BIODIESEL PRODUCTION FROM MACROALGAE AS A RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE

Sarfaraj Khan

TP 359 B46 S244 2012

Master of Engineering 2012

. sat Khidmat MakluatatAkademih uNNERSm MALAYSIA SARAWAK

BIODIESEL PRODUCTION FROM MACRO ALGAE AS A RENEWABLE ENERGY SOURCE

SARFARAJ KHAN

A thesis submitted in fulfillment of the requirement for the Degree of

Master of Engineering (Chemical Engineering)

Faculty of Engineering UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

2012

AUTHOR'S DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this thesis is my original writing. This is a true copy of the thesis, including

the requirement of final revisions, as suggested by my examiners.

I understand that my thesis may be made electronically available to the public.

ýn- ýzý Fes- ýD-=('y=---

SarfaraWhan Dr. Abu Saleh Ahmed

Student No. 10021613 (Supervisor)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

All Praise to almighty Allah for giving me the strength and patience to complete this task

successfully. I would like to express my gratitude and appreciation to my supervisor Dr. Abu

Saleh Ahmed, Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering Department in Faculty of

Engineering at University Malaysia Sarawak, for his support, guidance and constructive

comments to enhance the quality of this thesis. I am also grateful to my co-supervisor Prof

Dr. Sinin Hamdan for his valuable suggestions as a guardian. Thankful to my co-supervisor

Dr. Rubiah Baini, head of Chemical Engineering and Energy Sustainability Department for

her cooperativeness. Thanks to some of the post graduate students for their inspiration.

My thanks also to the technicians of Mechanical & Manufacturing Engineering

Department and Chemical Engineering & Energy Sustainability Department in Faculty of

Engineering, Faculty of Resource Science & Technology at University Malaysia Sarawak,

who were helped me in laboratory during research work. I would like to show my

appreciation to all who have provided assistance to me in pursuing my Master of Engineering

(Chemical) Degree in Faculty of Engineering, UNIMAS.

I would like to thanks those who provided technical information that was helpful in

putting together in this report, especially Pn Nurridan Binti Abdul Han, Marine Fisheries

Research Institute Sarawak, for her support to recognize the macroalgae species.

I also like to acknowledge the financial support of Fundamental Research Grant Scheme

(FRGS) Malaysia and UNIMAS postgraduate scholarship (ZPU) during my research work.

Special thanks to my beloved family members for their support.

1

ABSTRAK

Biodiesel, ester monoalkyl rantai panjang asid lemak yang dihasilkan daripada sumber

yang boleh diperbaharui seperti minyak tumbuh-tumbuhan atau lemak haiwan melalui

transesterification dan memenuhi ASTM D 6751 spesifikasi standard untuk digunakan

sebagai bahan api alternatif. Transesterification adalah proses mengeluarkan glycerides

dan menggabungkan ester minyak minyak sayur-sayuran dengan alkohol untuk

mengurangkan kelikatan bahan api. Macroalgae adalah salah satu sumber-sumber yang

murah bahan mentah sawit untuk pengeluaran biodiesel. Tidak seperti bahan mentah yang

lain untuk pengeluaran biodiesel, macroalgae boleh tumbuh di tempat yang jauh dari tanah

ladang dan hutan, dan dengan itu mengurangkan kerosakan yang disebabkan kepada

sistem rantai makanan.

Penyelidikan ini dijalankan untuk mengkaji perahan minyak dari macroalgae,

penukaran minyak alga kepada biodiesel, pencirian biodiesel dan prestasi enjin diesel

yang menggunakan campuran biodiesel alga. Minyak alga diekstrak dengan kaedah

pengekstrakan pelarut heksana dari enam spesies (L. Epiphytic, Cladophora, Agardhiella,

Gracilaria, Spirogyra dan Bryopsis Pennata) macroalgae. Agardhiella mempunyai

tertinggi 0.89% kandungan lipid dalam segar dan 6.60 % dalam tempoh asas kering. Asid

diukur lemak bebas (FFA) dalam minyak yang diekstrak berada di bawah 4.0 %.

Biodiesel dihasilkan melalui transesteri fication asas-catalyzed proses yang berbeza.

