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Biodiversity
7.1 Native vegetation 2267.2 Native fauna and flora 2377.3 Reserves and conservation 2487.4 Invasive species 2627.5 Fire 2747.6 Fisheries 281 References 288
7
Biodiversity
226 NSW State of the Environment 2009
7.1 Native vegetation
Until now, land clearing has been the major threat to the extent and
condition of native vegetation in New South Wales, but over the
past six years the overall area of woody vegetation has remained
stable. New native vegetation legislation commenced operation in
2005, providing better control of broadscale clearing and improving
vegetation management. Net positive gains in overall vegetation
extent and condition are expected as current programs mature.
Sixty-one per cent of NSW is covered by structurally intact native vegetation, with a further 8% that is structurally modified native vegetation. The extent of some vegetation classes, particularly woodlands and grasslands, has been substantially depleted since settlement, due mainly to land clearing, while others remain substantially intact.
Clearing of native vegetation has been greatest in areas to the west of the Central Division, mainly for agriculture, and in coastal regions, primarily for urban development.
Levels of clearing of woody vegetation have fluctuated over the past two decades, but have stabilised in the last three years at around 20,000 hectares per year. Although monitoring of revegetation is inherently more complex than clearing, over the past six years clearing of woody vegetation has roughly been in balance with various forms of regrowth and regeneration. Since the Native Vegetation Act 2003 came into full effect in late 2005, approved clearing has fallen markedly to less than 4000 ha per year.
Vegetation condition largely reflects the dominant land use and is being addressed through better land management practices. However, pressures on condition are likely to remain for the foreseeable future due to the lag effects of fragmentation following clearing, coupled with increasing pressures from invasive species and climate change.
Improved management of native vegetation under the new Act has been implemented through property vegetation plans. Substantially greater effort is now directed to on-ground works to enhance native vegetation extent and condition, through activities such as restoration, revegetation and weed control. These are coordinated by catchment management authorities and carried out by landowners, land managers, and local and community groups.
227
NSW indicators
Indicator and status Trend Information availability
Vegetation extent No change ✓✓✓
Vegetation condition Unknown ✓
Pressures on vegetation Unknown ✓
Clearing rate for woody vegetation No change ✓✓✓
Notes: Terms and symbols used above are defined in About SoE 2009 at the front of the report.
7.1
7.1 Native vegetation
IntroductionNSW has a great variety of native vegetation types,
with outstanding examples of rainforests, deserts,
alpine habitats, wetlands, grasslands, eucalypt forests
and woodlands.
Native vegetation extent and condition is an
indicator of ecosystem health and the overall status
of ecosystem diversity (Saunders et al. 1998). Native
vegetation provides essential habitat for plant and
animal species, and is an integral component of
healthy, functioning ecosystems.
Vegetation mapping which incorporates information
about species composition provides a coarse,
practical indicator of the location and status of
ecosystems. More generalised mapping based only
on vegetation structure and growth form provides a
useful overview for reporting on vegetation extent
at the statewide level, but is less descriptive of
ecosystems. The description that follows is largely
based on generalised mapping of vegetation as more
detailed mapping is not available consistently on a
statewide basis.
Status and trends
Vegetation extent
Map 7.1 shows the extent of native vegetation in
a range of classes, representing various states (or
levels) of modification to natural vegetation. The
map is a compilation of existing mapping of intact
native vegetation (Keith & Simpson 2006) and
land-cover classifications derived from a variety of
remote sensing applications, which describe only the
dominant structural form of vegetation communities
across all vegetation states (DECC 2008a). While the
monitoring of woody vegetation by remote sensing
techniques has improved significantly over time,
similar techniques have only recently been applied to
the monitoring of non-woody vegetation
(see Pressures).
Four categories are described in the compilation of
vegetation extent:
native – intact: native vegetation in which the
structure has not been substantially altered
native – derived: vegetation that is predominantly
native but is no longer structurally intact as it has
been substantially altered and is missing important
structural components from its natural state
native/non-native mosaic: vegetation that cannot
be classified as native or non-native using current
remote sensing technologies
non-native/other vegetation types: non-native
vegetation (crops, plantations, pasture) or other
non-vegetative land-cover types.
Extent of intact native vegetation
Vegetation that is structurally intact covers 61% of
NSW. This is the extent of native vegetation that
retains its full complement of structural layers and
where native vegetation communities can still be
meaningfully identified and described (Keith &
Simpson 2006; Keith & Simpson 2008). However, intact
vegetation is not necessarily indicative of it being in
good condition, as most of it is subject to a variety
of land uses other than conservation, and these land
uses have differing impacts on vegetation condition.
