Bibliography and Further Reading

Bibliography and Further Reading

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TheBlackSea:AHistoryCharlesKing

Printpublicationdate:2004PrintISBN-13:9780199241613PublishedtoOxfordScholarshipOnline:August2004DOI:10.1093/0199241619.001.0001

BibliographyandFurtherReading

CharlesKing(ContributorWebpage)

Aworkonthehistory,society,andpoliticsoftheBlackSeanecessarilycrossesseveralboundaries:thedisciplinaryonesbetweenhistoryandthesocialsciences,andtheregionalonesbetweencentralandeasternEurope,theRussianempire/formerSovietUnion,andtheOttomanempire/Turkey.ThepurposeofthissectionistoofferthereaderasenseofthesourcesIhaveusedinseveralofthesefieldsandtoprovideafewsignpostsforanyoneinterestedinjourneyingdeeperintotheBlackSeaworld.Moredetailedreferences,includingthoseinlanguagesotherthanEnglish,canbefoundinthenotestoeachchapter.

GENERALWORKSAnybookonseas,frontiers,andregionstrailsalongbehindtwogiants,OwenLattimoreandFernandBraudel.Lattimore'sInnerAsianFrontiersofChina(NewYork,1951)andBraudel'sTheMediterraneanandtheMediterraneanWorldintheAgeofPhilipII(London,1972)arefundamentalworks.Aninfluentialstudythatfollowsin(andrespondsto)theLattimoretraditionisWilliamMcNeill'sbookonsoutheasternEuropeontheeveofmodernity,Europe'sSteppeFrontier,1500–1800(Chicago,1964).Onthemeaningofregions,thereisstillnomorethoughtfulprimerthanOscarHalecki'sTheLimitsand


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DivisionsofEuropeanHistory(London,1950).OnthemutabilityofregionallabelsinEurope,twoexcellentguidesareLarryWolff,InventingEasternEurope(Stanford,1996)andMariaTodorova,ImaginingtheBalkans(Oxford,1997).

Thehistoryofseas,althoughitdoesnotyethaveanameasascholarlyfield(pelagichistory?benthology?),isaboomarea.MartinLewisandKärenE.WigenmakethecaseforpayingmoreattentiontobodiesofwaterinTheMythofContinents(Berkeley,1997).Sea-centeredworksthatIhavefoundusefulare,ontheMediterranean,PeregrineHordenandNicholasPurcell'sTheCorruptingSea(Oxford,2000);ontheIndianOcean,K.N.Chaudhuri'sclassicTradeandCivilisationintheIndianOcean(Cambridge,1985)andRichardHall'sbrilliantlyreadableEmpiresoftheMonsoon(London,1996);onthePacific,O.H.K.Spate'ssweepingthree-volumeThePacificSinceMagellan(Minneapolis,1979,1983,1988)andWalterA.McDougall'sengagingbutattimesplainwackyLettheSeaMakeaNoise(NewYork,1993);andontheAtlantic,BarryCunliffe'sbeautifulFacingtheOcean(Oxford,2001).

(p.252) OntheBlackSeainparticular,twobooksthatservedasinspirationsformyownareGheorgheIoanBrătianu,LaMerNoire:Desoriginesàlaconquêteottomane(Munich,1969)andNeilAscherson,BlackSea(London,1995).TheformerisamagisterialworkofinterpretivehistorybyamajorRomanianhistorian;theanticipatedsecondvolumewaspreemptedbytheauthor'sdeathinacommunistprison.Thelatterisparttravelogueandparthistoricalessay,abeautifullywrittenmeditationonthemeaningsofcivilizationandbarbarism.Anoldersynthesis,whichliberallyplagiarizesotherpublishedworks,isHenryA.S.Dearborn,AMemoiroftheCommerceandNavigationoftheBlackSea,andtheTradeandMaritimeGeographyofTurkeyandEgypt(Boston,1819).AnthonyBryerandDavidWinfield'stwo-volumeTheByzantineMonumentsandTopographyofthePontos(Washington,1985)isastunninganalysisofthegeography,archaeology,architecture,andhistoryofthesoutheasternlittoral.Itwillneverbesurpassed,iffornootherreasonthanthatsomeofthesitesthattheauthorscataloguedhavesincebeendestroyedbytownplannersandhighwayengineers.