Hasil tertinggi didapati 92% di metanol dengan nisbah minyak 4: 1, kalium hidroksida

(KOH) 1.0% berat di atas plat panas dengan kacau. Ciri-ciri bahan api dan spektrum FTIR

biodiesel alga adalah sama dengan diesel petroleum. Biodiesel campuran dengan diesel

petroleum antara BO (100% diesel petroleum) kepada B30 (30% biodiesel + 70% diesel

petroleum) telah disediakan untuk menjalankan ujian prestasi enjin. Keputusan

menunjukkan bahawa penggunaan bahan api tentu meningkat sebagai peratusan biodiesel

meningkat dalam campuran bahan api. Kuasa brek enjin adalah sedikit lebih tinggi

berbanding diesel biasa dan menurun dengan peningkatan kelajuan enjin. Ujian pelepasan

ekzos telah menunjukkan bahawa biodiesel macroalgae menyediakan ketara

mengurangkan pengeluaran karbon monoksida (CO) dan hidro karbon (HC) zarah yang

berbahaya. Pelepasan oksida nitrogen (NOX) didapati lebih tinggi sedikit berbanding

dengan diesel petroleum.

ii

ABSTRACT

(Biodiesel is monoalkyl esters of long-chain fatty acids produced from renewable

resources like plant oils or animal fats through transesteri fication. The biodiesel should meet

the ASTM D6751 standard specifications for the application as an alternative fuel. The

transesterification is the process of removing the glycerines and combining fatty acid of

vegetable oil (triglycerides) with monoalcohol to lower the viscosity of the fuel. Macroalgae

are one of the inexpensive sources of oil feedstock for biodiesel production. Unlike other

feedstock for biodiesel production, macroalgae can grow in places away from the farmland

and forests and thus minimizing the damages caused to the food chain system).

This research was conducted to study the oil extraction from macroalgae, conversion

of algae oil to biodiesel, characterization of biodiesel and the performance of the diesel engine

using the algae oil biodiesel blends. The algae oil was extracted by hexane solvent extraction

method from six species (L. Epiphytic, Cladophora, Agardhiella, Gracilaria, Spirogyra and

Bryopsis Pennata) of macroalgae. Agardhiella had highest 0.89 % (v/w) oil content in fresh

and 6.60% in dry basis. The measured Free Fatty Acid (FFA) in extracted oil was below 4%.

Biodiesel was produced through base-catalysed transesterification of different process.

The highest yield was found 92 % (v/v) at methanol to oil ratio 4: 1, catalyst (KOH) 1.0 %

(w/v) in heating with continuous stirring. The fuel properties and FTIR spectrum of algae

biodiesel were similar to petroleum diesel. Biodiesel blends with petroleum diesel ranging

from BO (100 % petroleum diesel) to B30 (30% biodiesel + 70% petroleum diesel) were

prepared to carry out the engine performance test. The results showed that the specific fuel

consumption increased as biodiesel percentages increase in fuel blends. The engine brake

power was slight higher than ordinary diesel and decreased as engine speed increases. The

exhaust emission tests showed that the macroalgae oil biodiesel provides significantly

reducing harmful emissions of carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx) and

hydrocarbon (HC) particles.

