Bhartrhari the Scholar

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B H A R T R H A R I T H E S C H O L A R *by

H A J I M E N A K A M U R ATokyo

I . BHARTRHARI~S THEORY CON CERNING THE SACRED BOOKSBhart .rha ri dec la red h imse l f to be a gramm ar ian , and co nte m po ra rys c h o la r s o f I n d i a l o o k e d u p o n h i m a s o n e . B u t t h e s t u d y o f g ra m m a ro r ig ina te d in t he in t e r p r e t at i on o f t he Ve da s ; o r thod ox B r a hma n icschola r s had inc lude d gram m ar in the s ix a flgas which were supplem enta ryto t he Ve da s , a nd f r om a nc ie n t t ime s i t ha d he ld a n impor t a n t a ndrevered p lace .

Bhart .rha ri was a l so he ld in h igh es teem as a Vedhn ta phi lo soph er ands i n c e t h i s p h i l o s o p h y w a s f o u n d e d o n v a r i o u s o r t h o d o x B r a h m a n i csac red boo ks , the Upani . sad in pa r t icu la r , i t c lea r ly fo l lows tha t Bhar -t r ha ri , i n a dd i t i on to be ing a g r a mm a r i a n a nd a Ve d a n ta ph i lo sophe r ,was a l so a be l ieve r in those sac red boo ks . The ques t ion a r ises a s towhe the r he r e a lly be li e ve d in t he a u tho r i t y o f t ho se s a c r ed boo ks . Thehis tor ical f ac t tha t g ram m ar or ig ina l ly dev e loped ou t o f the Vedf if lgas,p r e jud ic e d h i s th ink ing , so t ha t he w a s ob l ige d to de c l a r e tha t t he g r a m m a rwhic h he t a ugh t w a s ba se d o n the Ve da s a nd tha t he h im se l f wa s a f o l lowe ro f th e V e d i c / o r e .

Th us in h is wr i tings he re fe r red f requent ly to the Vedas . H e recognizedt h e a u t h o r i t y o f t h e f o u r V e d a s1 a nd the e x is t enc e o f va r ious Ve d icsc hoo l s ba se d on the s a me r i t ua l i smf l he a s se r t e d too tha t t hough theVe da s we r e o f one e n t it y , so t o spe a k , t he y we r e t a ugh t by m a ny sa in t s* T h i s a r t ic l e i s an E n g l i s h t r an s l a t i o n o f a p a r t o f t h e w r i t e r ' s w o r k i n J ap an es e :Kotoba no Ke i j i j ogaku ( "M etaph ys ics o f l ang uag e" ) (Toky o , 1956), pp . 141-181 . Thi sb o o k c o n s t it u t e s t h e f o u r t h v o l u m e o f h i s H i s t o r y o f E a r l y V e d a n ta P h i lo s op h y .x A t ha rva .nam A~g ira sa .rn sam nam rgya j u r ca [ ya sm inn uccavaca va rn a # p r t h a ks t h i t a p a r i g r a h a h . / / ( V a kya p . I , 21) . Bu t in som e cases the t e rm t r a y i i s f o u n d : ibid. ,I , 134; I I I , 3 , 70.2 bhedan am (~ akhdna m) bahumargatva.m karm a.ny eka t ra eanga ta / ~abdana .mya ta~ak t i t va .m t a sya gakhasu d r@a t e / ] ( V ak y ap . I, 6 ). T h e w o r d s i n b r ack e t s a r es u p p l e m e n t e d b y th e c o m m e n t a t o r.


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BHARTRHARI THE SCHOLAR 283in various ways and this gave rise to the opinion that there were severalversions of the Vedas? This illustrates clearly the general attitude towardsthe Vedas in Bhart.rhari's day.

The Vedas are the sacred scriptures of orthodox Brahmanism and areknown as the ~ r u t i . Brahmanic scholars hold that the Vedas are notthe work of man but revelations from time immemorial acquired byvarious r . s i s through mystic inspiration and were handed down by themfrom generation to generation. In order to differentiate between theVedas and the compositions of the later sages, the latter were calleds m . r t i and were supposed to be based on the ~ r u t i , i.e. the Vedas. Bothg r u t i and s m . r t i were handed down, from father to son, in an unbrokenchain, through ages, and the Indians in general accorded to both authorityand veneration.

Bhart.rhari accepted this view of the orthodox Brahmins: " It is saidthat the words of the g r u t i , though their author and their origin is unknownto us, go on forever without interruption; so does the s m . r t i though itwas composed by scholars4. '5 And again: "The words of the g r u t i werecomposed a long, long time ago. '6

At the Mah~pralaya (the destruction of the whole world, especially atthe end of a kalpa) the world, dissolving into the Brahman, reverts tonothing and is reborn as a new world again. This process of annihilat ionand rebirth continues in an eternal cycle while the Vedas remain un-changed; they are unaffected by the process of birth, duration andannihilation of the world. Thus they are without beginning and withoutend. (In this respect the thought of Bhart.rhari is precisely the same asthat contained in the B r a h m a - s a t r a s , 7 which was also shared by theMim~.msh school.) On the other hand, however, the s m . r t i , though ofhuman conception and origin, was handed down from ancient times inan unbroken sequence. And here Bhart.rhari makes a point of empha-sizing the fact that the composition of the s m . r t i writings are multifarious:some are clear as to their aim and purpose (for instance the writings on8 pr@ tyupa yo 'nukarag ca tasya ( = brahma.nah) redo mahar.sibhi.h ] eko 'py aneka-v a r tm e v a s am a m na ta .h p r t h a k p r t h a k ] / ( V ~ k y a p . I , 5) .4 I n s o m e c a s es t h e w o r d s gruti a n d sm.rti a r e u s e d i n c o m b i n a t i o n . ( V a k y a p . I , 1 35 ).anadim apy avicchinn~.m grutim ahur akart . rkam / ~ i~t.air n ibadhyamana tu n a vya-vacchidyate sm.rt iO/ / (Vhkyap. I , 146) . Th e tex t has avacchinnam a n d t h e p r e s e n t w r i t erc h a n g e d i t t o t h e a b o v e r e a d i n g a c c o r d i n g t o t h e c o m m e n t a r y o f Pro3. a r ~ ja . A c c o r d i n gt o t h e i n f o r m a t i o n b y P ro f . d e J o n g , C h a r u d e v a S h a s t r i 's e d i t i o n (L a h o r e , 1 93 4)g i v es th e r e a d i n g : avyavaehinnarp, w h i c h m u s t b e r i g h t.e gdstram atidare vyavasttiitam, ibid., I / I , 14 , 74, p . 487.R e f e r t o t h e a u t h o r ' s w o r k : " T h e P h i l o s o p h y o f t h e B r a h r n a s ~ t r a s " ( i n J a p a n e s e )(Tokyo, 1951) , pp. 412 f t .


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284 H A J I M E N A K A M U R Am e d i c i n e ) ; s o m e a r e v a g u e a n d d i ff i cu l t t o f o l l o w (a s f o r e x a m p l e t h ew r i t in g s o n w h a t f o o d s s h o u l d a n d s h o u l d n o t b e e a t e n ) . B u t al l t h esm.r t i w r i t in g s w e r e p r o p o u n d e d b y t h e V e d i c s c h o l a rs ( V e d a v id ) f o l l o w i n gt h e s p e c i a l c h a ra c t e r i s t i c s ( l i h g a ) o f t h e V e d a s . ' 's

B h a r t . r h a r i c a l l s t h e ' g r u t i a s w e l l a s t h e s m . r t i : ~a s t r a 9 o r a g a m a . 1~F r e q u e n t l y h o w e v e r th e t e r m g a s t r a r e f e r s t o t h e V e d a s i n a b ro a d s e n s e , 11a n d t h e t e r m a g a m a s t a n d s f o r t h e sm .r t i 12 a n d i n p a r t i c u l a r t h e b o o k sw h i c h g i v e t h e b a s i c r u le s o n g r a m m a r , la T h e i n t r i n s ic m e a n i n g o f t h et e r m a g a m a s u gg e st s s o m e t h i n g w h i c h h a s b e e n h a n d e d d o w n f r o ma n c i e n t t i m e s ;14 t h e r e f o r e ~ i t c a n s t a n d f o r b o o k s s u c h a s t h o s e o f t h eVaige. sika sch oo l a s w e l l a s the g a s t r a . B u t i n t h e V a k y a p a d i y a t h e t e r ma g a m a r e fe r s t o t h e b o o k s o f t h e p u r e o r t h o d o x B r a h m a n i c s c h o o l s a n dc a n t h e r e f o r e i n c l u d e t h e ~ r u t i a n d t h e sm.r t i . A s w e h a v e a l r e a d y s t a te d ,t h e f o r m e r w a s o f n o n - h u m a n c r e a ti o n a n d t h e la t te r c o m p i l ed b y h u m a ne f f o r t ; b u t t h e la t t e r f o u n d i ts s o u r c e a n d o r i g i n s i n t h e f o r m e r . I n t h ec o n c e p t o f t h e t r a n s m i g r a t i o n o f t h e w o r l d i t i s b e l ie v e d th a t t h e g r u t ip e r i sh e s o n l y t o g r o w l ik e s e e d s ( b i j a ) o u t o f t h e V e d a s a g a i n . 16 " I t i so u r f i x e d b e l i e f t h a t t h e a g a m a w a s p r o d u c e d o u t o f so m e s o u r c e o r o t h e r .W h e n a ll t h e a g a m a h a v e p e r i s h e d , t h e t h r e e V e d a s w i ll r e m a i n l i k e s e ed st o g i v e n e w b i r t h t o t h e a g a m a . ''1 7

A s w e c a n c l e a r l y s e e f r o m t h e a b o v e q u o t a t i o n , B h a r t .r h a r i r e g a r d e dt h e V e d a s a s t h e a b s o l u t e s o u r c e o f a l l k n o w l e d g e . H e s t u d i e d t h e md i l ig e n t l y a n d w a s w e l l v e r s e d i n t h e m . H e w a s a l s o f a m i l i a r w i t h t h es u b t le d i f fe r e n c e s w h i c h e x i s te d b e t w e e n t h e v a r i o u s V e d i c s c h o o l s, i s H i sw o r k c l e a r l y r e fl e ct s h i s v e n e r a t i o n f o r t h e V e d a s .

H i s v i e w s o n t h e g r u t i a n d t h e s m . r t i a r e m u c h s im i la r t o t h o s e o f t h es sm.rtayo bahu r@a ~ ca d.rs.t.adr.staprayo]anaO / ta m evakritya lifzgebhyo vedavidbhiOpraka~itah./[ (Vfikyap. I, 7).9 Pu.nyarfija efers to the sm.rti as sm.rtigdstra (ad V~tkyap. I, 43).1~ grutismrtilaks.a.nagama Pun.yaraja ad I, 41).u Vfikyap. I, 43; I, 1 37 . But in a certain case he refers to the gram mar o f Pa.ninia s gastra ( I I I , 1 3 , 2 3 , p . 4 4 1 ) .1~ sarvapravades, v ~gam av~ky~n~ .m sm.rtiv~ky~n~.m pra.netrparigrahetta paurus, ey at va mupagamya te - (Pu n . y a r~ j a ad V ~t k yap . I , 1 3 4 ).13 Cf . V ~k y ap . I I , 4 8 4 f .1~ v.rddhebhya dgama lj, I I I , 7 , 2 (p . 2 9 4 ) ; pftrvebhya agamab, I I I , 1 4 , 2 0 (p . 4 5 6 ) .15 V f i k y a p . I I I , 1 1 , 9 . S e e a l s o t h e c o m m e n t a r y o f H e l ~ tr S j a ( p . 39 9) .1~ tfm i (Vedavftkyani) parvagam es.u vicchinne~u anyes.u pra.nett's.u agam antar(musa.m-dhfme bijavad avatis.t.hante / (Ptm. .yar f i j a ad V~kyap . I , 134) .1~ na j(ttv akart.rkar~ ka~cid ~gam a .mpratip ady ate / bljar~ sarvgtgamapaye tray y evftdauv y a v a s t h i t ~ / / ( V ~ t k y a p . I , 134) .~ I n h i s c o m m e n t a r y o n t h e M a h f ib h f i. sy a h e r e f e r s t o a n d q u o t e s f r o m T a itt ir iy ~ t. h,V f i j as a n e y in a h . , A ~ v a l S y a n a - a n d A p a s t a m b a ( - ~ r a u t a ) - s 5 t r a , B a h v . r c a - ( ~ r a u t a ) -s f i tr a -b h ~ . s y a , N i r u k t a , P r~ tt i~ f ik h y a an d ~ i k .s a (K i e l h o rn i n Indian Ant iquary, 1883 , p . 227) .