Thepastofthelandsandpeoplesaroundtheseaisdividedamonganumberofdisparatehistory-writingtraditions.MarkMazower'sextendedessayTheBalkans:AShortHistory(NewYork,2000)isthebesttwohundredpageswrittenonthatregion;thebestthousandisperhapsL.S.Stavrianos'sTheBalkansSince1453(NewYork,2000).MuchUkrainianhistory-writingismarredbyanuncriticalnationalism,butagoodbalanceistoreadOrestSubtelny'sUkraine:AHistory,2ndedn.(Toronto,1994)andthenAndrewWilson'sTheUkrainians(NewHaven,2000).ThereissimplytoomuchtoreadonRussia,thesteppe,andthesea,butthebestplacetostartiswithtwoimportantworks:MichaelKhodarkovsky,Russia'sSteppeFrontier(Bloomington,2002),thetitleofwhichdoffsahattoMcNeill(above),andWillardSunderland,TamingtheWildField(Ithaca,2004).

TheCaucasusisunfortunatelystillunderstudiedcomparedtoRussiaortheBalkans,butYo'avKarny'sHighlanders(NewYork,2000)isanastutejournalistictreatmentoftheregionanditshistory.Foramorescholarlyanalysis,theolderCaucasianBattlefields(Cambridge,1953),byW.E.D.AllenandPaulMuratoff,isagoodpointofentry.Onthe


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OttomanempireandmodernTurkey,theworksofHalilİnalcık,SuraiyaFaroqhi,BernardLewis,andStanfordShawhavesetthestandard.ErikJ.Zürcher'sTurkey:AModernHistory,rev.edn.(NewYork,1998)isaveryusefulsynthesis.OnBulgariaandRomania,thebasicworksareRichardCrampton,AConciseHistoryofBulgaria(Cambridge,1997)andKeithHitchins'stwovolumes,TheRomanians:1774–1866(Oxford,1996)andRumania:1866–1947(Oxford,1994).

TheStudiesofNationalitiesbookseries,publishedbyHooverInstitutionPressatStanfordUniversity,isthebestsourceforfocusedworksonseveralofthepeoplesaroundthesea:ontheGeorgiansandArmenians,RonaldGrigorSuny's(p.253) TheMakingoftheGeorgianNation(1988)andLookingTowardArarat(1993);AlanFisher'sTheCrimeanTatars(1978);andmyownTheMoldovans(2000).Twootherseries,onepublishedbyMacmillan–PalgraveandtheotherbyCurzonPress,offeroverviewsofpeoplessuchastheAbkhaz,Circassians,Laz,andothers.

Beyondthesegeneralstudies,Ihaveusedarchives,primaryaccountsoftravelersfromantiquitytothepresent,andavastsecondaryliteratureinspecializedfields.Someofthemajorsourcesarediscussedbelow.

ARCHIVESANDPRIVATEPAPERSWritingahistoryoftheBlackSeabasedonarchivalsourceswouldconsumeseveralcareers,sinceitwoulddemandadetailedinvestigationofcollectionsinmanycountriesandmanylanguages,someofwhichareevennownoteasilyaccessible.Ihavesampledonlysomeofthem.

TheHooverInstitutionArchivesatStanfordUniversityholdthepapersoftheAmericanReliefAdministration,anextremelyvaluablecollectiononhumanitarianeffortsinsouthernRussiaduringandaftertheFirstWorldWar.IalsomadeuseoftheS.N.PaleologuePapers,ontheevacuationofRussianstotheBalkansduringthewar,alongwiththeprivatepapersofMikhailN.Girs(RussianministerinConstantinople)andFrankA.Golder(amemberoftheAmericanReliefAdministration).TherecordsoftheU.S.MilitaryMissiontoArmeniain1919providearemarkableportraitofhumansufferingineasternAnatoliaaftertheendofthewar.

AttheLibraryofCongress,theRogerFentonCrimeanWarPhotographCollection(nowavailableonline)isapricelessphotographicchronicleofthewar.Thelibrary'sGeographyandMapReadingRoomhousesausefularrayofhistoricBlackSeamaps,includingtheextremelyimportantatlasofEgorManganarifrom1841.