111

I`usac KkiiamJit IvlaWilmatAkademi} UNNERSM MALAYSIA SAI(AWAK

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Content

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

ABSTRAK

ABSTRACT

LIST OF TABLES

LIST OF FIGURES

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

CHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION

Page

1

11

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vii

viii

X

1.1 Background 02

1.2 Advantages of Biodiesel 03

1.3 Biodiesel in Worldwide 06

1.4 Engine Manufacturers Position 08

1.5 Biodiesel from Algae 08

1.5.1 Potential of Algae Oil Biodiesel 11

1.5.2 Global Status of Algae Oil Biodiesel 12

1.6 Biodiesel in Malaysia 16

1.6.1 Scope of Biodiesel Production from Macroalgae in Sarawak. 17

1.7 Objectives 18

1.8 Brief Outline of the Report 19

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Algae

2.2 Types of Algae

2.3 Development of Algae Biodiesel

21

22

24

iv

2.4 Scope on Biodiesel Production from Algae

2.4.1 Algae Chemical Composition

2.5 Extraction of Algae Oil

2.6 Transesterification of Triglycerides

2.6.1 Chemical Reaction

2.6.2 Base Catalysed Mechanism

2.7 Biodiesel Production

2.7.1 Neutralization of Free Fatty Acids

2.7.2 Conversion of Oil to Biodiesel

2.7.3 Separation and Purification

2.7.4 Alternative Production Methods

2.8 Biodiesel Properties

2.9 Factors Affecting the Yield of Biodiesel production

2.9.1 Effect of Reaction Temperature

2.9.2 Effect of Methanol to Oil Ratio

2.9.3 Effect of Percentages of Catalyst

CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

3.2 Experimental Site

3.2.1 Raw Materials, Equipments andChemicals

3.3 Algae Collection

3.4 Algae Oil Extraction Process

3.5 Measurement of FFA in Algal Oil

3.6 Biodiesel Production Procedures

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3.6.1 Biodiesel Production

3.6.2 Settling

3.6.3 Separation of Biodiesel

3.6.4 Purification

3.7 Biodiesel Test

3.8 Engine Parameter

CHAPTER 4: RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

4.1 Introduction

4.2 Oil Extraction

4.2.1 Oil Extraction from Fresh Macroalgae

4.2.2 Oil Extraction from Dry Macroalgae

4.3 FFA Measurement of Algae Oil

4.4 Biodiesel Yield

4.5 Characteristics Result

4.5.1 FTIR Test

4.5.2 Heating Value and Fuel Properties

4.5.3 Burning Test

4.5.4 Engine Performance

4.5.5 Exhaust Emission Analysis

CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION

5.1 Conclusions

5.2 Recommendations

REFERENCES PUBLICATIONS APPENDIX-A APPENDIX-B

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V1

LIST OF TABLES

Table Page

Table-1.1: Fuel Property of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel at ASTM Standard 04

Table 1.2: Biodiesel Emissions Compared To Conventional Diesel 05

Table 1.3: Biodiesel Production Capacity in Year 2009 and 20010 07

Table-1.5 Comparison of Some Sources of Biodiesel 11

Table-2.1: Chemical Composition of Algae 29

Table 3.1: Specification of Chemicals 49

Table 3.2: Collection of Macroalgae 49

Table-3.3: Biodiesel Blend 57

Table-3.4: Specification of Diesel Engine 59

Table-4.1: Oil Extraction from Fresh Macroalgae 62

Table-4.2: Drying of Fresh Macroalgae in Sunlight and Oven Dryer. 63

Table-4.3: Oil Extraction from Dry Macroalgae in Soxhlet Apparatus 64

Table-4.4: Comparison of Oil Extraction from Blender and Soxhlet 64

Table-4.5: Titration Data for FFA Measurement of Algae Oil 65

Table-4.6: Biodiesel Production Changing Methanol to Oil ratio 66

Table-4.7: Biodiesel Production Changing the Percentages of Catalyst 67

Table-4.8: Production Parameter of Different Process 68

Table-4.9: Measurement of Heating Value of Fuel 70

Table-4.10: Fuel Properties of Algae Biodiesel & Conventional Diesel 71

Table -4.11: Engine Performance Data for Biodiesel Blend 72

vii

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure

Figure 1.1: Biodiesel Production Capacity

Figure-2.1: Transesteri fication of Plant Oil to Biodiesel

Figure-2.2: Alkyl Group, R1, R2, R3 in Transesterification of Oil to Biodiesel

Figure-2.3: Effect of Reaction Temperature on Biodiesel Production

Figure-2.4: Effect of Methanol-to-Oil Ratio to Biodiesel Yield

Figure-2.5: Effect of Percentages of Catalyst on Biodiesel Production

Figure-3.1: Schematic Diagram for Biodiesel Production from Macroalgae

Figure -3.2: Macroalgae Species

Figure-3.3: a) Macroalgae Drying

Figure-3.4: a)Blending of Macroalgae

Figure-3.5: a) Seperation of Oil Layer and b) Extracted Oil

Figure-3.6: a) Mortar, b) Grinder andc) Dry Powder in Thimble

Figure-3.7: a) Soxhlet Apparatus and b) Rotary Vaccum Evaporator

Figure-3.8: Schematic Diagram of Biodiesel Production Process

Figure-3.9: a) Hot Plate, b) Orbital Shaker and c) Autoclave

Figure-3.10: a) Separation, b) Washing & pH Test and c) Biodiesel in Beaker

Figure-3.11: a) Bomb Calorimeter, b) FTIR Machine and C) Viscometer

Figure-3.12: a) Burning of B 100, b) Burning of B20 and c) Burning of BO

Figure-3.13: a) Yanmar Engine, b) Isuzu Engine and c) Horiba Gas Analyzer

Figure -4.1: Oil Extraction from Fresh Macroalgae

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Figure-4.2: Comparison of Macroalgae Drying in Sunlight and Oven Dryer 63