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B H A R T R H A R I T H E S C H O L A R 285Mima rosa school. It is not possible to go deeply into this matter in thisarticle, but short reference must be made to it as it has given rise to manyquestions. To modern scholars it may seem illogical that Bhart.rhari heldthe Vedas in such profound veneration; but when we realize the circum-stances which led to the establishment of grammar as a branch of studiesin ancient India, Bhart.rhari's attitude can be easily understood. In thebeginning grammar, like the study of phonetics (dik.s~7), prosody (chandas)and etymology (niruk ta) , was only an auxiliary science or one of theVedaflgas. It was taken for granted that the scholars who applied them-selves to these studies were convinced of the absolute sanctity of the Vedas.Accordingly, up to a much later period, all grammarians adhered un-conditionally to the Vedas. Since he grew up in such an atmosphere oftradi tion, the sanctity of the Vedas was an accepted and undisputed factwhich he believed had been handed down through the ages. The im-portant place accorded to their sanctity in his writings arises from thefact that, as a grammarian, he was loyal to historical traditions andbeliefs.

Bhart.rhari does not make an effort to explain clearly and in detail whythe Vedas were regarded as holy. To him, a faithful Brahmin of theorthodox school, their holiness was without question; in other words hetook it for granted. This does not mean, however, that he did not givethe matter his thought and consideration, for he was, after all, a phi-losopher. Traces of his speculations, though they may be few, can befound in his writings. To him the Vedas were " the convenient road(expediency) leading to the Brahman", or "the imitation19 of theBrahman" . These phrases which were used in the Vedanta philosophyexpress his veneration of the Vedas. But when we analyze them we seethat the only absolute principle which he accepted was the Brahmanexisting b e h i n d the Vedas, although these were traditionally consideredto have a holiness of their own. His idea suggested, consequently, thatthe authority of the Vedas is dependen t on the Brahman. According toBhart.rhari the Brahman is high and the Vedas low. In other words,although Bhart.rhari was an orthodox Brahmin scholar who professedprofound veneration for the Vedas, in actual fact he transcended thisgenerally accepted belief. In terms of his own doctrines, parts of theVedas, which deal with various rituals, lose their significance, ~~ and the19 p r a p t y u p a y o ' n u k a r a g c a t a s y a (b r a h m a . n a h ) ve da .h . . . ( V ~ k y a p . I , 5 ) . C f . T a t t v a -s a . m g r a h a p a f i j i k a a d v . 1 2 8 . - v a r . n a p a d a k ra m e . n a v a s t h it o V e d a s t a d a d h i g a m o p a y a st a s y a p r a t i c c h a n d a k a n y a y e n f i v a s t h i t a .h /20 F o r f u r t h e r d e t a i l s o f h i s v ie w s o n t h e V e d a s s ee V f ik y a p . I, 8 - 1 0 ; 2 4 ; I I , 2 4 0 ;392 f. etc.


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286 HAJIME NAKAMURAV e d a n t a ( U p a n i .s a d ), w h i c h d e a l s w i t h t h e B r a h m a n , i s t h e o n l y a d e q u a t eo n e . T h e r e f o r e w e c a n s a y t h a t B h a r t r h a r i 's d o c t r i n e s w e re b a se d o nt h e V e d a n t a p h i l o s o p h y a l t h o u g h o n t h e s u r f a c e h e a p p e a r s t o b e a no r d i n a r y B r a h m i n s c h o l a r p r o f e s si n g th e s a m e V e d i c i d e a s as a l l o t h e rs c h o l a r s o f h i s t i m e .

II. THE SIGNIFICANCE OF BHARTRHARI'S SCHOLARSHIP AS A GRAMMARIAN

A s t h e r e i s a t e n d e n c y i n t h e V e d i c i d e a s o f B h a r t .r h a r i t o e v a l u a t e t h eV e d a s f r o m a V e d ~ m t a s t a n d p o i n t r a t h e r t h a n f r o m t h e u s u a l B r a h m i no n e , h is a t t it u d e a s a g r a m m a r i a n m u s t d i f f er f r o m t h a t o f th e o t h e rg r a m m a r i a n s o f h is ti m e . B e f o r e d i s cu s s in g t h is p o i n t , i t m a y b e w e l l t oe x a m i n e h i s c o n c e p t i o n o f g r a m m a r .

T h i s b r a n c h o f s t u d y w a s , in a n c i e n t I n d i a , o n e o f t h e s i x a h g a s , c a l l e dv y d k a r a ~ a ; t h e a h g a s w e r e s e c o n d in i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e ~ruti . T h e r e f o r eg r a m m a r - b o o k s g iv in g th e r u d i m e n t s o f g r a m m a r w e r e a p a r t o f t h esm.rti. I t i s s a i d t h a t t h e v a r i o u s g r a m m a r - b o o k s w r i t t e n b y a n c i e n ts c h o la r s w e r e b a s e d o n t h e ~ r u t i a n d t h e sm.rt i , a p o i n t a c k n o w l e d g e d b yB h a r t r h a r i : ~1 " T h e r e f o r e t h e e x c e l l e n t s c h o l a r s b e g a n t o t e a c h t h es ig n i f ic a n c e o f w o r d s a c c o r d i n g t o t h e V e d a s w h i c h w e r e n o t c r e a t e d b ym a n , a n d , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e sm.rt i , w h i c h l a i d d o w n t h e r u le s ( o n t h e u s a g eo f w o r d s ) . 'z2 W e a r e i n c l i n e d t o b e l i e v e t h a t t h e g r a m m a r i a n s o f t h o s ed a y s , d e s p i te t h e i n t e r e s t t h e y h a d i n t h e i r s u b j e c t a n d t h e p l e a s u r e t h e yd e r i v e d f r o m i t , w o u l d n o t h a v e d e v o t e d t h e i r e n e r g i e s t o s u c h a c o m -p l i ca t e d a n d e l a b o r a t e s t u d y a s g r a m m a r , i f i t w e r e o n l y o n e o f th e s ixV e d~ tf lg as . B u t s c h o l a r s h i p i n t h e f i e ld o f g r a m m a r w a s s e c o n d in i m -p o r t a n c e o n l y to t h e V e d a s t h em s e l v es a s is d e a r l y s h o w n b y s o m eB u d d h i s t s fl tr a s. 2a B h a r t r h a r i e m p h a s i z e d i ts i m p o r t a n c e a s a s t u d y i ni ts o w n r ig h t . A c c o r d i n g to h i m s c h o l a r s h ip i n g r a m m a r s h o u l d b e p l a c e dh i g h e r t h a n t h e o t h e r s o f t h e s i x V e d ~ f ig a s ( p r a t h a m a m . c h a n d a s a ma h g a m ) 2~ a n d e l s e w h e r e h e p r a i s e s i t a s t h e h i g h e s t a m o n g t h e s t u d i e s o ft h e t h r e e V e d a s w h i c h a r e m a d e u p o f m a n y b r a n c h e s o f s tu d y . .5 H e21 Cf. V fiky ap. 1, 143.22 tasmad akrtaka.m Sastra.m sm.rti~n v5 sanibandhanarn [ a$rityarabhya te M.st.aibgabdanam anugasanam // (V~kyap. I, 43).28 In th e various traditional sciences of India "Vy~k ara.na" is mentioned next to th eVedas. 'Ch'eng-shih-lun' X, M iscellaneous Impurities, 136 (Taisho XX XII, p. 321 b);"Mah~tparinirv~n. -sfitra' XIX (Taisho XII, p. 730 ab).24 V ~ky ap. I, 11 SD S. XIII, 1. 87 (p. 29 5). T his idea w as shared b y Patafijali -'pradhana.m ca s.at.sv ahges.u w ak ar a~ am [ pradha ne ca k.rto yatnaO phalavan bhavati'(Mahfibh~t.sya, p. I, 11. 19-2 0; cf. S D S . , XIII, 1.84).25 anekatfrthabhed ay~s trayya vaea.h para.m pa da m (Vgtkyap. I, 144).


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BHARTRHARI THE SCHOLAR 287a l so spe a ks o f i t as t he f ound a t ion o f al l o the r s tud ie s . " A s the spe c i eso f t he me a n ings o f a ll wor ds a r e sub je c t t o t he i r f o r ms (ak.rti) , t he s tudyof gram m ar i s the or ig ina l source o f a l l s tud ies (vidya) in th e w or ld ." 36I t i s t he f ounda t ion on wh ic h a l l o the r s tud i e s a r e ba se d a nd c a n bel iken ed t o a pu r ifying f i re . ~7 "B ein g a p ur ifyin g f ire to a l l s tud y, i t shinesbr ight ly over a l l b ranches of lea rn ing . ''2s Som et imes i t is l ikened to al igh t in the da rkness ( t a m a s i j y o t i s ) . Likew ise Bhart .rhar i cons iders thes tudy o f g r a mm a r to be t he m os t e xc e l le n t o f a ll t he a sc e ti c t r ain ings( tapasam u t tamam, tapa .h )29 and the re fore i t dese rves the h ighes t p ra ise .

The o r ig ina l a im o f g r a m ma r w a s to s tudy the s t r uc tu r e o f t he s a c r e dla ngua ge o f S a nsk r i t a nd the r e by c od i f y the va r ious r u l e s a pp l i e d in t helanguage , thus prese rv ing i t s pu r i ty and prevent ing it s cor rup t ion . AsVedic l i te ra ture was wr i t ten in Sanskr i t , the endeavour to prese rve thepu r i ty o f the l a ngua ge m e a n t t he p r e se r va t ion o f the Ve d a s t hemse lve s.

P a t af i ja l i' s s t a t e me n t t ha t g r a m ma r shou ld be s tud ie d in o r de r t ha t t heVe da s be p r e se r ve d 3~ ( rak . sar tham. Vedanam adhyeyam, vyakaran .am)i l lus t ra te s th is po in t . Bha r t rha r i inhe r i ted th is t r ad i t iona l a t t i tudet o w a r d s g ra m m a r . A s g r a m m a r a i m e d a t c h e c ki n g t h e c o r r u p t i o n a n dcon fus ion of th e languag e of the sac red Ved as 81, Bhart .rha ri ca l led i tcoun te rac t ing l inguis t ic cor ru pt ion 32 ( va~maldndm. c ik i t s i tam ) .

W ha t is a c tua l ly m e a n t b y the r igh t u sa ge o f a la ngua ge ? The g r a m -mat ica l ru les of Sanskr i t had been es tab l i shed by the sQtras of Pan . . in i ,t he " V~t rt ti ka " o f K~ ty~ya na a nd the " Ma h~ bha . sya " o f P a t a ~ ja l i. Thewo r ks o f t he se th r e e c a me to be r e ga rde d by the s c ho la rs wh o c a m e l a te r ,a s r epresent ing the ve ry h ighes t au thor i ty . Bhart .rha ri conf i rms th is inh is wo rk . zz

Thus the du ty o f t he g r a mm a r i a ns w ho c a m e a f t e r t hose t h r e e p ione e r sl a y no t i n c od i f y ing ne w r u l es bu t i n p r ese r v ing a nd p r opa g a t ing theru les which had a l ready be en fixed . This r e flec ts the a t t i tude of Ind iansoc i e ty a t t h is pe r iod , 100 B .C . a nd onw a r ds , wh ic h g r a dua l ly t ook on ato l e r a b ly s t ab l e cha r a c te r . W ha t t h is soc i e ty c he r ishe d wa s no t t henove l ty o f t h ings bu t t he du r a b i l it y o f tr a d i ti on . The r e f o r e t h ings wh ic h2~ ya th ~r th a ja ta ya~ sarv ab ~abdakr tin ibandhana .h / ta tha iva lok e v idy~narn eca v idyap a r a y a . n a m / / ( V ~ t k y a p . I , 15).37 Va ky ap. I , 14 ed.3a pavi t ra .m sarva vidya nam adhiv idya .m ( = v i d ya s u ) p r a ka d a t e . (V~kyap. I , 14) .33 V ~ky ap. I , 11.3o M ahhbh~ .sya, I , p . 1 (ed . by K iel l lorn ) .3 z b h a v a t i c a g a bd a sa .m s ka ro v y a k a r a . ~ a s t r a s y a p r a y o j a n a m . (SDS. X I I I , 1 .59 , o f. 1l ,60 .~2 V ~ k y a p . I , 1 4 (t h e a i m o f g r a m m a r i s a l s o s a id t o b e t h e p e r f e c t i o n o f w o r d s) .a3 V~ kyap . I , 23 .