AtthearchivesofthePiłsudskiInstituteofAmericainNewYork,IconsultedthepapersofEdmundCharaszkiewicz,JerzyPonikiewski,andApolinaryKiełczyński.Thesepersonalpapers,alongwiththejournalProméthée(publishedinthe1920sand1930sinParis),aresomeofthebasicsourcesforthehistoryofthePrometheanmovement.

ThePublicRecordOfficeinLondoncontainsvaluableinformationonBlackSeacommerceinthenineteenthcenturyintheannualreportsoftheBritishconsularofficesaroundthe


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sea,allintheForeignOfficefiles.TheAdmiraltyandWarOfficefilesarelessrichbutstillproviderevealingdocuments,especiallyabouttheSecondWorldWar.

ThefirstBritishconsulinTrabzon,JamesBrant,wasakeenobserveroftheseainthe1830s;hisprivatepapersareavailableattheBritishLibrary.Atthelibrary,(p.254) IalsoconsultedthepapersofHenryEllisandA.H.Layard,whichcontaincorrespondencerelatedtoBrant'scareer.

InRomania,IstudiedthehistoryoftheVlachcolonizationprograminDobrudjathroughthefilesoftheMinistryofEducation,theNationalOfficeofColonization,andtheSocietyforMacedo-RomanianCulture,amongothers,locatedattheCentralHistoricalArchive,NationalArchivesofRomania,Bucharest.Littleofthisresearchactuallymadeitintothefinalversionofthisbook,butforanintrepidPh.D.student,thereisafascinatingstorytobetoldaboutfindinglostbrothersandtheproblemsofbringingthemtothehomeland.

TRAVELERS'ACCOUNTSANDOTHERPRIMARYTEXTSMeticulousbibliographiesoftravelersintheBlackSearegionfromvariousperiodscanbefoundinthejournalArcheionPontou,Vol.32(1973–4)andVol.33(1975–6),andinBryerandWinfield(above).

Forantiquity,thebasictextsarewellknown:Herodotus,notalwaysasoberguide;themilitaryadventurerXenophon;thecarefulgeographerStrabo;andthewhingingOvid,oneofourearliestpostcardwriters.Apollonius'sArgonautica,fromthethirdcenturyBC,isthechiefsourcefortheJasonlegend.The“BorystheniticDiscourse”ofDioChrysostomisafascinatingbuttaintedaccountofamajorBlackSeacolonyinthefirstcenturyAD.TheimportantperiplusofArrianfromthesecondcenturyrevealsagreatdealabouttheRomanmilitaryonthesouthernandeasterncoasts.AmmianusMarcellinus,thehistorianofthelateRomanempire,discussestheBlackSeainsomedetail,buthishighlyeccentricversionofthetruthowesmuchtoHerodotusandPlinytheElder,bothofwhomhadtheirownvicesaswriters.Occasionalreferencestotheseaandintriguingtidbitsaboutthepeoplesarounditcanbefoundinmanyotherancientwriters,butmostofwhattheyhavetosayisderivativeofearlieraccounts.

FromtheByzantineperiod,twomajorwritersstandout.Procopius,thehistorianofthereignoftheemperorJustinian,offersvariousviewsofthedifficultfrontierbeyondthecoast.TheemperorConstantinePorphyrogenituswroteaninstructionalguidetoempiremanagement(Deadministrandoimperio),partofwhichfocusesonrelationswithbarbariansonthenorthernshore.InthelaterByzantineperiod,anumberoftravelersleftaccountsofthesea,particularlyoftheGenoeseandVenetiantradingcolonies.OnecollectionisManuelKomroff(ed.)ContemporariesofMarcoPolo(NewYork,1989).OtherimportantrecordsarethoseofJosafaBarbaroandAmbrogioContarini(TravelstoTanaandPersia[London,1873]),PeroTafur(TravelsandAdventures,1435–1439[NewYork,1926]),IbnBattuta(TravelsinAsiaandAfrica,1325–1354[NewYork,1929]),andRuyGonzálezdeClavijo(EmbassytoTamerlane,1403–1406[London,1928]).Francesco(p.255) BalducciPegolotti'sfourteenth-centuryguidebookforItalianmerchantsintheEastisavailableasLapraticadellamercatura,AllenEvans(ed.)(Cambridge,MA,1936).