Figure-4.3: Oil Extraction through Soxhlet Apparatus 64

Figure-4.4: Comparison of Oil Extraction between Fresh and Dry Macroalgae 65

Figure-4.5: Effect of Methanol to Oil ratio on the Production Yield 66

Figure-4.6: Effect of KOH Percentages on the Production Yield 67

Figure-4.7: Biodiesel Production Yield of Different Process 68

Figure-4.8: FTIR Spectrum of Algae Oil, Algae Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel 69

Figure-4.9: Fuel Consumption Rate of Diesel Engine 72

Figure -4.10: Brake power (kW) vs. Engine Speed (rpm) 73

Figure-4.11: CO Emission vs. Engine Speed. 74

Figure-4.12: NOx Emission (ppm) vs. Engine Speed (rpm). 74

Figure-4.13: HC Emission (ppm) vs. Engine Speed (rpm). 75

ix

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

ASTM

B 100

B20

bgy

CH3ONa

CO2

CPO

C-H

C=0

EMRE

EU

FFA

FRI

FTIR

g

GHG

HC

HPLC

I

IEA

American Society for Testing and Materials

100% biodiesel

20% biodiesel and 80% conventional diesel

Billion Gallons per Year

Sodium Methoxide

Carbon Dioxide

Crude Palm Oil

Alkanes Functional Group

Carbonyl Functional Group

Exxon Mobil Research and Engineering Company

European Union

Free fatty acid

Fisheries Research Institute

Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy

Gram

Greenhouse Gases

Hydrocarbon

High Pressure Liquid Chromatography

Current (A)

International Energy Agency

X

KOH

1

MIT

ml

m

MPOB

NAABB

NaOH

NOX

NBB

NREL

02

PBR

R&D

Ipm

Sfc

S02

TAGs

TPM

V

Potassium hydroxide

Litre

Massachusetts Institute of Technology

Millilitre

Fuel Flow Rate

Malaysian Palm Oil Board

National Alliance for Advanced Biofuels & Bioproducts

Sodium Hydroxide

Oxides of Nitrogen

National Biodiesel Board

National Renewable Energy Laboratory

Oxygen

Photobioreactors

Research and Development

Revolution per minute

Specific Fuel Consumption

Sulphur Dioxide

Triacylglycerols

Technology Park Malaysia

Voltage (V)

xi

CHAPTER

ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Background

Due to the depletion of fossil fuel reserve and environmental concerns, a search for

alternative fuels have gain significant attention over the years. Among different possible

resources, fuels which are derived from triglycerides of vegetable oils and animal fats present

a promising alternative to substitute petroleum-based diesel fuels. A number of studies have

shown that triglycerides of vegetable oils can be used as diesel fuels (Fukuda et al., 2001).

When Rudolf Diesel designed his prototype diesel engine a century ago, he ran it on peanut

oil. He planned that diesel engines would operate on a variety of vegetable oils. Although

diesel engines will run on various vegetable oils, prolonged use of these fuels in an engine can

cause a number of problems such as; poor fuel atomization, coldengine start-up, oil ring

stickening, gum and other deposit formation (Nitske et al., 1965). Consequently, considerable

efforts have been made to develop alternative fuels that have the properties and performance

as the petroleum-based diesel fuels, and the most promising way is the transesterification of

triglycerides to fatty acid alkyl esters, chemically alters organically derived oils in forming

biodiesel fuel.

Transesterification, also called alcoholysis, is the reaction of a fat or oil with an

alcohol to form esters and glycerol (Fangrui et al., 1999). This process has been widely used

to reduce the viscosity of vegetable oils (triglycerides). In transesterification, triglycerides in

the vegetable oil will react with alcohol to form a mixture of fatty acid alkyl esters and

glycerol.

The fatty acid alkyl esters produced from this process is called biodiesel which has

become more attractive recently because of its environmental and economic benefits.

