BI 3321, Early Church

BI 3321, Early ChurchBI 3321, Early Church

Part IVPart IV

Power Struggle (1054-1305)Power Struggle (1054-1305)

The first half of the Middle Ages saw The first half of the Middle Ages saw the church struggling to survive the church struggling to survive invasions from without and invasions from without and controversies from within. controversies from within.

The second half witnessed the The second half witnessed the theological, ecclesiastical, and theological, ecclesiastical, and intellectual power struggles intellectual power struggles perpetrated by the church hierarchy. perpetrated by the church hierarchy.

Some figures pursued noble and Some figures pursued noble and worthy causes, some sought to drive worthy causes, some sought to drive out evil forces, some espoused out evil forces, some espoused personal and universal reform, and personal and universal reform, and some were determined to gain some were determined to gain ascendancy and power over others. ascendancy and power over others.

Power Struggle (1054-1305)Power Struggle (1054-1305) A. Spiritual & Intellectual RenewalA. Spiritual & Intellectual Renewal Leo IX was pope at the time of the Eastern Leo IX was pope at the time of the Eastern

Schism in 1054 and will perhaps be Schism in 1054 and will perhaps be remembered for that above all else. remembered for that above all else.

But the papal reforms of the 11th century But the papal reforms of the 11th century owed much to the impetus of Leo IX, who did owed much to the impetus of Leo IX, who did much to restore the prestige of the papacy much to restore the prestige of the papacy through through – his extensive travels, his extensive travels, – his stand against simony, his stand against simony, – his insistence upon the election of bishops by clergy and his insistence upon the election of bishops by clergy and

people, people, – his firm position on celibacy and his broadening of the his firm position on celibacy and his broadening of the

College of Cardinals to include others outside Rome. College of Cardinals to include others outside Rome. When he died suddenly in 1054, Leo IX did When he died suddenly in 1054, Leo IX did

not know of the Eastern Schism, but he did not know of the Eastern Schism, but he did know that the tide of reform was sweeping know that the tide of reform was sweeping through the western church.through the western church.

Power Struggle (1054-1305)Power Struggle (1054-1305) A. Spiritual & Intellectual RenewalA. Spiritual & Intellectual Renewal

– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers– The papacy and the entire clergy, was in need of The papacy and the entire clergy, was in need of

universal reform. universal reform. – Problems which reflect the decadent state of the Problems which reflect the decadent state of the

church included untrained clergy, simony church included untrained clergy, simony (purchase of church posts), sexual laxity, and lay (purchase of church posts), sexual laxity, and lay investiture (control of the appointment and investiture (control of the appointment and allegiance of abbots, bishops, and popes by the lay allegiance of abbots, bishops, and popes by the lay civil authorities). civil authorities).

– The papal reforms of the 11th century which dealt The papal reforms of the 11th century which dealt with all these problems came to be known as the with all these problems came to be known as the Gregorian reforms, so-called after Pope Gregory Gregorian reforms, so-called after Pope Gregory VII, who was such a powerful leader before his VII, who was such a powerful leader before his election to the papacy that he is generally better election to the papacy that he is generally better known by his earlier name of Hildebrand.known by his earlier name of Hildebrand.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers a. Rise of Hildebrand. Born about 1025 and a. Rise of Hildebrand. Born about 1025 and

reared in Rome, where he would someday be reared in Rome, where he would someday be the chief actor in the papal scene for nearly the chief actor in the papal scene for nearly three decades, Hildebrand was educated in a three decades, Hildebrand was educated in a monastery and in his early twenties became a monastery and in his early twenties became a monk, probably at Cluny. monk, probably at Cluny.

He returned to Rome in the service of Leo IX, He returned to Rome in the service of Leo IX, who admitted him to minor orders. He became a who admitted him to minor orders. He became a close friend of Peter Damian, the Cardinal-close friend of Peter Damian, the Cardinal-Bishop of Ostia, and one of the most intense Bishop of Ostia, and one of the most intense churchmen calling for reform. churchmen calling for reform.

Although his rise to prominence was slow Although his rise to prominence was slow compared to others, Hildebrand laid his ground compared to others, Hildebrand laid his ground work well, worked in the inner circles of power, work well, worked in the inner circles of power, maintained his dedication, and by the time he maintained his dedication, and by the time he was 35 he was being noticed as a leader of men.was 35 he was being noticed as a leader of men.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers a. Rise of Hildebrand. a. Rise of Hildebrand. In 1058, Hildebrand was presented with the In 1058, Hildebrand was presented with the

opportunity to display his real power. opportunity to display his real power. Emperor Henry III died in 1056 and his 6-year-old Emperor Henry III died in 1056 and his 6-year-old

son came to the throne as Henry IV under the son came to the throne as Henry IV under the regency. regency.

After the brief reigns of popes Victor II and Stephen After the brief reigns of popes Victor II and Stephen IX, the royal regency elected Benedict X to the IX, the royal regency elected Benedict X to the papacy. papacy.

Hildebrand was in Germany when he received the Hildebrand was in Germany when he received the news of this blatant determination of the nobility to news of this blatant determination of the nobility to retain control over the papacy. retain control over the papacy.

He raised an army, expelled Benedict, and seated He raised an army, expelled Benedict, and seated Nicholas II on the papal throne. Nicholas’ reign Nicholas II on the papal throne. Nicholas’ reign lasted only two years (1059-61) but was lasted only two years (1059-61) but was distinguished by the establishment of the College distinguished by the establishment of the College of Cardinals to elect future popes. of Cardinals to elect future popes.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers a. Rise of Hildebrand. a. Rise of Hildebrand. This papal decree of 1059 is still the principal basis This papal decree of 1059 is still the principal basis

for governing the papal elections. The guiding for governing the papal elections. The guiding hands behind Nicholas’ decree were those of hands behind Nicholas’ decree were those of Hildebrand and Humbert, a cardinal-bishop from Hildebrand and Humbert, a cardinal-bishop from Toul.Toul.

Both Humbert and Nicholas died two years later, Both Humbert and Nicholas died two years later, depriving the reformers of two outstanding depriving the reformers of two outstanding leaders. leaders.

Again, it was Hildebrand who stepped into the Again, it was Hildebrand who stepped into the breach. breach.

He convened the cardinals in Rome and led them He convened the cardinals in Rome and led them to elect Alexander II to the papacy. to elect Alexander II to the papacy.

The Roman nobility still had not acquiesced to this The Roman nobility still had not acquiesced to this reform method of electing popes, and convinced reform method of electing popes, and convinced the regent of Henry IV (still a child of eleven years) the regent of Henry IV (still a child of eleven years) to appoint an Italian bishop, Cadalus, as pope. to appoint an Italian bishop, Cadalus, as pope.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers a. Rise of Hildebrand. a. Rise of Hildebrand. Although Cadalus was an annoying rival during Although Cadalus was an annoying rival during

Alexander’s entire pontificate, the strong Alexander’s entire pontificate, the strong influence and skillful administration of influence and skillful administration of Hildebrand kept Alexander securely in control. Hildebrand kept Alexander securely in control.

Alexander was an able pope and served from Alexander was an able pope and served from 1061 to 1073, when he died while in conflict 1061 to 1073, when he died while in conflict with Henry IV over the appointment of the with Henry IV over the appointment of the Archbishop of Milan. Archbishop of Milan.

With the death of Alexander, Hildebrand was With the death of Alexander, Hildebrand was the sole survivor of the band of reformers who the sole survivor of the band of reformers who had started together with Leo IX, and the people had started together with Leo IX, and the people immediately and loudly acclaimed him as their immediately and loudly acclaimed him as their choice for Alexander’s successor. choice for Alexander’s successor.

The cardinals, abbots, monks, and laity all The cardinals, abbots, monks, and laity all agreed, and Hildebrand, while only a deacon, agreed, and Hildebrand, while only a deacon, was elected to the papacy. was elected to the papacy.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers a. Rise of Hildebrand. a. Rise of Hildebrand. He had to be ordained a priest before he could He had to be ordained a priest before he could

ascend to the throne, where he took the title of ascend to the throne, where he took the title of Gregory VII. Gregory VII.

His reign lasted from 1073 to 1085 and was one of His reign lasted from 1073 to 1085 and was one of the most outstanding pontificates in history. the most outstanding pontificates in history.

As Pope Gregory VII, Hildebrand wielded sweeping As Pope Gregory VII, Hildebrand wielded sweeping powers of clerical reform but without unanimous powers of clerical reform but without unanimous acceptance. acceptance.

He enforced clerical celibacy with a strong He enforced clerical celibacy with a strong determination to free the church from the world; determination to free the church from the world; but priests and their families were thrown into but priests and their families were thrown into such turmoil and controversy that the issue was such turmoil and controversy that the issue was still raging at the time of the Reformation four still raging at the time of the Reformation four hundred years later. hundred years later.

Gregory VIIHildebrand


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers a. Rise of Hildebrand. a. Rise of Hildebrand. The decree for celibacy however, did eliminate The decree for celibacy however, did eliminate

the offensive practice of holding church office the offensive practice of holding church office by heredity and it definitely strengthened the by heredity and it definitely strengthened the authority of the pope over the clergy.authority of the pope over the clergy.

In fact, the absolute authority of the papal office In fact, the absolute authority of the papal office was the central theme of Gregory VII. was the central theme of Gregory VII.

In his famous In his famous Dictatus PapaeDictatus Papae, he forthrightly , he forthrightly declared that, declared that,

– the Roman Church was founded by God alone; the Roman Church was founded by God alone; – the Roman pope alone can with right be called the Roman pope alone can with right be called

universal; universal; – he alone may use the imperial insignia; he alone may use the imperial insignia;


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers a. Rise of Hildebrand. a. Rise of Hildebrand. In his famous In his famous Dictatus PapaeDictatus Papae, he , he

forthrightly declared that, forthrightly declared that, – his feet only shall be kissed by all princes; his feet only shall be kissed by all princes; – he alone may depose the emperors; he alone may depose the emperors; – he himself may be judged by no one; he himself may be judged by no one; – the Roman Church has never erred, nor will the Roman Church has never erred, nor will

it err in all eternity. it err in all eternity.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers a. Rise of Hildebrand. a. Rise of Hildebrand. Gregory also advocated that all Christian states Gregory also advocated that all Christian states

should form a world empire with the pope at its should form a world empire with the pope at its head as God’s representative on earth. head as God’s representative on earth.

Most of the claims to supremacy were well Most of the claims to supremacy were well established at least in theory before Gregory, established at least in theory before Gregory, but no one had ever expressed them so but no one had ever expressed them so dogmatically and enforced them so dogmatically and enforced them so successfully. He held frequent councils in Rome successfully. He held frequent councils in Rome to enforce his measures, with tenacious to enforce his measures, with tenacious attention to stamping out simony, clerical attention to stamping out simony, clerical marriage, and concubinage. marriage, and concubinage.

He instituted a thorough and permanent chain He instituted a thorough and permanent chain of command, but the bishops were totally of command, but the bishops were totally dependent on the pope, for he was determined dependent on the pope, for he was determined to destroy the practice of lay investiture which to destroy the practice of lay investiture which became the chief issue of his reign.became the chief issue of his reign.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers b. The Investiture Controversy.b. The Investiture Controversy. In 1059 Pope In 1059 Pope

Nicholas II had articulated the reform position Nicholas II had articulated the reform position on the selection of important clergymen, which on the selection of important clergymen, which was to be henceforth by the authority of clergy was to be henceforth by the authority of clergy and people and not civil rulers. and people and not civil rulers.

The pope himself was to be elected by a college The pope himself was to be elected by a college of cardinals. of cardinals.

This attitude and action was opposed by the This attitude and action was opposed by the civil authorities with varying degrees of hostility civil authorities with varying degrees of hostility rising and falling. rising and falling.

Gregory VII brought the whole issue to a head Gregory VII brought the whole issue to a head by decreeing through the Lateran Synod of by decreeing through the Lateran Synod of 1075 that all clergy were forbidden to receive a 1075 that all clergy were forbidden to receive a bishopric or abbey or church from the hands of bishopric or abbey or church from the hands of a secular prince or lord, even from the king or a secular prince or lord, even from the king or emperor. emperor.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers b. The Investiture Controversy.b. The Investiture Controversy. His unrelenting position that investiture of clergy His unrelenting position that investiture of clergy

should be received only from the pope as God’s should be received only from the pope as God’s supreme representative in the world was a radical supreme representative in the world was a radical revolution within the medieval legal and political revolution within the medieval legal and political world.world.

As an immediate example for implementing the As an immediate example for implementing the investiture decree, Gregory suspended some investiture decree, Gregory suspended some bishops in Germany who had been appointed by bishops in Germany who had been appointed by civil authorities. civil authorities.

Henry IV retaliated in anger by appointing some Henry IV retaliated in anger by appointing some bishops to sees in Italy itself. bishops to sees in Italy itself.

When Gregory threatened to excommunicate When Gregory threatened to excommunicate Henry for this sort of action, the emperor put Henry for this sort of action, the emperor put together the Synod of Worms in 1076, attended together the Synod of Worms in 1076, attended by disgruntled bishops who were easily convinced by disgruntled bishops who were easily convinced to declare Gregory unfit to be pope. to declare Gregory unfit to be pope.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers b. The Investiture Controversy.b. The Investiture Controversy. Armed with the synod’s verdict, Henry Armed with the synod’s verdict, Henry

demanded that Gregory resign the papacy. demanded that Gregory resign the papacy. The following month, Gregory deposed Henry The following month, Gregory deposed Henry

for his “unheard-of arrogance and iniquities,” for his “unheard-of arrogance and iniquities,” placed him under anathema, and relieved his placed him under anathema, and relieved his subjects of allegiance to him. subjects of allegiance to him.

In a swift stroke of power Gregory swung the In a swift stroke of power Gregory swung the German political factions behind him, and Henry German political factions behind him, and Henry found himself without followers. found himself without followers.

The emperor following the line of political The emperor following the line of political expediency asked the pope for forgiveness and expediency asked the pope for forgiveness and restoration. restoration.

In the well-known and often-told incident of In the well-known and often-told incident of absolution, Henry and Gregory met at Canossa absolution, Henry and Gregory met at Canossa in 1077 where the pope had taken refuge in a in 1077 where the pope had taken refuge in a fortress while journeying to Augsburg. fortress while journeying to Augsburg.

Henry IV at Canossa


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers b. The Investiture Controversy.b. The Investiture Controversy. Gregory would not at first receive the penitent Gregory would not at first receive the penitent

Henry who stood in the snow for three days, Henry who stood in the snow for three days, barefooted and thinly clad, seeking an audience. barefooted and thinly clad, seeking an audience.

Gregory finally received him, and after exacting Gregory finally received him, and after exacting specific promises from the emperor he absolved specific promises from the emperor he absolved him. him.

This remains one of the most vivid demonstrations This remains one of the most vivid demonstrations of papal power in history.of papal power in history.

Later, however, both Gregory and Henry broke Later, however, both Gregory and Henry broke their vows to each other, shattering the accord of their vows to each other, shattering the accord of Canossa. Canossa.

When Henry’s enemies in Germany elected a rival When Henry’s enemies in Germany elected a rival sovereign, Gregory supported them and declared sovereign, Gregory supported them and declared Henry deposed again in 1080. Henry deposed again in 1080.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers b. The Investiture Controversy.b. The Investiture Controversy. This time the people felt that Gregory had been This time the people felt that Gregory had been

unfair to Henry and supported the emperor unfair to Henry and supported the emperor when he invaded Rome and called a synod to when he invaded Rome and called a synod to pronounce Gregory deposed. pronounce Gregory deposed.

The synod had elected another pope, Wibert, in The synod had elected another pope, Wibert, in Gregory’s place; Wibert proceeded to crown Gregory’s place; Wibert proceeded to crown Henry emperor of the Holy Roman Empire. Henry emperor of the Holy Roman Empire.

Gregory retreated to the safety of the castle of Gregory retreated to the safety of the castle of San Angelo in Rome until he was liberated by San Angelo in Rome until he was liberated by his loyal Normans from the South. his loyal Normans from the South.

The Normans savagely retook Rome and The Normans savagely retook Rome and reinstated Gregory as pope. reinstated Gregory as pope.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers b. The Investiture Controversy.b. The Investiture Controversy. Within the year however, Gregory died Within the year however, Gregory died

a disillusioned and bitter refugee in a disillusioned and bitter refugee in Salerno. Salerno.

He died with his dream of absolute He died with his dream of absolute supremacy crumbling around him. supremacy crumbling around him.

He had wanted too much. He was not He had wanted too much. He was not interested in separation of church and interested in separation of church and state, but wanted absolute control of state, but wanted absolute control of church over state.church over state.

Gregory’s struggle in the investiture Gregory’s struggle in the investiture controversy did eventually culminate in controversy did eventually culminate in formal settlements. formal settlements.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers1. The Gregorian Reformers b. The Investiture Controversy.b. The Investiture Controversy. In 1122, Emperor Henry V of Germany In 1122, Emperor Henry V of Germany

agreed to the Concordat of Worms, in agreed to the Concordat of Worms, in which the emperor relinquished the which the emperor relinquished the right of selection and investiture of the right of selection and investiture of the spiritual office of bishop; but the bishop spiritual office of bishop; but the bishop was to be answerable to the civil ruler in was to be answerable to the civil ruler in temporal matters. temporal matters.

The compromise solutions reflected the The compromise solutions reflected the offsetting powers of church and state, offsetting powers of church and state, and stabilized the balance of power for and stabilized the balance of power for centuries to come.centuries to come.

Concordat of

Worms


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers.1. The Gregorian Reformers. c. The Influence of Cluny.c. The Influence of Cluny. The sweeping papal The sweeping papal

reform of the 11th c. which came to be called reform of the 11th c. which came to be called the “Hildebrandine” or “Gregorian” reform, the “Hildebrandine” or “Gregorian” reform, owed its instigation, in great part, to the owed its instigation, in great part, to the influence of a monastic reform movement which influence of a monastic reform movement which originated in the monastery of Cluny. originated in the monastery of Cluny.

So powerful in fact was the impact of this So powerful in fact was the impact of this monastery, that all the reforms of the 10th, monastery, that all the reforms of the 10th, 11th, and 12th centuries are often referred to as 11th, and 12th centuries are often referred to as the Cluniac Reformation. the Cluniac Reformation.

In 910, William, Duke of Aquitaine designated In 910, William, Duke of Aquitaine designated the town and manor of Cluny, in southern the town and manor of Cluny, in southern Burgundy, for the erection of a Benedictine Burgundy, for the erection of a Benedictine monastery. monastery.

The religious order received not only the lands, The religious order received not only the lands, waters, and revenues in the donation, but also waters, and revenues in the donation, but also the serfs, the workers on the land. the serfs, the workers on the land.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers.1. The Gregorian Reformers. c. The Influence of Cluny.c. The Influence of Cluny. Thus, with the serfs supplying the essential Thus, with the serfs supplying the essential

physical labor the monks were free to give physical labor the monks were free to give themselves to spiritual pursuits. themselves to spiritual pursuits.

They were also free, according to the conditions They were also free, according to the conditions of the grant, from interference from the patron, of the grant, from interference from the patron, his successors, or the king. his successors, or the king.

The monks were to retain their own possessions The monks were to retain their own possessions and elect their own abbot. and elect their own abbot.

The monks of Cluny were directly responsible The monks of Cluny were directly responsible only to the papacy.only to the papacy.

A deep sense of piety resulted from the long A deep sense of piety resulted from the long hours of attention to prayer and study, and soon hours of attention to prayer and study, and soon a conviction for reform began to prevail. a conviction for reform began to prevail.

Cluniacsat

Worship


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers.1. The Gregorian Reformers. c. The Influence of Cluny.c. The Influence of Cluny. The program of Cluny involved, first of all, a call The program of Cluny involved, first of all, a call

for clerical reform, especially as related to for clerical reform, especially as related to simony, celibacy and concubinage. simony, celibacy and concubinage.

But it also spread to include all of society—But it also spread to include all of society—monastic, civil, and ecclesiastical. monastic, civil, and ecclesiastical.

The goal was to permeate society with Christian The goal was to permeate society with Christian ideals. ideals.

To implement this goal, the monks dedicated To implement this goal, the monks dedicated themselves to prayer, education, and themselves to prayer, education, and hospitality. hospitality.