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TotrackdownSlavic/RussianaccountsoftheBlackSea,fromtheMiddleAgesforward,thebestguideisTheofanisG.StavrouandPeterR.Weisensel,RussianTravelerstotheChristianEastfromtheTwelfthtotheTwentiethCentury(Columbus,1985).

AmongOttomantravelersthereisnoonetorivaltheseventeenth-centurywriterEvliyaÇelebi,whosufferedashipwreckofftheCrimeancoastandwitnessedanunsuccessfulOttomanassaultonthefortressofAzov.AcondensedversionofhisSeyahatnameisNarrativeofTravelsinEurope,Asia,andAfrica,intheSeventeenthCentury(London,1834).OntheencountersbetweenOttomansandCossacksonthesea,themajorsourceisGuillaumeLeVasseur,sieurdeBeauplan,ADescriptionofUkraine(Cambridge,MA,1993).

Thereisawealthoftravelers’accounts,somemoreinformativeandreliablethanothers,fromthelateeighteenthcenturyforward,whentheseawasreopenedtoforeigncommercialvessels.Louis-Philippe,comtedeSégur,accompaniedCatherinetheGreatonherjourneytoCrimeain1787andleftanentertainingrecordinhisMemoirsandRecollectionsofCountSégur(London,1825–7).Thereisnobetterfirst-handaccountofthedifficultiesoftradeinthelateeighteenthcenturythanAntoine-IgnaceAnthoinedeSaint-Joseph'sEssaihistoriquesurlecommerceetlanavigationdelaMer-Noire,2ndedn.(Paris,1820).AnotherFrenchman,E.TaitboutdeMarigny,triedhishandattradewiththeCaucasuscoastintheearlynineteenthcenturyandrecordedhistravailsinThreeVoyagesintheBlackSeatotheCoastofCircassia(London,1837).ThemostaccurateWesterndescriptionofOttomansociallifeandofIstanbulinthenineteenthcenturyisCharlesWhite,ThreeYearsinConstantinople;or,DomesticMannersoftheTurksin1844(London,1845).OntheOttomannavy,thereistheaccountofaBritishadviser,AdolphusSlade,publishedasRecordsofTravelsinTurkey,Greece,etc.,andofaCruiseintheBlackSea,withtheCapitanPasha,intheYears1829,1830,and1831(Philadelphia,1833).J.A.LongworthwasanobservantandpatriotictravelerinthenorthCaucasusandrecordedhisjourneyinAYearAmongtheCircassians(London,1840).

ThepreeminentdescriptionsofthesouthernRussianempireintheeighteenthandnineteenthcenturiesarePeterSimonPallas,TravelsThroughtheSouthernProvincesoftheRussianEmpire(London,1802–3)andAnatoledeDemidoff,TravelsinSouthernRussia,andtheCrimea(London,1853).TheequivalentsfortheAnatolianandCaucasuscoastsareWilliamHamilton,ResearchesinAsiaMinor,Pontus,andArmenia(London,1842)andAugustvonHaxthausen,Transcaucasia:SketchesoftheNationsandRacesBetweentheBlackSeaandtheCaspian(London,1854).EdmundSpencerwasoneofthemostprolificandperceptivewritersabouttheseainthemid-nineteenthcentury,evenifhisaccountsarestronglybiasedagainstanything(p.256) Russian.SeehisTravelsintheWesternCaucasus(London,1838)andTurkey,Russia,theBlackSea,andCircassia(London,1854).

Thereisafinecollectionoftravelwritingbywomen,especiallyconcerningCrimea.SeeElizabeth,LadyCraven,AJourneyThroughtheCrimeatoConstantinople(Dublin,1789);MarieGuthrie,ATour,PerformedintheYears1795–6,ThroughtheTaurida,orCrimea(London,1802);andMaryHolderness,NewRussia:JourneyfromRigatotheCrimea,by


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WayofKiev(London,1823).

HenryBarkleyrecordedhisexperiencesasarailwayengineeronthewesterncoastinBetweentheDanubeandtheBlackSea,orFiveYearsinBulgaria(London,1876).BarkleywitnessedtheflightofTatarsfromCrimeatoBulgaria,andmanyyearslatersawresettledTatars,Circassians,andotherMuslimrefugeesekingoutalivinginAnatolia,whichherecountedinhisARideThroughAsiaMinorandArmenia(London,1891).