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288 HAJIME NAKAMURAhad been handed down from the immemorable past were treasured andvalued. The study of grammar claimed to be age-old and a part of thehistorical traditions. The correct usage of words ( s a d h u t v a ) meantfaithful conformation with the traditional rules of language. The usageheld to be the correct one was that given in the traditional rules ofgrammar. Therefore it followed that "being right" meant "being old";one was related to the other just like the back of something is related toits front.

According to Bhart.rhari the sacred study of grammar aimed at con-tinuity ( n i t y a ) and correctness of language,a4 "The aim of grammar isthe knowledge of correctness of words. The rules of this sacred studyhave been handed down in an unbroken chain to the educated. 'a~

His attitude towards language as a social phenomenon is as thoroughlyconservative as that of any other orthodox Brahmin scholar.

What were his reasons for ranking the study of grammar so high,calling it the foundation of all other studies? The answer, we think, liesin the fact that all studies can be brought into existence only through themedium of language, either the written or the spoken word. The semanticrelation can only be classified and expressed logically by means of words.At present grammar is the only study wherein the sole object is theanalysis of words, a6 "Without grammar the understanding of the realnature of various words cannot exist. 'aT Bhart.rhari illustrates this pointby means of the simile of the mirror which reflects the images o f variousobjectsY 8 Supposing that it is only by studying grammar that the natureof words can be understood, then it is for grammarians to devote theirenergies to this study. With this in view, Bhart.rhari enters into philo-sophical speculations; he adopts a philosophical attitude to languagewhich is quite separate from mere defense of grammatical rules and theirpropagation. He delved much deeper into linguistic problems than anyof his predecessors had done and came to the conclusion that wordswere component parts of the Brahman and therefore on the same levelas it.

As this metaphysical attitude formed the nucleus of Bhart.rhari'sphilosophical ideas, his grammatical ideas transcended those of thegrammarians before him. According to him, grammar leads the way to34 V~kyap. , 29.8~ s ~ d h u t v a j ~ n a v i s . a y ~ s a i ~ v y ~ k a ra . n a sm r t i. h [ a v i c c h e d e n a ~ i s t. d n ~ m i d a . m s m . r ti n i-b a n d h a n a m / / ( V a k y a p . I, 143).36 Cf. Vfikyap.I, 13 ab.87 t a tt v dv a b o d h a .h g a b d d n a .m n a s t i v y a k a r a . n a d . r t e ] (Vfikyap.I, 13 cd).88 Vfikyap. , 20.


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BHARTRH ARI THE SCHOLAR 2 8 9t h e B r a h m a n ( d s a n n a . m b r a h m a . n a s I , 1 1). H e g o e s o n t o a s s e r t t h a tg r a m m a r is a d i re c t r o a d ( d g j a s a I , 1 2 ) a n d t h a t f i n a l l y t h e h i g h e s tB r a h m a n c a n b e r e a c h e d t h r o u g h s c h o l a r s h i p i n g r a m m a r ( I , 2 2 c d ) .S i n c e r e a c h i n g t h e B r a h m a n m e a n s a r r i v i n g a t s p i r i t u a l l i b e r a t i o n , t h es t u d y o f g r a m m a r m a y b e c a l le d t h e g a t e l e a d i n g t o s p i ri tu a l l i b e ra t io n . 39T h e r e f o r e B h a r t. rh a r i e l ev a t e s g r a m m a r f r o m a m e r e s t u d y i n w h i c h r u le so n g r a m m a r a r e d i s cu s s ed t o a p h i l o s o p h y o f t h e in n e r - s e lf ( a d h y d t m a -g a s t r a ) . " I t is th e f i rs t s t e p t o w a r d s p e r f e c t i o n . I t i s t h e t r u l y r o y a lr o a d f o r t h o s e w h o d e s e r v e e n l i g h t e n m e n t '~ ~ t h u s h e p r a i s e d t h e m e r it so f g r a m m a r . " T h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e in n e r s e lf c l ea n s d ir t f r o m t h e b o d y ,f r o m s p e e c h , ~1 f r o m t h e m i n d a n d c a n b e c o m p a r e d t o a h e a l i n g p r o c e s s . ''4 2B h a r t . rh a r i 's t h e o r y w h i c h d e s c r i b e s g r a m m a r a s a s t u d y o f t h e in n e r - s e l f( a d h y d t m a d d s t r a ) w h i c h b r i n g s a b o u t s p i ri tu a l l ib e r a t i o n w a s o f e p o c h -m a k i n g i m p o r t a n c e i n th e h i s t o ry o f g r a m m a r i n In d i a.

T h e v a r i o u s r i t u a l s d e s c r i b e d i n t h e V e d a s a i m a t p r o s p e r i t y i n t h ep r e s e n t w o r l d a n d h e a v e n l y r e b i rt h i n th e n e x t. T h e a i m o f g r a m m a r ist o u n d e r s t a n d t h e l a n g u a g e o f t h e V e d i c s c r ip t u r e s a n d f r o m i t p r o s p e r i t yi n th i s a n d t h e o t h e r w o r l d c a n b e a tt a in e d . K f i ty f iy a n a p u t i n t o w o r d sh i s b e l i e f t h a t t h e u s e o f t h e l a n g u a g e o f g r a m m a t i c a l s fl tr a s l e a d s t op r o s p e r i t y ( d d s t r a p f tr v a k e p r a y o g e ' bh y u d a ya . h) ;4 3 P a t a f i j a l i e n d o r s e d t h i sv i e w t o o a n d o t h e r l a te r g r a m m a r i a n s b e l ie v e d t h e y w o u l d f in d r e -b i r t ha n d h a p p i n e s s i n h e a v e n t h r o u g h t h e ir s t u d y o f g r a m m a r . 44 B u tB h a r t . r h a r i' s b e l i e f w a s b a s e d o n p h i l o s o p h i c a l i d e a s ; h e c l a i m e d t h e a i mb e h i n d t h e s t u d y o f g r a m m a r t o b e m u c h h i g h e r t h a n r e - b ir th i n h e a v e n ;f o r hk m i t m e a n t t h e a c q u i r e m e n t o f B r a h m a n i c w i s d o m ; f o r h i m t h es t u d y o f g r a m m a r w a s a q u e s t f o r s p i r i tu a l l ib e r a ti o n .

T h i s t h e o r y b r o u g h t o n a n e w s i g ni fi ca n c e t o t h e s t u d y o f g r a m m a r a n do n e w h i c h d i ff e re d f r o m t h e t h e o ri e s o f h is p r e d e c e s so r s . A n d o f co u r s e ,39 dvdrarn apavargasya, I, 14. cf. ~abddnu~dsanagdstrasya ni .h~reyasasddhanatvat:ns id d h a m. SD S. )(HI, 11.275-6. tasm dd vyakaran , agastra .m paramapurus.drthasadhana-ta yd d h ye ta vya m i t i s i d d h a m. (SD S. X I/I , 1.284).4o ida m ddya.m pa da sthd na .m siddhisopdnaparva.ndm / iy a .m sd moks. amd.ndnam ajih m drdjapaddhati .h / / (V~kyap. I , 16). s id d h i = ka i va l ya - p rd p t i (Pu.nyar~ja). He meansspiritual liberation.41 = apabh ra.mgand.m nivr tt i (Pu.nyar~ja).4~ kayavdgbuddhivi .sayd ye m ald.h samava sthitf l .h / cikitsdlak.sa.nddhydtma~d strais tes.a.mv i g u d d h a y a . h / / ( V a k y a p . I, 148).43 M ahfib h~s ya, 1, p. 10.44 "A lso others say thus : " If one word is know n and used correctly, it will be a cowin the heavenly realm that brings abo ut things one desires." An d again others saythus: "Th ey r ide on the wagon that are made of words well combined and wellregulatedand g o to the heavenly realm wh ere desirous pleasures are. Bu t those who talk suchwrong words as c i k k a m i t a go there tro ub led " (SDS . X-I/I, 11.92-96).


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290 HAJIME NAKAMURAit was his adoption of the Vedanta philosophy that brought about thisgreat change in the study of grammar.In what way is the study of grammar a quest for spiritual liberation?To find an answer to this question we must refer to his ideas on meta-physics. With this in mind, a study of his metaphysics will be made inanother article and, as an introduction to this, his theory concerningknowledge in general will be discussed first.

III. BHARTRHARI'S THEORY ON KNOWLEDGE

As Bhart.rhari's grammatical scholarship was based - albeit super-ficially - on the preservation of tradit ional usage, his scope in the realmof philosophy was consequently restricted. He was a staunch supporterof traditions ( a g a m a ) and was strongly opposed to scholars who aimedat forming their philosophical ideas around a nucleus of logic ( t a r k a ) .

Though he admitted the existence of perception ( p r a t y a k . s a ) andinference ( a n u m a n a ) applied by men in general, Bhart.rhari advocated theexistence of something which could not be proved by either of these."Various divine powers such as demons, p i t . r s and vampires which existoutside the realm of perception and inference (employed by the ordinaryman) are the result of certain processes such as asceticism. ''~5 What hemeans is that, though we cannot ascertain the powers of demons, p i t r sand vampires etc. through perception or inference, nevertheless wecannot deny their existence. How then do we know that they exist?Through the a g a m a , that is, through the source of the scriptures. "Thereis no ordinary l i h g a to prove the existence of the universal and the form,the essence and the species. Therefore some other source (i.e. tha t of thesacred books) is used. ''4nIt hardly calls for mention that all philosophic schools belonging to theorthodox Brahmanical religion recognized the various sources oftradition, especially the Vedas, besides perception and inference; thereforeno special mention is called for. But Bhart.rhari stressed with emphasisthe importance of the d g a m a and as he held it in profound venerationhe was strongly opposed to schools which resorted to philosophicalthinking. Here again we get a glimpse of Bhart.rhari's particular attitude4~ p r a t y a k s , a m a n u m a n a .m c a v y a t i k r a m y a v y a v a s t h i t d .h [ r ak s. a . h p it .r p i~ a c d n a .m k a r m a j aeva siddhaya.h / / (V~tkyap. I, 36). Instead of karmaja , the Benares edition readskarmanta . I adopted the reading of the Lahore edition according o the informationby Prof. de Jong.~ sam anya m akrt i r bhavo ja t i r i ty a tra lau kikam [ l i~ga .m na sa .mbhavaty eva tendnyatp a r i g . r h y a t e / / ( V S k y a p . III, 14, 323. p. 605).


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BHARTRHARI THE SCHOLAR 29 1a s a s c h o la r . H e h o l d s t h a t " t h e m e a n i n g o f t h in g s is i n d e e d d e t e r m i n e db y t h e s a c r e d s c r i p t u r e s " , 47 a n d a g a i n , a t t h e e n d o f t h e s e c o n d b o o k o fh i s V ~ k y a p a d i y a w h e r e h e d i sc u s sc s i n d e ta i l th e t r a d i t i o n o f t h e s t u d yo f g r a m m a r , 4s h e a d d s t h a t " o n l y t h r o u g h t h e t e ac h i ng s o f v a r i o u sa g a m a s c a n th e m i n d r e a c h c le a r u n d e r s t a n d in g . H o w m u c h c a n th o s ew h o f o l l o w t h e i r o w n r e a s o n i n g s d i sc o v e r ? " 49 A n d f u r t h e r : " T h o s e w h oa r e f u l l o f i ll u s io n s w i t h o u t t h e ~ g a m a s a n d d o n o t f o l l o w th e t e a ch i n g so f t h e a n c i e n t s w i l l n e v e r a t t a i n t o l u c i d w i s d o m S ~ ''5 1 In o t h e r w o rd s ,a s f a r a s B h a r t . r h a ri w a s c o n c e r n e d , o n l y t h e ~ r u t i a n d t h e s m r t i c a r r i e dr e a l a u t h o r i t y ; h e c r i t i c i z e d p h i l o s o p h e r s w h o f o r m u l a t e d t h e i r o w ni d ea s , i n d e p e n d e n t o f t r a d it i o n .A l t h o u g h t h e r e i s, in t h is v e r se , n o r e f e r e n c e t o a n y s c h o o l o f t h o u g h tt o w h i c h h e w a s o p p o s e d , w e a r e o f th e o p i n i o n t h a t t h e m a t e r ia l i st s ,t h e B u d d h i s t s , J a i n s , t h e N y ~ y a -V a i ~ e. si k a s c h o o l a n d t h e S ~ f l k h y as c h o o l w e re a m o n g t h o s e w h i c h h e c o m b a t t e d . B h a rt .r h ar i, t u r n i n g ab o l d f r o n t , p r o v e d t h a t e v e n i f t h e o r t h o d o x B r a h m a n i c s c h o o l is a tt a c k e da n d c h a l l e n g e d b y l i b e r a l t h i n k e r s w h o f l o u r i s h lo g i c a s a w e a p o n , i t c a ns u ff e r n o h a r m b e c a u s e o f i ts l o n g t r a d it i o n a l s u p e r i o ri ty . " T h e r e f o r e ast h e s p i r i t ( in t h e d o c t r i n e o f su b j e c t iv i t y ) ( is n o t h a r m e d b y a n y t h i n g ) , s ow i ll th o s e w h o f o l l o w t h e w a y s o f t h e a g a m a h a n d e d d o w n t o u s w i t h o u ti n t e r r u p t i o n m e e t w i t h n o r e f u t a t i o n f r o m t h e s c h o o ls o f lo g i c ( h e t u -v ~ d a ) . " 5 2

