. Garza, Ph.D.Placida I. Gallegos, Ph.D.

Past Research

• Stonequist (1935)-Marginal Person Theory– An individual lives in two margins of culture.– If the individual experiences poor adjustment,

the individual must choose one or the other culture to isolate him or herself.

• Ramirez et al.-multiculturalism doesn’t always produce negative outcomes.– Instead high levels of adjustment and positive

capabilities.

Past Research on Acculturation

• Personality Types (Padilla et al.)– Individuals choose to move toward, against, or away

• Berry and Annis (1974)– “The personal factor in Acculturation”-individuals defy

classification by refusing to conform.

• Szapocznik and Kurtines (1980)– Personal choice factors in relinquishing or retaining

one’s culture.

Problems with Past Research

• Previous theoretical frameworks have not allowed for the simultaneous contributions of cultural, ecological, and personality variables.

• And subgroup and individual variations were largely ignored.

Proposed Model• Addresses Critical Question

– Why some people adjust positively while others do not.

• Incorporates both personal and situational factors.

• Involves Free Will– The individual can choose to act in a manner

incongruent with cultural demands.

• Not a Linear Model– Cross-cultural studies of Maori (Fitzgerald, 1971)

• Stressed the importance of acculturation and assimilation.• View acculturation as a complex dynamic process where the

direction of change can be reversed by situational factors.

Humanistic Alternative to Studying Acculturation

• Two Basic Meta-theoretical Assumptions– Free Will– Environmental Contingencies (limitations)

• Lens Model-Brunswick (1952)– In any given situation an individual is faced

with a large number of stimuli and possible behaviors with varying probabilities of occurrence and enactment.

– The cultural environment affects the range of stimuli and potential social behaviors and respective probabilities.

Environmental Factors

• Do not impact the individual uniformly.

• Should not be oversimplified, (i.e., Acculturation is more complex than generation status)

• Free will can moderate or even negate cultural influences.– If cultural construct very powerful, the behavior is highly

determined.– The individual can bear responsibility for his or her

cultural characteristics.– The Hispanic/Latino can choose whether or not to adopt

mainstream American cultural perspectives.

Cultural Constructs

• Based on Kelly’s (1955) Theory on Personal Constructs– Working hypotheses used by the individual to

structure and anticipate life events.• Do not exist in absolute sense

– Cultural construct nothing more than how the individual construes it.

– Different individuals may interpret differently.• Probability of Influencing Individual based on

Significance and Convenience• Back to Kelly

– Individual can choose to modify or reject a cultural construct regardless of environmental strength or saliency.

Biculturals or Multiculturals

• Range of cultural constructs is much greater.– Highly Americanized Hispanic/Latino-higher

probability of exposure to mainstream American constructs

• Isolated individuals will be restricted in exposure.– Undocumented Individuals who stay within a

particular neighborhood

• For example, Hispanics as a multicultural group– Difficult to assess specific cultural aspects.

Important Terms to Theoretical Framework

• Convenience and Significance– Individuals usually select the most convenient

alternative.– But if decision is personally significant then

overrides convenience.

• Strength and Saliency– Saliency-the probability of the individual to be

influenced by a construct.– Strength-the potency of a construct on an

individual.

Positive and Negative Outcomes of Multiculturalism

• Positive:– More flexible individual can adapt to complex

environments.

• Negative– Individual overwhelmed with simultaneous living will

reject one culture.– Resulting in long term damage to psychological health

and inability to adapt to complex environments.

• Open Cultural System– Allows for individual to tolerate both cultures.

Environmental Limitations

• Whether an individual’s range is large or small has profound impact on individual’s behavior (Lewin, 1935).

• Actions stem from both positive and negative forces.– The individual can either retreat and shelter

himself or herself, or– Become well-equipped to master his or her

environment

Proposed Model Constructs

• Socio-ecological influences-incorporate socioeconomic and other non-cultural environmental factors, which can have a direct impact on the individual.

• Family Influences-socialization practices and parental attitudes

• Individual-includes personality (includes innate factors such temperament), affective, and cognitive components

• Social Behavior-overt behavioral expressions of individuals

Humanistic Interaction Humanistic Interaction ModelModel

Socio-ecological Influences

Individual

Multicultural Influences

Social BehaviorFamily Influences

Benefits for Future Research with Humanistic Model

• Allows within-culture individual variability

• Researchers can use only one portion of the model, but must not ignore the rest.

• Future Research– “Universal multiculturalism”