The monasteries of the Cluny chain became the The monasteries of the Cluny chain became the inns of the Middle Ages where Christian inns of the Middle Ages where Christian teachings were imposed on the travelers. teachings were imposed on the travelers.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers.1. The Gregorian Reformers. c. The Influence of Cluny.c. The Influence of Cluny. Many new monasteries were erected in the Many new monasteries were erected in the

Cluny tradition and many older monasteries Cluny tradition and many older monasteries became affiliated, until there were more than became affiliated, until there were more than 300 houses in the Cluniac movement, with all of 300 houses in the Cluniac movement, with all of them subject to the mother house at Clunythem subject to the mother house at Cluny

The cluniac reformers worked to eliminate The cluniac reformers worked to eliminate feudal warfare, teaching that nobles should use feudal warfare, teaching that nobles should use their arms only to vindicate the weak and their arms only to vindicate the weak and protect the church. protect the church.

They inaugurated the “Truce of God” which They inaugurated the “Truce of God” which restricted the times for fighting, and the “Peace restricted the times for fighting, and the “Peace of God” which restricted the combatants. of God” which restricted the combatants.

Under the Truce of God, there could be no Under the Truce of God, there could be no hostilities from sunset Wednesday to Monday hostilities from sunset Wednesday to Monday morning or on holy days. morning or on holy days.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers.1. The Gregorian Reformers. c. The Influence of Cluny.c. The Influence of Cluny. Under the Peace of God, there were to be no Under the Peace of God, there were to be no

attacks upon priests, nuns, pilgrims, merchants, attacks upon priests, nuns, pilgrims, merchants, farmers, their animals, tools, or properties. farmers, their animals, tools, or properties.

These efforts often did more harm than good, the These efforts often did more harm than good, the princes breaking their vows to keep the “Truce” princes breaking their vows to keep the “Truce” and “Peace.” and “Peace.”

The bishops began organizing armies to punish the The bishops began organizing armies to punish the oathbreakers, and then the kings raised armies to oathbreakers, and then the kings raised armies to suppress the church’s armies. suppress the church’s armies.

The Cluniacs were extremely influential in the fight The Cluniacs were extremely influential in the fight to free the church from the control of secular to free the church from the control of secular powers. powers.

Since Cluny had been founded upon independence Since Cluny had been founded upon independence from local bishop and civil authorities, it would from local bishop and civil authorities, it would naturally tend to support the independence naturally tend to support the independence movement. movement.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers.1. The Gregorian Reformers. c. The Influence of Cluny.c. The Influence of Cluny. Pope Gregory VII, who waged the great Pope Gregory VII, who waged the great

investiture controversy with Henry IV, received investiture controversy with Henry IV, received his training in the monastery at Cluny.his training in the monastery at Cluny.

Cluny appears to have achieved its stated Cluny appears to have achieved its stated objects, which were: objects, which were:

– return to strict Benedictine rule, return to strict Benedictine rule, – cultivation of the personal spiritual life, cultivation of the personal spiritual life, – reduction of manual labor, reduction of manual labor, – expansion of the splendor of worship, expansion of the splendor of worship, – foundation of a sound economical organization, foundation of a sound economical organization, – and independence from lay control. and independence from lay control.


– 1. The Gregorian Reformers.1. The Gregorian Reformers. c. The Influence of Cluny.c. The Influence of Cluny. The success of the Cluniac monasteries, The success of the Cluniac monasteries,

however brought a backlash of concern however brought a backlash of concern about worldly success within about worldly success within monasticism. monasticism.

The wealth of the Cluny houses, their The wealth of the Cluny houses, their easy relations with the secular world, easy relations with the secular world, and their emphasis on worship services and their emphasis on worship services led some reformers to seek a more led some reformers to seek a more austere and primitive path.austere and primitive path.


– 2. Flourishing Monasticism.2. Flourishing Monasticism. Both the advocates of Cluny and those Both the advocates of Cluny and those

who desired a new direction supplied who desired a new direction supplied new fervor for the monastic life-style. new fervor for the monastic life-style.

In fad, during this period, monastic In fad, during this period, monastic orders multiplied so rapidly that the pope orders multiplied so rapidly that the pope was forced to prohibit additional orders was forced to prohibit additional orders at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. at the Fourth Lateran Council in 1215.

Later, an exception was made in the Later, an exception was made in the case of some Mendicant Orders, but the case of some Mendicant Orders, but the issue reflects the intensity with which issue reflects the intensity with which medieval piety had plunged into medieval piety had plunged into asceticism, the renouncing of the world asceticism, the renouncing of the world to search for holiness.to search for holiness.


– 2. Flourishing Monasticism.2. Flourishing Monasticism. a. Ascetic Orders. a. Ascetic Orders. There were some orders There were some orders

which retreated to remote regions, practicing which retreated to remote regions, practicing severe discipline and constant contemplation. severe discipline and constant contemplation.

These “Knights of Asceticism” were determined These “Knights of Asceticism” were determined to reverse the Cluniac trend of involving to reverse the Cluniac trend of involving Christianity in the affairs of the world.Christianity in the affairs of the world.

(1) The Carthusians. In 1004, Bruno, a German (1) The Carthusians. In 1004, Bruno, a German from Cologne, resigned his teaching position in from Cologne, resigned his teaching position in the cathedral school of Rheims and established the cathedral school of Rheims and established an extremely strict, contemplative order of an extremely strict, contemplative order of monks near Cartusia at the Grande Chartreuse. monks near Cartusia at the Grande Chartreuse.


– 2. Flourishing Monasticism.2. Flourishing Monasticism. a. Ascetic Orders. a. Ascetic Orders.

– (1) The Carthusians.(1) The Carthusians.– The emphasis of this order was renunciation The emphasis of this order was renunciation

of the world and mortification of the flesh. of the world and mortification of the flesh. – To attain these goals, the monks lived in To attain these goals, the monks lived in

austerity and self-denial, vowed to silence austerity and self-denial, vowed to silence and committed to solitude. and committed to solitude.

– Each monk had his own private cell and Each monk had his own private cell and private garden and prepared his own food, private garden and prepared his own food, eating with his brothers only on feast days. eating with his brothers only on feast days.

– Some of the Carthusians became scholars, Some of the Carthusians became scholars, mystics, and writers of devotional works; but mystics, and writers of devotional works; but they had limited influence on society. they had limited influence on society.

Carthusians



– (1) The Carthusians.(1) The Carthusians.– Their main achievement was spiritual separation Their main achievement was spiritual separation

and anonymity through cultivated silence. and anonymity through cultivated silence. – Because of their isolation and extreme Because of their isolation and extreme

asceticism, the Carthusians were the least asceticism, the Carthusians were the least affected by the decline of monasticism in the affected by the decline of monasticism in the later Middle Ages. later Middle Ages.

– During the Reformation, numbers of them were During the Reformation, numbers of them were put to death by Henry VIII and even more were put to death by Henry VIII and even more were killed during the French Revolution. killed during the French Revolution.

– Most of them found refuge in Spain and were not Most of them found refuge in Spain and were not able to return to Grande Chartreuse until 1940.able to return to Grande Chartreuse until 1940.



– (2) The Cistercians. The most celebrated order (2) The Cistercians. The most celebrated order of ascetic monks was founded at Citeaux in of ascetic monks was founded at Citeaux in 1098 by Robert of Molesme, who sought to 1098 by Robert of Molesme, who sought to establish a form of Benedictism stricter and establish a form of Benedictism stricter and more primitive than any existing. more primitive than any existing.

– As a reaction to the Cluniac style of As a reaction to the Cluniac style of monasticism, the Cistercians emphasized the monasticism, the Cistercians emphasized the spirit of prophecy rather than the spirit of spirit of prophecy rather than the spirit of power. power.

– Whereas the Cluniacs were free from manual Whereas the Cluniacs were free from manual labor the Cistercians stressed labor instead of labor the Cistercians stressed labor instead of scholarship, believing that “to work is to pray.” scholarship, believing that “to work is to pray.”

– They became proficient in the tasks of They became proficient in the tasks of farming, cooking, weaving carpentry and farming, cooking, weaving carpentry and sheep raising. sheep raising.

Cistercians



– (2) The Cistercians. (2) The Cistercians. – They became important agricultural pioneers, and They became important agricultural pioneers, and

played a notable part in English sheep farming. played a notable part in English sheep farming. – Their life-style, characterized by simplicity Their life-style, characterized by simplicity

discipline, manual labor, vegetarianism, and discipline, manual labor, vegetarianism, and spiritual contemplation, was very appealing to the spiritual contemplation, was very appealing to the medieval mind. medieval mind.

– Thus the order spread rapidly and before the end Thus the order spread rapidly and before the end of the twelfth century 530 Cistercian abbeys had of the twelfth century 530 Cistercian abbeys had been established, and 150 more in the next been established, and 150 more in the next hundred years.hundred years.

– The most famous Cistercjan monk, Bernard of The most famous Cistercjan monk, Bernard of Clairvaux (1090-1153) bridged the age of feudal Clairvaux (1090-1153) bridged the age of feudal values and the rise of towns and universities. values and the rise of towns and universities.

Bernard of Clairveaux



– (2) The Cistercians. (2) The Cistercians. – He was the first of the great medieval mystics. He was the first of the great medieval mystics. – He entered the monastery at Citeaux when he He entered the monastery at Citeaux when he

was twenty-one, but soon led a group to found a was twenty-one, but soon led a group to found a new house of Clairvaux in the Champagne region. new house of Clairvaux in the Champagne region.

– Bernard became the most extreme Cistercian of Bernard became the most extreme Cistercian of them all, emaciating his body through them all, emaciating his body through deprivation; lashing out at the worldly tendencies deprivation; lashing out at the worldly tendencies of the church, and denouncing pride, injustice, of the church, and denouncing pride, injustice, and greed wherever found. and greed wherever found.

– Because of his moral integrity, knowledge of the Because of his moral integrity, knowledge of the Bible, devotion to love, and fearless attacks on Bible, devotion to love, and fearless attacks on evil, he was often referred to as the conscience of evil, he was often referred to as the conscience of Europe. Europe.



– (2) The Cistercians. (2) The Cistercians. – Bernard’s spiritual and intellectual pursuits Bernard’s spiritual and intellectual pursuits

centered in mysticism and produced the concept centered in mysticism and produced the concept of Christian love being the imitation of Christ, of Christian love being the imitation of Christ, especially as one contemplates the wounds of especially as one contemplates the wounds of Christ. Christ.

– He wielded great power throughout Christendom, He wielded great power throughout Christendom, with at least two popes (Innocent II and Eugenius with at least two popes (Innocent II and Eugenius III) being elected on the strength of Bernard’s III) being elected on the strength of Bernard’s support. support.

– Christians today still sing some of his beautiful Christians today still sing some of his beautiful hymns, such as “Jesus, The Very Thought of hymns, such as “Jesus, The Very Thought of Thee,” and “Jesus, Thou Joy of Loving Hearts.”Thee,” and “Jesus, Thou Joy of Loving Hearts.”

– Cistercian observances widely influenced those of Cistercian observances widely influenced those of other medieval orders, until after the 13th c. other medieval orders, until after the 13th c. when the Cistercian fame waned considerably. when the Cistercian fame waned considerably.

– During the 17th c. the Cistercians enjoyed a During the 17th c. the Cistercians enjoyed a revival of interest and a flurry of new revival of interest and a flurry of new congregations.congregations.


– 2. Flourishing Monasticism.2. Flourishing Monasticism. b. Mendicant Orders. b. Mendicant Orders. The Carthusians and The Carthusians and

Cistercians were representatives of a group of Cistercians were representatives of a group of monastic orders which could have been known monastic orders which could have been known as the “working monks” because of their as the “working monks” because of their devotion to manual labor and contemplation. devotion to manual labor and contemplation.

Another popular group could have been called Another popular group could have been called the “preaching monks” because they went out the “preaching monks” because they went out from their monasteries into the world to preach from their monasteries into the world to preach among the ordinary population.among the ordinary population.

They became known as “the friars” (brothers) They became known as “the friars” (brothers) rather than monks, and exist to the present. rather than monks, and exist to the present. When the friars left their monasteries, they had When the friars left their monasteries, they had no financial support or physical provisions. no financial support or physical provisions.

They depended on the alms or charity of the They depended on the alms or charity of the people, and thus became known as the people, and thus became known as the mendicant (to beg) orders.mendicant (to beg) orders.


– 2. Flourishing Monasticism.2. Flourishing Monasticism. b. Mendicant Orders. b. Mendicant Orders.

– (1) The Franciscans. The Order of Friars Minor (1) The Franciscans. The Order of Friars Minor (lesser brothers) was founded in 1209 by (lesser brothers) was founded in 1209 by Francis of Assisi, the son of a rich cloth Francis of Assisi, the son of a rich cloth merchant of Assisi. merchant of Assisi.

– Rejecting his father’s wealth and renouncing his Rejecting his father’s wealth and renouncing his earlier life of carefree gaiety, Francis resolved earlier life of carefree gaiety, Francis resolved to devote his life to the ideals of “lady poverty.” to devote his life to the ideals of “lady poverty.”

– On a pilgrimage to Rome, he dumped all his On a pilgrimage to Rome, he dumped all his money at St. Peter’s, exchanged clothes with a money at St. Peter’s, exchanged clothes with a beggar, and begged himself. beggar, and begged himself.

– Returning to Assisi, Francis devoted himself to Returning to Assisi, Francis devoted himself to serving lepers and repairing chapels and serving lepers and repairing chapels and churches in the area. churches in the area.

Assisi



– (1) The Franciscans. He took the words of (1) The Franciscans. He took the words of Matthew 10:7-19 to be a personal Matthew 10:7-19 to be a personal commission to him and began preaching that commission to him and began preaching that the kingdom of heaven is at hand. the kingdom of heaven is at hand.

– Crowds and disciples began to follow the Crowds and disciples began to follow the barefoot, impoverished, intense, and gentle barefoot, impoverished, intense, and gentle Francis.Francis.

– The growing number of brothers necessitated The growing number of brothers necessitated organization and rules, and Francis organization and rules, and Francis reluctantly drew up a simple rule of life for reluctantly drew up a simple rule of life for himself and his associates (“Regula himself and his associates (“Regula Primitiva”). Primitiva”).

– In 1210 Francis obtained approval from Pope In 1210 Francis obtained approval from Pope Innocent III for his simple rule devoted to Innocent III for his simple rule devoted to apostolic poverty. apostolic poverty.



– (1) The Franciscans. The Franciscans followed (1) The Franciscans. The Franciscans followed their founder in preaching and caring for the poor their founder in preaching and caring for the poor and sick. and sick.

– A society for women, the “Poor Clares,” began in A society for women, the “Poor Clares,” began in 1212 when Clare, an heiress of Assisi, was 1212 when Clare, an heiress of Assisi, was converted and commissioned.converted and commissioned.

– Francis was constantly afraid that the order Francis was constantly afraid that the order would succumb to the attachments of the world, would succumb to the attachments of the world, and in 1221 he drew up a Second Rule which was and in 1221 he drew up a Second Rule which was stricter and more definite concerning vows of stricter and more definite concerning vows of poverty obedience, chastity, prayer, and poverty obedience, chastity, prayer, and regulations for organizations. regulations for organizations.

– The Third Rule was confirmed by Pope Honorius The Third Rule was confirmed by Pope Honorius III in 1223, three years before Francis’ death. III in 1223, three years before Francis’ death.



– (1) The Franciscans. The basic requirements for (1) The Franciscans. The basic requirements for Franciscans included absolute poverty for they were Franciscans included absolute poverty for they were to possess nothing and to trust the Lord to provide. to possess nothing and to trust the Lord to provide.

– They were to guard against pride, vainglory, envy, They were to guard against pride, vainglory, envy, avarice, and were to love their enemies. avarice, and were to love their enemies.

– They were not to preach in a diocese without the They were not to preach in a diocese without the consent of the bishop and none could preach without consent of the bishop and none could preach without examination and approval by the minister general. examination and approval by the minister general.

– They were to discuss, not theology, but penitence They were to discuss, not theology, but penitence and forgiveness. and forgiveness.

– They became renowned for the reconciliation of They became renowned for the reconciliation of feuds, and practically every village, town, and farm feuds, and practically every village, town, and farm was visited by these preaching, singing troubadours was visited by these preaching, singing troubadours of God.of God.



– (1) The Franciscans. The popularity and (1) The Franciscans. The popularity and growth of the order meant serious problems growth of the order meant serious problems on the matter of possessions. on the matter of possessions.

– How could so many live by working or begging How could so many live by working or begging for enough for only one day’s provisions (one for enough for only one day’s provisions (one of the rules of the order)? of the rules of the order)?

– Eventually disruption came when the Eventually disruption came when the Spirituals insisted on adhering to all the Spirituals insisted on adhering to all the original rules of poverty, and the Conventuals original rules of poverty, and the Conventuals advocated reasonable compromise, with the advocated reasonable compromise, with the church owning and the brothers using church owning and the brothers using necessary property. necessary property.

– This became the divisive issue of the order This became the divisive issue of the order with violent discussions endangering the with violent discussions endangering the whole venture. whole venture.



– (1) The Franciscans. Papal bulls permitted (1) The Franciscans. Papal bulls permitted corporate ownership for the order in 1317-18, corporate ownership for the order in 1317-18, causing many Spirituals to become schismatics. causing many Spirituals to become schismatics.

– With material prosperity came spiritual laxity With material prosperity came spiritual laxity and a new group called the Observants took up and a new group called the Observants took up the banner of the old Spirituals. the banner of the old Spirituals.

– They opposed the lax Conventuals more than a They opposed the lax Conventuals more than a hundred years until they finally won and were hundred years until they finally won and were declared the true Order of St. Francis in 1517.declared the true Order of St. Francis in 1517.

– At the beginning the rule did not encourage At the beginning the rule did not encourage learning, and Francis strongly opposed any effort learning, and Francis strongly opposed any effort to start a house of study. to start a house of study.



– (1) The Franciscans. After his death, however, (1) The Franciscans. After his death, however, the general rise of education prevailed in the general rise of education prevailed in Europe and permeated the order. Europe and permeated the order.

– 70 new universities were established in 70 new universities were established in Europe between 1200 and 1250, and by 1234 Europe between 1200 and 1250, and by 1234 the Franciscans themselves had a flourishing the Franciscans themselves had a flourishing seminary. seminary.

– Some of the celebrated scholars of Some of the celebrated scholars of Christendom who were Franciscans were Christendom who were Franciscans were Bonaventure, Duns Scotus, and William of Bonaventure, Duns Scotus, and William of Occam. Occam.

– Much of the work of the Franciscans today is Much of the work of the Franciscans today is carried on in the universities of the world.carried on in the universities of the world.



– (1) The Franciscans. Besides the legacy of the order (1) The Franciscans. Besides the legacy of the order named for him, Francis left the personal example of named for him, Francis left the personal example of contagious piety and unaffected goodness. contagious piety and unaffected goodness.

– This gentle lover of people and all of God’s creation This gentle lover of people and all of God’s creation was especially at home in the wilderness among was especially at home in the wilderness among the animals and birds. the animals and birds.

– He went through frequent and long periods of He went through frequent and long periods of fasting and praying, receiving ecstatic visions. fasting and praying, receiving ecstatic visions.

– He was reported to have performed numerous He was reported to have performed numerous miracles, and one legend says that he received the miracles, and one legend says that he received the stigmata, bleeding wounds on his body at the stigmata, bleeding wounds on his body at the places where the wounds were on the crucified places where the wounds were on the crucified body of Jesus. body of Jesus.

– Francis of Assisi was beloved by everyone from Francis of Assisi was beloved by everyone from lepers to leaders and was perhaps the brightest lepers to leaders and was perhaps the brightest personality in the dreary medieval period of personality in the dreary medieval period of history.history.

St. Francis statueSonoma County, CA



– (2) The Dominicans. Another mendicant (2) The Dominicans. Another mendicant order differed drastically from the order differed drastically from the Franciscans in their emphases and results. Franciscans in their emphases and results.

– The Franciscan movement symbolized The Franciscan movement symbolized reform, redirection, and rededication; but reform, redirection, and rededication; but the Dominican movement symbolized the Dominican movement symbolized ecclesiastical orthodoxy. ecclesiastical orthodoxy.

– The Dominican order was founded by the The Dominican order was founded by the Spaniard Domingo (Dominic) de Guzman Spaniard Domingo (Dominic) de Guzman (1170-1221), who was deeply concerned (1170-1221), who was deeply concerned over converting the Albigenses. over converting the Albigenses.

– He believed, however, that that group of He believed, however, that that group of ascetic heretics could only be reached by ascetic heretics could only be reached by one who lived in poverty and simplicity. one who lived in poverty and simplicity.