H i s t h i n k i n g w a s n o t c o n f i n e d t o t h e f ie ld o f m e t a p h y s i c s b u t e x t e n d e dt o h i s ac t iv i ti e s a s a m e m b e r o f s o c ie t y . H e h e l d t h a t t h e l a w s ( d h a r m a )w h i c h r e g u l a t e d t h e l iv e s o f c i ti z e n s i n I n d i a n s o c i e t y c o u l d n e i t h e r b ee s t a b l i s h e d n o r r e f u t e d b y t h e o r y ( t a r k a ) a s t h e y w e r e b a s e d o n t h es a c r e d a g a m a . " T h e d h a r m a is n o t f o u n d e d o n t h e o r y (a l on e ) w i t h o u tt h e s a c r e d ~ g a m a . E v e n t h e w i s d o m o f v a r i o u s .r.sis w a s d e r i v e d f r o mt h e s a c r e d ~ g a m a . ' '5 3 " N o o n e c a n r e f u t e b y ( m e r e ) t h e o r y t h e u n i n -47 tayft ( = ~ruty~) hy artho vidhiyate ( = ni~e[yate), I, 130 d. Pu.nyar~ja's nterpretationwas followed .48 Cf. A. W eber, lndische Studien, V. S. 158 ft.; V ~kya p. II, 484 ft.49 praj~a vivekam ( = vai~radya.m) labhate bhinnair agamadarganai~ / kiyad va~akyam unnetum svatarkam anudhdvata // (V~tkyap. II, 492).59 Com menting on this statement, Pu.nyar~ja call s academic knowledge bhagavatfvidya, bhagavaff praj~a. There must be something in comm on with the Buddhist termo f bhagavatipraj~aparamita in so fa r as expression is concerned.5~ ta t tad utpreks.ama.nana.m ( = vikalpayatftm) pura .nair agam air rind / anupasita-v.rddh6n~.m vidya natiprasMati // (V~kyap. II, 493).5~ caitanyam ira yaA caya m avicchedena vartate / agamas ta m upasino hetuvadair nab OA h y a te / / ( V a k y a p . I, 41).58 na ca gam ad .rte dharm as tarke.na vyavati.slhate / .rs.f.nam api ya j j~ana.m ta d apyagamahetukam / / (V~kyap . I, 30).


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2 9 2 HAJIrcm NAKAMURAt e r r u p t e d w a y s 5a o f d h a r m a , a s t h e y a r e g e n e r a l l y a c k n o w l e d g e d . '5 5

A c c o r d i n g t o B h a r t .r h a r i e v e n s o m e t h i n g w h i c h is re j e c t e d b y t h e p u b l i co r e v e n c o n s i d e r e d t o b e c o n t r a r y t o a l l r e a s o n s h o u l d n e v e r t h e l e s s b eo b e y e d a n d c a r r i e d o u t i f i t i s s o s t a t e d i n t h e s a c r e d a g a m a . H e h o l d s ,t o o , t h a t s o m e t h i n g w h i c h m a y b e q u i t e d i ff ic u l t t o e x i st i n a c t u a l l if em u s t n e v e r t h e l e s s b e a c k n o w l e d g e d i f i t i s l a i d d o w n i n t h e s a c r e d a g a m a . 56H i s v e n e r a t i o n o f t h e s a c r e d s c r ip t u r e s m a y b e r e g a r d e d a s c o n s e rv a t i v ei n t h e e x t r e m e , e v e n b l i n d l y e n t h u s i a s ti c .

T h u s , a s w e h a v e s h o w n , B h a r t r h a r i ' s c h a r a c t e r i s ti c s a s a s c h o l a r w e r e h isv e n e r a t i o n o f t h e t r a d i t i o n a l a g a m a a n d h i s r e f u t a t i o n o f l o g ic . O n w h a tg r o u n d s d i d h e r e f u t e l o g ic ? T h e f o l l o w i n g l in e s s u m u p t h e se r e a s o n s .H e s t r e s s e s t h e f a c t t h a t m e n m a y c o m e t o u n e x p e c t e d d a n g e r w h e nt h e y r e f le c t a n d a c t p u r e l y a c c o r d i n g t o lo g i c . " E v e n a s a b l i n d m a nw h o h u r r i e s o v e r a c li f f b y m e a s u r i n g h i s w a y s t e p b y s t e p a n d r e l e a se sh i s h o l d f a i ls o f f t h a t c l if f , s o i t c a n e a s i l y h a p p e n t h a t a m a n f a l ls i n t o ap i t w h e n h e a c t s c h i e fl y o n i n f e r e n c e ( w i t h o u t t h e e y e s o f t h e a g a m a ) . " 57H e l i k e n s t h e ~ a s t r a s t o t h e e y e s a s t h e y e n a b l e u s t o h a v e k n o w l e d g e . 58

I t is i n te r e s t i n g to n o t e t h a t t h is a r g u m e n t w a s u s e d b y t h e V ~ t ts ip u tr iy as c h o o l w h i ch w a s a b r a n c h o f H i n a y a n a B u d d h is m . I n c o m m e n t i n g o nt h e " M a d h y a m a k a - k a r i k ~ t " , 9 , 3 , o f N ~ tg ~ rj un a , B h a v y a , a p h i l o s o p h e ro f t h e M ~ d h y a m i k a s c h o o l, m a k e s t h e f o l lo w i n g s ta t e m e n t i n t h e" P r a jf i ~ t- p r a d ip a m f i l a- m a d h y a m a k a - v . rt ti " : " A n d y e t s o m e o f t h eV ~ t ts ip u tr iy a s b e l ie v e t h e c o n t r a r y . W e c a n n o t a p p r o v e o f t h e t h e o r yw h i c h , a c c o r d i n g t o t h e a g a m a , h o l d s t h a t o n e w h o c l i n g s t o e x i s t e n c e(upada t . r ) e x p ia t es t h e k a r m a s o f w h a t l o o k s t o b e t h e f o r m e r e x is te n c ea n d b e c o m e s o n e w h o d i n g s t o e x i s t e n c e (upada t . r ) o f t h e ( f iv e ) u p a d a -n a s k a n d h a . H o w e v e r , t h a t t h e upadat . r d o e s n o t e x i s t i s a n e s t a b l i s h e df a c t. T h e r e f o r e w e d o n o t m e a n t o a s s er t b y i n f e re n c e ( a n u m a n a ) t h a tt h e upadat . r d o e s n o t e x i st . T h i s c a n b e l ik e n e d t o t h e f o l l o w i n g :

A s a b l in d m a n h u r r ie s a l o n g a d a n g e r o u s r o a d b y m e a s u r i n g h i s w a ys t ep b y s t e p , t h u s w h e n o n e a c t s c h i ef l y b y i n f e r e n c e o n e e a s il y r u n s i n t ot h e d a n g e r o f f a l li n g i n t o a p i t (V f i k y a p . I , 42 ) .5~ W ith regard to the last par t o f the statement Pun.yarfija declares: agamdd dhilokaviruddha.m tarkaviruddham apy acara.na.rnpratlpadyante hist.5.h.~s dharm asya c~vyavacchinn~.h panth~n o y e vyavasthit~.h / n a t~rnl lokaprasiddh atv~tkahcit tarke.na badhate // (Va kyap . I, 31).~6 See V fiky ap. I, 131.~7 hastaspar~ ad ivandhena vi.same ( = girimarge, C o m m . ) pathi dhavata [ anumana-pradhanena vinipato na durlabhab /[ (Vfikyap. I, 4 2) . T he Ben ares edition reads:hastaspargadibadhena. But w e adop t the reading o f the L ahore edition, which coincideswith the reading o f the Tibetan citation.s8 See V fikya p. II I, 14, 81 (19.490).


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BHARTRHARI THE SCHOLAR 293T h i s a r g u m e n t is n o t s o u n d , b e c a u s e t h e g o d s t h e m s e l v e s, o n a c c o u n t

o f t h e i r v a r i o u s u p a d a n a s k a n d h a s a r e d e s i g n e d a s devas, a n d b e c a u s e t h ei n f e r e n c e is n o t c o r r e c t , a s ' to m e a s u r e o n e ' s w a y s t e p b y s t e p ', i s f o u n di n n e g a t i v e i n s t a n c e s ( v i pak .se sa t t v a ) a n d b e c a u s e t h o s e w h o c h i e fl y m a k eu s e o f a l se i n f e r e n c e ( a n umanap r a b h a s a ) f a l l i n t o a p i t. A s d o u b t s a r i s e ,t h e s a c r e d s c r i p tu r e s b e i n g o p e n t o f o l l o w e r s o f a l l b e l i e fs , it i s n o t r i g h tt o d r a w a c o n c l u s i o n ( a vadhd r a . na ) b a s e d o n t h i s f a c t a l o n e ( p r a t i j ~ d ) . I tm u s t b e t a k e n i n t o a c c o u n t t h a t th e s a c r e d s c r ip t u r es h a v e t h e s a m es ig n if ic a n c e a s t h e m e t h o d o f i n f e re n c e h a s ( h e t u ) . F o r t h a t w h i c h i s n o tt h e d i r e c t o b j e c t o f p e r c e p t i o n ( p ra tyak .sa ) m a y b e a c a u s e o f d i s c r im i n a t i v ek n o w l e d g e (dr .st .Ctnta) . F o r i n s t a n c e , t h e i n f e r e n c e i s b y n a t u r e ( svabhava )a c a u s e o f d i s c r i m i n a t iv e k n o w l e d g e . " 59

C o m m e n t i n g o n t h e a b o v e p a s s ag e , A v a l o k i t av r a t a r e m a r k s a sf o l l o w s : " I n o r d e r t o m a k e t h e m e a n i n g c l e a r t h e a c a r y a B h a n d r i h a r ir e s o r t s t o a s im i l e o f a b l i n d m a n s o a s t o p o i n t o u t th e r e a s o n s w h yi n f e r e n c e s h o u l d b e r e f u t e d . . . " ~ ~59 (1 - yah na gnas ma bu .h i s de pa dag las kha c ig phy i r z log par byed de -1 ) / . . . . . . .( 2 - lu has ~e bar l en pa po l ta r gyur pa s h a na gnas pa yod pa l tar hgyur ba .hi las yohs s u z adpas [ m i la s ogs pa .h iphuhpo Ke bar b lab bah i Ke bar l en pa po K id duhg yur bar grags pa sr jes ~u dpag pas ~e bar l en pa po r ned pa ~ id du bs tan pa kho bo cag m i .hdod de -2 )

. . . . . . .