Biodiesel produced from vegetable oils can be used as an alternative to diesel fuels because

2

the characteristics of biodiesel are close to petroleum-based diesel fuels. Several works have

shown that biodiesel produced from various vegetable oils have viscosity close to petroleum-

based diesel fuel. Their gross heating values are a little lower, but they have high cetane

number and flash points (Fukuda et al., 2001). If methanol is used in transesterification, the

obtained biodiesel will be fatty acid methyl esters (FAMEs). FAMEs have proper viscosity

and boiling point and high cetane number (Gryglewicz et al., 1999). Transesterification

reaction can be catalyzed by both acidic catalysts and basic catalysts. In general,

homogeneous catalysts such as minerals acids, metal hydroxide and metal alkoxide are

usually used in transesterification reaction. However, the replacement of homogeneous

catalysts by heterogeneous catalysts would have several advantages such as easy catalyst

separation and reduction of environmental pollutants (Gorzawski et al., 1999).

Biodiesel is a clean burning alternative diesel engine fuel comprised of monoalkyl

esters of long-chain fatty acids produced from renewable resources like vegetable oils or

animal fats and meets the ASTM D 6751 standard specifications. Biodiesel is simple to use,

biodegradable, non-toxic, and basically free of sulphur compounds and aromatics. Biodiesel is

registered as an alternative fuel and fuel additive with the Environmental Protection Agency

(EPA). B100 (100% Biodiesel) has been designated as an alternative fuel by the Department

of Energy (DOE) and the U. S. Department of Transportation (DOT).

1.2 Advantages of Biodiesel

Continuous use of petroleum sourced fuels is now widely recognized as unsustainable

because of depleting supplies and the contribution of these fuels to the accumulation of carbon

dioxide in the environment (Hossain et al., 2008). Renewable, carbon neutral, transport fuels

are necessary for environmental and economic sustainability. Bioenergy is one of the most

important components to mitigate greenhouse gas emissions and substitute of fossil fuels.

3

Biodiesel is a successful alternative fuels fulfil the environmental and energy security

needs without sacrificing operating performance. In Table-1.1, the fuel properties of biodiesel

and petroleum diesel are more or less similar. Many arguments have taken place to justify the

usage of biodiesel as alternative fuel. Biodiesel can become the long term availability when

fossil fuels become depleted, reduced dependence on oil imports, development of sustainable

economies for fuel and transportation needs, and the reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG)

emissions (Mousdale, 2008). Biodiesel used in vehicles emit lower toxic and particulate

matter from the exhaust. The smog forming potential of biodiesel hydrocarbons is less than

diesel fuel. The smog formation from biodiesel burning is 50% less than that measured for

conventional diesel. Meanwhile, the exhaust emissions of sulphur are totally eliminated with

pure biodiesel. Sulphur oxides and sulphates are major components that form acid rain.

Table-1.1: Fuel property of Biodiesel and Petroleum Diesel at ASTM Standard (NREL)

Fuel Property Diesel Biodiesel

Fuel Standard ASTM D975 ASTM D6751

Higher Heating Value, Btu/gal -137,640 -127,042 Lower Heating Value, Btu/gal -129,050 -118,170 Kinematic Viscosity, 0 40°C (104°F) 1.3-4.1 4.0-6.0

Specific Gravity kg/I ©15.5°C (60°F) 0.85 0.88

Density, lb/gal CD 15.5°C (60°F) 7.1 7.3

Carbon, wt % 87 77

Hydrogen, wt % 13 12

Oxygen, by dif. wt % 0 11

Sulfur, wt % 0.0015 max 0.0-0.0024

Boiling Point, °C (°F) 180-340(356-644) 315-350 (599-662)

Flash Point, °C (°F) 60-80 (140-176) 100-170(212-338)

Cloud Point, °C (°F) -35 to 5 (-31 to 41) -3 to 15 (26 to 59)

Pour Point, °C (°F) -35 to -15 (-31 to 5) -5 to 10 (23 to 50)

Cetane Number 40-55 48-65

4

Pusai Kbjdmat MaklumatAkadenik UNiVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK

Table 1.2 shows average biodiesel emissions compared to conventional diesel.

Poisonous gas, carbon monoxide from biodiesel is 48% lower than carbon monoxide emission

from conventional diesel. Inhaling particulate matters in the atmosphere has been a health

hazard for human. The exhaust emission of particulate matter from biodiesel is about 47%

lower than overall particulate matter emissions from conventional diesel. Hydrocarbon

emissions are 67% lower on average, a contributing factor in the localized formation of smog

and ozone.