St. Dominic



– (2) The Dominicans. He gathered around him a (2) The Dominicans. He gathered around him a group of men dedicated to winning heretics and group of men dedicated to winning heretics and heathen by preaching and poverty. heathen by preaching and poverty.

– To accomplish their task, they became especially To accomplish their task, they became especially interested in study and were the first monastic interested in study and were the first monastic order to abandon manual labor and put order to abandon manual labor and put intellectual work in the forefront. intellectual work in the forefront.

– Because they also practiced both individual and Because they also practiced both individual and corporate poverty, they, like the Franciscans, corporate poverty, they, like the Franciscans, were compelled to beg for their support from the were compelled to beg for their support from the populace.populace.

– The Fourth Lateran Council denied recognition to The Fourth Lateran Council denied recognition to Dominic and his mendicant friars, but late in 1216 Dominic and his mendicant friars, but late in 1216 Honorius III sanctioned their mission, and in 1220 Honorius III sanctioned their mission, and in 1220 their rule was confirmed. their rule was confirmed.



– (2) The Dominicans. In 1217, they laid plans (2) The Dominicans. In 1217, they laid plans for expanding world missions, and within for expanding world missions, and within four years had organized work in eight four years had organized work in eight countries. countries.

– Because they were devoted to learning from Because they were devoted to learning from the outset, the Dominicans readily the outset, the Dominicans readily established themselves in the fast-growing established themselves in the fast-growing universities and gained renown for their universities and gained renown for their scholarship. scholarship.

– Since they were also dedicated to combat Since they were also dedicated to combat heresy and heathenism, they became the heresy and heathenism, they became the watchdogs of the church’s Inquisition. watchdogs of the church’s Inquisition.



– (2) The Dominicans. The popes also used (2) The Dominicans. The popes also used them extensively in the preaching of the them extensively in the preaching of the Crusades, the collecting of monetary levies, Crusades, the collecting of monetary levies, and the carrying-out of diplomatic missions. and the carrying-out of diplomatic missions.

– The leading medieval theologians produced The leading medieval theologians produced by the Dominicans were Albert the Great by the Dominicans were Albert the Great and Thomas Aquinas. and Thomas Aquinas.

– Although the Dominicans have contributed Although the Dominicans have contributed much in the fields of devotional books, much in the fields of devotional books, scriptural paraphrases, religious poetry, and scriptural paraphrases, religious poetry, and popular fables, their main interest has popular fables, their main interest has always been, and continues to be, that of always been, and continues to be, that of education.education.



– (3) The Carmelites. The Order of Our Lady of (3) The Carmelites. The Order of Our Lady of Mount Carmel was founded in Palestine in Mount Carmel was founded in Palestine in 1154 by Berthold, and established by the 1154 by Berthold, and established by the primitive rule as laid down in 1209 by Albert primitive rule as laid down in 1209 by Albert of Vercelli, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem. of Vercelli, Latin Patriarch of Jerusalem.

– This rule was one of extreme asceticism, This rule was one of extreme asceticism, prescribing absolute poverty solitude, and prescribing absolute poverty solitude, and vegetarianism. vegetarianism.

– After the failure of the crusades, many of After the failure of the crusades, many of the Carmelites migrated to Europe and the Carmelites migrated to Europe and organized on the lines of the mendicant organized on the lines of the mendicant friars. friars.



– (3) The Carmelites. An Order of Carmelite (3) The Carmelites. An Order of Carmelite Sisters was founded in 1452, and spread Sisters was founded in 1452, and spread rapidly through France, Italy, and Spain. rapidly through France, Italy, and Spain.

– In the latter part of the 16th c. the mystical In the latter part of the 16th c. the mystical Teresa of Avila led in a reform of the Teresa of Avila led in a reform of the Carmelite orders, which had grown lax and Carmelite orders, which had grown lax and weak. weak.

– Her disciple, John of the Cross, led in a similar Her disciple, John of the Cross, led in a similar reform among the friars. reform among the friars.

– Thus the so-called “Teresian Reform” set the Thus the so-called “Teresian Reform” set the Carmelites again on the course of Carmelites again on the course of contemplation, missionary work, and contemplation, missionary work, and theology.theology.



– (4) The Augustinians. In the middle of the (4) The Augustinians. In the middle of the 11th c. several communities of clerks in 11th c. several communities of clerks in northern Italy and southern France sought to northern Italy and southern France sought to live the common life of poverty celibacy and live the common life of poverty celibacy and obedience, in accordance with what they obedience, in accordance with what they believed to be the example of the early believed to be the example of the early Christians. Christians.

– They adopted the Rule of St. Augustine, They adopted the Rule of St. Augustine, which laid down precise monastic which laid down precise monastic observances. The sanity of the rule, its observances. The sanity of the rule, its adaptability and the repute of its supposed adaptability and the repute of its supposed author led to its adoption by several author led to its adoption by several monastic orders, including the Dominicans, monastic orders, including the Dominicans, the Augustinian Hermits, the Servites, and the Augustinian Hermits, the Servites, and the Visitation nuns. the Visitation nuns.



– (4) The Augustinians. The flexibility of the (4) The Augustinians. The flexibility of the rule allowed members to follow various rule allowed members to follow various vocations, active and contemplative. vocations, active and contemplative.

– The Augustinians had special connections The Augustinians had special connections with hospitals. with hospitals.

– Some of the more influential Augustinian Some of the more influential Augustinian congregations were the Victorines and the congregations were the Victorines and the Premonstratensians.Premonstratensians.

– The most notable Augustinian monk was The most notable Augustinian monk was none other than Martin Luther.none other than Martin Luther.


– 2. Flourishing Monasticism.2. Flourishing Monasticism. c. Military Orders. c. Military Orders. The most peculiar The most peculiar

outcome of the monastic movement outcome of the monastic movement was the combination of the ascetic ideal was the combination of the ascetic ideal with that of chivalry in the formation of with that of chivalry in the formation of knightly or military orders.knightly or military orders.

– (1) The Knights Hospitalers. The beginnings (1) The Knights Hospitalers. The beginnings of this order are uncertain, but by the end of of this order are uncertain, but by the end of the 11th c., it was headquartered in a the 11th c., it was headquartered in a hospital at Jerusalem. hospital at Jerusalem.

– Its original duties were to care for the sick, Its original duties were to care for the sick, and to provide hospitality for pilgrims and and to provide hospitality for pilgrims and crusaders. crusaders.

– It established an armed guard of knights for It established an armed guard of knights for the defense of pilgrims, which developed the defense of pilgrims, which developed into a regular army. into a regular army.


– 2. Flourishing Monasticism.2. Flourishing Monasticism. c. Military Orders. c. Military Orders.

– (1) The Knights Hospitalers. In 1099, Master (1) The Knights Hospitalers. In 1099, Master Gerard obtained papal sanction for the ordei, and Gerard obtained papal sanction for the ordei, and his successor Raymond of Provence greatly his successor Raymond of Provence greatly developed the organization.developed the organization.

– During the 12th c. the order spread to Europe, During the 12th c. the order spread to Europe, and the knights participated in the crusades. and the knights participated in the crusades. After the fall of Acre (1291), they escaped to After the fall of Acre (1291), they escaped to Cyprus and conquered Rhodes, which became the Cyprus and conquered Rhodes, which became the center of their activities for 200 years; they then center of their activities for 200 years; they then became known as the Knights of Rhodes. became known as the Knights of Rhodes.

– The order received the sovereignty of Malta from The order received the sovereignty of Malta from Charles V in 1530 and became known as the Charles V in 1530 and became known as the Knights of Malta. Knights of Malta.

– The surrender of Malta to Napoleon in 1798 The surrender of Malta to Napoleon in 1798 placed the hospitalers in a precarious position placed the hospitalers in a precarious position which they have maintained to the present.which they have maintained to the present.



– (2) The Knights Templars. The “Poor Knights of (2) The Knights Templars. The “Poor Knights of Christ,” a military order founded in 1118 to Christ,” a military order founded in 1118 to defend Jerusalem against the Moslems, soon had defend Jerusalem against the Moslems, soon had to drop their name for they had become the to drop their name for they had become the wealthiest of all monastic orders. wealthiest of all monastic orders.

– Their influence spread quickly, and in a few short Their influence spread quickly, and in a few short years they had settlements in nearly every years they had settlements in nearly every country in Christendom. country in Christendom.

– They introduced solemn forms of initiation and They introduced solemn forms of initiation and elaborate organization. They built several castles elaborate organization. They built several castles which served as both monasteries and cavalry which served as both monasteries and cavalry barracks, of which notable ruins still remain. barracks, of which notable ruins still remain.

– Their supporters loaded them with great wealth, Their supporters loaded them with great wealth, which was deposited in their “temples” in Paris which was deposited in their “temples” in Paris and London. and London.



– (2) The Knights Templars. Thus they (2) The Knights Templars. Thus they developed a reputation as trusted bankers. developed a reputation as trusted bankers.

– The Templars carried on an unceasing The Templars carried on an unceasing rivalry with the Hospitalers. rivalry with the Hospitalers.

– The Templars were suppressed by Clement The Templars were suppressed by Clement V at the Council of Vienne in 1312 under V at the Council of Vienne in 1312 under charges of immorality, superstition and charges of immorality, superstition and heresy. heresy.

– Their guilt or innocence was argued for Their guilt or innocence was argued for centuries, but most historians now feel the centuries, but most historians now feel the suppression was in order to get hold of the suppression was in order to get hold of the Templars’ great wealth.Templars’ great wealth.


– 2. Flourishing Monasticism.2. Flourishing Monasticism. So monasticism thrived in various forms So monasticism thrived in various forms

of expression, but always there was the of expression, but always there was the testimony of dedicated men and women testimony of dedicated men and women withdrawing from the normal withdrawing from the normal intercourse of society to devote intercourse of society to devote themselves to an area of spirituality themselves to an area of spirituality which they felt deserved their entire which they felt deserved their entire lives. lives.

This had a profound effect on the rest of This had a profound effect on the rest of Christendom, which was called upon to Christendom, which was called upon to evaluate its own spirituality by the evaluate its own spirituality by the standards of monasticism.standards of monasticism.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– While spirituality was being revived through While spirituality was being revived through

monasticism, the medieval period saw also the monasticism, the medieval period saw also the revival of learning through a movement known as revival of learning through a movement known as Scholasticism, so called because it arose from the Scholasticism, so called because it arose from the schools of the period and revolved around the schools of the period and revolved around the works of the school men. works of the school men.

– This was a new kind of intellectualism, concerned This was a new kind of intellectualism, concerned with the relation between faith and reason, with the relation between faith and reason, between realism and nominalism. between realism and nominalism.

– A distinguishing characteristic of Scholasticism was A distinguishing characteristic of Scholasticism was its use of the dialectical method of philosophy. its use of the dialectical method of philosophy.

– Theological problems were skillfully and Theological problems were skillfully and energetically studied with the tools of logic and energetically studied with the tools of logic and metaphysics. metaphysics.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– The Scholastic method of teaching involved The Scholastic method of teaching involved

the the lectiolectio, the public lecture in which the , the public lecture in which the master explained the text, and the master explained the text, and the disputatiodisputatio, in which a view was expounded , in which a view was expounded and objections to it proposed and answered and objections to it proposed and answered in syllogistic form. in syllogistic form.

– The Scholastic method of writing was The Scholastic method of writing was typically in the form of commentaries which typically in the form of commentaries which gave systematic expositions over the whole gave systematic expositions over the whole field of theology and were known as field of theology and were known as “Summae.”“Summae.”

– The growth of medieval Scholasticism is The growth of medieval Scholasticism is usually divided into three stages, a usually divided into three stages, a formative period (11th & 12th centuries), a formative period (11th & 12th centuries), a period of consolidation (13th c.), and one of period of consolidation (13th c.), and one of criticism (14th & 15th centuries). criticism (14th & 15th centuries).


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– In the first period Scholastic thought was influenced In the first period Scholastic thought was influenced

by Platonism derived from Augustine. by Platonism derived from Augustine. – Aristotelian dialectic became important in the 12th c. Aristotelian dialectic became important in the 12th c.

largely through the works of Abelard. largely through the works of Abelard. – This period was dominated by the controversy about This period was dominated by the controversy about

the nature of universals, but there was also Anselm’s the nature of universals, but there was also Anselm’s ontological argument for the existence of God.ontological argument for the existence of God.

– The 13th c. saw the culmination and consolidation of The 13th c. saw the culmination and consolidation of medieval Scholasticism as evidenced in the works of medieval Scholasticism as evidenced in the works of Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and Albertus Magnus, Thomas Aquinas, Bonaventura, and Duns Scotus. Duns Scotus.

– This period was especially enhanced by the This period was especially enhanced by the acquisition of Aristotle’s works in Latin translations acquisition of Aristotle’s works in Latin translations and commentaries, and by the coming of the and commentaries, and by the coming of the Franciscan and Dominican orders to the universities. Franciscan and Dominican orders to the universities.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.

– The final period of medieval Scholasticism The final period of medieval Scholasticism was one of criticism and decline. was one of criticism and decline.

– The critical attitude is found early in the The critical attitude is found early in the works of Duns Scotus, then in Roger works of Duns Scotus, then in Roger Bacon, and more explicitly in William of Bacon, and more explicitly in William of Occam. Occam.

– The chief philosopher of the 15th c., The chief philosopher of the 15th c., Nicholas of Cusa, is sometimes considered Nicholas of Cusa, is sometimes considered a medieval Scholastic while others regard a medieval Scholastic while others regard him as a Renaissance philosopher.him as a Renaissance philosopher.

– The Scholastics can also be grouped The Scholastics can also be grouped according to schools of thought as well as according to schools of thought as well as by chronological periods. by chronological periods.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– The schools were lined up according to their The schools were lined up according to their

position on the relation between universal position on the relation between universal conceptions and external reality. conceptions and external reality.

– The question was whether thought can The question was whether thought can supply a true account of the external world. supply a true account of the external world.

– One answer was known as One answer was known as extreme realismextreme realism, , which asserted that mental conceptions which asserted that mental conceptions such as goodness, justice, or equality exist such as goodness, justice, or equality exist independently of the particular sense independently of the particular sense objects that exhibit such qualities. objects that exhibit such qualities.

– Erigena and Anselm fall into this group. Erigena and Anselm fall into this group.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– Another solution was called Another solution was called moderate realismmoderate realism

which emphasized that particular things are which emphasized that particular things are the most real to us but universals are most the most real to us but universals are most real in themselves. real in themselves.

– For example, humanity exists as realized in For example, humanity exists as realized in just men and just actions. just men and just actions.

– Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas were Albertus Magnus and Thomas Aquinas were the leading proponents of this position. the leading proponents of this position.

– Another approach known as Another approach known as conceptualismconceptualism acknowledged the existence of universal acknowledged the existence of universal ideas but attributed their formation to the ideas but attributed their formation to the activity of the mind. activity of the mind.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– This approach is related closely to This approach is related closely to

nominalismnominalism, the view that universal concepts , the view that universal concepts (man, tree, etc.) have no separate and (man, tree, etc.) have no separate and independent reality but are simply names independent reality but are simply names used by the mind to organize individual things used by the mind to organize individual things with similar characteristics into one class. with similar characteristics into one class.

– Scholastics of this persuasion were Abelard, Scholastics of this persuasion were Abelard, Duns Scotus, and William of Occam.Duns Scotus, and William of Occam.

– The emphases and results of Scholasticism The emphases and results of Scholasticism are best understood through the lives and are best understood through the lives and works of the scholars, which we will now works of the scholars, which we will now review in chronological order.review in chronological order.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– a. John Scotus Erigena (810-77). Although he a. John Scotus Erigena (810-77). Although he

lived more than a hundred years earlier, John lived more than a hundred years earlier, John Scotus Erigena must be listed as the first Scotus Erigena must be listed as the first great figure in theological Scholasticism. great figure in theological Scholasticism.

– He was one of the first to put Augustine’s He was one of the first to put Augustine’s teaching into practice by stating clearly the teaching into practice by stating clearly the distinction between distinction between auctoriatasauctoriatas (Holy (Holy Scripture) and Scripture) and ratioratio (reason). (reason).

– He revived interest in Boethius’ translations He revived interest in Boethius’ translations of the logical treatises of Aristotle and the of the logical treatises of Aristotle and the pseudo-Dionysian corpus, thus playing a pseudo-Dionysian corpus, thus playing a leading role in molding medieval thought. leading role in molding medieval thought.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– a. John Scotus Erigena (810-77). a. John Scotus Erigena (810-77).

– In his major work on the division of In his major work on the division of nature, there are strong overtones of nature, there are strong overtones of pantheism, which caused the work to pantheism, which caused the work to be condemned at Paris in 1210 and be condemned at Paris in 1210 and again by Honorius III at Senes in 1225. again by Honorius III at Senes in 1225.

– Although constantly involved in Although constantly involved in controversy Erigena was a deeply controversy Erigena was a deeply original thinker and a great scholar original thinker and a great scholar paving the way for others to come.paving the way for others to come.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– b. Anselm (1033-1109). Scholasticism is b. Anselm (1033-1109). Scholasticism is

often seen as the independent treatment of often seen as the independent treatment of the doctrines inherited from the past, and the doctrines inherited from the past, and the man responsible for this view more than the man responsible for this view more than any other was Anselm of Canterbury. any other was Anselm of Canterbury.

– The son of a Lombard landowner Anselm led The son of a Lombard landowner Anselm led several years of undisciplined life before he several years of undisciplined life before he crossed the Alps into France and entered the crossed the Alps into France and entered the monastic school at Bec in Normandy in 1059. monastic school at Bec in Normandy in 1059.

– By 1063 he had become prior and was By 1063 he had become prior and was already gaining a reputation for his teaching already gaining a reputation for his teaching ability and spiritual intensity. ability and spiritual intensity.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– b. Anselm (1033-1109). He became abbot of b. Anselm (1033-1109). He became abbot of

Bec in 1078, and made several visits to Bec in 1078, and made several visits to England, where he was eventually named England, where he was eventually named Archbishop of Canterbury in 1093. Archbishop of Canterbury in 1093.

– His time as archbishop was marked by deep His time as archbishop was marked by deep conflict with King William Rufus and his conflict with King William Rufus and his successor Henry I over the issue of the lay successor Henry I over the issue of the lay control of the church. control of the church.

– When Anselm refused to compromise the When Anselm refused to compromise the spiritual independence of his office he was spiritual independence of his office he was forced into exile by Rufus, and was returned forced into exile by Rufus, and was returned to office upon the death of the king. to office upon the death of the king.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– b. Anselm (1033-1109). When Henry I the new b. Anselm (1033-1109). When Henry I the new

king, continued to practice lay investiture, king, continued to practice lay investiture, consecrating bishops rather than deferring to consecrating bishops rather than deferring to clergy, Anselm went into exile again (1103). clergy, Anselm went into exile again (1103).

– He was restored again in 1107 and spent the He was restored again in 1107 and spent the last years of his life introducing many last years of his life introducing many reforms, encouraging regular synods, reforms, encouraging regular synods, enforcing clerical celibacy and suppressing enforcing clerical celibacy and suppressing the slave trade.the slave trade.

– Anselm is listed in the camp of the realists Anselm is listed in the camp of the realists because he maintained that reason must be because he maintained that reason must be employed to apprehend revealed truth. employed to apprehend revealed truth.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– b. Anselm (1033-1109). b. Anselm (1033-1109). – In the demonstration of his realist methodology he In the demonstration of his realist methodology he

is best remembered for his arguments on the is best remembered for his arguments on the existence of God and the atonement. existence of God and the atonement.

– In In MonologiumMonologium (a Soliloquy), he engaged in a (a Soliloquy), he engaged in a meditation on the being of God, which he meditation on the being of God, which he contended could be proved solely from the contended could be proved solely from the consideration of truth and goodness as intellectual consideration of truth and goodness as intellectual concepts, without appeal to empirical fad.concepts, without appeal to empirical fad.

– In In ProslogiumProslogium (a Discourse), he developed fully his (a Discourse), he developed fully his ontological argument for the existence of God. ontological argument for the existence of God.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– b. Anselm (1033-1109). b. Anselm (1033-1109). – The basic premise of this argument is that God is The basic premise of this argument is that God is

that of which nothing greater can be conceived. that of which nothing greater can be conceived. – However, that which is the highest conceivable However, that which is the highest conceivable

cannot exist only in the intellect, for then cannot exist only in the intellect, for then conceiving of God as existing would be greater than conceiving of God as existing would be greater than not existing. not existing.