(3 -lob ba rkah pa.hi tshod dpags kyis /Kam ha.hi lam du rgyug pa l tar /r jes su dpag pa gtsor .hds in pa /r nam par l tuh ba m i dka.ho / / - 3 )

s h e s b y a b a l ta b u r .h gy ur r o s h es n a / . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . d e n i r ig s p a m a y i n te / . . . . . . . . .lha yah lha.hi Ke bar b lab ba dag K id la br ten has lha ~ id du gdags p ar bya ba yin pa.hi phy irdaft / rkan paOi tshod dpags pa ni m i mthu n pa.hi phy ogs la yah yo d pa.hi r jes su dpag paKid d u m a grub pa.hi ph yir daf t / r jes su dpag pa l tar snah ba gtsor bds in pa ni I tun bar.hgyur ba.hiphy i r r o / luh s py i y in pas the t s hom s kye bah i phy i r ya h de K id la s ne s par gz uhbas r ai rigs t e ] luf t n i r j e s s u dpag pa las don tha da d pa ma y in par gz uh bar bya s t e [mhon s um ma y in pa .h i don r togs pah i r gyu y in pa.hi phy i r / dper n a / r j e s s u dpag pa .h irah gi bdag K id bshin no / (125 a)( I c i t e d t h e p a s s a g e b y c o u r t e s y P r o f . J. N o z a w a ; c f. T h e T i b e t a n T r i p i t a k a . P e k i n gEd i t ion , ed : by D . T . Su zuk i , Tok yo -K yo to 1957 , vo l . 95 , p . 193, f o l . 153a, 1.7 f ) .so don de Kid bsal bar bya baOi ph yir s lob dpon bha hdr i ha r is r jes su dpag pa sunphyut i ha .h i khuh s bs tan pa bi phy ir / (3 -3) shes bya ba smras te / dper na lob ba rkahpa.hi tshod dpag gis lam bde ba spates te ~am ha.hi lam du rgyu g pa dih la sogs pa dag gisbrdos pa la rdeg hchah gi f t rnam pa r l tuh ba rni dka.h ba de bshin du / y id ches pa.hi luhspa~s pa r jes su dpag pa.hi tshod dpag gis r tog ge skam po.hi la in du rgyug pa dag kyahtshe .hdi la yan .hkhrul pa .h i gn od par Ogyur la [ tshe ph yi m a la yah bbras bu m i .hdod parrnarn pa r ltu~ bar .hgyur ro shes z er ro / [vol . 97 , p . 92, fo l . 225b , 1. 2 f. ] (The au th or i sd e e p l y g r a t e f u l t o D r . J o s h o N o z a w a , t h r o u g h w h o s e k in d n e s s h e w a s a b l e to o b t a i nt h e e x t r a c ts f r o m t h e T i b e t a n te x t q u o t e d a b o v e . )


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2 9 4 H A JIM E N A K A M U R AB h a v y a ' s s t a t e m e n t a b o v e 61 i s e x a c t l y th e s a m e a s B h a r t .r h a r i' s i n t h e

V ~ k y a p a d i y a . A s t h e s t a t e m e n t c o m e s f r o m a B u d d h i s t w o r k w e c a nt a k e i t t h a t t h e i d e a w a s f a i r ly p o p u l a r i n a n c i e n t I n d i a a s t y p i c a l o fBhar t . rha r i .

W h y i s i t th e n n o t s a fe to h a v e r e c o u r s e t o i n f e r e n c e a s a g u i d in gp r i n ci p le 7 H e c la i m s t h a t t h e r e a r e r o u g h l y t w o a r g u m e n t s . I n t h e f i rs tp l a c e h e d e c l a re s t h a t i t i s a b s o l u t e l y im p o s s i b l e t o a s c e r t a i n p r e c i s e l yth e vyap t i w h i c h is a n i n t e g r al p a r t o f i n f e re n c e . I n o t h e r w o r d s h ed o u b t s t h e e x i s te n c e o f a p r o p e r s u b s u m p t i v e r e l a t io n s h i p o f i d ea s ." B e c a u s e o f t h e f a c t t h a t t h e n a t u r e o f a l l t h i n g s v a r i e s 62 a c c o r d i n g t oc o n d i t i o n s , p l a c e a n d t i m e , i t i s d if f ic u l t t o a s c e r t a i n t h e n a t u r e o f t h i n g sb y i n f e r e n c e . '6 s T h i s s t a t e m e n t is f u r t h e r c o m m e n t e d o n b y P u . n ya r ~ ja :" E v e n t h e o n e a n d t h e s a m e t h i n g m a y a s s u m e a d i f f e r e n t f u n c t i o n o rc h a r a c t e r u n d e r d i f f e r e n t c o n d i t i o n s o r i n d if f e r e n t p l a c es . F o r i n s ta n c e ,w a t e r is c o l d i n a s n o w - b o u n d p l a c e b u t h o t i n a h e a t e d p o t . T h e s a m ea p p l i es t o d i f f e r en c e i n t i m e ; f o r e x a m p l e a f i r e f e el s v e r y h o t i n t h es u m m e r , b u t n o t s o i n th e w i n te r . C o n s e q u e n t l y t h e svabh~va o f w a t e rc a n n o t b e k n o w n b y i n f e r e n c e ; o n l y b y f ig a m a. E v e n t h a t w h i c h is p la i ni n i ts f u n c t i o n ( li k e f ir e f o r i n s t a n c e ) w i ll b e i m p e d e d i n t h i s w h e n b r o u g h ti n t o c o n t a c t w i th a n o t h e r e l e m e n t . " 6~

T o i l lu s t r a te t h i s p o i n t P u n . y ar fi ja w r i t e s : " F o r e x a m p l e t h e b u r n i n go f a f ir e i s i m p e d e d i n a c l o u d ; i t c a n a l so b e p r e v e n t e d b y i n c a n t a t i o n sa n d m e d i c i n e . " T h i s i d e a o f B h a r t .r h a r i' s w a s m a d e u s e o f b y ~ a f l k a r a inh i s w r i ti n g s : " E v e n c e r t a i n o r d i n a r y t h i n g s s u c h a s g e m s , s p el ls , h e rb s ,a n d t h e l i k e p o s s e ss p o w e r s w h i c h , o w i n g t o d i f f er e n c e o f t i m e , p l a c e ,o c c a s io n , a n d s o o n , p r o d u c e v a r i o u s o p p o s i t e e f fe c ts , a n d n o b o d yu n a i d e d b y i n s t r u c t i o n i s a b l e t o f i n d o u t b y m e r e r e f l e c t io n (l o g ic ) t h en u m b e r o f t h e s e p o w e r s , t h e i r f la v o u r i n g c o n d i t i o n s , t h e i r o b j e c t s , t h e i rp u r p o s e s , e t c . ; h o w m u c h m o r e i m p o s s i b l e is it t o c o n c e i v e w i t h o u t t h ea i d o f S c r ip t u r e t h e t ru e n a t u r e o f B r a h m a n w i t h it s p o w e r s u n f a t h o m a b l eb y t h o u g h t ! " 65

I n t h i s c o n n e c t i o n i t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t t h e d o c t r i n e " J u s t a s61 This verse is not fo un d in the co rresponding passage in the C hinese version of the" P r a j f i ~ - p r a d i p a - m f i l a - m a d h y a m a k a - v ~ t t i " t r a n s l a t e d b y P r a b h f i k a r a m i t r a . D r .N o z a w a i n f o r m s th e w r i t e r t h a t i t m a y h a v e b e e n o m i t te d w h e n t r a n s l a te d i n t o C h i n es e .e~ T h i s v e r s e i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e Tattvasa.mgraha u n d e r t h e h e a d i n g v . 1 4 6 0.~s avastha-de~a -kal~na.m bhedad bhinnasu ~akti.su / bhav~n ~m anum anena prasiddhira t i d u r l a b h a / / ( V ~ k y a p . I , 32) .~4 nirjBatahakter d ravy asya ta m ta m ar tha kr iya ~ pr ati / viMs.t .adravyasa.mbandhe sag a k t i b p r a t i b a d h y a t e / / ( V A k y a p . I , 3 3) . T h i s v e r s e i s i n c o r p o r a t e d i n t h e Tattvasa.mgrahau n d e r t h e h e a d i n g v . 1 4 61 . T h e f i r s t p f i d a r e a d s a s vijaata~akter apy asya.65 ~afikaraad Brah ma sfitra 1I, 1, 27.


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B H A R T R H A R I T H E S C H O L AR 295t h e s u b s u m p t i v e r e l a ti o n s h i p o f tw o i d e a s c a n n o t b e a b s o l u t e l y e st a b li sh e d ,i n f e re n c e in g e n e r a l c a n n o t e x i s t " w a s in c i r c u l a ti o n t h r o u g h o u t I n d i a a st he t h e o r y p r op ou nd e d by t he L ok~ t ya t a s c hoo l o f m a t e r i a l i s ts . 66 I t i si r o n i c a l t h a t B h a r t. rh a r i, w h o a d v o c a t e d t h e s a n c t i ty o f th e o r t h o d o xB r a h m a n i c a g a m a , s h o u l d h av e s o m e t h i n g i n c o m m o n w i th a s c h o o l o fm a t e r i a l is t s w ho w e r e l i tt l e be t t e r t ha n he a t he ns i n h i s e ye s.

A n d , i n t he s e c ond po i n t , he a s s e r ts t ha t i n a c t ua l l if e no i n f e r e nc e c a ne x is t w h i c h w i ll m e e t w i t h th e a p p r o v a l o f e v e r y o n e . " A f a c t v e r if ie da f t e r m u c h t h o u g h t b y t h o s e s k i l l e d i n i n f e r e n c e m a y b e i n t e r p r e t e d i nqu i t e a d i f f e r e n t w a y by t hos e w ho a r e e ve n m or e s k i ll e d i n i n f e r e n c e . " 67

T h us a s f a r a s l og i c a l r e f le c t ions a r e c onc e r ne d Bha r t . rha r i ha s r e a c he da n a t t i t ude o f r e l a t i v is m o r s c ep t ic i sm . H i s a r gum e n t s r e f u t i ng log i cb e c a m e f a m o u s i n l a t e r y e a r s a n d v a r i o u s w r it in g s o f th e V e d a n t a s c h o o lr e f e r t o t he se a r gu m e n t s . 68

H a v i n g a s s u m e d t h i s a t t i t ud e o f r e l a ti v i s m , Bha r t .r ha r i de c l a r e s in -f e r en c e t o b e i n c a p a b l e o f p e r su a d i n g . A c c o r d i n g t o h i m l o g ic is p o w e rl e sst o m o v e a p e r s o n w h o i s f i rm l y c o n v i n c e d o f t h e t r u t h o f s o m e f a c t , ape r s o n w ho be li eve s t ha t f a c t t o be a s t r ue a s h i s se ns es te l l h i m ; t he r e f o r el o g ic a l a r g u m e n t a t i o n i s p o w e r l es s w h e n i t c o m e s t o p e r s u a d i n g s o m e o n eo f s o m e t h in g . " W h e n a p e r so n d o e s n o t d o u b t h is k n o w l ed g e ev e n ash e d o e s n o t d o u b t h is s en s es , h o w c a n a n y o n e p e r s u a d e h i m ? " 66

T h i s t h e o r y o f r e la t iv i s m o r s c e pt ic is m w a s n o t n e w i n I n d i a ; i t h a db e e n p r o p o u n d e d b y S a f i j ay a a s e a r ly a s ] 3u d d h a 's t i m e a n d t h e J a i nb e l i ef h a d h a d s im i l a r p h i l o s o p h i c a l i n c l in a t i o n s f r o m i ts i n c e p ti o n . B u tt h e f a c t t h a t a n o r t h o d o x B r a h m i n s h o u l d t a k e u p t h i s a t t i tu d e i s r e m a r k -a b l e i nde e d .

I t i s i n t e r e s t i ng t o no t e i n pa s s i ng t ha t S a f l ka r a a dop t e d Bha r t . r ha r i ' sp h i l o s o p h y a s i t w a s . T h i s c a n b e s e e n f r o m t h e to n e i n w h i c h h e p r o -p o u n d e d h i s d o c t ri n e i n th e f o l l o w i n g e x t r ac t s f r o m h i s w r i ti n g s. " I nm a t t e r s t o b e k n o w n f r o m S c r i p t u r e m e r e r e a s o n i n g i s n o t t o b e r e l i e do n f o r t h e f o ll o w i n g r e a s o n a l s o. A s t h e t h o u g h t s o f m a n a r e a lt o g e t h e ru n f e t t e r e d , r e a s o n i n g w h i c h d i s r e g a r d s t h e h o l y t e x t s a n d r e s t s o ni n d i v id u a l o p i n i o n o n l y h a s n o p r o p e r f o u n d a t i o n . W e s ee h o w a r g u -66 SD S. I , 11. 70-1 02.67 ya tnen an um i to ' py artha .h ku~a la i r anumat .rbh i.h ] abh iyuk ta tara i r anya i r any a tha iv o-p a p a d y a t e / ] (Vakyap . I , 34 ) .~8 B h a m a t i a d B r a h m a s f i t r a I I , 1, 1 1 ; S D S . X V I , U . 8 2 0 -8 2 1 . T h i s s t a t e m e n t isa l s o q u o t e d i n t h e A n u m ~ n a - p a ri k .s ~ o f t h e Tattvasa.mgraha a s a d o c t r i n e o f B h a rt . rh a r i(p. 426, v. 1462).~9 yo ya sya sva m iva j~a na m dar~ana .m nabhi~ ankate ] sth ita .m pra tyak . sapak. se ta .mka t h a m a n yo (t ar kag a ra n a b) n i va r t a y e t / / (V ~ kya p . I , 39).