The current extent of intact native vegetation in
NSW reflects differing rates of clearing across various
vegetation types. Generally, flat productive lands have
been favoured for development, with particularly
high rates of clearing in native grasslands, grassy
woodlands, and some types of wetlands and eucalypt
forests. Conversely, the extent of some other forms
of native vegetation on lands less attractive for
development, such as arid shrublands and the alpine
complex, has experienced little change.
Biodiversity
228 NSW State of the Environment 2009
The status of a range of intact native vegetation types
is summarised briefly below (Keith 2004):
Native grasslands have been extensively cleared or
modified and only small fragments remain outside
the semi-arid zone, although some grazing lands
retain important remnants.
Grassy woodlands are also substantially depleted
with less than 10% of some classes still remaining.
Rainforests have been substantially reduced,
particularly littoral rainforests and those on coastal
lowlands. Other rainforests are less depleted,
although there have been changes in structure and
species composition in areas with a history of timber
harvesting.
Wet and dry sclerophyll forests have been less
cleared because of constraints imposed by steep
terrain and less fertile soils, although levels of
depletion are still substantial in some classes.
Semi-arid woodlands have undergone low to
moderate levels of clearing (10–60%), although it has
increased in recent decades.
Heathlands, arid shrublands and the alpine
complex are all largely intact as they are generally
less suitable for development purposes.
Extent of modified native vegetation
A further 8% of vegetation is described as ‘derived’.
This is essentially native vegetation that has been
structurally modified, but where more than 50% of
the ground cover is native species. Although it has
been disturbed, this vegetation still makes some
contribution to the overall stock of native habitat
values in NSW (DECC 2008a).
Map 7.1: Native vegetation extent
Native – intact (61%)Native – derived (8%)Native/non-native mosaic (20%)Non-native/other (11%)
Vegetation extent class
0 100 200
Kilometres
Source: DECCW data 2009
229
The native/non-native mosaic vegetation class covers
20% of NSW and contains a mixture of native and
non-native elements which cannot be discriminated,
so this class could be also described as indeterminate
(DECC 2008a). The majority of this land is non-woody
grassland that is devoted to grazing, and the inability
to categorise it reflects the newness of monitoring
of non-woody vegetation. With a longer monitoring
history it is expected that much of this category
will be redistributed to other classes and a better
understanding of non-woody vegetation in NSW
will develop. The native/non-native mosaic class also
contributes to the overall extent of habitat values,
similarly to the derived category. Given the history of
clearing in NSW, the contribution is likely to be small
in area, but important in regions where little native
vegetation now remains.
Vegetation condition
The condition of native vegetation ranges from
pristine to total replacement. Between these two
extremes, native vegetation may be modified to
varying degrees by land management practices and
unplanned threats and disturbances, such as weed
invasion and fire. The impacts of disturbance include
changes to the structure, function and species
composition of vegetation, reduced regeneration,
and diminished habitat values and integrity. Decline
in vegetation condition is generally less visible than
clearing and occurs over a longer time frame. It is
therefore more difficult to detect and assess.
Information about vegetation condition in NSW is
only available at a very coarse level at present. Map
7.2 shows vegetation condition in broad terms as
reflected by six structural modification classes based
on a compilation of vegetation mapping and land-
use and land tenure records. These classes
7.1
7.1 Native vegetation
Map 7.2: Native vegetation condition classification
Residual (9%)Modified (52%)Transformed (7%)Indeterminate (19%)Replaced/managed (12%)Removed (1%)
Vegetation condition
0 100 200
Kilometres
Source: DECCW data 2009
Biodiversity
230 NSW State of the Environment 2009
correspond to the modification states of the draft
National Vegetation Condition Classification system
(VAST) (Thackway & Lesslie 2006; Thackway & Lesslie
2008). Essentially this map represents a broad
generalisation of land-use mapping, reflecting the
transformational change in, or modification to,
vegetation structure at the landscape level, enabling
the land to be used for different purposes.
The various structural condition classes are:
residual – native vegetation structure, composition
and regenerative capacity remain intact, with no
significant land-use disturbance
modified – the structure, composition and
regenerative capacity are intact, with some land-
use disturbance
transformed – the structure, composition and
regenerative capacity are significantly altered by
land use
indeterminate – vegetation cannot be easily
classified as either transformed or replaced
replaced/managed – native vegetation has been
replaced by non-native vegetation
removed – native vegetation has been removed
to leave non-vegetated land cover.