– Therefore, it follows that there is a highest being Therefore, it follows that there is a highest being (God) in both intellect and reality. (God) in both intellect and reality.

– Sometimes Anselm is accused of contradicting his Sometimes Anselm is accused of contradicting his rational arguments with his orthodox Christian faith. rational arguments with his orthodox Christian faith.

– He would respond, however; that it is faith that He would respond, however; that it is faith that leads to the right use of reason. leads to the right use of reason.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– b. Anselm (1033-1109). b. Anselm (1033-1109). – Following Augustine, who said that understanding Following Augustine, who said that understanding

is the reward of faith, Anselm gave his famous is the reward of faith, Anselm gave his famous credo ut intelligamcredo ut intelligam, “I believe in order that I may , “I believe in order that I may understand.” understand.”

– To square this with his ontological argument for the To square this with his ontological argument for the existence of God, he would insist that it is faith in existence of God, he would insist that it is faith in the first place that conceives of God as the highest the first place that conceives of God as the highest and most perfect being.and most perfect being.

– In In Cur Deus HomoCur Deus Homo? (Why God-Man?), Anselm dealt ? (Why God-Man?), Anselm dealt with the incarnation of Christ, and formulated his with the incarnation of Christ, and formulated his well-known theory of atonement by satisfaction. well-known theory of atonement by satisfaction.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– b. Anselm (1033-1109). b. Anselm (1033-1109). – He rejected the ransom theories of He rejected the ransom theories of

atonement which had prevailed since the atonement which had prevailed since the days of Gregory I. days of Gregory I.

– He insisted that man’s sin is a debt to God, He insisted that man’s sin is a debt to God, not to the devil, and that Christ’s death alone not to the devil, and that Christ’s death alone has satisfied God’s offended honor. has satisfied God’s offended honor.

– As the title of the work suggests, he asks the As the title of the work suggests, he asks the fuller question: “On what basis or for which fuller question: “On what basis or for which urgent reasons did God become man so that urgent reasons did God become man so that by His death, as we believe and confess, He by His death, as we believe and confess, He thereby gave life to the world?” thereby gave life to the world?”


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– b. Anselm (1033-1109). b. Anselm (1033-1109). – His answer is that His answer is that

(1) the honor of God demands that satisfaction (1) the honor of God demands that satisfaction or punishment follow sin; that or punishment follow sin; that

(2) the satisfaction must be commensurate with (2) the satisfaction must be commensurate with the sin; that the sin; that

(3) God alone is able to render such adequate (3) God alone is able to render such adequate satisfaction; that satisfaction; that

(4) man ought to render the satisfaction; and (4) man ought to render the satisfaction; and that, therefore, that, therefore,

(5) it can be done only by one who is both God (5) it can be done only by one who is both God and man. and man.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– b. Anselm (1033-1109). b. Anselm (1033-1109). – Since Christ did not sin, death was not required, so Since Christ did not sin, death was not required, so

his death was an offering of his free will, not of debt, his death was an offering of his free will, not of debt, an offering which God accepted for the redemption an offering which God accepted for the redemption of all men.of all men.

– Although Anselm never developed a systematic Although Anselm never developed a systematic theology, his ideas have stimulated philosophers and theology, his ideas have stimulated philosophers and theologians for centuries. theologians for centuries.

– He has been especially influential in efforts to link He has been especially influential in efforts to link faith and reason. faith and reason.

– His basis for intellectual understanding was held to His basis for intellectual understanding was held to be a living, experiential faith: “Whoever has not be a living, experiential faith: “Whoever has not believed will not understand. For whoever has not believed will not understand. For whoever has not gained experience will not understand.”gained experience will not understand.”


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– c. Peter Abelard (1079-1142). c. Peter Abelard (1079-1142). One of the first One of the first

great scholastics to blend philosophy with theology great scholastics to blend philosophy with theology was Peter Abelard (or Abailard), who was about was Peter Abelard (or Abailard), who was about thirty years old when the great Anselm died. thirty years old when the great Anselm died.

– He was born in Brittany of aristocratic parents, and He was born in Brittany of aristocratic parents, and became a brilliant student at a very young age. became a brilliant student at a very young age.

– He eventually became the most popular lecturer at He eventually became the most popular lecturer at Paris, first in philosophy and later in theology his Paris, first in philosophy and later in theology his brilliant academic career was almost destroyed by brilliant academic career was almost destroyed by his famous love affair with Heloise, the young niece his famous love affair with Heloise, the young niece of Fulbert, a canon of Notre Dame Cathedral in of Fulbert, a canon of Notre Dame Cathedral in Paris. Paris.

Abelardand

Heloise


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– c. Peter Abelard (1079-1142). c. Peter Abelard (1079-1142). – While serving as private tutor for the beautiful and While serving as private tutor for the beautiful and

educated Heloise, Abelard fathered a child by her; and educated Heloise, Abelard fathered a child by her; and afterward, to pacify her angry uncle, secretly married her. afterward, to pacify her angry uncle, secretly married her.

– When ugly rumors continued to circulate, Heloise retired When ugly rumors continued to circulate, Heloise retired to a local convent to become a nun at Abelard’s to a local convent to become a nun at Abelard’s insistence.insistence.

– Fulbert was infuriated by what he considered Abelard’s Fulbert was infuriated by what he considered Abelard’s evasion of responsibility and hired a band of thugs to evasion of responsibility and hired a band of thugs to break in on him and emasculate him. break in on him and emasculate him.

– Trying to retreat from all his personal problems and this Trying to retreat from all his personal problems and this most recent humiliation, Abelard became a Benedictine most recent humiliation, Abelard became a Benedictine monk, but was soon teaching large groups of students monk, but was soon teaching large groups of students again and embroiled in theological and ecclesiastical again and embroiled in theological and ecclesiastical controversies. controversies.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– c. Peter Abelard (1079-1142). c. Peter Abelard (1079-1142). – He was condemned for heresy at a council at He was condemned for heresy at a council at

Soissons in 1121 for his views on the Trinity; and Soissons in 1121 for his views on the Trinity; and again in 1140 at a council in Sens, he was again in 1140 at a council in Sens, he was condemned for his teachings on the Trinity, the condemned for his teachings on the Trinity, the atonement, free will, and original sin. atonement, free will, and original sin.

– Abelard’s strongest opponent was the mystical and Abelard’s strongest opponent was the mystical and popular Bernard of Clairvaux, who regarded Abelard popular Bernard of Clairvaux, who regarded Abelard as a dangerous rationalist. as a dangerous rationalist.

– When Abelard appealed to Rome, the pope upheld When Abelard appealed to Rome, the pope upheld his condemnation and he was excommunicated. his condemnation and he was excommunicated.

– He found refuge at the monastery of Cluny, he and He found refuge at the monastery of Cluny, he and Bernard were reconciled, and he spent his last Bernard were reconciled, and he spent his last months praying and reading.months praying and reading.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– c. Peter Abelard (1079-1142). c. Peter Abelard (1079-1142). – One of Abelard’s most famous books was One of Abelard’s most famous books was Sic et NonSic et Non

(Yes and No), in which he sought to answer (Yes and No), in which he sought to answer questions on science, ethics, and theology from the questions on science, ethics, and theology from the Scriptures and the early church fathers. Scriptures and the early church fathers.

– As a nominalist, Abelard held that universals are As a nominalist, Abelard held that universals are mere names; but he insisted that the universal’s mere names; but he insisted that the universal’s function is logical, enabling man to think. function is logical, enabling man to think.

– He believed in man’s rational ability to arrive at He believed in man’s rational ability to arrive at truth. In fact, true faith is reached through truth. In fact, true faith is reached through knowledge and understanding. knowledge and understanding.

– He rejected the concept of original sin as developed He rejected the concept of original sin as developed by Augustine, and stressed the motive behind the by Augustine, and stressed the motive behind the sin. sin.

Sic et Non


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– c. Peter Abelard (1079-1142). c. Peter Abelard (1079-1142). – Abelard’s controversial view of the atonement is Abelard’s controversial view of the atonement is

called the moral influence theory. called the moral influence theory. – In rejecting Anselm’s satisfaction theory of In rejecting Anselm’s satisfaction theory of

atonement, he held that God is love and awakens atonement, he held that God is love and awakens in men gratitude and love for God, which results in in men gratitude and love for God, which results in a response of devotion and right conduct. a response of devotion and right conduct.

– Although highly controversial, both in his own day Although highly controversial, both in his own day and succeeding generations Abelard was the major and succeeding generations Abelard was the major Christian thinker of his period, and his views on Christian thinker of his period, and his views on faith and reason set the stage for the work of faith and reason set the stage for the work of

Thomas Aquinas in the thirteenthThomas Aquinas in the thirteenth century.century.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– d. Hugo (Hugh) of St. Victor (1096-1141). d. Hugo (Hugh) of St. Victor (1096-1141). – While less popular as a teacher, one of Abelard’s While less popular as a teacher, one of Abelard’s

contemporaries, Hugo of St. Victor also correlated contemporaries, Hugo of St. Victor also correlated philosophy and theology and left a permanent philosophy and theology and left a permanent influence on the church’s doctrine of the influence on the church’s doctrine of the sacraments. sacraments.

– The son of a Saxon count, Hugo was educated in The son of a Saxon count, Hugo was educated in Germany and became an Augustinian canon of St. Germany and became an Augustinian canon of St. Victor in Paris. Victor in Paris.

– His academic contributions included commentaries His academic contributions included commentaries on several books of the Bible, treatises on the on several books of the Bible, treatises on the moral life, mysticism, and theology. moral life, mysticism, and theology.

Hugh of St. Victor(as Cardinal)


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– d. Hugo (Hugh) of St. Victor (1096-1141). d. Hugo (Hugh) of St. Victor (1096-1141). – His largest work was His largest work was De Sacramentis Fidei De Sacramentis Fidei

ChristianaeChristianae, a comprehensive survey of theology , a comprehensive survey of theology which features his famous treatment of the which features his famous treatment of the sacraments. sacraments.

– He contended that a sacrament is not only a sign or He contended that a sacrament is not only a sign or a symbol of a sacred thing, but it is the physical a symbol of a sacred thing, but it is the physical medium through which grace operates, thus leading medium through which grace operates, thus leading to a strong doctrine of transubstantiation. to a strong doctrine of transubstantiation.

– Although the doctrine was already being vigorously Although the doctrine was already being vigorously debated, Hugo is credited with solidifying its debated, Hugo is credited with solidifying its position, which led to making it an official doctrine of position, which led to making it an official doctrine of the Catholic Church at the Fourth Lateran Council the Catholic Church at the Fourth Lateran Council less than a hundred years after Hugo’s death.less than a hundred years after Hugo’s death.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– e. Peter Lombard (1100-1164). e. Peter Lombard (1100-1164). – A contemporary of Abelard, Bernard of Clairvaux, A contemporary of Abelard, Bernard of Clairvaux,

and Hugo of St. Victor, Peter Lombard was less and Hugo of St. Victor, Peter Lombard was less original than any of the others, and yet he original than any of the others, and yet he exercised influence on Catholic theology for exercised influence on Catholic theology for centuries by producing the standard textbook of centuries by producing the standard textbook of Catholic theology during the Middle Ages. Catholic theology during the Middle Ages.

– Born in Novara (near Milan) in Lombardy, he was Born in Novara (near Milan) in Lombardy, he was educated at Bologna and Reims, and went to Paris educated at Bologna and Reims, and went to Paris to teach in the cathedral school. to teach in the cathedral school.

– For a brief time before his death he served as For a brief time before his death he served as Archbishop of Paris. Archbishop of Paris.

Peter Lombard

Page from the Sentences(with commentary)


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– e. Peter Lombard (1100-1164). e. Peter Lombard (1100-1164). – His major work was His major work was Quatuor Libri Quatuor Libri

SententiarumSententiarum (the Sentences), which was (the Sentences), which was arranged in four books on God and the Trinity, arranged in four books on God and the Trinity, Creation and Sin, Incarnation and Redemption, Creation and Sin, Incarnation and Redemption, and the Sacraments and Eschatology. and the Sacraments and Eschatology.

– Rather than being an original work, the Rather than being an original work, the SentencesSentences was a compilation of the pertinent was a compilation of the pertinent quotations of the fathers revered by the quotations of the fathers revered by the Catholic Church. Catholic Church.

– It was, however a masterpiece of skill and It was, however a masterpiece of skill and comprehensive treatment. comprehensive treatment.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– e. Peter Lombard (1100-1164). e. Peter Lombard (1100-1164). – Employing the dialectic method of question and Employing the dialectic method of question and

answer, Lombard supplied students with a helpful aid to answer, Lombard supplied students with a helpful aid to learning, and his work became the leading textbook for learning, and his work became the leading textbook for orthodox theology. orthodox theology.

– In fact, it was deemed that the Bible and Peter In fact, it was deemed that the Bible and Peter Lombard’s Lombard’s SentencesSentences were the essentials for a were the essentials for a theological education. theological education.

– Although his book was superseded by the Although his book was superseded by the Summa Summa of of Thomas Aquinas, it remained a basic text even to the Thomas Aquinas, it remained a basic text even to the Reformation. Reformation.

– Lombard is also credited with being the first major Lombard is also credited with being the first major figure to insist on the number seven in identifying the figure to insist on the number seven in identifying the sacraments, a major development in the first teachings sacraments, a major development in the first teachings on the sacraments.on the sacraments.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). The intellectual f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). The intellectual

giant who dominated the13th c., the prince of the giant who dominated the13th c., the prince of the school men, and the theologian destined to wield school men, and the theologian destined to wield unequaled influence over the theology of Roman unequaled influence over the theology of Roman Catholicism was Thomas Aquinas. Catholicism was Thomas Aquinas.

– Born at Roccasecca in Italy, Thomas was the Born at Roccasecca in Italy, Thomas was the youngest son of Count Landulf of Aquino, who was youngest son of Count Landulf of Aquino, who was related to the emperor and king of France. related to the emperor and king of France.

– At the age of five, Thomas was sent to the At the age of five, Thomas was sent to the Benedictine school at Monte Cassino and from Benedictine school at Monte Cassino and from there to Naples, where he was impressed to seek there to Naples, where he was impressed to seek admission to the recently founded Dominican admission to the recently founded Dominican Order. Order.

Thomas Aquinas


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). – His family strongly opposed his intentions, and held His family strongly opposed his intentions, and held

him prisoner for fifteen months at Roccasecca. him prisoner for fifteen months at Roccasecca. – He refused to weaken, however, and in 1244 he He refused to weaken, however, and in 1244 he

joined the Dominican Order. joined the Dominican Order. – He studied at Paris from 1245 to 1248 under the He studied at Paris from 1245 to 1248 under the

powerful influence of Albertus Magnus, who powerful influence of Albertus Magnus, who introduced him to the philosophy of Aristotle. introduced him to the philosophy of Aristotle.

– In 1252 he became lecturer at the Dominican In 1252 he became lecturer at the Dominican Convent of St. Jacques, where he wrote an Convent of St. Jacques, where he wrote an outstanding defense of the mendicant orders. outstanding defense of the mendicant orders.

– He became a Master of Theology in 1256 and He became a Master of Theology in 1256 and subsequently taught at Anagni, Orvieto, Rome, subsequently taught at Anagni, Orvieto, Rome, Viterbo, Paris and Naples. Viterbo, Paris and Naples.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). – Several of his years in Italy were spent as a Several of his years in Italy were spent as a

member of the papal court. When offered the post member of the papal court. When offered the post of Archbishop of Naples, he refused on the ground of Archbishop of Naples, he refused on the ground that he considered himself to be a scholar, teacher that he considered himself to be a scholar, teacher and writer. and writer.

– He was deeply committed to his studies and He was deeply committed to his studies and writing, and drove himself relentlessly in the writing, and drove himself relentlessly in the pursuit of truth. pursuit of truth.

– He was unusually tall and bulky, but his health was He was unusually tall and bulky, but his health was frail, and he was unable to stand up under the frail, and he was unable to stand up under the strain of his devotion to study. strain of his devotion to study.

– He died when he was only forty-nine years of age, He died when he was only forty-nine years of age, but he left an enormous legacy of literary output.but he left an enormous legacy of literary output.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). – During his lifetime, Thomas Aquinas wrote sixty During his lifetime, Thomas Aquinas wrote sixty

books and many hymns, commentaries, and books and many hymns, commentaries, and devotions. devotions.

– His two greatest works were His two greatest works were Summa Contra Summa Contra GentilesGentiles, designed to equip missionaries to the , designed to equip missionaries to the Moslems, and Moslems, and Summa TheologicaSumma Theologica, which crowned , which crowned his theological thought, and formed the basis for his theological thought, and formed the basis for subsequent Catholicism. subsequent Catholicism.

– The The Summa TheologicaSumma Theologica (written over a period of (written over a period of nine years and still unfinished at his death) deals nine years and still unfinished at his death) deals with the subjects of God, creation, the destiny of with the subjects of God, creation, the destiny of man, Christ as the way of man to God, the man, Christ as the way of man to God, the sacraments, and last things. sacraments, and last things.

Summa Theologica


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). – The incarnation and the sacraments claimed Aquinas’ The incarnation and the sacraments claimed Aquinas’

special attention. special attention. – In refuting the Franciscans, he maintained that the In refuting the Franciscans, he maintained that the

incarnation would not have taken place apart from the incarnation would not have taken place apart from the fall of man, and that the Virgin Mary was not fall of man, and that the Virgin Mary was not immaculately conceived (he was eventually immaculately conceived (he was eventually overthrown on this issue when, by the Papal Bull of overthrown on this issue when, by the Papal Bull of Pius IX in 1854, Mary was declared to have been kept Pius IX in 1854, Mary was declared to have been kept free from all stain of original sin from the first moment free from all stain of original sin from the first moment of her conception). of her conception).

– Aquinas led the way for the doctrine of papal Aquinas led the way for the doctrine of papal infallibility (which became official dogma in 1870) by infallibility (which became official dogma in 1870) by insisting that the pope had been given the supreme insisting that the pope had been given the supreme authority for defending the faith.authority for defending the faith.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). – In the matter of the sacraments, Aquinas held that all In the matter of the sacraments, Aquinas held that all

seven were instituted by Christ, one for each of the seven were instituted by Christ, one for each of the major happenings of a person’s life: baptism, the Lord’s major happenings of a person’s life: baptism, the Lord’s Supper, penance, confirmation, marriage, ordination, Supper, penance, confirmation, marriage, ordination, and extreme unction. and extreme unction.

– The sacraments were given as God’s ordered means of The sacraments were given as God’s ordered means of conveying grace to man. conveying grace to man.

– Grace is a central theme and vital key in Aquinas’ Grace is a central theme and vital key in Aquinas’ thought. thought.

– He taught that there is no salvation apart from grace, He taught that there is no salvation apart from grace, and that it is only the infusion of grace which brings and that it is only the infusion of grace which brings forgiveness. forgiveness.

– He insisted that the church is the vehicle of grace He insisted that the church is the vehicle of grace through the sacraments. through the sacraments.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). – After receiving grace, however, man After receiving grace, however, man

cooperates with God, and merits eternal life cooperates with God, and merits eternal life through righteous works.through righteous works.

– One of Aquinas’ greatest achievements was One of Aquinas’ greatest achievements was the uniting of faith and reason so effectively the uniting of faith and reason so effectively that those who followed Aristotelian that those who followed Aristotelian philosophy felt they could remain Christians. philosophy felt they could remain Christians.

– In fact, the goal of his life seemed to be the In fact, the goal of his life seemed to be the reconciliation of Aristotle and the Christian reconciliation of Aristotle and the Christian faith. faith.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). – Much of his philosophy, as well as theology was Much of his philosophy, as well as theology was

hammered out as a rebuttal to Averroes (1126-98), a hammered out as a rebuttal to Averroes (1126-98), a Mohammedan philosopher who had become an Mohammedan philosopher who had become an Aristotelian authority. Aristotelian authority.

– The Averroists taught both a truth of reason and a The Averroists taught both a truth of reason and a truth of revelation (double truth). Aquinas rejected truth of revelation (double truth). Aquinas rejected this, claiming that there is but one truth, which can be this, claiming that there is but one truth, which can be arrived at by different ways. arrived at by different ways.