Thedemiseofthegrandtourmeantthatthemarketforwide-eyedaccountsoftheexoticismsoftheEastdiminished(although,unfortunately,itwasrevivedinthe1990sbythebooksofRobertKaplanandothers).Buttherearestillseveraltwentieth-centurytravelbooksworthreading.JamesColquhounwasaBritishbusinessmanwhosecoppermineintheCaucasusfellvictimtotheBolsheviks.HetellshisstoryinAdventuresinRedRussia(London,1926).WilliamEleroyCurtis,aChicagoreporter,recordedhisownjourneyAroundtheBlackSea(NewYork,1911).StanleyWashburn,anotherChicagojournalist,sailedbackandforthacrosstheseainthemiddleofthe1905Russianrevolution;hisaccountisTheCableGame(Boston,1912).AtouchingmemoirofthemutualculturalinfluencesalongthePonticcoastandthedeportationsofthe1920sisTheaHalo,NotEvenMyName(NewYork,2001).

OTHERSECONDARYSOURCES

EnvironmentandEcology

Asanintroductiontothephysicalfeaturesofthesea,thereisnothingtobeattheBlackSeaPilot,inmultipleeditions,publishedbytheBritishAdmiralty.Thefloodthesisonthesea'soriginsispresentedinpopularforminWilliamRyanandWalterPitman,Noah'sFlood(NewYork,1998).Thegeneralideaofadramaticdrowningofthecoastlandsisdebatedinthescientificjournalliterature.Inthe“pro”campisRobertD.Ballardetal.,“FurtherEvidenceofAbruptHoloceneDrowningoftheBlackSeaShelf,”MarineGeology,Vol.170(2000):253–61.Inthe“con”campisNaciGörüretal.,“IstheAbruptDrowningoftheBlackSeaShelfat7150yrbpaMyth?”MarineGeology,Vol.176(2001):65–73.AreportontheexcitingpossibilitiesofmarinearchaeologyisRobertD.Ballardetal.,“DeepwaterArchaeologyoftheBlackSea:The2000SeasonatSinop,Turkey,”American(p.257) JournalofArchaeology,Vol.105(2001):607–23.Agoodsurveyofthesea'secologyisYu.ZaitsevandV.Mamaev,MarineBiologicalDiversityintheBlackSea(NewYork,1997).

History

700BC–AD500TheBlackSeahasbeenapoorcousintothestudyofareasclosertothecentersoftheGreco-Romanworld—atleastforscholarswritinginWesternlanguages—butsincethelate1990sanupsurgeinresearchonGreekencounterswiththeseahaspromisedtochangethings.TwobookseditedbyGochaTsetskhladze,TheGreekColonisationoftheBlackSeaArea(Stuttgart,1998)andNorthPonticArchaeology(Leiden,2001),giveoverviewsofthestateofthefield.The“ColloquiaPontica”bookseries,publishedbyBrill


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intheNetherlands,presentsthemostimportantmonographsonthenewarchaeologyoftheregion.TheBlackSeaTradeProject,basedattheUniversityofPennsylvaniaandheadedbyFredrikHiebert,hasbeenamajorforumfordiscussionabouttheseaasadistinctspaceofinteraction.Theproject'swebsiteisatwww.museum.upenn.edu/Sinop/SinopIntro.htm.TheBritishAcademyhasalsolaunchedaBlackSearesearchprogram.Itswebsite,atwww.biaa.ac.uk/babsi,isthebestportalforlocatingscholarsaroundtheworld,particularlyarchaeologists,classicists,andByzantinespecialists,withBlackSeainterests.