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29 6 HAJIME NAKAMURAm e n t s , w h i c h s o m e c l e v e r m e n h a d e x c o g i t a t e d w i t h g r e a t p a i n s , a r es h o w n , b y p e o p l e s t i l l m o r e i n g e n i o u s , t o b e f a l l a c i o u s , a n d h o w t h ea r g u m e n t s o f t h e l a tt e r a g a i n a r e r e fu t e d i n th e i r tu r n b y o t h e r m e n ; s ot ha t , on a c c o un t o f the d i ve r s i ty o f m e n ' s op i n i ons , i t i s i m pos s i b l e t oa c c e p t m e r e r e a s o n i n g a s h a v i n g a s u r e f o u n d a t i o n . " " B u t t h a t c o g n i t io n sf o u n d e d o n r e a s o n i n g d o c o n f li c t i s g e n e r a ll y k n o w n ; f o r w e c o n t i n u a l l yo b s e rv e t h a t w h a t o n e l o g i c ia n e n d e a v o u r s t o e s ta b l is h a s p e r f ec t k n o w -l e dge i s de m o l i s he d by a no t he r , w ho , i n h i s t u r n , i s t r e a t e d a l i ke by at h i r d . " 7o

H e r e a ga i n ~ a f l ka r a is i n a g r e e m e n t w i t h Bha r t .r ha r i' s v i ew s . Bha r -t . r h a r i ' s d o c t r i n e b r o u g h t m u c h i n f l u e n c e t o b e a r o n t h e l a t e r s c h o o l o fA d va i t i n s . T h e g r e a t s c ho l a r o f t he s c hoo l , M ~t dha va a c c e p t e d h i s v i e w sun r e s e r ve d l y . 71 ( W e m a y p o i n t ou t t ha t a s i m i l a r i t y e x i st s be t w e e n thev i ew s o f B h a r t. rh a r i a n d ~ a f l k a ra a n d t h o s e o f t h e F r e n c h p h i l o s o p h e rBla i se Pasca l a s expres sed in h i s Pens~es w h e r e h e h o l d s t h a t t h e p h i l o -s o p h i c a l r e fl e ct io n s o f m e n a r e a l w a y s o n e - s id e d a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y ; t h a tt h e C h r i s ti a n t r u t h s h o u l d b e r e v e r t e d to . )

T he ne x t s t e p i s t o d i s c us s Bha r t . r ha r i ' s a r gum e n t s i n r e f u t a t i on o fi n f e r e nc e . H i s t w o c h i e f one s ha ve be e n d i s c us s e d e a r li e r on ; t he f i rs t ,o b j e c t i v e a n d b a s e d o n p u r e t h e o r y , t h e s e c o n d b a s e d o n t h e s o c i a l a n di nd i v i dua l po i n t o f v i ew . A s t he s e c ond on e doe s no t r e f u t e t he e ss e n t ia l so f in f e r en c e th e y m a y b e c o n s i d e r e d ir r el e v a n t. B u t " t o r e ly o n i n f e r e n c e "i s de c i de d l y a s oc i a l ph e n e m e n on a nd s inc e he i s opp os e d t o i t h i s a r gu -m e n t s h a v e p o i n t s in t h e m w h i c h m e r i t a t t e n t io n . B u t d o h i s s t a te m e n t sp r ove i n f e r e nc e t o be fa l se ? W a s Bha r t . rha r i t r u l y oppo s e d t o i t? T oa ns w e r t he s e que s t i ons w e ha ve t o d i s c us s h i s s t a t e m e n t s a nd h i s a r gu -m e n t s .

A s h i s f i r s t po i n t Bha r t . r ha r i ho l d s t ha t i n s om e c a s e s A c a n be B , i no t h e r s A c a n n o t b e B a n d t h a t t h e r e fo r e n o s u b s u m p t i v e re l a t io n s h i p c a ne x i st b e t w e e n t h e tw o . B u t B h a r t r h a r i a d m i t s t h a t i n c a se s w h e r e A c a nb e B a n d t h e c o n d i t i o n s (upadhi) w h i c h m a k e t h i s pos s i b le a r e r e p r e s e n t e db y C , t h e n t h e re m u s t be a s u b s u m p t i v e r e la t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n A a n d C a n dB . T h e n o f c o u r s e i t c a n b e i m a g i n e d t h a t i n c o m b i n i n g A w i t h Cc o n d i t i o n s r e p re s e n t e d b y D m a y b e n e c e s s a ry t o b r i n g a b o u t t h e s u b -s u m p t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n A a n d C a n d B ; a n d t h i s a d i n f i n i t u m .

T h e v e r y f a c t t h a t h e c o n s i d e r e d su c h p r o b l e m s p r o v e d t h a t B h a r t r h a r ih i m s e l f p r e s u p p o s e d t h e e x is te n c e o f s u b s u m p t i v e r e l a t io n s h i p . I n d e e d7o Safikaraad B rahm as~tra II, 1, 11 (~nSS ., I, pp. 44 9; 452).71 S D S . X VI , 1. 818 L


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B H A R T R H A R I T H E S C H O L A R 297h i s a r gu m e n t t o r e f u t e i t r2 i s ba s e d on i n f e re nc e . T he r e f o r e Bha r t . rha r if a i l e d i n h i s e f f o r t t o r e f u t e i n fe r e nc e f o r t he s i m p l e r e a s on t ha t he c o u l dn o t u n f o l d his o w n o p i n i o n w i t h o u t i t. C o n s e q u e n t l y w e m a y a d d t h a th i s a r g u m e n t s t o r e f u t e in f e r e n ce a r e w e a k a n d f a u l ty .

A s f o r h i s s e c ond s t a t e m e n t , h i s a s s e r t i ons t ha t t he c onc l u s i ons d r a w nby d i f f e r e n t ph i l o s o phe r s c on f l i c t w i t h o ne a n o t h e r i s qu i t e c o r r e c t a s af a c t u a l s ta t e m e n t , b u t h i s c o n c l u s i o n " T h e r e f o r e o n e s h o u l d n o t r e l y o ni n f e r e n c e " is e v id e n t l y d e r i v e d f r o m i n f e r e n ce . F o r t h e p r o p o s i t i o n " O n es h o u l d n o t r e l y u p o n t h a t w h i c h i s n o t a c c e p t e d b y a l l " i s p r e s u p p o s e da s th e m a j o r p r e m i s e to t h e a b o v e s t a t e m e n t . H e r e w e c o m e fa c e t o f a c ew i t h t he i n t e r e s t i ng c a s e o f a ph i l o s ophe r w ho ne ga t e s i n f e r e nc e , t a k i ngr e c ou r s e t o i t h i m s e l f . T he r e f o r e t he r e l a t iv i s t a n d dub i t a t i ve a t t i t ude o fBha r t . r ha r i w a s c on t r a d i c t o r y i n i ts e lf . S i nce s ce p t i ci s m o r t he t h e o r y o fdo ub t i s fu l l o f d i ff i c u lt po i n t s , a s i s no t i c e d i n t he h i s t o r y o f ph i l o s op hyE a s t e r n a n d W e s t e rn , h e h a d t o a c k n o w l e d g e t h e d i f f ic u l ty o f b e i n ga bs o l u t e l y s c e p ti c a l. 73 H o w e ve r Bha r t . rha r i 's r e a l a i m i n r e f u t i ng t hep o w e r o f i n f er e n c e w a s to m i n i m i z e it s im p o r t a n c e a n d e x a l t t h e s a n c t i t yo f t h e o r t h o d o x B r a h m i n agama. T h u s a l l h i s s t a t e m e n t s q u o t e d a b o v ep o i n t t o t h e o n e c o n c l u s i o n , t h a t " a l l in f e re n c e s i n c l u d e f a l s e h o o d " a n dh e r e a l ly b e l ie v e d t h is . " W h e n o n e w i sh e s t o c o n v e y t o o t h e r s t h a t w h a to n e s a i d w a s u n t r u e , w h e n o n e d e c l ar e s t h a t o n e ' s s a y in g s w e r e n o t h i n gb u t ti es , o n e d o e s n o t m e a n t h e a c t u a l s ta t i n g o f t h a t s t a t e m e n t . F o r i ft h e s a y i n g i t se l f b e f a ls e , th e w o r d s f a i l t o c o n v e y t h e m e a n i n g t h e y w e r em e a n t t o c o n v e y . " 74

T h e a b o v e s t a t e m e n t c a n b e t a k e n t o m e a n t h a t h e r ef u te s t h e a r g u m e n tt h a t " a n a s s e rt i o n t h a t a ll is f a l se h o o d i s s e lf - c o n t r a d i ct o r y a n d t h e r e f o r ec a n n o t e x i s t" . I n o t h e r w o r d s a n a s s e r ti o n " a l l is fa l s e " c a n b e e i th e rt r ue o r f a l se . I f i t i s t r ue , he c a nn o t pos s i b l y de c l a r e t ha t " a l l is f a l s e "a s the ve r y a s s e r t i on is t r ue . O n t he o t he r ha nd , how e ve r , i f t he a s s e r t i oni t s e l f i s f a l s e , i t ca nn ot ex i s t .

W e k n o w t h a t a s i m i l a r p r o b l e m w a s d i s c u s s e d b y E u r o p e a n p h i l o s o -p h e r s b u t i n s o f a r a s it c o n c e rn s I n d i a n p h i l o s o p h y i t w a s p r o p o u n d e db y t h e o p p o n e n t s t o t h e M ~ d h y a m i k a p h i l o s o p h y . I n th e " V ig r ah a v y ~ t-v a r t a n i " o f N ~ g ~ tr ju n a w e f i n d t h e f o l l o w i n g a r g u m e n t : " I f (a s t h e M ~ -d h y a m i k a a s s er ts ) t h e e s se n c e (n a t u r e ) o f th i n g s e s ca p e s u s a n d c a n n o t72 V ~ k y a p . I , 3 2 .78 S e e P a u l D e u s s e n , Allgemeine Geschichte der Philosophic, I I , 1 , S . 2 1 2 .~4 [svavaky~nam asatyarthatapratipadanaya] sarvam m ithyd bravfmfti [ukte ] naitadvakya.m vivak$yate (= wa rth ata na prasagjanfya) / tasya (= satyavakyagya) mithyabhi-dhane hi prakra nto ' rtho na gam yate / / (V ~kya p. H I , 3 , 2 5 , p . 1 0 8 ) .


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2 9 8 H AT IM E N A K A M U R A

b e f o u n d a n y w h e r e , t h e n t h e v e r y w o r d s t h a t t h o u u t t e r e st la c k t h e ir o w ne s se n c e a n d a l l t h in g s c a n n o t b e d e p r i v e d o f t h e i r n a t u r e " . " I f t h o ua s s e r t e s t t h a t o n l y t h i s s e n t e n c e o f t h i n e h a s i t s e s s e n c e (i .e . i t i s n o t f a l s e )t h e n t h e v e r y p r e v i o u s a s s e r t i o n w i ll m e a n n o t h i n g w h e n i t is h e a r d . " 75

T h e s e a r g u m e n t s w e r e b r o u g h t f o r w a r d i n o r d e r t o r e f u t e t h e d o c t r i n eo f t h e M f i d h y a m i k a t h a t a l l t h i n g s ar e v o i d . S i m i l a r a r g u m e n t s w e r e a l s ofo un d in the Ny~ tya-sQt ra ( I I , 1 , 13-14) . 78

B h a r t r h a r i w a s a g a in s t a d d i n g th e s t a t e m e n t " . . . . . is f a l se " t o a na s s e r ti o n . I n o t h e r w o r d s , t h o u g h h e m a i n t a i n e d t h a t a l l t h i n g s w e r ef a l se , h e t r i e d t o f in d t r u t h i n t h a t a s s e r t i o n a t l e as t. T h i s c a n b e t r a c e di n h is s t a t e m e n t t h a t " i n f e r e n c e is w r o n g a n d t h e r e f o r e th e d g a m a i s n o tw r o n g " t h u s t o t a ll y r e f u t in g i n fe r e n ce .

