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Table 1. Predatory mites collected during the survey

Sl. No. Predatory mite Order Family

1 . Neoseiulus longispinosus Evans Acari Phytoseiidae

2 . Neoseiulus herbicolus Chant Acari Phytoseiidae

3 . Neoseiulus rhabdus Denmark Acari Phytoseiidae

4 . Bdella sp. Acari Bdellidae

5. Agistemus sp. Acari Stigmaeidae

6. Tydeius sp. Acari Tydeidae

Table 2. Developmental time (in days) (Mean±SE) of immature stages of N. longispinosus at five constant temperaturesa

Temperature (ºC)

nb Sex Egg Larva Protonymph Deutonymph Total Intersexual differencec

(P) 15 14

18 Male

Female 3.7±0.03a 3.8±0.05a

2.9±0.04a 2.9±0.03a

3.0±0.03a 3.1±0.04a

4.3±0.05a 4.3±0.05a

13.9±0.11a 14.0±0.07a

0.467

20 12 17

Male Female

2.4±0.07b 2.5±0.05b

0.9±0.04b 0.9±0.03b

2.9±0.05b 2.9±0.04b

3.1±0.03b 3.1±0.06b

9.3±0.10b 9.4±0.08b

0.273

25 11 22

Male Female

1.8±0.08c 1.8±0.04c

0.6±0.02c 0.6±0.02c

1.3±0.03c 1.3±0.03c

1.3±0.04c 1.3±0.02c

4.9±0.08c 4.9±0.07c

0.347

30 13 19

Male Female

1.3±0.05d 1.4±0.03d

0.5±0.02c 0.5±0.01c

1.0±0.03d 1.0±0.03d

1.2±0.03c 1.3±0.03c

4.0±0.07d 4.2±0.05d

0.036

35 47 Not known

1.1±0.16e Didn’t survive

- - - -

aMeans with in the same column followed by same letters are not significantly different at P<0.05, Student-Newman-Keuls test. b n= number of samples cIntersexual difference in total developmental duration was analyzed using Mann-Whitney U-test


Table 3. Hatchability and survival rate of immature stages of N. longispinosus at five constant temperatures

Temperature (ºC)

No. of eggs tested

Hatchability (%) No. of larvae introduced

Maturity (%) Mortality (egg-to-adult)

(%) 15 100 98 98 96.94 5.00 20 100 99 99 96.96 4.00 25 100 98 98 96.94 5.00 30 100 97 97 96.91 6.00 35 100 73 73 0 100

Table 4. Linear regression analysis of developmental rate and temperature, and estimated lower developmental threshold and thermal constant for N. longispinosus

Sex/Stage Regression equationa

r2 Lower development

threshold (t0, ºC) (±SE)b

Thermal constant (K)

(degree-days) (±SE)b

Female Egg y= - 0.1926+0.0300x 0.9990 06.4±0.1 33.3±0.7 Larva y= - 1.0686+0.1036x 0.9205 10.3±0.9 09.7±2.0 Protonymph y= - 0.4852+0.0487x 0.9112 10.0±0.9 20.5±4.5 Deutonymph y= - 0.4386+0.0432x 0.8734 10.2±1.1 23.2±6.2 Egg-Adult y= - 0.1140+0.0119x 0.9605 10.0±0.7 84.0±12.0 Male Egg y= - 0.2390+ 0.0331x 0.9942 07.2±0.2 30.2±1.6 Larva y= - 1.1567+ 0.1093x 0.9205 10.6±0.9 09.2±1.9 Protonymph y= - 0.5099+ 0.0503x 0.9092 10.1±1.0 19.9±4.4 Deutonymph y= - 0.4458+ 0.0436x 0.8879 10.2±1.1 23.0±5.8 Egg-Adult y= - 0.1234+ 0.0125x 0.9655 09.9±0.6 80.0±10.7 aSimple linear regression analysis was applied to the developmental data within 15-30ºC bStandard errors were calculated according to the equations given by Campbell et al. (1974).