– He would not accept that faith and reason, or He would not accept that faith and reason, or revelation and reason, are inherently antithetical. He revelation and reason, are inherently antithetical. He believed, for instance, that through the observable believed, for instance, that through the observable data of the effects of God’s activity in the world, data of the effects of God’s activity in the world, reason can point to the existence of God and both reason can point to the existence of God and both produce and justify faith. produce and justify faith.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). – His famous analogical arguments for God’s His famous analogical arguments for God’s

existence are based on inferential knowledge: existence are based on inferential knowledge: (1) Since things in this world move, necessitating an (1) Since things in this world move, necessitating an

unmoved Mover, we can infer that God exists. unmoved Mover, we can infer that God exists. (2) Since we can observe in the world the operation of (2) Since we can observe in the world the operation of

cause and effect, which calls for a first Cause, we infer cause and effect, which calls for a first Cause, we infer that God exists. that God exists.

(3) Since contingency is obvious in all creation, there (3) Since contingency is obvious in all creation, there must be something that is noncontingent, which is God must be something that is noncontingent, which is God himself. himself.

(4) Since we make value judgments, there must be a (4) Since we make value judgments, there must be a supreme value which we infer to be God. supreme value which we infer to be God.

(5) Since there appears to be a purpose in nature, we (5) Since there appears to be a purpose in nature, we can infer the highest purpose as God. can infer the highest purpose as God.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). – Aquinas also spoke of God as Aquinas also spoke of God as actus purusactus purus (pure (pure

act) since in him every possible perfection was act) since in him every possible perfection was wholly realized. wholly realized.

– He portrayed God as self-subsistent but full of He portrayed God as self-subsistent but full of justice and mercy for his creatures. Aquinas justice and mercy for his creatures. Aquinas himself, however, was rather short on mercy for himself, however, was rather short on mercy for the creatures known as heretics. He not only the creatures known as heretics. He not only promoted their excommunication, but even promoted their excommunication, but even approved their execution, holding that leading approved their execution, holding that leading men’s souls astray was a much greater evil than men’s souls astray was a much greater evil than forgery or robbery.forgery or robbery.

– In 1278 the Dominicans officially adopted Aquinas’ In 1278 the Dominicans officially adopted Aquinas’ teachings, and in 1323 he was canonized. teachings, and in 1323 he was canonized.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). f. Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274). – In 1567 he was pronounced a Doctor of the Church, In 1567 he was pronounced a Doctor of the Church,

and in 1879 his writings were made required and in 1879 his writings were made required reading for all Catholic students of theology and reading for all Catholic students of theology and philosophy. philosophy.

– In 1880 he was made patron of all Catholic In 1880 he was made patron of all Catholic universities; and in 1923, his authority as a teacher universities; and in 1923, his authority as a teacher was reiterated by Pope Pius XI. was reiterated by Pope Pius XI.

– But even at his untimely death, Thomas Aquinas But even at his untimely death, Thomas Aquinas was already shaping the thinking of future was already shaping the thinking of future theologians, and churchmen were already realizing theologians, and churchmen were already realizing that all who followed Aquinas would be obliged to that all who followed Aquinas would be obliged to work in regard and in reaction to his vast catalogue work in regard and in reaction to his vast catalogue of ideas and systems.of ideas and systems.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– g. Duns Scotus (1264-1308). One of those who built his g. Duns Scotus (1264-1308). One of those who built his

theological system in reaction against much of what theological system in reaction against much of what Aquinas taught was Duns Scotus, a medieval Aquinas taught was Duns Scotus, a medieval philosopher and Franciscan monk.philosopher and Franciscan monk.

– He studied theology under William de Ware at Oxford He studied theology under William de Ware at Oxford and later taught there himself. He also taught at Paris and later taught there himself. He also taught at Paris and Cologne where he died suddenly at the age of and Cologne where he died suddenly at the age of forty-four. forty-four.

– Duns Scotus agreed with Thomas Aquinas in asserting Duns Scotus agreed with Thomas Aquinas in asserting that revelation does not contradict reason, but many of that revelation does not contradict reason, but many of his theological conclusions drastically opposed his theological conclusions drastically opposed Thomism. Thomism.

– The primary difference was that in the Thomist system, The primary difference was that in the Thomist system, knowledge and reason held first place, whereas Duns knowledge and reason held first place, whereas Duns Scotus gave the primacy to love and the will. Scotus gave the primacy to love and the will.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– g. Duns Scotus (1264-1308). g. Duns Scotus (1264-1308). – He was the first great theologian to defend the He was the first great theologian to defend the

Immaculate Conception, a doctrine opposed by Immaculate Conception, a doctrine opposed by Thomas. Thomas.

– He also held that the incarnation would have taken He also held that the incarnation would have taken place even if there had been no fall. The Scotist place even if there had been no fall. The Scotist system was accepted by the Franciscans as their system was accepted by the Franciscans as their doctrinal guide, and exercised a profound influence doctrinal guide, and exercised a profound influence during the Middle Ages. during the Middle Ages.

– A strange testimony to its popularity was the A strange testimony to its popularity was the practice of the humanists and the Reformers in practice of the humanists and the Reformers in using the word ‘dunce” to ridicule the subtleties of using the word ‘dunce” to ridicule the subtleties of the schools based on Duns Scotus.the schools based on Duns Scotus.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– h. Roger Bacon (1214-1292). A Franciscan h. Roger Bacon (1214-1292). A Franciscan

philosopher of the 13th c. became the philosopher of the 13th c. became the forerunner of modern science. forerunner of modern science.

– Roger Bacon studied at Oxford and was one Roger Bacon studied at Oxford and was one of the first to lecture on Aristotle in Paris. But of the first to lecture on Aristotle in Paris. But whereas interest in Aristotle turned Aquinas whereas interest in Aristotle turned Aquinas deeper into theology, it caused Bacon to deeper into theology, it caused Bacon to resign his chair of philosophy and devote resign his chair of philosophy and devote himself to science and experimentation. himself to science and experimentation.

– While in his middle sixties, he was ordered While in his middle sixties, he was ordered by Pope Clement IV to present an account of by Pope Clement IV to present an account of his doctrines to him personally. his doctrines to him personally.

Roger Bacon


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– h. Roger Bacon (1214-1292). h. Roger Bacon (1214-1292). – Excited with the possibilities, Bacon expounded his Excited with the possibilities, Bacon expounded his

system on an ambitious scale, dealing with such system on an ambitious scale, dealing with such diverse subjects as the relation between diverse subjects as the relation between philosophy and theology grammar, mathematics, philosophy and theology grammar, mathematics, geography, perspective, physiology and geography, perspective, physiology and experimental science. His three major works are experimental science. His three major works are known as Opus Majus, Opus Minus, and Opus known as Opus Majus, Opus Minus, and Opus Tertium. Unfortunately he did not receive the papal Tertium. Unfortunately he did not receive the papal commendation he had anticipated because commendation he had anticipated because Clement died before the dispatch reached him.Clement died before the dispatch reached him.

– Bacon was an original writer and a man of Bacon was an original writer and a man of exceptional learning. exceptional learning.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– h. Roger Bacon (1214-1292). h. Roger Bacon (1214-1292). – He was, however, constantly embroiled in controversy He was, however, constantly embroiled in controversy

because of his independent views, his rash because of his independent views, his rash temperament, his criticism of many medieval temperament, his criticism of many medieval assumptions, and his continuing challenge to assumptions, and his continuing challenge to conventionalism. conventionalism.

– One evidence that he was ahead of his time was his One evidence that he was ahead of his time was his stress on the need for a knowledge of Greek and stress on the need for a knowledge of Greek and Hebrew to accurately understand Scripture. Hebrew to accurately understand Scripture.

– The extent of his scientific experiments is uncertain, The extent of his scientific experiments is uncertain, but there are good reasons to believe that he invented but there are good reasons to believe that he invented the telescope, the thermometer and gunpowder. the telescope, the thermometer and gunpowder.

– Theology and philosophy were becoming involved in Theology and philosophy were becoming involved in the physical world of science.the physical world of science.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– i. William of Occam (1300-1349). The historical i. William of Occam (1300-1349). The historical

symbol of the decline of scholasticism was also a symbol of the decline of scholasticism was also a decisive contributor to that decline. decisive contributor to that decline.

– William of Occam (or Ockham) was born at Ockham William of Occam (or Ockham) was born at Ockham in Surrey, attended Oxford, and there became a in Surrey, attended Oxford, and there became a Franciscan. Franciscan.

– He took the side of the Spirituals in the order and He took the side of the Spirituals in the order and vigorously opposed the pope on the question of vigorously opposed the pope on the question of poverty. poverty.

– He also championed the cause of the emperor as He also championed the cause of the emperor as against the pope, denied the pope all temporal against the pope, denied the pope all temporal authority and advocated a radical separation of the authority and advocated a radical separation of the church from the world.church from the world.

William of Ockham

All Saints Church, Ockham


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– i. William of Occam (1300-1349). i. William of Occam (1300-1349). – William of Occam was a vigorous, critical, and William of Occam was a vigorous, critical, and

independent thinker. independent thinker. – He was the chief advocate of nominalism in the 14th He was the chief advocate of nominalism in the 14th

c. c. – One of his main principles (known as “Occam’s One of his main principles (known as “Occam’s

razor”) was that one should not assume the razor”) was that one should not assume the presence of more entities than is necessary. presence of more entities than is necessary.

– He denied all reality to universals apart from our He denied all reality to universals apart from our thoughts. thoughts.

– All that we can know, he insisted, are individual All that we can know, he insisted, are individual things. things.

– He maintained that Christian beliefs cannot be He maintained that Christian beliefs cannot be proved by reason, but must be accepted by faith. proved by reason, but must be accepted by faith.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– i. William of Occam (1300-1349). i. William of Occam (1300-1349). – He rejected all of Aquinas’ arguments for the He rejected all of Aquinas’ arguments for the

existence of God because they appealed to reason, existence of God because they appealed to reason, not faith. not faith.

– This was a complete divorce between reason and This was a complete divorce between reason and faith. faith.

– Scholasticism had risen on the hopes and attempts of Scholasticism had risen on the hopes and attempts of its brilliant school men to demonstrate that reason its brilliant school men to demonstrate that reason and faith are not antithetical. and faith are not antithetical.

– At the peak of scholasticism, Aquinas employed the At the peak of scholasticism, Aquinas employed the best tools of Aristotelianism and Christianity to best tools of Aristotelianism and Christianity to propound that some Christian beliefs can be affirmed propound that some Christian beliefs can be affirmed by reason, and that even those which must be by reason, and that even those which must be accepted by faith are not inconsistent with reason. accepted by faith are not inconsistent with reason.


– 3. Developing Scholasticism.3. Developing Scholasticism.– i. William of Occam (1300-1349). i. William of Occam (1300-1349). – William of Occam taught that none of the William of Occam taught that none of the

essential beliefs of Christianity could be essential beliefs of Christianity could be proved to the satisfaction of man’s reason, proved to the satisfaction of man’s reason, but they must be accepted on the but they must be accepted on the authority of the church and of the authority of the church and of the Scriptures.Scriptures.

Power Struggle (1054-1305)Power Struggle (1054-1305) B. HOLY AND UNHOLY CRUSADESB. HOLY AND UNHOLY CRUSADES

– While some leaders of the western church were While some leaders of the western church were devoted to improving and expanding Christianity devoted to improving and expanding Christianity along spiritual and intellectual lines, others were along spiritual and intellectual lines, others were relentlessly pursuing expansion and solidification relentlessly pursuing expansion and solidification through the military crusades. through the military crusades.

– In fact, the monastic reforms were concomitant In fact, the monastic reforms were concomitant with the crusades, which actually started a few with the crusades, which actually started a few years before the founding of the Cistercian Order. years before the founding of the Cistercian Order.

– The crusades are generally identified as the The crusades are generally identified as the military expeditions undertaken by Christians of military expeditions undertaken by Christians of the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries for the recovery the 11th, 12th and 13th centuries for the recovery of the Holy Land from Islam. of the Holy Land from Islam.

– The name “crusades” comes from the Latin word The name “crusades” comes from the Latin word for cross, as all crusaders bore the insignia of the for cross, as all crusaders bore the insignia of the cross on their clothing.cross on their clothing.


– 1. Background of the Crusades.1. Background of the Crusades. Several reasons have been given for the Several reasons have been given for the

appearance of the crusades in this appearance of the crusades in this particular time frame of history. particular time frame of history.

Some suggest that simple wanderlust or Some suggest that simple wanderlust or thirst for adventure was on the upswing thirst for adventure was on the upswing in Europe and others point to in Europe and others point to commercial aspects, such as the search commercial aspects, such as the search for new trade routes to the East. for new trade routes to the East.

There are, however, three distinct There are, however, three distinct causes which belong particularly in causes which belong particularly in church history.church history.


– 1. Background of the Crusades.1. Background of the Crusades. a. Political. The original impetus for the a. Political. The original impetus for the

crusades came from the request of the crusades came from the request of the Byzantine emperors for aid against the Byzantine emperors for aid against the Moslem Seljuk Turks. Moslem Seljuk Turks.

Since the early part of the 11th c. the Since the early part of the 11th c. the Byzantine Empire had been rocked by Byzantine Empire had been rocked by internal dissensions and foreign invasions. internal dissensions and foreign invasions.

In the West the Normans conquered In the West the Normans conquered southern Italy, which had been a southern Italy, which had been a Byzantine possession since Leo III had Byzantine possession since Leo III had wrested it from the West during the wrested it from the West during the iconoclastic controversy. iconoclastic controversy.


– 1. Background of the Crusades.1. Background of the Crusades. a. Political. a. Political. The most ominous threat came from the Seljuk The most ominous threat came from the Seljuk

Turks of Central Asia, who had overrun the Near Turks of Central Asia, who had overrun the Near East, destroyed a Byzantine army in Armenia, and East, destroyed a Byzantine army in Armenia, and threatened the existence of Constantinople itself. threatened the existence of Constantinople itself.

Responding to an appeal for help from the Responding to an appeal for help from the eastern emperor, Gregory VII (the great eastern emperor, Gregory VII (the great Hildebrand) raised an army of 50,000 in 1074 to Hildebrand) raised an army of 50,000 in 1074 to send to Constantinople, but his investiture send to Constantinople, but his investiture controversy with Henry IV made it impossible to controversy with Henry IV made it impossible to organize the enterprise.organize the enterprise.

Gregory’s immediate successor lived only a year, Gregory’s immediate successor lived only a year, and he was followed by Urban II, who became the and he was followed by Urban II, who became the leader of the First Crusade.leader of the First Crusade.


– 1. Background of the Crusades.1. Background of the Crusades. b. Ecclesiastical. Besides the political b. Ecclesiastical. Besides the political

and territorial conflicts, the church was and territorial conflicts, the church was still anguishing over the breach still anguishing over the breach between East and West which had been between East and West which had been formally finalized in the Great Schism of formally finalized in the Great Schism of 1054. 1054.

There was always present the desire to There was always present the desire to heal this breach of the Catholic Church heal this breach of the Catholic Church and to restore universal unity. and to restore universal unity.

Relations between East and West had Relations between East and West had greatly deteriorated, and contact was greatly deteriorated, and contact was practically nonexistent. practically nonexistent.


– 1. Background of the Crusades.1. Background of the Crusades. b. Ecclesiastical. b. Ecclesiastical. With the crusades, commerce and With the crusades, commerce and

communication were reopened, and the communication were reopened, and the western pope’s hope for religious western pope’s hope for religious reconciliation as well. reconciliation as well.

This hope was never realized, and in This hope was never realized, and in most cases the crusaders did more most cases the crusaders did more harm than good in effecting a harm than good in effecting a reconciliation.reconciliation.


– 1. Background of the Crusades.1. Background of the Crusades. c. Devotional. The most often announced reason c. Devotional. The most often announced reason

for the crusades was that of personal devotion for the crusades was that of personal devotion to the religious pilgrimages to the Holy Land. to the religious pilgrimages to the Holy Land.

For centuries Christians from the West had been For centuries Christians from the West had been making pilgrimages to the sacred cities and making pilgrimages to the sacred cities and sites of Palestine as well as sites in continental sites of Palestine as well as sites in continental Europe. Europe.

The Cluny reform had increased the desire of The Cluny reform had increased the desire of the common people to visit the land which had the common people to visit the land which had given birth to their faith. given birth to their faith.

Such pilgrimages had become part of the Such pilgrimages had become part of the penitential system, a means of expiating sin, penitential system, a means of expiating sin, which included such acts a fasting, recitation of which included such acts a fasting, recitation of psalms, religious journeys, prayers, and alms. psalms, religious journeys, prayers, and alms.


– 1. Background of the Crusades.1. Background of the Crusades. c. Devotional. c. Devotional.

– It was sincerely believed that arduous It was sincerely believed that arduous pilgrimages to sacred places obtained pilgrimages to sacred places obtained unusual and long-lasting satisfaction for unusual and long-lasting satisfaction for sins. sins.

– An historian of that period, Leo Cassinensis, An historian of that period, Leo Cassinensis, attributed the First Crusade directly to the attributed the First Crusade directly to the fervor of penitents.fervor of penitents.

– The Seljuk Turks, however, were not tolerant The Seljuk Turks, however, were not tolerant of Christian pilgrimages. of Christian pilgrimages.

– As long as they occupied the Holy Land, As long as they occupied the Holy Land, there was repression and persecution of the there was repression and persecution of the pilgrimages. pilgrimages.


– 1. Background of the Crusades.1. Background of the Crusades. c. Devotional. c. Devotional.

– Thus, a chief factor in the crusades Thus, a chief factor in the crusades was to free Palestine from the was to free Palestine from the Moslem Turks, return the sacred Moslem Turks, return the sacred cities to Christian control, and secure cities to Christian control, and secure the safety of the pilgrims. the safety of the pilgrims.

– As previously noted, some of the As previously noted, some of the monastic orders (Knights Hospitalers monastic orders (Knights Hospitalers and Knights Templars) were and Knights Templars) were organized for the purpose of organized for the purpose of protecting Christian pilgrims from the protecting Christian pilgrims from the Turks.Turks.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades. The first crusade was the most successful of all, The first crusade was the most successful of all,

even though the 12th and 13th centuries saw a even though the 12th and 13th centuries saw a strong development of the theology and strong development of the theology and organization of crusades. organization of crusades.

From the very be the papacy was prominently From the very be the papacy was prominently involved in the crusades, issuing incentives to involved in the crusades, issuing incentives to go on crusades, such as immunity from taxes go on crusades, such as immunity from taxes and debts, protection of crusaders’ property and and debts, protection of crusaders’ property and families, and indulgences, which guaranteed the families, and indulgences, which guaranteed the crusader’s entry into heaven and reduced or crusader’s entry into heaven and reduced or eliminated his time in purgatory eliminated his time in purgatory

The popes sent out crusade preachers, The popes sent out crusade preachers, organized financial support, and provided organized financial support, and provided transportation. transportation.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades.– The number of crusades is usually given as The number of crusades is usually given as

seven or eight, but actually it was a seven or eight, but actually it was a continuous movement, featuring many small continuous movement, featuring many small expeditions as well as the large ones. expeditions as well as the large ones.

– In fact, after 1150 there was a steady In fact, after 1150 there was a steady stream of soldiers, pilgrims, and merchants stream of soldiers, pilgrims, and merchants from Europe to Syria.from Europe to Syria.

– a. The First Crusade (1096-1099). a. The First Crusade (1096-1099). Responding to the appeal for aid from the Responding to the appeal for aid from the Byzantine emperoz Alexius Comnenus, Pope Byzantine emperoz Alexius Comnenus, Pope Urban I convened the Council of Clermont Urban I convened the Council of Clermont (in southern France) in 1095. (in southern France) in 1095.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades.– a. The First Crusade (1096-1099). a. The First Crusade (1096-1099). – Speaking to both church dignitaries and Speaking to both church dignitaries and

common people, Urban delivered one of common people, Urban delivered one of the most outwardly successful sermons of the most outwardly successful sermons of all time. all time.

– He vividly portrayed the destruction and He vividly portrayed the destruction and desecration of the Holy Land by the desecration of the Holy Land by the infidels. infidels.

– He avowed that Christ himself would lead He avowed that Christ himself would lead the army that went to the rescue of such the army that went to the rescue of such sacred places as Jerusalem. sacred places as Jerusalem.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades.– a. The First Crusade (1096-1099). a. The First Crusade (1096-1099).

He promised the cancellation of debts, exemption He promised the cancellation of debts, exemption from taxes, and a crown of eternal life to all from taxes, and a crown of eternal life to all participants. He urged them to return to the participants. He urged them to return to the greatness of Charlemagne, to cease their greatness of Charlemagne, to cease their intramural squabbles, and to unite in driving the intramural squabbles, and to unite in driving the “wicked race” from the Holy Land. “wicked race” from the Holy Land.