ThebestintroductiontoGreekcolonizationingeneralisJohnBoardman,TheGreeksOverseas(London,1980).JonathanHallexploresthemeaningof“Greekness”intheancientworldinhisHellenicity(Chicago,2002).RenataRolle'sTheWorldoftheScythians(Berkeley,1989)isanattempttounderstandtheancientnomadsofthenorthernsteppe.Twoolderworks—EllisMinns,ScythiansandGreeks(Cambridge,1913)andMikhailRostovtzeff,IraniansandGreeksinSouthRussia(NewYork,1969)—areminesofinformationonthematerialcultureofthepastoralpeoples.TheequivalentforthewesternshoreisVasilePârvan'sGetica(Bucharest,1926).DavidBraund'sGeorgiainAntiquity(Oxford,1994)isamagnificentinterpretationoftheeasternBlackSeaduringthefirstmillenniumofvigorousexchangewiththeMediterraneanworld.OnthegeneralsubjectofRomansandbarbarians,IfoundparticularlyenlighteningPeterWells,TheBarbariansSpeak(Princeton,1999).OntheelusiveMithridates,theforemoststudyisB.C.McGing,TheForeignPolicyofMithridatesVIEupator,KingofPontus(Leiden,1986).

MostofwhatIknowofthetechnicalaspectsofancientseafaringcomesfromtwostudies:LionelCasson'sShipsandSeamanshipintheAncientWorld,rev.edn.(Baltimore,1995)andJamieMorton'sTheRoleofthePhysicalEnvironmentinAncientGreekSeafaring(Leiden,2001),whosemodesttitlebeliesthebrilliantandwide-rangingessayswithin.OntheGothsandtheKhazars,theplacetostartisstill(p.258) withtheclassics:A.A.Vasiliev,TheGothsintheCrimea(Cambridge,MA,1936)andD.M.Dunlop,TheHistoryoftheJewishKhazars(NewYork,1967).ThereareseveralrecentandbeautifullyillustratedworksonScythianandSarmatianartwhichhaveaccompaniedmuseumexhibitions,forexample,JoanAruzetal.(eds.)TheGoldenDeerofEurasia(NewYorkandNewHaven,2000).

500–1500ThemostreadablegeneralworkontheByzantines,althoughattimesnotthemostdispassionate,isJohnJuliusNorwich,AShortHistoryofByzantium(NewYork,1997).ItsmoresobercounterpartisWarrenTreadgold,AHistoryoftheByzantineStateandSociety(Stanford,1997).AmajormultivolumeanalysisoftheByzantineeconomy,includingBlackSeacommerce,isTheEconomicHistoryofByzantium:FromtheSeventhThroughtheFifteenthCentury(Washington,2002),editedbyAngelikiLaiou.

TheclassicpoliticalhistoryoftheempireofTrebizondisWilliamMiller,Trebizond:TheLastGreekEmpireoftheByzantineEra,1204–1461,newedn.(Chicago,1969).TheforemostlivinghistorianofTrebizondandtheeasternseaisAnthonyBryer,whosemanyessayshavebeencollectedinseveralvolumesofreprints.OntheGenoesecolonies,the


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essentialtextisMichelBalard,LaRomaniegénoise(XIIe–débutduXVesiècle)(Rome,1978),whichhastherarequalityofbeingfrighteninglydetailedandlucidlywritten.OntheByzantinenavy,HélèneAhrweiler,Byzanceetlamer(Paris,1966)hasnotbeensurpassed.ThestandardtextonthetransitionalperiodbetweenByzantiumandtheOttomansisSperosVryonis,Jr.,TheDeclineofMedievalHellenisminAsiaMinorandtheProcessofIslamizationfromtheEleventhThroughtheFifteenthCentury(Berkeley,1971).ThereisasyetnocomprehensivehistoryoftheByzantineBlackSea.

1500–1700TheOttomanBlackSeaalsoawaitsitshistorian,butsurelytheleadingcandidateisVictorOstapchuk.Hisextendedarticleontheseaintheseventeenthcentury(inthejournalOrienteModerno,Vol.20,No.1[2001])anticipatesamajorworktocome.TwoprovocativebookswhichchallengemanyoftheoldermodelsoftheoriginsoftheOttomans(andfinecompanionstotheVryonisabove)areRudiPaulLindner,NomadsandOttomansinMedievalAnatolia(Bloomington,1983)andCemalKafadar,BetweenTwoWorlds(Berkeley,1995).