Table 5. Duration (in days) and rate of reproduction (Mean±SE) of N. longispinosus adult females at three constant temperaturesa

Parameter Temperature (ºC)

20(n=12) 25(n=21) 30(n=11) (χ2-value)b Pre-oviposition period 2.0±0.2a 1.2±0.1b 1.0±0.0b 18.31 Oviposition period 42.1±0.7a 36.1±0.7b 23.4±0.8c 34.47 Post oviposition period 6.1±0.4a 2.1±0.2b 1.9±0.2b 26.96 Total No. of eggs/female 71.8±0.9a 62.1±0.7b 60.9±1.1b 26.06 Average No. of eggs/female /day 1.7±0.03b 1.7±0.1b 2.6±0.1a 24.30 Mean male longevity 55.6±0.9a 44.9±0.5b 30.9±1.0c 36.72 Mean female longevity 50.9±0.4a 39.1±0.6b 25.9±0.6c 36.93 Sex ratio (Female: Male) 1:0.50 1:0.53 1:0.47 aMeans with in a row followed by same letters are not significantly different at P<0.05, Student-Newman-Keuls test). n=number of samples b Kruskal-wallis test, P<0.001

Table 6. Life table parameters of N. longispinosus on O. coffeae

Parameter 20 ºC 25 ºC 30 ºC Intrinsic rate of natural increase (rm/day) 0.132 0.219 0.268 Net reproductive rate (R0) 40.7 35.9 35.5 Gross reproductive rate (Σmx) 47.9 40.5 41.4 Mean generation time (T) 28.2 16.4 13.3 Finite rate of increase (λ) 1.1 1.2 1.3 Weekly multiplication 2.5 4.6 6.5 Doubling time (DT) 5.3 3.2 3.2

Table 7. Prey consumption of N. longispinosus on O. coffeae

Predator stages Mean No. of red spider mite consumed±SE* (n=10)

Egg Larva Protonymph Deutonymph Adult Larva 3.8±0.2a 9±0.3a 5.5±0.3a 0a 0a Protonymph 5.1±0.3b 16.2±0.7bc 6.2±0.3a 9.0±0.6b 3.1±0.3c Deutonymph 6.1±0.5b 17.2±0.6c 12.0±0.6b 11.2±0.4c 4.0±0.4d Adult male 4.0±0.4a 14.8±0.7b 12.1±0.6b 9.9±0.6bc 1.9±0.3b Adult female 13.3±0.5c 21.9±0.6d 18.3±0.5c 15.9±0.7d 5.5±0.3e * Prey consumption of larvae was recorded 10 h after the commencement of the experiment and that of other stages after 24 h. The means followed by same letter in the same column are not significantly different at 0.05 level as determined by Duncan’s Multiple Range Test.


Table 8. Functional response of N. longispinosus adult females to O. coffeae adults at different temperatures

Parameters* 10 ºC 15 ºC 20 ºC 25 ºC 30 ºC 35 ºC

Na 0.563 N 1 + 0.174 N

0.687 N 1 +0.196 N

0.991 N 1 + 0.277 N

1.230 N 1 + 0.266 N

1.187 N 1 +0.204 N

1.183 N 1 + 0.202 N

Th 0.309 0.285 0.280 0.216 0.172 0.171 a 0.563 0.687 0.991 1.230 1.187 1.183 a/Th 1.819 2.415 3.546 5.685 6.892 6.912 K 3.232 3.514 3.578 4.623 5.807 5.845 * Na = number of prey consumed; N = initial prey density; Th = handling time; a = attack rate; K = maximum predation rate

Table 9. Functional response of N. longispinosus adult females to different stages of O. coffeae Parameters* Egg Larva Protonymph Deutonymph Adult female