A s i n h i s r e f u t a t i o n o f in f e r e n c e , B h a r t .r h a r i h a d f i n a ll y t o b e t r a y t h ef a c t t h a t h e v i r tu a U y r e so r t e d t o r e a s o n in g , a l t h o u g h h e a r d e n t l y e x p r es s e dh i s a b s o l u t e l y o r t h o d o x a t t i t u d e i n h is a r g u m e n t s f o r th e s a c r e d s c r i p tu r e s .H e h e l d th e m i n p r o f o u n d v e n e r a t i o n m a i n t a i n i n g t h a t d i s o b e d i e n c e o ft h e i r la w s t o b e e v i l w i t h o u t q u e s t i o n i n g w h e t h e r t h i s w a s r e a l ly r ig h t o rw r o n g . B u t t h e s a c r e d b o o k s , w h i c h B h a r t .r h a r i b e l i e v e d i n so a b s o l u t e l y ,w e r e c o l le c ti o n s o f th e w i se w o r d s o f p h i l o s o p h e r s w h o h a d l iv e d h u n d r e d s ,e v e n a t h o u s a n d , y e a r s b e f o r e h is t im e s o t h a t t h e r e w e r e m a n y p h r a s e sw h i c h w e r e m e a n i n g l e s s a n d t h e i r o b v i o u s o r s u p e r f ic i a l m e a n i n g s w e r ef o u n d t o b e d o u b t f u l o n p h i lo s o p h i c a l a n d t h e o l o g i c a l g r o u n d s . S o m e -t i m e s s c h o l a r s i n t e r p r e t e d t h e m i n s u c h a w a y t h a t t h e o r i g i n a l m e a n i n gw a s l o st . B h a r t. rh a ri h i m s e l f a d m i t t e d th a t t h is h a d h a p p e n e d . " T h o u g ha l l m e n a r e a b l e t h r o u g h t h e a g a m a t o u n d e r s t a n d t h i n g s t h e f r u i t o fw h i c h i s y e t t o b e e x p e r i e n c e d , w h a t i s s t a t e d i n t h e a g a m a c a n b e i n -t e r p r e t e d i n t h e c o n t r a r y m e a n i n g . " 77

T h e a b o v e e x t r a c t m a k e s i t c le a r t h a t B h a r t. rh a r i h im s e l f a c k n o w l e d g e dt h e f a c t t h a t v a r i o u s i n t e r p r e ta t i o n s d i f f e re d o c c a s i o n a l l y f r o m a n d c o n -t r a d i c te d w h a t w a s s ta t e d in t h e sa c r e d b o o k s . T h e r e f o r e w h e n c o n f r o n t e dw i t h c a s e s o f th i s k i n d , i t w a s l o g i c a l r e a s o n i n g o n t h e p a r t o f s c h o l a r se n g a g e d i n t h e e l u c i d a t i o n o f t h e t e x t a n d n o t t h e s a c r e d s c r i p t u r e st h e m s e l v e s w h i c h l e d to a f i n a l d e c i si o n . T h i s o p i n i o n w a s c o n f i r m e d b y75 The V i g r a h a v y a v a rt a n f o f N a g d r j u n a with the author's commentary ed. by E. H .Johnston and A rnold Ktmst (Bruges, 1951), vv. 1- 2. Also see pa rt III of "Hui-cheng-hm " ("Rtsod-pa bzlog-pah.i tshig-leh.ur-byas-pa shes-bya-ba". "Vigrahavy~vartani-k~rik~").76 This argum ent is in som e w ays sim ilar to "nityasam~ j~ti.h" recognized by theNy ~ya school (Ny~tya-sfitra V, 1, 25-26); cf. no. 74.77 sarvo 'd. rs .t .aphalan ar th~ n aga m at pra t ipad ya te / v ipar i ta .m ca sa rva t ra ~ aky a tev a k t u m a g a m e / / ( V ~ k y a p . I, 142).


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BHART HA RI THE SCHOLAR 299P u . n y a rh j a . 7s I n a d d i t i o n B h a r t . rh a r i h a d t h e f o l l o w i n g t o s a y o n t h isp o i n t : " T h e r e i s a p o s s i b i l it y t h a t i n in t e r p r e t i n g t h e p h r a s e s o f t h es a c r e d b o o k s t h e o p i n i o n s o f t h e m o n o g e n i s t s a n d t h e d u a li s ts m a y d i f fe ra s e a c h d e r i v es h is o p i n i o n s f r o m h is o w n ju d g e m e n t . " 79

I t is i n d e e d t r u e t h a t m a n y o f t h e in t e r p r e t a t io n s o f w o r d s a n d p h r a s e si n t h e sa c r e d b o o k s c o n t r a d i c t e a c h a n o t h e r. E v e n t h o s e w h o p r o f o u n d l yv e n e r a t e t h e s a cr e d b o o k s h a v e t o a d m i t t hi s. W h e n c o n f r o n t e d w i ths u c h p r o b l e m s , w e h a v e t o r e s o r t t o h u m a n l o g i c t o d e c i d e w h i c h i n t e r -p r e t a t i o n t o u s e . T h e f o l l o w i n g w o r d s w r i t t e n b y B h a r t. rh a r i i l lu s t r a t et h is c l e ar ly . " L o g i c a l a r g u m e n t ( t a r k a ) w h i c h d o e s n o t c o n t r a d i c t t h es a c r e d V e d a s is as a n e y e t o t h o s e w h o h a v e n o t y e t se e n t h e t ru t h . F o rt h e m e a n i n g o f t h e s e n te n c e s c a n n o t b e c o n s t r u e d f r o m t h e c o l o u r ( t h a ti s t h e t a n g i b l e , m a t e r i a l c o n t e n t s o f th e s a c r e d b o o k s ) a l o n e , s ~

E v e n a s c o l o u r w h i c h is a m a t e r i a l t h i n g c a n b e p e r c e i v e d b y t h e e y e s ,s o c a n t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e s a c re d b o o k s o n l y b e c o m p r e h e n d e d b y lo g i c alr e fl e ct io n . T h e r e f o r e , t h o u g h h e a p p e a r s t o b e a p r o f o u n d v e n e r a t o r o ft h e s a c r e d b o o k s , B h a r t .r h a r i h a d t o r e s o r t t o l o g i c a l r e f le c t i o n in t h e e n d .P u . n y a r ~ j a m a k e s t h i s p o i n t q u i t e c l e a r i n t h e f o l l o w i n g l i n e s : " L o g i cw h i c h d o e s n o t c o n f l i c t w i t h t h e a g a m a is i n d e e d a p r o p e r f o u n d a t i o n o nw h i c h t o b u i ld k n o w l e d g e . A n d c o n t r a r i l y a g a m a w h i c h i s n o t t e m p e r e dw i t h l o g i c is m e a n i n g l e s s . " sl

A f t e r a l l B h a r t . r h a r i w a s v i r t u a l l y a p h i l o s o p h e r a n d a f r e e t h i n k e rw h o d e l v e d i n t o m e t a p h y s i c a l r e f le c t io n s w h i le o n t h e s u r f a c e k e e p i n ga g a m a a s t h e b a s i s o f h i s p h i l o s o p h y , s~ ( S a f l k a r a a l s o a d m i t s t h a t l o g i ci s n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e i n t e r p r e t a t i o n o f t h e s a c r e d b o o k s . ) s378 tasm ad agama.m prama.nik .r tya ka cid yu kt i r ucyarndna upodbalaka tva .m labhate . -(Pur)yaraja ad V hkyap. I, 142).7~ tasyarthavadar~pa .n i n igc i t ya svav ika lpa jab / eka tvina~n dva i t ind . rn ca pra vad abahudha mat&h / / (V?akyap . I, 8).so Veda~ds travirodhf ca tarka~ caks. ur apagyatdrn / r~pa ma trad dh i vak yar th a l t keva la nn a va t i s . t h a t e [ / (V h kya p . I, 137).81 a g a m d v i r o d h [ t a r ka eva p r a m &n a m a t a r ka ~ ca g a m o v i p h a l a i t i (ad V~kyap. I, 137);cf. ibid. , I , 138.82 The argum ent w hich Bhart.rhari employed to ad vocate the sacred Vedas was usedby the materialists to refute th em (SDS. I, 11.46 f.).83 "Ju st as in the case of several conflicting scriptural passages we explain all of themin such a manner as to m ake them accord with one, so ~ r u t i , if in conflict with othe rmeans o f r ight knowledge, has to b e bent so as to accord w ith the lat ter . Moreover,reasoning, which enables us to infer something not actually perceived in consequenceof its having a certain equality of attributes with what is actually perceived, standsnearer to perception than ~ r u t i which conveys its sense by tradition m erely " (Safikaraad BS. II, 1, 4). This prob lem is discussed m ore boldly in the Yogavasi#t .ha. Theautho r says that a gas t ra , though it is derived from m en, deserves to be accepted, if i tis reasonable. One mu st follow reason. A speech, if reasonable, mu st be accepted


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30 0 HAJIME NAKAMURAS c h o l a rs w h o c a m e a f t e r h i m w e r e f ul ly a w a r e o f B h a r t r h a r i ' s a m -

b i g u o u s a t ti tu d e . H i s v e n e r a t i o n o f t h e s a c re d b o o k s w a s d i sr e g a r d e da s b e i n g c o m m o n t o o t h e r s c h o o ls o f t h o u g h t a n d t h e m e t a p h y s i c a l s id eo f h is s t u d ie s w h i c h h e h a d b u i l t u p s o c a r e f u l ly w a s e x a m i n e d w i t h g r e a ti n t e r e s t ; a~ t h i s l e d t o h i s b e i n g c a l l e d a l o g i c i a n ( n a i y ~ y i k a ) b y t h e g r e a ts c h o l a r V ~ c a s p a ti m i ~ ra . T h e i r o n y o f t h i s i s o f c o u r s e o b v i o u s ; B h a rt .r h a rih a d a l w a y s o p p o s e d t h e l o g i ci a n s o f o th e r s c h o o l s o f t h o u g h t .

A n d n o w w e c o m e to a d i s c u s s i o n o f h i s d o c t r i n e a s a t r u e b e l i e v e r i nt h e s a c r e d s c ri p tu r e s . A r g u m e n t s w h i c h r e fu t e lo g i c d o n o t n e c e s s a ri lys u p p o r t t h e s a c re d b o o k s . A n d s c r i p t u re s o r s a c re d w r it in g s a r e n o tc o n f i n e d to t h e B r a h m i n b e l i e f a l o n e ; t h e y a r e f o u n d i n t h e B u d d h i s t a n dJ a i n b e l ie f s a s w e l l. T h e r e f o r e B h a r t . rh a r i m u s t h a v e h a d s o m e g o o dr e a s o n f o r in s is ti n g t h a t o n l y t h e s a c r e d w r it in g s o f t h e o r t h o d o x B r a h m i nb e l i e f s h o u l d b e h o n o u r e d a n d r e v e r ed . A s w e h a v e d i s c u ss e d e a rl ie r , h ea c k n o w l e d g e d t w o c l a ss e s o f s a c re d b o o k s : t h o s e c o l le c t ed b y t h e a n c i e n trs.is ( V e d a s ) a n d t h o s e c o m p i l e d b y s c h o l ar s w h o c a m e la t e r ( s m r t i ) .B h a r t .r h a r i i n s i s te d t h a t t h e m i n d s o f th e .r.sis a n d t h e s c h o l a r s in q u e s t i o nw e r e p e r f e c t a n d f la w l e ss , t r a n s c e n d i n g t h e p a s t a n d t h e f u t u r e a n d i tw a s n o t f o r s h a l l o w h u m a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g t o r e f u t e w h a t t h e y h a d s a i da n d w r i tt e n . " T h e k n o w l e d g e o f t h e w is e , l u c id a n d u n s c a t h e d i n t h e i rm i n d s , w i t h k n o w l e d g e c o n c e r n i n g t h e p a s t a n d t h e f u t u r e , i s a s s o u n da n d r e li a b le a s t h a t w h i c h w e a c q u i r e t h r o u g h o u r s e ns e s. 'S s " T h et r u t h s t o l d b y t h o s e w h o s e e w i t h t h e s a c r e d e y e , t h i n g s w h i c h a r e u n -

even from a child, bu t that w hich is no t reasonable should be rejected like a piece o fstraw though it might be uttered even by Brahman , the creator. T ha t m an is certainlynot wise who rejecting the beautiful water of the Ganges flowing before him drinksfrom a well thinking only that i t belongs to his fathe r:a p i p a u ru s a m a d eya .m ~d s tra m c ed yu k t ib o d h a k a m /an ya t tv ( t rsarn ap i tyd jya.rn bhavya .m ny dya ik asev ina [[yu k t i y u k t a m u p a deya .m va can a .m b a la ka d a p i [a n ya t t .r .n am i va t ya j ya m a p y u k ta .m p a d m a yo n in f t [ /yo ' srna ttd tasya k f tpo 'ya m i t i kaupa .m p ib a ty ap ab [tyak tv f t g f thga .m purastha~n ta~n ko na ~asty a t igarh i tam [[(Yogav~sist.ha II , 18, 2 --4; Vidhushekhara Bhattacharyya, The .Zlgamagastra o fGauqlapada , University of Calcutta, 1943, p. 303).84 V~easpatimigra comm ents on the B rahmas~tra-bh~t.syaby ~aflkara as follows inI, 3, 28 where Saflkara refutes the spho.ta theo ry: "ditirnfttrarn atr a sftcitarn, vistara s tuTat tvab inddv avagantavya i t i / a la~n va na iyayika ir v ivddena .' (p . 260). Here Ta t t va b in d uis the nam e o f a b ook wri tten b y V~caspatimi~ra in accordance with the theo ry o fthe Bh~tt.t.as. See also Th. Stcherbatsky, B u d d h i s t Lo g ic , II , p. 403.s~ av irbh~taprak( tddn f tm anup adru ta ce tasam / a t i tand gata j~n a .m pra tyaks , an na vi~is .-y a t e [ / ( V a k y a p . I, 37),