At the conclusion of his sermon, the crowd At the conclusion of his sermon, the crowd shouted, shouted, “Deus Vult! Deus Vult!”“Deus Vult! Deus Vult!” (God wills it), (God wills it), which Urban made the battlecry of the crusades. which Urban made the battlecry of the crusades.

The cross was designated the symbol of the The cross was designated the symbol of the crusades, with every participant sewing a cross crusades, with every participant sewing a cross on his garments, and some burning the cross into on his garments, and some burning the cross into their flesh.their flesh.

Urban II



Before an official crusade could be organized, Before an official crusade could be organized, huge groups of excited pilgrims struck out for huge groups of excited pilgrims struck out for the East. the East.

Many of them raided and pillaged as they went, Many of them raided and pillaged as they went, meeting with disaster in the Hungarian forests. meeting with disaster in the Hungarian forests.

Only one group, led by Peter the Hermit, Only one group, led by Peter the Hermit, reached Constantinople. reached Constantinople.

The Emperor Alexius was appalled. He had The Emperor Alexius was appalled. He had looked for a mercenary army from Urban, and a looked for a mercenary army from Urban, and a religious horde of 50,000 had descended on his religious horde of 50,000 had descended on his city. city.



He provisioned them, extracted oaths of He provisioned them, extracted oaths of allegiance from them, and rushed them through allegiance from them, and rushed them through the Bosphorus into Asia Minor where the Turks the Bosphorus into Asia Minor where the Turks ruthlessly butchered some 7,000 of them and ruthlessly butchered some 7,000 of them and piled their bodies in a heap to rot.piled their bodies in a heap to rot.

The first official crusade in 1096 was The first official crusade in 1096 was predominantly French. predominantly French.

The poorly organized crusaders drifted into The poorly organized crusaders drifted into Constantinople from different routes. Constantinople from different routes.

The leaders argued with Comnenus about the The leaders argued with Comnenus about the disposition of the lands they planned to conquer disposition of the lands they planned to conquer and finally invaded the Holy Land. and finally invaded the Holy Land.



In June of 1098 Antioch was captured and the In June of 1098 Antioch was captured and the discovery of the “Holy Lance” encouraged the discovery of the “Holy Lance” encouraged the crusaders. crusaders.

Quarrels broke out over the possession of the city Quarrels broke out over the possession of the city delaying further progress; at last Jerusalem itself delaying further progress; at last Jerusalem itself was besieged and captured on July 15, 1099. was besieged and captured on July 15, 1099.

The streets ran with blood in a massacre that did The streets ran with blood in a massacre that did not spare even women and children. Godfrey of not spare even women and children. Godfrey of Bouillon (Lorraine) was appointed Governor of Bouillon (Lorraine) was appointed Governor of Jerusalem and “Defender of the Holy Sepulchre.” Jerusalem and “Defender of the Holy Sepulchre.”

Upon his death in 1100, his brother, Baldwin, Upon his death in 1100, his brother, Baldwin, established the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem and established the Latin kingdom of Jerusalem and was crowned its king on Christmas Day, 1100.was crowned its king on Christmas Day, 1100.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades. b. The Second Crusade (1147-1149). The b. The Second Crusade (1147-1149). The

Latin kingdom of Jerusalem flourished for Latin kingdom of Jerusalem flourished for almost fifty years, but in 1144, Edessa was almost fifty years, but in 1144, Edessa was recaptured by the Emir Zengi. recaptured by the Emir Zengi.

Pope Eugenius III charged the preaching of Pope Eugenius III charged the preaching of a new crusade to Bernard of Clairvaux in a new crusade to Bernard of Clairvaux in 1146, and Bernard, fearing that the infidels 1146, and Bernard, fearing that the infidels might recapture everything, trumpeted the might recapture everything, trumpeted the call. call.

This Second Crusade was led by Louis VII of This Second Crusade was led by Louis VII of France, who was doing penance for burning France, who was doing penance for burning a church with 1,200 people in it, and by the a church with 1,200 people in it, and by the Emperor Conrad III of Germany. Emperor Conrad III of Germany.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades. b. The Second Crusade (1147-1149). b. The Second Crusade (1147-1149). Mainly because of quarrels between Louis and Mainly because of quarrels between Louis and

Conrad, the expedition was a failure, and most of the Conrad, the expedition was a failure, and most of the crusaders never reached the Holy Land at all. crusaders never reached the Holy Land at all.

Conrad returned to Germany in 1148 and Louis to Conrad returned to Germany in 1148 and Louis to France the following year. France the following year.

A crusade preached by the man with the greatest A crusade preached by the man with the greatest name for sanctity in Europe, and led by royalty, had name for sanctity in Europe, and led by royalty, had failed. failed.

Medieval Christians were astounded and angered, Medieval Christians were astounded and angered, and sought for an explanation. and sought for an explanation.

The treachery of the Greeks appeared as a plausible The treachery of the Greeks appeared as a plausible reason for the defeats, and Bernard suggested that a reason for the defeats, and Bernard suggested that a campaign should be made against Constantinople, campaign should be made against Constantinople, which eventually happened as the Fourth Crusade.which eventually happened as the Fourth Crusade.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades. c. The Third Crusade (1188-1192). c. The Third Crusade (1188-1192).

– Through a consolidation of Through a consolidation of Mohammedan forces and the Mohammedan forces and the unification of various sections under unification of various sections under Saladin, this powerful Moslem leader Saladin, this powerful Moslem leader recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.recaptured Jerusalem in 1187.

– Emperor Frederick Barbarossa swore Emperor Frederick Barbarossa swore at the Diet of Mainz (1188) to at the Diet of Mainz (1188) to undertake a new crusade to free undertake a new crusade to free Jerusalem from Saladin. Jerusalem from Saladin.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades. c. The Third Crusade (1188-1192). c. The Third Crusade (1188-1192).

– He was joined by Philip Augustus of He was joined by Philip Augustus of France and Henry II of England, but France and Henry II of England, but Frederick was drowned in 1190, and Frederick was drowned in 1190, and the rivalry between the kings of France the rivalry between the kings of France and England practically disintegrated and England practically disintegrated the crusade. the crusade.

– Later Richard I, who had succeeded his Later Richard I, who had succeeded his father as king of England, made a father as king of England, made a three-year peace with Saladin (1192), three-year peace with Saladin (1192), and small groups of crusaders were and small groups of crusaders were allowed to visit the Holy Sepulchre.allowed to visit the Holy Sepulchre.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades. d. The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). Pope d. The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). Pope

Innocent 111 envisioned the papacy at the head Innocent 111 envisioned the papacy at the head of a great religious conquest, and inspired a of a great religious conquest, and inspired a crusade to accomplish his vision. crusade to accomplish his vision.

The whole enterprise, however, became The whole enterprise, however, became ensnared in a nightmare of crusaders fighting ensnared in a nightmare of crusaders fighting other Christians. other Christians.

The deposed emperor of Constantinople The deposed emperor of Constantinople persuaded the crusaders to attack persuaded the crusaders to attack Constantinople and put him back on the throne. Constantinople and put him back on the throne.

The rape of Constantinople left a bitter The rape of Constantinople left a bitter impression on the Orthodox people, and impression on the Orthodox people, and whatever ties may have still existed between whatever ties may have still existed between them and Rome were severed. them and Rome were severed.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades. d. The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). d. The Fourth Crusade (1202-1204). The son of the dethroned emperor had been The son of the dethroned emperor had been

established on the throne, but when he would not established on the throne, but when he would not reward his benefactors, the crusaders stormed the reward his benefactors, the crusaders stormed the city deposed hint, and set up Baldwin of Flanders as city deposed hint, and set up Baldwin of Flanders as the first Latin Emperor of Constantinople. the first Latin Emperor of Constantinople.

This Latin empire lasted from 1204 to 1261, and a This Latin empire lasted from 1204 to 1261, and a Latin patriarch was appointed; but the western Latin patriarch was appointed; but the western church made little impression on the eastern church made little impression on the eastern church. church.

The Fourth Crusade, rather than being a success, The Fourth Crusade, rather than being a success, had destroyed the bulwark which the eastern had destroyed the bulwark which the eastern empire had formed against Islam, and further empire had formed against Islam, and further embittered the relations of eastern and western embittered the relations of eastern and western Christendom.Christendom.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades. e. Other Crusades. After the disastrous results e. Other Crusades. After the disastrous results

of the Fourth Crusade, there occurred the of the Fourth Crusade, there occurred the pathetic spectacle of the Children’s Crusade. pathetic spectacle of the Children’s Crusade.

With the intention of “recapturing Jerusalem,” With the intention of “recapturing Jerusalem,” great numbers of children gathered from France great numbers of children gathered from France and West Germany to march on the Holy Land. and West Germany to march on the Holy Land.

Few of them ever got as far as actually leaving Few of them ever got as far as actually leaving the south of France and Italy, and those who did the south of France and Italy, and those who did soon perished. soon perished.

The historical basis for the “Pied Piper of The historical basis for the “Pied Piper of Hamelin” is thought to be located in this sad Hamelin” is thought to be located in this sad development. development.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades. e. Other Crusades. e. Other Crusades. At the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, Innocent III At the Fourth Lateran Council of 1215, Innocent III

proclaimed a fresh crusade for 1217. proclaimed a fresh crusade for 1217. The military operation of this fifth official crusade The military operation of this fifth official crusade

took place mainly in Egypt, and is said to have took place mainly in Egypt, and is said to have resulted in the surrender of the “Holy Cross” to the resulted in the surrender of the “Holy Cross” to the Christians in 1221. Christians in 1221.

The so-called Sixth Crusade was led by Emperor The so-called Sixth Crusade was led by Emperor Frederick II, who secured through treaty the Frederick II, who secured through treaty the possession of Nazareth, Bethlehem, and possession of Nazareth, Bethlehem, and Jerusalem, where he crowned himself king in 1229.Jerusalem, where he crowned himself king in 1229.

For fifteen years Jerusalem was in the possession For fifteen years Jerusalem was in the possession of Christians, but in 1244 it fell to the Moslems of Christians, but in 1244 it fell to the Moslems again. again.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades. e. Other Crusades. e. Other Crusades. In 1245, at the Council of Lyons, Pope In 1245, at the Council of Lyons, Pope

Innocent III preached a crusade against Innocent III preached a crusade against the heathen and against Frederick II the heathen and against Frederick II (who had been excommunicated). (who had been excommunicated).

The only response was an expedition by The only response was an expedition by Louis of France, who was routed and Louis of France, who was routed and captured in Egypt in 1250. captured in Egypt in 1250.

After his release, he went on to the Holy After his release, he went on to the Holy Land, but being unable to do anything Land, but being unable to do anything for the kingdom of Jerusalem he for the kingdom of Jerusalem he returned home in 1254. returned home in 1254.


– 1. Development of the Crusades.1. Development of the Crusades. e. Other Crusades. e. Other Crusades. The last crusade was also undertaken The last crusade was also undertaken

by Louis, with the aid of his brother by Louis, with the aid of his brother Charles of Anjou. Charles of Anjou.

Louis died in an attack on Tunis in 1270, Louis died in an attack on Tunis in 1270, and Charles concluded the crusade by and Charles concluded the crusade by negotiation. negotiation.

Soon thereafter the entire former Soon thereafter the entire former kingdom of Jerusalem passed into the kingdom of Jerusalem passed into the hands of the Moslems.hands of the Moslems.


– 3. Consequences of the Crusades.3. Consequences of the Crusades. While it may appear that the crusades were While it may appear that the crusades were

totally ineffective, they did produce many totally ineffective, they did produce many changes in that part of the world, and even left changes in that part of the world, and even left indelible imprints on theology and sociology. indelible imprints on theology and sociology.

For instance, a new concept of war emerged. For instance, a new concept of war emerged. – Augustine had required that war be Augustine had required that war be

conducted by the state; now it was carried conducted by the state; now it was carried out by the laity with the blessing of the out by the laity with the blessing of the church. church.

– According to Augustine, the object of a just According to Augustine, the object of a just war was the vindication of justice as in the war was the vindication of justice as in the defense of life and property; now war was defense of life and property; now war was for the defense of the faith, and the right to for the defense of the faith, and the right to exercise the faith. exercise the faith.


– 3. Consequences of the Crusades.3. Consequences of the Crusades.– Augustine’s code of just war had called for Augustine’s code of just war had called for

considerate treatment of the enemy especially considerate treatment of the enemy especially noncombatants, hostages and prisoners; but noncombatants, hostages and prisoners; but now such restraints were abandoned and now such restraints were abandoned and wholesale massacre was justified by such wholesale massacre was justified by such biblical accounts as the conquest of Canaan biblical accounts as the conquest of Canaan by Joshua. by Joshua.

What little territory had been gained by the What little territory had been gained by the crusaders could never offset the losses in the crusaders could never offset the losses in the respect of non-Christians and the critical respect of non-Christians and the critical judgment of world history.judgment of world history.

On the positive side, the crusades did unify On the positive side, the crusades did unify Christendom for a while into an international Christendom for a while into an international community in a common purpose to expel the community in a common purpose to expel the Turks. Turks.


– 3. Consequences of the Crusades.3. Consequences of the Crusades. There was a revival of trade, commerce, There was a revival of trade, commerce,

manufacturing, and industry which in turn manufacturing, and industry which in turn promoted the rise of cities and the new classes promoted the rise of cities and the new classes of merchants, bankers, and craftsmen. of merchants, bankers, and craftsmen.

The extensive travel and geographical The extensive travel and geographical exploration of the period contributed greatly to exploration of the period contributed greatly to the Sing intellectual life in the new universities the Sing intellectual life in the new universities of Europe. of Europe.

Campaigning for the crusades stimulated a Campaigning for the crusades stimulated a spirit of devotion and a new style of fervent, spirit of devotion and a new style of fervent, imaginative preaching.imaginative preaching.

Within the structure of the church, the crusades Within the structure of the church, the crusades left a profound impact. left a profound impact.


– 3. Consequences of the Crusades.3. Consequences of the Crusades. The pope had become the supreme ruler of The pope had become the supreme ruler of

western Europe, the head of armed western Europe, the head of armed Christendom. Christendom.

Financial contributions to the crusades became Financial contributions to the crusades became the basis for a regular tax claimed by the pope. the basis for a regular tax claimed by the pope.

Interest was stimulated in relics and sacred Interest was stimulated in relics and sacred places; and when Palestine was again lost to places; and when Palestine was again lost to Christendom, people developed other sacred Christendom, people developed other sacred places and relics. places and relics.

For example, it was during the 13th c. that the For example, it was during the 13th c. that the use of the rosary came into prom influenced use of the rosary came into prom influenced perhaps by the Moslem ritual known as perhaps by the Moslem ritual known as tasbihtasbih. .

Tasbih beads


– 3. Consequences of the Crusades.3. Consequences of the Crusades. The Crusades influenced the system of The Crusades influenced the system of

absolution. absolution. In the beginning, absolution was granted only to In the beginning, absolution was granted only to

those who personally participated in a crusade. those who personally participated in a crusade. Pope Celestine III (1191-1198) granted a partial Pope Celestine III (1191-1198) granted a partial

absolution to those who contributed money absolution to those who contributed money toward a crusade, and Pope Innocent III (1198-toward a crusade, and Pope Innocent III (1198-1216) granted complete absolution for those 1216) granted complete absolution for those who sent a substitute to the field. who sent a substitute to the field.

The crusades promoted a spirit of religious The crusades promoted a spirit of religious intolerance and set the stage for the Inquisition. intolerance and set the stage for the Inquisition.


– 3. Consequences of the Crusades.3. Consequences of the Crusades. Popes proclaimed crusades, not only against Popes proclaimed crusades, not only against

Moslems, but also against heretics and dissenters Moslems, but also against heretics and dissenters within Christendom.within Christendom.

From the standpoint of the history of Christianity, From the standpoint of the history of Christianity, the crusades are significant because through the crusades are significant because through them western Christianity was projected into the them western Christianity was projected into the eastern Mediterranean, because of the negative eastern Mediterranean, because of the negative effects on relations between the western and effects on relations between the western and eastern divisions of the Catholic Church, and eastern divisions of the Catholic Church, and because of the repercussions on Latin Christianity because of the repercussions on Latin Christianity as suggested above. as suggested above.

Obviously, the crusades were neither a clear evil Obviously, the crusades were neither a clear evil nor a pure benefit to the church and to the world.nor a pure benefit to the church and to the world.

Power Struggle (1054-1305)Power Struggle (1054-1305) C. NOBLE AND IGNOBLE POWERC. NOBLE AND IGNOBLE POWER

– In the 13th c. the church reached its pinnacle In the 13th c. the church reached its pinnacle of power in western Europe. of power in western Europe.

– Never before had the church exercised so Never before had the church exercised so much authority and influence over so many much authority and influence over so many aspects of culture and society aspects of culture and society

– The spiritual awakenings of monasticism and The spiritual awakenings of monasticism and scholasticism had enlarged the vision of scholasticism had enlarged the vision of churchmen as to the possibilities for claiming churchmen as to the possibilities for claiming the souls and minds of men. the souls and minds of men.

– The dubious benefits of the crusades The dubious benefits of the crusades contributed to the growing strength of the contributed to the growing strength of the papacy. With the pope acting as the head of papacy. With the pope acting as the head of armed Christendom, princes had become armed Christendom, princes had become accustomed to following his leadership and accustomed to following his leadership and obeying his orders. obeying his orders.


– The dream of the church as the agent of The dream of the church as the agent of God in directing all earthly affairs had God in directing all earthly affairs had become almost a complete reality. become almost a complete reality.

– When compared with the church under When compared with the church under persecution in the dark days of the Roman persecution in the dark days of the Roman Empire, the medieval church was the Empire, the medieval church was the sovereign mistress of society. sovereign mistress of society.

– Would she be able to maintain that posture, Would she be able to maintain that posture, and was it the proper posture in the first and was it the proper posture in the first place for the servant-church of the humble place for the servant-church of the humble Christ? Christ?

– These questions persisted until they forced These questions persisted until they forced the answers painfully from the unfolding the answers painfully from the unfolding drama.drama.


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. When Hildebrand launched the Gregorian When Hildebrand launched the Gregorian

reforms of the 11th c. he restored integrity to reforms of the 11th c. he restored integrity to the papacy and began a long period of the papacy and began a long period of ascending respect which could not be abated ascending respect which could not be abated even by less worthy pontiffs. even by less worthy pontiffs.

In addition, the following century produced In addition, the following century produced several outstanding popes who continued to several outstanding popes who continued to build toward the apex of papal power in the build toward the apex of papal power in the 13th c.13th c.

a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. Innocent a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. Innocent 11(1130-1143) was successful in opposing the 11(1130-1143) was successful in opposing the Holy Roman emperors of his reign and Holy Roman emperors of his reign and overcoming two rivals who claimed the papacy. overcoming two rivals who claimed the papacy.


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. He compared the relationship of bishops to the He compared the relationship of bishops to the

pope to that of serfs to their sovereign, pope to that of serfs to their sovereign, confirming the hold of Rome over all other sees. confirming the hold of Rome over all other sees.

Eugenius l (1145-1153) was a dedicated pupil of Eugenius l (1145-1153) was a dedicated pupil of Bernard of Clairvaux. Bernard of Clairvaux.

As pope, Eugenius appointed Bernard, his As pope, Eugenius appointed Bernard, his former teacher to preach the Second Crusade. former teacher to preach the Second Crusade. He encouraged an intellectual revival and He encouraged an intellectual revival and improved the educational standards in the improved the educational standards in the church. church.

He demonstrated the power of pope over He demonstrated the power of pope over bishops, which Innocent I had articulated by bishops, which Innocent I had articulated by deposing the powerful archbishops of York, deposing the powerful archbishops of York, Mainz, and Rheims for disobedience. Mainz, and Rheims for disobedience.


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. Ironically, Eugenius spent most of his pontificate Ironically, Eugenius spent most of his pontificate

outside Rome because Arnold of Brescia, one of outside Rome because Arnold of Brescia, one of Abelard’s disciples, had denounced the temporal Abelard’s disciples, had denounced the temporal power of the papacy and aided a civic revolt power of the papacy and aided a civic revolt which set up a rival government for some ten which set up a rival government for some ten years. years.

Adrian IV (1154-1159), the only Englishman to Adrian IV (1154-1159), the only Englishman to ever serve as pope, expelled Arnold from Rome ever serve as pope, expelled Arnold from Rome and had him executed in 1155. and had him executed in 1155.

He demanded full homage from Frederick I He demanded full homage from Frederick I (Barbarossa) before consenting to crown him. (Barbarossa) before consenting to crown him.