Na 0.826 N

1 + 0.044 N 1.012 N

1 + 0.015 N 1.022 N

1 + 0.036 N 1.032 N

1 + 0.047 N 1.211 N

1 + 0.237 N Th 0.053 0.015 0.035 0.046 0.196 a 0.826 1.012 1.022 1.032 1.211 a/Th 15.59 67.47 28.878 22.43 6.181 K 18.87 66.67 28.25 21.74 5.102 * Na = number of prey consumed; N = initial prey density; Th = handling time; a = attack rate; K = maximum predation rate

Table 10. Numbers of predator and prey remaining after 5 days on the leaf lets received various ratios of predator: prey in laboratory

No. of predators Predator: Prey ratio Number of predator Mean* ± SE

Number of prey Mean* ± SE

1 1:100 8.4±0.4d 136.8±5.7b 2 1:50 16.4±1.4ab 84.2±3.0bc 3 1:33 17.8±1.2a 49.2±1.6c 4 1:25 14.4±0.5b 20.0±1.1c 5 1:20 15.4±0.8b 19.8±1.4c 10 1:10 11.2±0.4c 9.0±0.7c 20 1:5 14.6±0.5b 1.2±0.4c 0 Control 0e 335.0±75.1a

*Mans followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at 0.05 level as determined by DMRT


Table 11. Numbers of predator and prey remaining after 20 days on the potted plant received various ratios of predator: prey in green house

No. of predators Predator: Prey ratio Number of predator (Mean* ± SE)

Number of prey (Mean* ± SE)

2 1:100 3.0±0.6cd 477.0±11.3b 4 1:50 6.0±2.1bc 264.7±28.76c 8 1:25 9.3±2.0ab 109.3±3.8d 20 1:10 14.3±2.7a 61.7±8.1e 0 Control 0d 593.0±7.6a

*Means followed by the same letter in the same column are not significantly different at 0.05 level as determined by DMRT

Table 13. Volatile compounds emitted from O. coffeae infested leaves S. No. Retention time (RT) Name of the compound from library Molecular weight

1. 8.05 Undecane 156 2. 11.94 Alpha pinene 136 3. 12.54 1,3,6-Octatriene, 3,7-dimethyl-, (Z) (Beta-

Ocimene) 136

4. 23.99 1,6-Octadien-3-ol, 3,7-dimethyl (Linalool) 154 5. 30.23 3-ethyl Benzaldehyde 134 6. 31.16 à-Farnesene 204 7. 34.62 Para acetyl ethyl benzene 148

Table 12. Field efficacy of N. longispinosus as a biocontrol agent for O. coffeae No. of

sampling & release

No. of RSM (Mean ± SE)*

No. of N. longispinosus (Mean ± SE)*

Reduction of RSM over control (%)

Control Release Control Release 1a 68.0±5.5a 74.7±4.7d 11.7±1.5a 9.3±0.9bc - 2b 75.7±3.2ab 77.3±3.2d 10.3±3.0a 9.7±1.2bc - 3c 87.3±2.3bc 55.7±3.8c 11.0±1.0a 14.3±0.9d 36.25 4 84.3±6.2abc 30.7±2.4b 11.3±1.2a 16.7±1.5d 63.63 5 98.3±3.4cd 18.3±1.5a 13.7±1.5a 11.0±1.2c 81.36 6 109.7±4.1d 14.7±0.9a 14.3±1.5a 6.7±0.3b 86.62 7 114.3±6.4d 10.7±0.9a 17.3±2.3a 3.0±0.6a 90.67

*Mean numbers of RSM or N. longispinosus per 6 leaves; a Pre-treatment sampling & I release; b first sampling & II release ; c second sampling & III release. 25 bushes/plot, 6 leaves sampling Means within the same column followed by same letters are not significantly different at P<0.05, Student-Newman-Keuls test.