OnOttomansandthewater,seePalmiraBrummett,OttomanSeaPowerandLevantineDiplomacyintheAgeofDiscovery(Albany,1994).Ananalysisofthesea'sroleintheOttomaneconomycanbefoundinthefirstvolumeofHalilİnalcıkandDonaldQuataert(eds.)AnEconomicandSocialHistoryoftheOttomanEmpire(Cambridge,1994).InsightfulanalysesofOttomanslaveholdingincludeEhud(p.259) R.Toledano,TheOttomanSlaveTradeandItsSuppression,1840–1890(Princeton,1982)andY.HakanErdem,SlaveryintheOttomanEmpireandItsDemise,1800–1909(NewYork,1996).

1700–1860KhodarkovskyandSunderland(bothabove)wereveryinfluentialonmythinkingabouttherelationshipbetweenRussiaandthesteppe,aswasMcNeill(alsoabove).Onthenavalhistoryofthesea,thebestsourceisR.C.Anderson'soldbutstilllivelyNavalWarsintheLevant,1559–1853(Liverpool,1952).ThemajorworkonPetertheGreat'sAzovfleetisEdwardJ.Phillips,TheFoundingofRussia'sNavy(Westport,CT,1995).Ondiplomacy,M.S.Anderson'sTheEasternQuestion,1774–1923(London,1966)isstillagoodguide.ForacomparisonoftheOttomanandRussianimperialsystems,DominicLieven'sEmpire(NewHaven,2001)iscompellingreading.ThebestintroductionstoCatherine'sadventuresinthesouthareIsabeldeMadariaga'smuch-readRussiaintheAgeofCatherinetheGreat(NewHaven,1981)andSebagMontefiore'sbiographyofPotemkin,PrinceofPrinces(NewYork,2001).OntheKalmyks,theessentialtextisMichaelKhodarkovsky,WhereTwoWorldsMet(Ithaca,1992).

PatriciaHerlihy'sOdessa:AHistory,1794–1914(Cambridge,MA,1986)isamodelofurban/porthistory;thereisunfortunatelynothingofequalqualityfortheothermajorports,suchasTrabzonorConstanţa.FortheriseofthesouthernRussiancities,thebasicsourceisaPh.D.dissertationfromlongago,MoseLofleyHarvey's“TheDevelopmentofRussianCommerceontheBlackSeaandItsSignificance”(UniversityofCalifornia,Berkeley,1938).ForRussian-speakers,ausefulnarrativehistoryofthe


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Russiannavyisthethree-volumeTrivekarossiiskogoflota(St.Petersburg,1996),editedbyF.N.Gromovetal.,althoughitsuffersfromtheprofessionaldeformationsofmostmilitaryhistories.

1860–PresentAveryhelpfulintroductiontoOttomannavalhistoryisBerndLangensiepenandAhmetGüleryüz,TheOttomanSteamNavy,1828–1923(Annapolis,1995).OntheremovalofMuslimsfromtheCaucasusandtheBalkans,amuchunderstudiedsubject,agoodoverviewisJustinMcCarthy,DeathandExile(Princeton,1995).NormanNaimark'sFiresofHatred(Cambridge,MA,2001)surveysthehistoryofethniccleansinginthetwentiethcentury.TheworkoftheAmericanReliefAdministrationisrecountedinBertrandPatenaude,TheBigShowinBololand(Stanford,2002).

Thereisagreatdealofpoor-qualityworkontheArmeniangenocideandtheGreek–Turkishpopulationexchanges,buttwoexceptionalbooksareStephenLadas'sclassicTheExchangeofMinorities(NewYork,1932)andRenéeHirschon's(p.260) collectionofessaysCrossingtheAegean(NewYork,2003).MythinkingontheintellectualappropriationoftheseaandthecoastlinewasinfluencedbyVictorA.Shnirelman,WhoGetsthePast?(Washington,1996).ThestoryofthesinkingoftheStrumaisretoldinvividdetailinDouglasFrantzandCatherineCollins,DeathontheBlackSea(NewYork,2003).

Beginninginthe1990s,therewasmuchtalkofinterstatecooperationaroundthesea,andafloodofreportsandanalysesfollowed.Thereisrelativelylittle,however,thatcanberecommended.Thebestsourcesontheinternationalpoliticsofthezonearetwocollectionsofessays:TunçAybak(ed.)PoliticsoftheBlackSea(London,2001)andRenataDwanandOleksandrPavliuk(eds.)BuildingSecurityintheNewStatesofEurasia(Armonk,NY,2000).