His quarrel with Barbarossa over the emperor His quarrel with Barbarossa over the emperor holding his crown as a holding his crown as a beneficiumbeneficium from the pope from the pope became acute in the papacy of Alexander III. became acute in the papacy of Alexander III.


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. Adrian exercised overt authority in dealing with Adrian exercised overt authority in dealing with

the royalty of Sicily, France, and Burgundy. the royalty of Sicily, France, and Burgundy. He is credited with granting to Henry II of He is credited with granting to Henry II of

England the overlordship of Ireland.England the overlordship of Ireland. Alexander III (1159-1181) was an expert in Alexander III (1159-1181) was an expert in

canon law who further extended the papal canon law who further extended the papal power over secular princes. power over secular princes.

He was bitterly opposed by Barbarossa who set He was bitterly opposed by Barbarossa who set up a rival pope, precipitating a schism which up a rival pope, precipitating a schism which lasted for seventeen years, until Barbarossa was lasted for seventeen years, until Barbarossa was decisively defeated at Venice in 1177 and knelt decisively defeated at Venice in 1177 and knelt to kiss Alexander’s feet. to kiss Alexander’s feet.


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. During his pontificate, Thomas Becket, Archbishop During his pontificate, Thomas Becket, Archbishop

of Canterbury was engaged in a heated of Canterbury was engaged in a heated controversy with England’s King Henry II over the controversy with England’s King Henry II over the issue of the independence of church courts. issue of the independence of church courts.

Becket was driven into exile in France, and Becket was driven into exile in France, and returned to Canterbury for Christmas in 1170, returned to Canterbury for Christmas in 1170, where he was murdered before his own high altar. where he was murdered before his own high altar.

Christian society was outraged, and Alexander Christian society was outraged, and Alexander enforced severe penance on Henry and exacted enforced severe penance on Henry and exacted strong recognition from him. strong recognition from him.

Alexander also canonized Becket in 1173, and Alexander also canonized Becket in 1173, and established a rule that all future canonizations established a rule that all future canonizations should be only with the authority of the pope. should be only with the authority of the pope.


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. a. Great Popes of the Twelfth Century. Alexander convened the third Lateran Council in Alexander convened the third Lateran Council in

1179, where further measures were taken for 1179, where further measures were taken for reform.reform.

b. Innocent III. The papacy reached its highest b. Innocent III. The papacy reached its highest point of influence in the political life of Europe point of influence in the political life of Europe during the pontificate of Innocent Ill, who reigned during the pontificate of Innocent Ill, who reigned from 1198 to 1216. from 1198 to 1216.

Of aristocratic lineage on his father’s side, and Of aristocratic lineage on his father’s side, and Roman nobility on his mother’s side, Innocent III Roman nobility on his mother’s side, Innocent III was one of the most learned and powerful men of was one of the most learned and powerful men of his day. his day.

He was a cardinal-deacon by the time he was He was a cardinal-deacon by the time he was twenty-nine, and elected pope before he was forty twenty-nine, and elected pope before he was forty and before he had even been ordained a priest. and before he had even been ordained a priest.


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. b. Innocent III. b. Innocent III. While his great diplomatic skills enabled him to While his great diplomatic skills enabled him to

wield power over kings and princes, he was also wield power over kings and princes, he was also blessed with the fortune of well-timed events. blessed with the fortune of well-timed events.

When the formidable Frederick I Barbarossa When the formidable Frederick I Barbarossa died, his son Henry VI became emperor and died, his son Henry VI became emperor and began a power play to diminish the papacy. began a power play to diminish the papacy.

But he died in his early thirties, leaving his But he died in his early thirties, leaving his three-year-old son Frederick II. three-year-old son Frederick II.

The boy’s mother also died the year Innocent The boy’s mother also died the year Innocent became pope, and she had designated the pope became pope, and she had designated the pope as guardian of her son and regent of Sicily. as guardian of her son and regent of Sicily.


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. b. Innocent III. b. Innocent III. Innocent became and remained virtual ruler Innocent became and remained virtual ruler

throughout western Europe, Spain, Norway, and throughout western Europe, Spain, Norway, and England.England.

It was Innocent who preached and organized the It was Innocent who preached and organized the Fourth Crusade of 1204. Fourth Crusade of 1204.

This was the crusade which was diverted from its This was the crusade which was diverted from its original purpose of taking Jerusalem, and ended up original purpose of taking Jerusalem, and ended up capturing Constantinople. capturing Constantinople.

As we have already noted, this led to the setting up As we have already noted, this led to the setting up of the first Latin government and patriarch in of the first Latin government and patriarch in Constantinople. Constantinople.

This enabled Innocent to extend the control of Rome This enabled Innocent to extend the control of Rome over large territories which had been previously over large territories which had been previously committed to the Byzantine wing of the church. committed to the Byzantine wing of the church.


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. b. Innocent III. b. Innocent III. These gains in the East proved to be temporary but These gains in the East proved to be temporary but

the fact that they were made at all was significant.the fact that they were made at all was significant. The peak achievement of Innocent’s reign was the The peak achievement of Innocent’s reign was the

convening of the highly influential Fourth Lateran convening of the highly influential Fourth Lateran Council in 1215. Council in 1215.

It would be three hundred and fifty years later, at It would be three hundred and fifty years later, at Trent, before such a comprehensive work would be Trent, before such a comprehensive work would be done. done.

The Fourth Lateran Council established new The Fourth Lateran Council established new reforms, improvement of life in the Christian reforms, improvement of life in the Christian community better education for the clergy precise community better education for the clergy precise doctrines such as a formula on the Trinity, doctrines such as a formula on the Trinity, transubstantiation and annual confession to a transubstantiation and annual confession to a priest. priest.


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. b. Innocent III. b. Innocent III. This council symbolized the mastery of the This council symbolized the mastery of the

papacy over every feature of society even papacy over every feature of society even confirming the shameful isolation of Jews from confirming the shameful isolation of Jews from general society requiring them to wear special general society requiring them to wear special badges, which began the sad saga of the Jewish badges, which began the sad saga of the Jewish people living in isolated ghettos.people living in isolated ghettos.

Innocent III was the first to use the title “Vicar of Innocent III was the first to use the title “Vicar of Christ.”Christ.”

He declared that Peter and all his successors He declared that Peter and all his successors were “left the governance not only of the church were “left the governance not only of the church but of the whole world.” but of the whole world.”

He thought of the papal office as semidivine, “set He thought of the papal office as semidivine, “set in the midst between God and man, below God in the midst between God and man, below God but above man.” but above man.”


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. b. Innocent III. b. Innocent III. He affirmed himself as Melchizedek, the He affirmed himself as Melchizedek, the

priest-king who would bring a priest-king who would bring a centralized Christian society into being. centralized Christian society into being.

The theories of papal supremacy over The theories of papal supremacy over all human spiritual and secular affairs all human spiritual and secular affairs were actualized in Innocent III. were actualized in Innocent III.

He made kings his vassals, created the He made kings his vassals, created the Inquisitions promoted the Fourth Inquisitions promoted the Fourth Crusade, and engineered the Fourth Crusade, and engineered the Fourth Lateran Council. Lateran Council.


– 1. Papacy at its Height.1. Papacy at its Height. b. Innocent III. b. Innocent III. His Christian society ruled over by the His Christian society ruled over by the

pope, was short-lived, but an active pope, was short-lived, but an active reality nonetheless. reality nonetheless.

His awesome success, however bore an His awesome success, however bore an even more awesome price. even more awesome price.

More blood was shed during Innocent More blood was shed during Innocent III’s reign than at any time in papal III’s reign than at any time in papal history. history.

Dissenters could not be tolerated and Dissenters could not be tolerated and were dealt with in great severity.were dealt with in great severity.


– 2. Dissent in the Open.2. Dissent in the Open.– While Innocent appeared to be controlling all of While Innocent appeared to be controlling all of

Christendom, there were those who began to Christendom, there were those who began to raise their voices against the worldliness of the raise their voices against the worldliness of the church. church.

– One of the earliest dissenters was Arnold of One of the earliest dissenters was Arnold of Brescia, whom we have already recognized as Brescia, whom we have already recognized as having engineered the ousting of Pope having engineered the ousting of Pope Eugenius III from Rome. Eugenius III from Rome.

– Papal worldliness and obsession for dominion Papal worldliness and obsession for dominion brought overt and covert protests. brought overt and covert protests.

– Also, the development of national, sovereign Also, the development of national, sovereign states, and the rise of the universities states, and the rise of the universities contributed to new allegiances and new contributed to new allegiances and new thought.thought.


– 2. Dissent in the Open.2. Dissent in the Open.– a. The Cathari. A widespread protest against a. The Cathari. A widespread protest against

Roman Catholicism was organized by the Roman Catholicism was organized by the Cathari, also called Albigenses because of Cathari, also called Albigenses because of their large settlement near Albi, France. their large settlement near Albi, France.

– Ecclesiastically, the Cathari said that the true Ecclesiastically, the Cathari said that the true church endures, and doe not have to church endures, and doe not have to persecute in order to do so.persecute in order to do so.

– Philosophically they believed in a dualism of Philosophically they believed in a dualism of body and soul, material and spiritual worlds, body and soul, material and spiritual worlds, evil and good. evil and good.

– Thus they practiced severe asceticism in Thus they practiced severe asceticism in order to rid the soul of all impurities (Cathari order to rid the soul of all impurities (Cathari stood for ‘pure’). stood for ‘pure’).

St. Dominic and the Albigenses

SpanishInquisition


– 2. Dissent in the Open.2. Dissent in the Open.– a. The Cathari. a. The Cathari. – Sociologically, they rejected marriage, Sociologically, they rejected marriage,

reproduction, war, property and oaths. reproduction, war, property and oaths. – The lower class of Cathari were not The lower class of Cathari were not

required to adhere strictly and were able required to adhere strictly and were able to propagate the sect. to propagate the sect.

– Theologically, they believed that Christ Theologically, they believed that Christ was an angel, not a human, and that he was an angel, not a human, and that he neither died nor rose from the dead. neither died nor rose from the dead.

– They rejected the cross and the They rejected the cross and the sacraments, and anticipated reincarnation.sacraments, and anticipated reincarnation.


– 2. Dissent in the Open.2. Dissent in the Open.– a. The Cathari. a. The Cathari. – Obviously, the Cathari were outside the Obviously, the Cathari were outside the

mainstream of Christianity even though they mainstream of Christianity even though they avidly read the New Testament, preached its avidly read the New Testament, preached its morality and emphasis on love, and made morality and emphasis on love, and made vernacular translations. vernacular translations.

– In line with their dualistic concepts, they In line with their dualistic concepts, they maintained that there were two churches, maintained that there were two churches, the true one being their own, and the evil the true one being their own, and the evil one being Rome. one being Rome.

– Their open and blatant criticism of Rome Their open and blatant criticism of Rome was destined to bring them to a tragic was destined to bring them to a tragic confrontation.confrontation.


– 2. Dissent in the Open.2. Dissent in the Open.– b. The Waldenses. Another influential group b. The Waldenses. Another influential group

of dissenters were the Waldenses, named of dissenters were the Waldenses, named after their founder Peter Waldo (or some after their founder Peter Waldo (or some contend they were so-called after the contend they were so-called after the vallis vallis densadensa, shaded valley in which they long , shaded valley in which they long existed). existed).

– Peter Waldo (d. 1217) was a wealthy Peter Waldo (d. 1217) was a wealthy merchant of Lyons who took literally the merchant of Lyons who took literally the injunction of Jesus to the rich young ruler to injunction of Jesus to the rich young ruler to sell all, give to the poor, and follow him. sell all, give to the poor, and follow him.

– Waldo paid all his creditors, provided for his Waldo paid all his creditors, provided for his wife and family, gave away all that remained, wife and family, gave away all that remained, and began a career of itinerant preaching. and began a career of itinerant preaching.


– 2. Dissent in the Open.2. Dissent in the Open.– b. The Waldenses. b. The Waldenses. – He tried to imitate Christ in everything, even in his He tried to imitate Christ in everything, even in his

manner of dress and life-style.manner of dress and life-style.– Preaching in both city and country, Waldo soon Preaching in both city and country, Waldo soon

attracted a large following, which came to be attracted a large following, which came to be known as the “Poor Men of Lyons.” known as the “Poor Men of Lyons.”

– At first they resembled the movement which At first they resembled the movement which Francis of Assisi was to begin some three decades Francis of Assisi was to begin some three decades later. later.

– When the archbishop of Lyons forbade them to When the archbishop of Lyons forbade them to preach, Peter Waldo went to Rome during the Third preach, Peter Waldo went to Rome during the Third Lateran Council to appeal to the pope for Lateran Council to appeal to the pope for permission to preach. permission to preach.

Valdese, North Carolina


– 2. Dissent in the Open.2. Dissent in the Open.– b. The Waldenses. b. The Waldenses. – He was praised for his poverty by Pope Alexander He was praised for his poverty by Pope Alexander

III, but told that he could preach only when III, but told that he could preach only when approved by local clergy. approved by local clergy.

– He was also placed under suspicion of being an He was also placed under suspicion of being an Arian because he said that Mary was the mother of Arian because he said that Mary was the mother of Christ, not the mother of God. Christ, not the mother of God.

– When local clergy refused permission for them to When local clergy refused permission for them to preach, the Waldenses affirmed that they ought to preach, the Waldenses affirmed that they ought to obey God rather than man and continued to obey God rather than man and continued to preach. preach.

– In 1184 they were excommunicated by the Council In 1184 they were excommunicated by the Council of Verona, and were soon lumped with the Cathari of Verona, and were soon lumped with the Cathari in the inquisitions and persecutions.in the inquisitions and persecutions.


– 2. Dissent in the Open.2. Dissent in the Open.– b. The Waldenses. b. The Waldenses. – The beliefs of the Waldenses were based on simple The beliefs of the Waldenses were based on simple

adherence to the Bible above all man-made creeds. adherence to the Bible above all man-made creeds. – They refused to recognize either pope or bishop They refused to recognize either pope or bishop

and taught that the church of Rome could not be and taught that the church of Rome could not be the head of the Catholic Church since it was the head of the Catholic Church since it was corrupt. corrupt.

– They held to the right of laymen to preach, but did They held to the right of laymen to preach, but did have their own organized clergy. have their own organized clergy.

– They rejected prayers for the dead, the doctrine of They rejected prayers for the dead, the doctrine of purgatory, Latin prayers, church music, mandatory purgatory, Latin prayers, church music, mandatory confession and all of the sacraments except confession and all of the sacraments except baptism and the Lord’s Supper.baptism and the Lord’s Supper.


– 2. Dissent in the Open.2. Dissent in the Open.– b. The Waldenses. b. The Waldenses. – They upheld the Bible as the symbol of Christianity They upheld the Bible as the symbol of Christianity

rather than the cross, they refused to say the rather than the cross, they refused to say the Apostle’s Creed, to venerate saints, images, or Apostle’s Creed, to venerate saints, images, or relics, and they opposed tithes, indulgences, and relics, and they opposed tithes, indulgences, and capital punishment.capital punishment.

– The main thrust of the Waldenses was to purify the The main thrust of the Waldenses was to purify the church by a return to simplicity.church by a return to simplicity.

– Confrontation with the papacy was inevitable, for it Confrontation with the papacy was inevitable, for it was unthinkable that the Roman church would was unthinkable that the Roman church would annul its sacraments, void its priesthood, and annul its sacraments, void its priesthood, and admit that faith in God could come through some admit that faith in God could come through some means other than the prescribed way of Rome. means other than the prescribed way of Rome.


– 2. Dissent in the Open.2. Dissent in the Open.– b. The Waldenses. b. The Waldenses.

– Thus the Waldenses were branded as Thus the Waldenses were branded as heretics, and the Catholic Church and heretics, and the Catholic Church and civil authorities sought to eliminate civil authorities sought to eliminate them, either by persuasion or force. them, either by persuasion or force.

– They were virtually annihilated in They were virtually annihilated in France and Spain, and those who France and Spain, and those who survived found refuge in the Italian survived found refuge in the Italian Alps, where they surfaced again during Alps, where they surfaced again during the Reformation, and indeed, where the Reformation, and indeed, where some persist to the present time.some persist to the present time.


– 2. Dissent in the Open.2. Dissent in the Open.– b. The Waldenses. b. The Waldenses. – The Waldenses and Cathari constituted the The Waldenses and Cathari constituted the

main bodies of protest in the Middle Ages, main bodies of protest in the Middle Ages, but other protests were also expressed by but other protests were also expressed by the free-thinking Beghards, Bogomiles, the free-thinking Beghards, Bogomiles, Hurniliati, Runcarii, and Amalricians. Hurniliati, Runcarii, and Amalricians.

– A strong apocalyptic dissenter by the name A strong apocalyptic dissenter by the name of Joachim caused considerable agitation of Joachim caused considerable agitation and laid the foundation for apocalyptic and laid the foundation for apocalyptic criticism of the worldly church, and criticism of the worldly church, and inspired the later Spiritual Franciscans, who inspired the later Spiritual Franciscans, who were also victims of the dread Inquisition.were also victims of the dread Inquisition.


– 3. Inquisition on the Rampage.3. Inquisition on the Rampage. When the Catharist heresy began to When the Catharist heresy began to

threaten not only religion but all the threaten not only religion but all the institutions of contemporary society, institutions of contemporary society, Innocent III inaugurated the era of the Innocent III inaugurated the era of the Inquisition, although it was not officially Inquisition, although it was not officially instituted until 1233 under Gregory IX. instituted until 1233 under Gregory IX.

Technically speaking inquisition denotes Technically speaking inquisition denotes the juridical persecution of heresy by the juridical persecution of heresy by special ecclesiastical courts. special ecclesiastical courts.

In the early days of the church, In the early days of the church, punishment for heresy was simply punishment for heresy was simply excommunication. excommunication.


– 3. Inquisition on the Rampage.3. Inquisition on the Rampage. Physical punishment was generally Physical punishment was generally

disapproved by the early Fathers, but after disapproved by the early Fathers, but after Christianity became the official religion of Christianity became the official religion of the empire, secular princes viewed heresy the empire, secular princes viewed heresy as a crime against the state, for which as a crime against the state, for which confiscation or even death could be inflicted.confiscation or even death could be inflicted.

The recorded cruelties against the Cathari The recorded cruelties against the Cathari date from 1145 when several were burned date from 1145 when several were burned to death in Cologne. to death in Cologne.

In 1161 thirty of them were branded and In 1161 thirty of them were branded and flogged at Oxford. flogged at Oxford.

In England, Henry II blinded and castrated all In England, Henry II blinded and castrated all suspected of being Cathari. suspected of being Cathari.


– 3. Inquisition on the Rampage.3. Inquisition on the Rampage. The Councils of Rheims (1148), Third Lateran The Councils of Rheims (1148), Third Lateran

(1179), and Verona (1184) condemned the (1179), and Verona (1184) condemned the Cathari, and directed princes to take action Cathari, and directed princes to take action against them. against them.

In 1199 Pope Innocent III declared heresy a In 1199 Pope Innocent III declared heresy a capital crime, and launched a crusade against capital crime, and launched a crusade against the Cathari that lasted from 1207 until 1244.the Cathari that lasted from 1207 until 1244.

The bloody warfare was climaxed by the The bloody warfare was climaxed by the massacre at Beziers, where the; papal legate, massacre at Beziers, where the; papal legate, upon being asked if Catholics should be spared, upon being asked if Catholics should be spared, replied, “Kill them all, for God knows his own,” replied, “Kill them all, for God knows his own,” resulting in the slaughter of 20,000 men; resulting in the slaughter of 20,000 men; women, and children. women, and children.

At Minerve, 140 Cathari were burned and At Minerve, 140 Cathari were burned and hundreds had their ears and noses cut off. hundreds had their ears and noses cut off.


– 3. Inquisition on the Rampage.3. Inquisition on the Rampage. Such violence continued throughout the Such violence continued throughout the

13th c. with Innocent III granting 13th c. with Innocent III granting absolution of all sins (plenary indulgence) absolution of all sins (plenary indulgence) and acquisition of new lands to those and acquisition of new lands to those crusading against the heretics. crusading against the heretics.

In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council In 1215, the Fourth Lateran Council provided for the secular punishment of provided for the secular punishment of heretics, the confiscation of their property, heretics, the confiscation of their property, excommunication for sympathizers, and excommunication for sympathizers, and complete forgiveness of sins for those complete forgiveness of sins for those cooperating.cooperating.

Pope Honorius III, successor to Innocent III, Pope Honorius III, successor to Innocent III, continued the crusade against the Cathari. continued the crusade against the Cathari.