Table 1.2: Biodiesel Emissions Compared to Conventional Diesel (EPA)

Emission Type B100* B20**

Regulated Total Unburned Hydro Carbons -67% -20% Carbon Monoxide -48% -12% Particulate Matter -47% -12%

+10% +2% to -2% NOx Non Regulated Sulphates -100% -20% PAH (Polycyclic Aromatic

-80% -13% Hydrocarbons) nPah (nitrated PAH) -90% -50% Ozone Potential of speciated HC -50% -10%

*B100 denotes 100% Biodiesel, **B20 is a mixture of 20% biodiesel and 80% conventional diesel

Biodiesel (monoalkyl esters) is one of such alternative fuel, which is obtained through

transesterification of triglyceride oil with monohydric alcohols. It has been well-reported that

biodiesel obtained from canola and soybean, palm, sunflower oil, algae oil as a diesel fuel

substitute. Biodiesel is a nontoxic and biodegradable alternative fuel that is obtained from

renewable sources. Biodiesel fuel can be prepared from waste cooking oil, such as palm,

soybean, canola, rice bran, sunflower, coconut, corn oil, fish oil, chicken fat and algae which

would partly decrease the dependency on petroleum-based fuel.

5

1.3 Biodiesel in Worldwide

The availability of biodiesel is not widely spread around the world, but several

countries are involved in this industry, producing and consuming the fuel actively. Nowadays,

the reason why biodiesel is still produced in relatively small quantities in comparison to

ethanol and petro diesel is due to commercially available in most oil-seed producing states in

the U. S being somewhat more expensive than fossil diesel (DOE).

Biodiesel has been produced on an industrial scale in the European Union since 1992.

Recently, there are approximately 1 20 plants in the EU producing up to 6,100,000 tonnes of

biodiesel annually (Figure-1.1). These plants are mainly located in Germany, Italy, Austria,

France and Sweden. There are specific regulation to promote and regulate the use of biodiesel

is in force in various countries including Austria, France, Germany, Italy and Sweden.

10000 EU. 1Aenaier States' Biodiesel Production ('000 t)

9000

--- 'ox 5000 5000 4000

3000 2000

1000

0mJlija 199A 2000 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2000 2009

-I F -*Ice

aspd .; oh aothss fu aTaa Eu

Figure 1.1: Biodiesel Production Capacity (European Biodiesel Board, 201 0)

Figure 1.1, shows that the productions of Biodiesel in European country majority are

increasing over the year. In year 2008, the production of biodiesel from Germany was about

7,800,000 tonnes compare to year 2007 which was 2,000,000 tonnes. Its production w; i

6

increasing up to 5,800,000 tonnes which is about 25.6 percent in year 2007. The production of

biodiesel in European country is discovered will be increasing in the near future. Table-1.3

shows the production capacity in Europe country in year 2009 and 2010.

Table- 1.3: Biodiesel Production Capacity in 2009 and 2010 (European Biodiesel Board, 2010)

2009 Production By Country COUNTRY 1000 TONNES* Germany France Spain Italy Belgium Poland Netherlands Austria Portugal Denmark/Sweden Finland * Czech Republic UK Hungary Slovakia Lithuania Greece Latvia Romania Bulgaria Estonia Ireland Cyprus Slovenia Malta Luxemburg TOTAL

2010 Production Capacity

2539 1959 859 737 416 332 323 310 250 233 220 164 137 133 101 98 77 44 29 25 24 17 9 9 1 0

9,046

COUNTRY Austria Belgium Bulgaria Cyprus Czech Republic Denmark Estonia Finland* France Germany Greece Hungary Ireland* Italy* Latvia Lithuania Luxemburg Malta The Netherlands Poland Portugal Romania Slovakia Slovenia Spain Sweden UK TOTAL

'000 TONNES* 560 670 425 20

427 250 135 340

2,505 4,933 662 158 76

2,375 156 147 0 5

1,328 710 468 307 156 105

4,100 277 609

21,904

Total EU27 biodiesel production for 2008 was over 7.7 million metric tonnes, an

increase of 35.7% from the 2007. In 2009 production was increased by 16.6% compared to

2008. Subject to a +/- 5% margin of error.

7

The production capacity of Europe country was gradually increasing about 13,154,000

tonnes which is about 62.9 percent in year 2009. The production of biodiesel seems to be

increasing in the following years.

1.4 Engine Manufacturers Position of Support for Biodiesel Blends (NBB, 2009)

Ford Motor Company: Ford diesel products built up to 2010 MY are compatible

with up to 5 percent biodiesel fuel blends (B5) and has designed the 2011 MY 6.7L Power

stroke Diesel engine to be robust to biodiesel blends up to 20% biodiesel (B20).