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BHARTRHARI THE SCHOLAR 301p e r c e i v a b l e b e c a u s e t h e y a r e b e y o n d p e r c e p t i o n , c a n n o t b e d e n i e d b yi n f e r e nc e . " s eO f c o u r s e h e d i d n o t a d m i t t h e s e n s o r y p e r c e p t io n s t o b e c o r r e c t i nt he m s e l ve s . T o p r o ve th i s Bha r t .r ha r i ga ve t he f o l l ow i ng a ns w e r s t o t heque s t i on a s t o w h e t he r t h i ngs a r e r e a l l y w ha t o u r s e nse s te l l u s t he y a r e . 87" T he e m p t y s k y a ppe a r s t o h a ve a s u r f a c e , j u s t l i ke fir e- flie s s e e m t o bem a d e o f fire . W h e n s e en f r o m a d i f f e r e n t a s p e c t t h e e m p t y s k y h a s n os u r f a c e a n d t he f i re - fl y no f i r e . " 88 " T he r e f o r e t he w i se obs e r ve c o r r e c t l yw i t h t h e m i n d e v e n t h o s e t h i n g s w h i c h c a n b e d i r e ct ly p e rc e iv e d b y t h es en s es . A s i n t u i t i o n s h o u l d b e t r u e k n o w l e d g e , w e s h o u l d n o t r e p r e s e n tt he t h i ngs w h i c h w e pe r c e i ve . " 89Bha r t . r ha ri w a s ve r y c r i t ic a l o f pe r c e p t ive r e c o gn i t i on b u t r e s pe c t e di n t u i t i o n w h i c h t h e .r.sis e s t e e m e d s o h i gh l y . A nd a s t he s a c r e d w r i t i ngsw e r e f u l l o f in t u i t i ve kno w l e dg e Bha r t . rha r i i n s i s te d t ha t t h e y be obs e r ve d .H e h e l d t h a t a c e r t a i n k n o w l e d g e e x is ts in o u r d a i l y l if e w h i c h c a n n o tr e a c h u s t h r o u g h i n f e re n c e b u t o n l y t h r o u g h o u r o w n p e rc e p ti v e e x-p e r ie n c e. " K n o w l e d g e r e g a r d i n g j e w e ls a n d g o l d w h i c h b e lo n g s t o t h o s ew h o h a v e m a d e a s t u d y o f th e s e th i n g s c a n n o t b e f u l ly c o n v e y e d t o t h o s ew h o h a v e m a d e n o s t u d y o f th e m , e x c e p t t h r o u g h l e a r n in g a n d t r a in i n g ;i t c a n n o t b e d e r i v e d f r o m i n f e re n c e . ' 9~ H e t h e n a d d s t h a t t h e c o n t e n t so f t h e s a c r e d s c r ip t u re s a r e u n d e r s t o o d b y t h e r s . i s w ho p r a c t i s e d Y oga .91

W h a t w a s t h e o b j e c t o f t h e i n t u i ti o n o f t h e .r.sis? A c c o r d i n g t o h i sp h i l o s o p h y it w a s w i t h o u t d o u b t " t h e B r a h m a n c o n si st in g o f w o r d s " .T h i s po i n t w i ll be de a l t w i t h l a t er . A c c o r d i ng t o Bh a r t .r ha r i' s ph i l o s op hyt oo , t he V e da s pos s es s t he h i ghe s t a u t h o r i t y be c a us e t he y a re t he r e f l e c t iono r i m a g e o f t h e B r a h m a n . T h e r e f o r e h is p r o f o u n d b e l i e f i n th e V e d a sc a n b e a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e f a c t t h a t t h e .r.sis i n a nc i e n t t i m e s he l d the i n t u i t i ono f th e B r a h m a n i n p r o f o u n d v e n e r a t io n . B h a r t. rh a r i a c c o r d e d a p la c e o fp r i m a r y i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e t r a i n i n g a n d d i s c i p l i n e t h r o u g h w h i c h t h ei n t u i t i o n o f t h e B r a h m a n c o u l d b e a t ta i n e d . B u t e v e n i n h is p h i l o s o p h y ,t h e B r a h m a n i s a s t a t e w h i c h t r a n s c e n d s w o r d s ; t h e .r.sis a t t a i n e d t h e i r86 a t i n d r i y a n a s a . m v e d y a n p a g y a n t y a r . se .n a c a k s u . s a / y e b h a v a n v a c an a .m t e. sa .m n a n u -m a n e n a b a d h y a t e / / ( V f i k y a p . I. 38).sr vaya rn ya th av ad a r th o d .r .s t.a.h ta th a iva c a vyavahar i. syamaO / Puo.yar~ ja's inter-pretation was followed.88 t a l a v a d d r g y a t e v y o m a k h a d y o t o h a vy a vd d , i t i / n a c e n n a s t i t a la .m v y o m n i n a k h a d y o t eh u t a ~ a n a . h / / ( V f t k y a p . II, 142, p. 140).a9 t a s m ~ t p r a t y a ks , a m a p y a r t h a .m v i d v ~ n [ k .s et a y u k t i ta . h [ n a d a r ~ a n a s y a p r d m ~ . n y ~ td .r g ya m a r t ha . m p r a k a l p a y e t ( = v y a v a h a r a . r n n i r v a h a y e t ) / / (V~kyap . II, 143, p. 140).9o p a r e s a m a s a m a k h y e y a m a b h y a s a d e v a j a y a t e / m a ~ .d r ftp y ad iv ijg a na r .n t a dv id a ~nn a n u m a n i k a m / / ( V S . k y a p . I, 35).91 t a t h d r s f.n dm a p i y o g a j a p r a t y a k s a g a m y a m e v a . (Punyarftjaad I, 35).


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30 2 HAJIME NAKAMURAi n t u i t i o n t h r o u g h Y o g a , a w o r d - l e s s a n d t h o u g h t - l e s s r e a l m ; a n d t h i s i st h e re a s o n w h y t h e B r a h m a n c a n n o t b e e x p l a in e d i n w o r d s . T h e t e a c h i n go f th e B r a h m a n i s s i m p l y th e e x p e d i e n c y o f t h e i m p a r t i n g o f t r u t h t om e n . " B e c a u s e t h e d e s c r i p t i o n s o f t h in g s i n t h e s a c r e d w r i t in g s a r e m a d ei n o r d e r t o e x p l a in t h in g s b y m e a n s o f w o r d s , t h e a v i d y d t i t s e l f i s s e t f o r t hb y m e a n s o f c e r t a i n d e s c r i p t io n s . " 92

A c c o r d i n g t o P u n . y ar fi ja t h e c o n t e n t s o f t h e s a c r e d b o o k s a r e e x p l a i n e df o r t h e b e n e f i t o f th e s t u p i d a n d t o e x p l a i n t r u t h i t s e lf i s a n i m p o s s i b i li t y . 93H i s s t a t e m e n t t h a t t h e e x p l a n a t i o n s o f th e s a c r e d s c r i p t u r e s i s b a s e d o nt h e a v i d y a i s a b o l d o n e f o r a B r a h m a n i c s c h o l a r ; S a f i k a r a s h a r e s h i so p i n i o n i n t h i s. B h a r t .r h a r i' s v i ew o n t h is p o i n t w i l l b e d i s c u s se d i n f u l lla te r . 94

T h e r e f o r e as a s c h o l a r o f t r a d i t i o n a l l o r e B h a r t . r h ar i h a s a d e e p v e n e r -a t i o n f o r t h e s a c r e d s c r i p t u r e s b u t a s a p h i l o s o p h e r h e a c c o r d s t h e ml it tl e r e a l v a l u e . I n f a c t 95 f r o m t h e p o i n t o f v i e w o f p h i l o s o p h y t h e s a c r e ds c r ip t u r es w e r e o n l y o f s e c o n d a r y i m p o r t a n c e .

I n c o n c l u s i o n w e c a n s u m u p t h e f o ll o w i n g f a c ts a b o u t B h a r t. rh a r i: H ep r o f e s s e d t o r e s t o r e o r t h o d o x B r a h m a n i c s tu d ie s , e s p ec i al ly t h e s t u d y o fg r a m m a r ; h e a t t a c k e d t h e g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y i n th e s c h o o l s o f p h i l o s o p h yi n h i s d a y t o d e p e n d o n l o g i c a l o n e a t t h e s a m e t i m e a d v o c a t i n g t h es a n c t i t y o f th e s a c r e d b o o k s . B u t i n o r d e r t o d o t h i s ( re f u t e l o g i c a n da d v o c a t e th e s a n c t i ty o f t h e s a c re d b o o k s ) h e h a d t o p r o p o u n d c e r t a i na r g u m e n t s a n d i n so d o i n g w a s o b l ig e d h i m s e l f - a l b e it u n c o n s c i o u s ly -t o r e s o r t t o l o g i ca l r e f le c t io n s . H i s f r a g m e n t a r y vi e w s r e g a r d i n g k n o w -l ed g e re v e a l t h a t h e r e c o g n i z e d t h r e e w a y s i n w h i c h k n o w l e d g e c o u l d b eo b t a i n e d :

1 ) P e r c e p t i o n t h r o u g h t h e s e n s e s ( p r a t y a k . s a ) ;2 ) T h i n k i n g b y i n f e re n c e ( a n u m a n a ) ;3 ) I n t u i t i o n o f t h e B r a h m a n ( a p t a v a c a n a ) .

92 vyavahara ya m anyante ~astrarthaprakriya yata.h / gastres,u prakriyabhedair avidyai-v o p a v a r n y a t e / / ( V ~ k y a p . II, 234). Th e latter half of this statement is again recordedin I/ I, 14, 78. (p. 489).93 gastrarthaprakriyah, keva lam abudha nam vyutp~dana ya ato na kgtstrg~.ni tat tva.mvaktu.m parayanti . Punyar~tja ad V~ky ap. II, 234.94 V~ky ap. I, 7 4; II, 24 0; II, 322 f.95 According to a fragmen t ascribed to h im and cited in a Tibetan text, Bhart.rharithought even the sacred books were based on the parikalpa. Th e author's article:"Tibetan citations of Bhart.rhari 's verses and the problem of his date", (YamaguchiCommemorat ion Volume (Kyoto, 1955), p. 125). By courtesy of Rev. Jain M uni Jambu -vijay the auth or cam e to k now tha t th e following verse is cited in B hart.rhari's owncommentary on v. I, 1 (Lahore ed.): sarvaparikalpanam abhdse 'py anavasth i taO /tarkagamanumanena buddhya parikalpi ta .h [ /


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B H A R T R H A R I T H E S C H O L A R 303T h e f i r s t a n d s e c o n d m e t h o d s a r e t h o s e a p p l i e d b y o r d i n a r y m e n a n d

a c c o r d i n g t o o n e v i e w - p o i n t o f h i s, p e r c e p t i o n is s ta b l e a n d i n f e r e n c es u b s is ts o n i t. 96 W h i l e e m p h a s i z i n g h o w e v e r t h e f a c t t h a t i n f e r e n c e isu n s t a b l e , h e r e s o r t s t o i t i n h i s o wn wr i t i n g s .

T h e t h i r d m e t h o d i s t o b e f o u n d o n l y i n t h e a n c i e n t .r.sis a n d t h e Y o g i n sw h o t h r o u g h a s y s t e m o f a b s t r a c t m e d i t a t i o n a n d r ig i d a sc e ti c is m a i m t ob e c o m e u n i te d w i t h th e B r a h m a n . W h i le t h e fi rs t t w o m e t h o d s a r e e a r thb o u n d , t h e la s t i s n o t o f t h is w o r l d . T h e s a c r e d b o o k s a r e b a s e d u p o nt h e t h i r d m e t h o d w h i c h i s d e s c r i b e d a n d k n o w n a s ~ p t a v a e a n a i n I n d i a .T h e t e r m pra tyak . sa i s s o m e t i m e s u s e d f o r t h e t h i r d a s w e l l a s t h e f i r s tm e t h

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