Table 14. Volatile compounds emitted from normal leaves S. No. Retention time (RT) Name of the compound from library Molecular weight

1. 12.20 1-fluorodecane 188 2. 12.48 Alpha pinene 136 3. 17.83 Tetradecane 198 4. 19.73 2,6,10,15-tetramethylheptadecane 298 5. 25.60 Hexadecane 226 6. 27.33 2,3,5,8-tetramethyldecane 199 7. 30.24 3-ethylbenzaldehyde 134 8. 34.31 2-methyltridecane 198 9. 34.64 Paraacetylethylbenzene 148 10. 45.56 Benzoic acid, 4-ethoxy ethyl ester 194

Table 15. Impact of pesticides on N. longispinosus under laboratory condition-Direct toxicity

Pesticide Mortality (Mean ± SE)* (%) 24 h 48 h 72 h 96 h

Propargite 4.0±2.5a 4.0±2.5ab 8.0±3.7a 8.0±3.7a Fenpyroximate 100±0.0c 100±0.0d 100±0.0d 100±0.0d Ethion 20.0±4.5b 36.0±5.1c 42.0±6.6c 52.0±9.7c Hexythiazox 0a 2.0±2.0ab 4.0±4.0a 6.0±4.0a NKAE 0a 10.0±3.16b 10.0±3.16a 10.0±3.16a P. fumososroseius 0a 0a 4.0±2.45a 4.0±2.5a Lime sulphur 18.0±3.7b 30.0±4.5c 30.0±4.5b 32.0±5.8b Control 0a 0a 0a 0a *Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 0.05 level as determined by DMRT


Table 17. Impact of pesticides on immature stages of N. longispinosus under laboratory condition

Pesticide Percentage survival up to adult (Mean ± SE)*

Propargite 47.4±6.3c Fenpyroximate 1.0±0a Ethion 17.9±5.0b Hexythiazox 7.4±3.7ab NKAE 63.4±2.9d P. fumososroseius 76.1±7.3d Lime sulphur 93.2±5.3e Control 96.0±2.5e *Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 0.05 level as determined by DMRT

Table 18. Impact of pesticides on N. longispinosus under field condition

Mean No. of red spider mite in the experimental blocks±SE

Pre treatment I week II week III week IV week Fenpyroximate 13.7±0.3a 6.0±1.2a 1.3±0.3a 1.7±0.3a 1.3±0.3a Propargite 17.0±0.6ab 16.0±1.5ab 10.0±1.2b 8.7±1.5abc 6.3±1.2ab Ethion 20.0±3.1ab 15.0±2.1ab 12.3±1.7b 10.3±1.2abc 9.7±1.2b Hexythiazox 21.0±1.2ab 18.3±0.9ab 18.0±1.5b 11.0±1.2abc 8.3±1.5ab NKAE 18.7±2.6ab 15.7±2.0ab 10. 7±0.9b 9.3±0.9abc 9.7±1.5b P. fumosoroseius 24.7±0.7b 23.7±3.7b 14.3±0.9b 7.0±0.6ab 7.7±1.5ab Lime sulphur 18.7±4.3ab 15.3±4.5ab 13.7±3.7b 11.7±3.7bc 12.0±2.3b Control 16.7±1.5ab 18.3±3.2ab 18.7±2.9b 16.7±3.5c 22.0±3.1c Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 0.05 level as determined by DMRT

Table 16. Impact of pesticides on N. longispinosus under laboratory condition-Indirect toxicity

Pesticide Mortality (Mean ± SE)* (%) 24 h 48 h 72 h 96 h

Propargite 0a 0a 0a 0a Fenpyroximate 42.0±3.7c 62.0±2.0d 76.0±2.5d 80.0±3.2d Ethion 24.0±7.5b 40.0±8.37c 44.0±6.8c 48.0±8.6c Hexythiazox 0a 0a 0a 0a NKAE 0a 0a 0a 0a P. fumososroseius 0a 0a 0a 0a Lime sulphur 18.0±3.7b 24.0±2.45b 24.0±2.5b 24.0±2.5b Control 0a 0a 0a 0a *Means in the same column followed by the same letter are not significantly different at 0.05 level as determined by DMRT