General Motors: B20 - Approved for all 2011 and forward model year GM diesel

vehicles including the Chevy Silverado, GMC Sierra, Chevy Express and GMC Savanna.

Isuzu: Isuzu currently approves B5 that meets ASTM D6751but is in the process of

completing research with B20 that may allow for future B20 support.

Mercedes Benz: Mercedes-Benz USA now approves the use of B5that meets ASTM

D6751 in all Common Rail Injection Diesel "CDI-engines" - including BLUETEC engines.

Volvo: Volvo Truck Corporation does not accept more than 5% biodiesel (SME) in

diesel, ready mixed from the oil company.

Yanmar: All Yanmar diesel engines are B20 compatible.

1.5 Biodiesel from Algae

Biomass is one of the better sources of energy. Large-scale introduction of biomass

energy could contribute to sustainable development on several fronts; environmentally,

socially and economically (PESWiki, 2008). Biomass has been focused as an alternative

energy source, since it is a renewable resource and it fixes CO2 in the atmosphere through

photosynthesis (Cheah, 2007). If biomass is grown in a sustained way, its combustion has no

8

impact on the CO2 balance in the atmosphere, because the CO2 emitted by the burning of

biomass is offset by the CO2 fixed by photosynthesis.

Among biomass, algae usually have a higher photosynthetic efficiency than other

biomass (Guiry, 2008). Algae are tiny biological factories that use photosynthesis to transform

carbon dioxide and sunlight into energy efficiently which they can double their weight several

times a day (Briggs, 2004). As part of the photosynthesis process, algae produces oil and can

generate 15 times more oil per acre than other plants used for biofuels, such as corn and

switch grass (National Biodiesel Board, 2009). Algae can grow in salt water, freshwater or

even contaminated water. In fact algae are the highest yielding feedstock for biodiesel. It can

produce up to 250 times the amount of oil per acre as soybeans (Hossain et al., 2008).

Algae have emerged as one of the most promising sourc es especially for biodiesel

production, for two main reasons: (1) The yields of oil from algae are higher than those for

traditional oilseeds, and (2) Algae can grow in places away from the farmlands and forests,

thus minimising the damages caused to the food chain systems. As an advantage, algae can be

grown in sewages and next to power-plant smokestacks where they digest the pollutants and

through this it can produce oil. Such an approach can contribute to solve major problems of

air pollution resulting from CO2 evolution and future crisis due to shortage of energy sources.

The tapping of engineered algae to produce bio-diesel and bio-ethanol has the best potential of

great success because algae is very oily where it has about 50% oil composition. It is the

fastest growing organism and has become very dense enough to be harvested three times a day

(Hossain et al, 2008). Though research into algae oil as a source for biodiesel is not new, the

current oil crises and fast depleting fossil oil reserves have made it more imperative for

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organizations and countries to invest more time and efforts into research on suitable

renewable feedstock such as algae.

In fact, producing biodiesel from algae may be only way to produce enough automotive

fuel to replace current gasoline usage (Briggs, 2004). Algae produces 7 to 31 time greater oil

than palm oil. It is very simple to extract oil from algae (ENS, 2008). On top of those

advantages, algae can grow even better when it is fed with extra carbon dioxide and organic

material like sewage. If so, algae could produce biofuel while cleaning up other problems.

Scientist nowadays are trying hard to determine exactly how promising algae biofuel

production can be by tweaking the inputs of carbon dioxide and organic matter to increase

algae oil yields.

Algae, like plants are organisms that produce energy through the process of

photosynthesis. Photosynthesis is carried out by many different organisms, ranging from

plants to bacteria. Energy for the process is taken from light, which is absorbed by pigments

such as chlorophylls and carotenoids. The water, sunlight and carbon dioxide are converted

into food in the form of oil. Resulting algae oil can be used to produce biodiesel through the

transesterification process (Sandhyarani, 2010). Unlike other plant stocks, algae can be grown

throughout the year and harvested continuously. Indeed, algae is the most renewable and

reliable energy sources compared to other oilseed crops.

The algae anticipated for biodiesel production is grown in water and fed carbon

dioxide waste from industrial sources such as power plants, ethanol manufacturers, refineries

and cement operations. The process can be used to reduce CO2 emissions from power plants,

and the algae also dispose of other pollutants. Being highly flexible, algae can be grown in

most climates and do not require crop growing land for production.

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