TheliteratureoneachofthecountriesinthewiderBlackSearegionisratherbetter,butthatillustratesthedegreetowhichthenation-stateremainsapowerfullensofanalysis.OnUkraine,AndrewWilson'sUkrainianNationalisminthe1990s(NewHaven,1997)isthebeststartingpoint.TherearemanythingstoreadonRussia,butlittleaboutRussia'sspecificallyregionalforeignpolicyaroundthesea.OntheCaucasus,SvanteCornell'sSmallNationsandGreatPowers(London,2001)isthebestanalyticalsurvey.OnTurkeythereisagreatdeal,butoneofthebetterpopulartreatmentsisNicoleandHughPope,TurkeyUnveiled(NewYork,2000).OnTurkishforeignpolicy,seePhilipRobbins,SuitsandUniforms(London,2003).Thereareunfortunatelynoup-to-dategeneralbooksonthepoliticsandsocietyofeitherBulgariaorRomaniathatcanberecommendedwithoutqualification.However,VladimirTismaneanu'sStalinismforAllSeasons(Berkeley,2003)isthedefinitiveworkonthecommunistperiodinRomaniaanditsechoesinthepresent.

Onefieldthathasproducedtrulyexcitingresearchisanthropology.Thereisagrowingliteratureonsocialrelationsalongthesoutheastcoast,theworkofasmallbutdedicatedgroupofethnographersandculturalanthropologists.See,forexample,IldikoBeller-HannandChrisHann,TurkishRegion(SantaFe,2000)andMichaelMeeker,ANationofEmpire(Berkeley,2002).


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TRAVELGUIDESANDLITERATUREThereisnotravelguidetotheBlackSeaasawhole,butthereareseveralfirst-ratebooksthattreatpartsofit.JohnFreely'sTheBlackSeaCoastofTurkey(Istanbul,1996)isanexcellentcompanionfromtheBosphorustotheGeorgianborder.Theindispensablescholarlywork,thoughtoobulkytocarryinabackpack,istheBryerandWinfield(above).Fortherestofthecoast,therelevantsectionsoftheBlueGuides,includingFreely'sonIstanbul,aregenerallygood,asistheLonelyPlanetseries.

(p.261) TheBlackSeahasnotbeenamajorliterarysubject.Thereareplentyofreferenceshereandthere,butlittlethatfocusesontheseaitself.Hereismyidiosyncraticlistofthingsworthtakingalongonatrip:

RoseMacauley'sTheTowersofTrebizondisapicaresquestoryofanEnglishmatron'ssearchforthatlostempire.MarkTwainmettheRussiantsarinCrimeaandrecordedtheeventinTheInnocentsAbroad,alongwithhisdrollimpressionsofIstanbulandOdessa.RussianwritershadplentytosayaboutthenortherncoastandtheCaucasusbutnotmuchaboutthesea.Pushkin's“TheBakhchisaraiFountain”shouldbereadwhiletouringCrimea.Lermontov'sAHeroofOurTimeandTolstoy'snovellaHadjiMuratandhisshortstory“APrisoneroftheCaucasus”willeitherenticeonetovisittheCaucasusorguaranteethatonedoesnot.AsaportraitofaBlackSeaport,nothingisbetterthanIsaacBabel'sOdessaStories.JohnSteinbeckfellinlovewithGeorgiaandtoldhisreaderssoinARussianJournal.KurbanSaid'snovelAliandNinoisonthelistofmosttravelerstotheCaucasus,whichisunfortunate,foritwallowsinallthestandardstereotypesoftheregion.

Asforcontemporaryauthors,onecannotgowrongwithAscherson(above),amodelofliterarynonfiction,andthenovelsoftheTurkishwriterOrhanPamuk(especiallyTheWhiteCastleandTheBlackBook)andtheAlbanianwriterIsmailKadare(particularlyTheFileonH,whichisnotabouttheBlackSeabutisaboutmutualmisunderstandingsbetweenEastandWest—andaboutthesearchfortheelusiveancientGreeks).VictorPelevin'sTheLifeofInsectsisaboutanunusualgroupofvisitorstoCrimea.(p.262)

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