– 3. Inquisition on the Rampage.3. Inquisition on the Rampage. In 1224, Emperor Frederick II ordered In 1224, Emperor Frederick II ordered

the burning of heretics, an order that the burning of heretics, an order that was approved and upheld by Pope was approved and upheld by Pope Gregory IX in 1231. Gregory IX in 1231.

Under Gregory IX the holy office of the Under Gregory IX the holy office of the Inquisition was instituted and Inquisition was instituted and systematized inquisitorial rules were set systematized inquisitorial rules were set up, with the Dominicans being given the up, with the Dominicans being given the official administration of those rules. official administration of those rules.


– 3. Inquisition on the Rampage.3. Inquisition on the Rampage. The The Inquisitor’s ManualInquisitor’s Manual of 1300 discloses that of 1300 discloses that

the inquisitor was not subject to the law, but the inquisitor was not subject to the law, but only to the papacy; that the accused heretic only to the papacy; that the accused heretic could have no counsel, and was not allowed to could have no counsel, and was not allowed to know his accusers; that testimony of children know his accusers; that testimony of children and criminals could be used against the accused and criminals could be used against the accused but not for him; that the accused was always but not for him; that the accused was always considered guilty until proven innocent; that considered guilty until proven innocent; that confession could possibly reduce the death confession could possibly reduce the death penalty to life imprisonment; that even then he penalty to life imprisonment; that even then he would lose his tongue for having spoken against would lose his tongue for having spoken against the church; and that any witnesses speaking for the church; and that any witnesses speaking for the accused were guilty of abetting heresy and the accused were guilty of abetting heresy and would also be persecuted. would also be persecuted.


– 3. Inquisition on the Rampage.3. Inquisition on the Rampage. The Synod of Toulouse which legitimized these The Synod of Toulouse which legitimized these

rules also denounced all vernacular translations, rules also denounced all vernacular translations, and forbade the laity to possess the Scriptures.and forbade the laity to possess the Scriptures.

In 1233 Pope Gregory IX ordered the In 1233 Pope Gregory IX ordered the Dominicans to exterminate the Cathari, and by Dominicans to exterminate the Cathari, and by the end of the 14th c. this sect had the end of the 14th c. this sect had disappeared. disappeared.

In 1252 Pope Innocent IV authorized torture as a In 1252 Pope Innocent IV authorized torture as a means of getting information and confessions. means of getting information and confessions.

The inquisition as a means of stamping out The inquisition as a means of stamping out heresy and dissent continued to flourish and heresy and dissent continued to flourish and reached its peak in the Spanish Inquisition at reached its peak in the Spanish Inquisition at the end of the 15th c. under the tyrannical the end of the 15th c. under the tyrannical Grand Inquisitor Torquemada. Grand Inquisitor Torquemada.


– 3. Inquisition on the Rampage.3. Inquisition on the Rampage. This version of the Inquisition was originally This version of the Inquisition was originally

directed against converts from Judaism and directed against converts from Judaism and Islam, but was also used against Protestants. Islam, but was also used against Protestants.

In fact, there was a general resurgence of the In fact, there was a general resurgence of the Inquisition to curb Protestantism in 1542, and Inquisition to curb Protestantism in 1542, and Inquisition as a tool of the Catholic Church was Inquisition as a tool of the Catholic Church was not officially ended until 1834. not officially ended until 1834.

During these seven hundred years of cruel During these seven hundred years of cruel oppression the church had left a dark stain in oppression the church had left a dark stain in the pages of history. the pages of history.

One is strained to find a resemblance between One is strained to find a resemblance between the oppressing Christians of the Middle Ages the oppressing Christians of the Middle Ages and the oppressed Christians in the earlier and the oppressed Christians in the earlier Roman Empire.Roman Empire.

A House Divided (1305-A House Divided (1305-1517)1517) A. THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENTA. THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT

– The “house” of medieval Christianity had The “house” of medieval Christianity had built its roof over all of society. built its roof over all of society.

– If its foundations could be said to have rested If its foundations could be said to have rested on the Scriptures and the church, then its on the Scriptures and the church, then its columns or walls of support were made from columns or walls of support were made from the laws and powers of the state. the laws and powers of the state.

– In the 13th and 14th centuries, the state In the 13th and 14th centuries, the state columns began to pull loose and to assert columns began to pull loose and to assert themselves as rivals to the church themselves as rivals to the church foundations. foundations.

– The rise of nations and the claim to state The rise of nations and the claim to state sovereignty challenged and defied the sovereignty challenged and defied the authority and power of the papacy and the authority and power of the papacy and the house tottered and swayed.house tottered and swayed.


– 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.– The entity of nations as we know them The entity of nations as we know them

today was not prevalent at the beginning of today was not prevalent at the beginning of the 13th c. the 13th c.

– Although they were separated Although they were separated geographically, philosophically, culturally, geographically, philosophically, culturally, and linguistically, the peoples of what we and linguistically, the peoples of what we know as Europe (a term that came into know as Europe (a term that came into being in the 15th c.) were bound in their being in the 15th c.) were bound in their allegiance to the two great universal powers allegiance to the two great universal powers of the Middle Ages, the empire and the of the Middle Ages, the empire and the church. church.

– An emerging national consciousness, An emerging national consciousness, however, began to consolidate the populace however, began to consolidate the populace of the respective lands in common of the respective lands in common traditions, common language, centralized traditions, common language, centralized government, and naturally defensible government, and naturally defensible borders.borders.


– 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.– The three most powerful western The three most powerful western

monarchies evolved along identical lines, monarchies evolved along identical lines, and by the end of the 15th c. all had and by the end of the 15th c. all had solidified their form. solidified their form.

– In England the new monarchy dates from In England the new monarchy dates from 1485, in France from 1491, and in Spain 1485, in France from 1491, and in Spain from 1492. from 1492.

– In the developing process, the kings took In the developing process, the kings took over the roles of the emperors. over the roles of the emperors.

– In fact, the open slogan was In fact, the open slogan was Rex est Rex est imperator in regno suoimperator in regno suo (The king is the (The king is the emperor in his own domain). emperor in his own domain).

– At the same time, the sovereigns sought to At the same time, the sovereigns sought to control the church in their territories. control the church in their territories.


– 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.– In the 16th c. the king of England came very In the 16th c. the king of England came very

close to saying that he was the pope in his close to saying that he was the pope in his own domain.own domain.

– England’s quarrel with the papacy went England’s quarrel with the papacy went back many years and involved many issues. back many years and involved many issues.

– In 1277, Robert Kilwardby, Archbishop of In 1277, Robert Kilwardby, Archbishop of Canterbury had condemned some of Canterbury had condemned some of Aquinas’ teachings, and again in 1284, John Aquinas’ teachings, and again in 1284, John Pecham, Archbishop of Canterbury did the Pecham, Archbishop of Canterbury did the same. same.

– Also, there was the chafing matter of feudal Also, there was the chafing matter of feudal tribute to which King John had committed tribute to which King John had committed the country by making England a fief of the the country by making England a fief of the papacy in 1213. papacy in 1213.


– 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.– This tribute was no longer being paid, to the This tribute was no longer being paid, to the

displeasure of the papacy; and in 1279, displeasure of the papacy; and in 1279, legacies of land to the church were forbidden legacies of land to the church were forbidden by law. by law.

– In 1351, England enacted the Statute of In 1351, England enacted the Statute of Provisors which denied the papacy the right Provisors which denied the papacy the right to fill English sees, a move primarily to keep to fill English sees, a move primarily to keep foreigners from settling in lucrative English foreigners from settling in lucrative English bishoprics. bishoprics.

– Then the Statute of Praemunire in 1353 Then the Statute of Praemunire in 1353 forbade appeals to the courts of Rome, and in forbade appeals to the courts of Rome, and in 1366 parliament declared that the king could 1366 parliament declared that the king could not give the kingdom to the pope as a fief. not give the kingdom to the pope as a fief.


– 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.– John Wycliffe and other Englishmen who John Wycliffe and other Englishmen who

were to rebel against Rome were not were to rebel against Rome were not innovators working in a vacuum. innovators working in a vacuum.

– The atmosphere of independence was The atmosphere of independence was pregnant with the seeds of rebellion and pregnant with the seeds of rebellion and reform.reform.

– It was in France, however, where the church It was in France, however, where the church and crown came to its most heated contest. and crown came to its most heated contest.

– Because much of its territory had been lost Because much of its territory had been lost to the Moslems, and because the resources to the Moslems, and because the resources of Italy were not sufficient to finance the of Italy were not sufficient to finance the papacy’s international program, the church papacy’s international program, the church imposed tithes on all local churches imposed tithes on all local churches throughout Europe. throughout Europe.

– The crusade tax had also been continued, The crusade tax had also been continued, although the crusades had long ceased. although the crusades had long ceased.


– 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.– Kings in turn began to appropriate the Kings in turn began to appropriate the

wealth of the churches within their territories wealth of the churches within their territories for their own national interests.for their own national interests.

– King Philip of France levied taxes on the King Philip of France levied taxes on the French clergy for one-half their annual French clergy for one-half their annual income. income.

– In 1296, Pope Boniface VIII replied with his In 1296, Pope Boniface VIII replied with his famous famous Clericis LaicosClericis Laicos in which he forbade in which he forbade the clergy to pay taxes to secular powers, the clergy to pay taxes to secular powers, threatening with excommunication any threatening with excommunication any layman who exacted and any churchman layman who exacted and any churchman who paid such taxes. who paid such taxes.

– In England, King Edward reacted by In England, King Edward reacted by outlawing the clergy in England; and in outlawing the clergy in England; and in France, King Philip prohibited the export of France, King Philip prohibited the export of money from France, blocking the flow of money from France, blocking the flow of revenue to Rome.revenue to Rome.


– 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.– Parliament backed Edward, and the Parliament backed Edward, and the

Estates-General backed Philip.Estates-General backed Philip.– Unable to assess adequately the Unable to assess adequately the

nationalistic movement, Boniface nationalistic movement, Boniface completely polarized the situation in 1302 completely polarized the situation in 1302 by issuing his bull, by issuing his bull, Unam SanctamUnam Sanctam, the , the most extravagant claim to universal most extravagant claim to universal temporal sovereignty to come out of the temporal sovereignty to come out of the Middle Ages. Middle Ages.

– He declared that since Christ was king as He declared that since Christ was king as well as priest, he had given two keys and well as priest, he had given two keys and two swords to Peter. two swords to Peter.

Boniface VIII

UnamSanctam

A House Divided (1305-A House Divided (1305-1517)1517) A. THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENTA. THE NATIONALIST MOVEMENT A bull is a solemn papal letter. A bull is a solemn papal letter. The form was given this name The form was given this name

because it was sealed with a because it was sealed with a bulla,bulla, a round lead seal. a round lead seal.

This particular bull was written as This particular bull was written as the latest round in an ongoing the latest round in an ongoing war of words between the pope war of words between the pope and King Philip IV "the Fair" of and King Philip IV "the Fair" of France. France.

UnamSanctam


– 1. The Clash Between Church and 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.Crown.

– He asserted that all temporal power He asserted that all temporal power should be directed by a priest, and should be directed by a priest, and that resisting the pope was the same that resisting the pope was the same as resisting an ordinance of God. as resisting an ordinance of God.

– It is this bull which declares that no It is this bull which declares that no one can be saved without allegiance one can be saved without allegiance to the pope:to the pope:

– ““We therefore declare, say and affirm We therefore declare, say and affirm that submission on the part of every that submission on the part of every person to the bishop of Rome is person to the bishop of Rome is altogether necessary for salvation.”altogether necessary for salvation.”


– 1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.1. The Clash Between Church and Crown.– Philip responded by summoning an Philip responded by summoning an

assembly which condemned Boniface and assembly which condemned Boniface and called for a general council to try him for called for a general council to try him for heresy and immorality. heresy and immorality.

– Boniface replied by preparing a bull of Boniface replied by preparing a bull of excommunication against Philip, but the excommunication against Philip, but the king enlisted a band of mercenaries to king enlisted a band of mercenaries to capture and torture the pope at his capture and torture the pope at his summer residence of Anagni near Rome. summer residence of Anagni near Rome.

– Friendly Italian forces freed him, but he Friendly Italian forces freed him, but he died a month later. died a month later.

– The fervor of a rising nationalism and the The fervor of a rising nationalism and the obstinance of a diminishing papacy had obstinance of a diminishing papacy had come to a desperate confrontation on a come to a desperate confrontation on a personal and physical level.personal and physical level.


– 2. The Babylonian Captivity.2. The Babylonian Captivity.– Boniface’s successor, Pope Benedict XI, Boniface’s successor, Pope Benedict XI,

wanted to make peace with Philip; but he felt wanted to make peace with Philip; but he felt morally obligated to issue a bull against the morally obligated to issue a bull against the outrage inflicted upon Boniface at Anagni. outrage inflicted upon Boniface at Anagni.

– Benedict died one month later under Benedict died one month later under mysterious circumstances, and it was eleven mysterious circumstances, and it was eleven months before his successor, Pope Clement months before his successor, Pope Clement V was chosen. V was chosen.

– The cardinals at Rome had elected Clement, The cardinals at Rome had elected Clement, but he was crowned at Lyon, and never but he was crowned at Lyon, and never returned to Italy. returned to Italy.

– Because Clement was completely dominated Because Clement was completely dominated by France, and because Rome had become by France, and because Rome had become unstable and unsafe for the popes, the seat unstable and unsafe for the popes, the seat of the papacy was moved in 1309 to of the papacy was moved in 1309 to Avignon, a little principality in the south of Avignon, a little principality in the south of France. France.


– 2. The Babylonian Captivity.2. The Babylonian Captivity.– This city was the papal residency for almost This city was the papal residency for almost

seventy years, a period which became seventy years, a period which became known as the Babylonian Captivity, harking known as the Babylonian Captivity, harking back to the seventy-year captivity of the back to the seventy-year captivity of the Jews.Jews.

– The first Avignon pope, Clement V, The first Avignon pope, Clement V, condemned Boniface, was subservient to condemned Boniface, was subservient to Philip, and led the papacy in becoming a Philip, and led the papacy in becoming a French institution rather than a universal French institution rather than a universal power. power.

– All seven of the Avignon popes were French. All seven of the Avignon popes were French. – Clement assisted Philip in using the Clement assisted Philip in using the

Inquisition as a tool of the state, tried the Inquisition as a tool of the state, tried the Knights Templars in France for heresy and Knights Templars in France for heresy and executed sixty-nine of them. executed sixty-nine of them.

Clement V


– 2. The Babylonian Captivity.2. The Babylonian Captivity.– With the French crown supporting the With the French crown supporting the

papacy, the Avignon popes became the papacy, the Avignon popes became the most powerful potentates in western most powerful potentates in western Europe, and Avignon itself the most Europe, and Avignon itself the most cosmopolitan city in 14th c. Europe.cosmopolitan city in 14th c. Europe.

– The church continued to decline morally The church continued to decline morally however, and general unrest abounded. however, and general unrest abounded.

– Many clergy practiced pluralism (holding two Many clergy practiced pluralism (holding two paying offices at once), and absenteeism paying offices at once), and absenteeism (not living in the post from which their (not living in the post from which their income came). income came).

– There was also a growing distress over the There was also a growing distress over the papacy’s prolonged absence from Rome. papacy’s prolonged absence from Rome.


– 2. The Babylonian Captivity.2. The Babylonian Captivity.– The popes were being constantly urged to The popes were being constantly urged to

return to their proper place; and Pope Urban return to their proper place; and Pope Urban V went to Rome in 1367, but was so V went to Rome in 1367, but was so distressed over the deplorable state of the distressed over the deplorable state of the churches that he returned to Avignon after churches that he returned to Avignon after less than three years. less than three years.

– His successor, Pope Gregory XI, was His successor, Pope Gregory XI, was dedicated from the outset of his reign to dedicated from the outset of his reign to move the papacy back to Rome, which he move the papacy back to Rome, which he accomplished in 1377. accomplished in 1377.

– The “Babylonian Captivity” had ended, yet The “Babylonian Captivity” had ended, yet that move precipitated an almost fatal crisis that move precipitated an almost fatal crisis for the Catholic Church.for the Catholic Church.


– 3. The Papal Schism.3. The Papal Schism.– There are three great schisms in Christian There are three great schisms in Christian

history: the East-West Schism of 1054, the history: the East-West Schism of 1054, the Protestant Schism of the 16th c. and the Protestant Schism of the 16th c. and the Papal Schism in the latter part of the 14th c. Papal Schism in the latter part of the 14th c.

– The papal schism began soon after the death The papal schism began soon after the death of Gregory XI in 1378. of Gregory XI in 1378.

– The people of Rome were still rejoicing that The people of Rome were still rejoicing that the papacy had been moved back to their the papacy had been moved back to their city, and they insisted that Gregory’s city, and they insisted that Gregory’s successor should be a Roman, or at least an successor should be a Roman, or at least an Italian. Italian.

– Although most of the cardinals were French, Although most of the cardinals were French, they yielded to the pressure and elected a they yielded to the pressure and elected a native of Naples, who took the title of Urban native of Naples, who took the title of Urban VI. VI.

Urban VI


– 3. The Papal Schism.3. The Papal Schism.– The cardinals soon became unhappy with The cardinals soon became unhappy with

their choke, for Urban VI was tactless, their choke, for Urban VI was tactless, obstinate, and severe. obstinate, and severe.

– He rebuked the cardinals for their He rebuked the cardinals for their worldliness, pluralism, simony, and worldliness, pluralism, simony, and absenteeism. absenteeism.

– He refused even to consider their He refused even to consider their suggestion of returning to the luxury of suggestion of returning to the luxury of Avignon, so they returned without him. Avignon, so they returned without him.

– Back in Avignon, the cardinals declared Back in Avignon, the cardinals declared Urban an illegal pope since they had Urban an illegal pope since they had elected him under duress. elected him under duress.


– 3. The Papal Schism.3. The Papal Schism.– When he refused to resign, they elected When he refused to resign, they elected

another pope—a prince related to the king another pope—a prince related to the king of France, who took the title of Clement VII. of France, who took the title of Clement VII.

– Urban rejected this action and appointed a Urban rejected this action and appointed a new group of cardinals.new group of cardinals.

– The nations of Europe were forced to The nations of Europe were forced to decide where their allegiance lay. decide where their allegiance lay.

– Spain, France, Scotland, and part of Spain, France, Scotland, and part of Germany lined up behind the Avignon pope. Germany lined up behind the Avignon pope.

– Italy, most of Germany, England, Italy, most of Germany, England, Scandinavia, Bohemia, Poland, Flanders, Scandinavia, Bohemia, Poland, Flanders, and Portugal supported Urban in Rome. and Portugal supported Urban in Rome.


– 3. The Papal Schism.3. The Papal Schism.– The rising nationalism began to assert its The rising nationalism began to assert its

importance in the life of the church more importance in the life of the church more than ever. than ever.

– When Urban VI died, another Roman was When Urban VI died, another Roman was chosen to succeed him, and Clement VII chosen to succeed him, and Clement VII continued on in Avignon for another continued on in Avignon for another sixteen years. sixteen years.

– Neither Clement’s personal life nor his Neither Clement’s personal life nor his public service were admirable, but he was public service were admirable, but he was succeeded by a more capable and upright succeeded by a more capable and upright Benedict XIII, who served for twenty-three Benedict XIII, who served for twenty-three years.years.

– Many efforts were made, especially by the Many efforts were made, especially by the university leaders, to convince both popes university leaders, to convince both popes to resign and let a new one be elected who to resign and let a new one be elected who could reunite the church. could reunite the church.


– 3. The Papal Schism.3. The Papal Schism.– Both popes eventually agreed, but neither Both popes eventually agreed, but neither

followed through. followed through. – Finally, the cardinals from both Rome and Finally, the cardinals from both Rome and

Avignon met in a council at Pisa in 1409, Avignon met in a council at Pisa in 1409, deposed both popes and elected a new one. deposed both popes and elected a new one.

– To their surprise, neither the Roman nor To their surprise, neither the Roman nor Avignon pontiff would recognize their Avignon pontiff would recognize their action. action.

– Thus, the Catholic Church had three popes Thus, the Catholic Church had three popes ruling concurrently, each supported by the ruling concurrently, each supported by the different states of Europe. different states of Europe.

– This intolerable situation created an uproar This intolerable situation created an uproar among the intellectuals as well as the grass among the intellectuals as well as the grass roots populace.roots populace.

Documents

BI 3321, Early Church