Table 19. Selection of N. longispinosus for resistance to fenpyroximate

No. of selection

Dosage (ml/L)

LC50 (ml/L) (95% CL)a Slope ± SE RR*

1st selection 0.21 0.23 (0.05-0.40) 1.65±0.15

2nd selection 0.33 0.27 (0.04-0.49) 1.43±0.14 1.15

3rd selection 0.40 0.40 (0.09-0.87) 0.99±0.14 1.75

4th selection 0.73 0.53 (0.11-2.84) 0.85±0.13 2.29

5th selection 1.05 0.74 (0.38-3.29) 0.98±0.14 3.22

6th selection 1.35 0.96 (0.53-6.40) 1.11±0.14 4.17

*Resistance Ratio (LC50 of resistant strain/LC50 of susceptible strain) Table 20. Monooxygenase activities in adult female N. longispinosus after selection with fenpyroximate

Population Enzyme activity (mOD/min/ mg-1/ protein ± SD)* R/S*

Control 0.209

Fenpyroximate 6 0.859 4.10

*Enzyme activity of resistant strain/Enzyme activity of susceptible strain (fold of resistance developed)

Table 21. Oviposition of resistant and susceptible strains on pesticide treated and untreated surfaces of leaves

No. of eggs laid (Mean ± SE)

Control mites Resistant mites Treated portion 0±0 10.2±1.39

Untreated portion 11±1.14 7.40±1.33


Fig. 1. Tea growing areas in the world


Fig. 2. Tea growing areas in India


Fig. 3. Tea growing areas in southern India


Fig.4. Spatial distribution of pests in a tea bush


Organic field Conventional field

Fig. 5. Effect of organic and conventional field practices on seasonal dynamics of N. longispinosus


Fig. 6. Age specific survival (lx), age-specific fecundity (mx) and lxmx curves of N. longispinosus females at 20, 25 and 30 ºC.


Fig. 7. Control of O. coffeae population by N. longispinosus as a function of time -laboratory experiment

Fig. 8. Average numbers (±SE) of O. coffeae eggs and larvae as function of time on experimental arena


Fig. 9. Prey stage preference (mean ± SE) of different life stages of N. longispinosus on developmental stages of O. coffeae


Fig. 10. Numerical responses (mean±SE) of N. longispinosus female to different density of O. coffeae females

Fig. 11. Numerical responses (mean ± SE) of N. longispinosus female to O. coffeae adults at different temperatures


Fig. 12. Chromatogram of volatiles captured from O. coffeae infested leaves

Fig. 13. Chromatogram of volatiles captured from normal tea leaves


Fig. 14. Response of N. longispinosus to volatiles from RSM infested tea leaves in Y tube olfactometer-effect of starvation

Fig. 15. Response of N. longispinosus to volatiles from RSM infested tea leaves in Y tube olfactometer-effect of the level of infestation


Fig. 16. Response of N. longispinosus to volatiles from RSM infested tea leaves in Y tube olfactometer-effect of previous infestation, Response of predators to HIPVs from infested plants alone and effect of artificial damage on tea leaves


Plate 1. Red spider mite infested tea field in contrast to the normal one

Normal tea field Red spider mite infested tea field


Plate 2. Life cycle of the red spider mite, Oligonychus coffeae


Plate 3. Mass rearing of red spider mites and N. longispinosus by tray culture

method


Plate 4. Dynamic head space (DHS) volatile extraction unit


Plate 5. Experimental setup for behavioral response study


Plate 6. Life cycle of N. longispinosus


Documents

Bibliography - Shodhgangashodhganga.inflibnet.ac.in/bitstream/10603/35834/5/chapter5.pdf · Bonafos, R., Serrano, E., Auger, P., Kreiter, S. 2007. Resistance to deltamethrin, lambda-cyhalothrin