These classes broadly align with the vegetation
extent classes in Map 7.1. Only 9% of native
vegetation is described as residual, and it essentially
represents the structurally intact vegetation in the
terrestrial reserve system in NSW. A further 52%
is described as modified to some extent due to
land-use disturbance, but is still structurally intact.
Together, these two vegetation condition classes
roughly correspond to the intact vegetation extent
class in Map 7.1. There is similar strong alignment
between the remaining condition and the other
extent classes (Dillon et al. in prep.).
This broad assessment of vegetation condition,
based on available statewide information, provides
only an indicative approach to condition and has
some significant limitations. It does not consider
the influence of active management practices, nor
take into account recent changes in tenure or land
management. For example, in the Pilliga region of
north-western NSW, cypress forest that has recently
been proclaimed as reserve is classified as being in
better condition than that in adjoining state forest,
despite 150 years of common management. At any
particular site, vegetation condition may differ from
its described status, but at the landscape level
different combinations of vegetation cover, land use
and land tenure will be associated with their mapped
condition (Dillon et al. in prep.).
A program of data collection based on site surveys
of different combinations of land cover, land use and
land tenure is being developed to supplement the
broad framework for vegetation condition described.
Whereas the broad condition framework describes
the transformational change to vegetation that
facilitates land-use change, the site survey data will
better reflect the ongoing changes to condition that
are produced by land management practices, given
the dominant land use.
Pressures
Vegetation extent and condition
Land clearing
Native vegetation has been extensively cleared
in NSW for settlement, industry and agriculture.
Clearing is generally irreversible due to subsequent
uses of the land. It displaces the majority of native
biota and leads to ongoing habitat degradation and
deterioration in vegetation condition through the
effects of fragmentation. Clearing is, therefore, widely
accepted to be the main driver of vegetation change
and decline.
However, not all clearing is by the direct removal of
vegetation. Much of the native grassland in NSW has
been cleared or modified by pasture improvement
through the application of fertilisers, ploughing and
sowing of introduced grasses and clovers. Some
freshwater wetlands and arid shrublands have in
effect also been cleared by prolonged overgrazing.
Clearing of native vegetation, with the associated
destruction of habitat, has been identified as the
process representing the greatest single threat to
biodiversity in NSW (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006).
It has been listed as a key threatening process under
both the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995
and the Commonwealth Environment Protection and
Biodiversity Conservation Act 1999.
Clearing of woody vegetation
The annualised record of change in woody
vegetation identifies changes in the structure of
woody vegetation and describes losses in extent
as a result of agriculture, forestry and infrastructure
development. It also reports on canopy changes due
to the effects of bushfires.
231
The woody change record provides an indication of
the rate of clearing of woody vegetation and, for this
report, is taken to apply to changes in vegetation
structure due to agriculture and infrastructure
development only. Forestry has not been included
in the clearing estimate, as it is expected to be
sustainable, with the majority of logged forest
regenerated as regrowth forest over the term of a
production cycle. This estimate of clearing represents
the extent of transformational land-use change that
is likely to result in permanent changes to natural
habitat values and is consistent with the basis for
describing vegetation condition, as above.
The woody vegetation change record is produced
by analysing Landsat remote sensing data with
techniques based on the Statewide Land and
Tree Survey (SLATS) methodology, developed in
Queensland (DNRW 2007). This methodology
detects woody vegetation that is over 2 metres
high with more than 20% canopy cover, defined in
NSW as ‘Detectable Native Forest’ (DECC 2009) and
commonly referred to as woody vegetation. This
presently covers about 38% of the state.
The record of woody vegetation change has been
extended back over the past 20 years, from 2008
to 1988, yielding consistent data over a long time
frame and providing some historical perspective for
the most recent clearing data. Since 2006, clearing
of woody vegetation has stabilised at around 20,000
hectares per annum (DECCW 2009a). However, the
long-term record appears to fluctuate cyclically
between a maximum of just above 30,000 ha and
a minimum of just below 15,000 ha, prior to the
flattening trend since 2006 (see Figure 7.1).
Most of the recent clearing has been in the
wheat–sheep belt, where activity continues along
the eastern fringe of the semi-arid zone (DLWC
2002; DECCW 2009a; Keith et al. 2009). A spike in
activity recorded in the north-east of the state
during 2006–07 has declined again during 2007–08
(DECCW 2009a).
A coarser analysis of the remote sensing data since
2003 also reveals that despite the ongoing levels
of clearing, the overall extent of woody vegetation
recorded has not changed significantly during this
time. The monitoring of revegetation is inherently
more complex than the monitoring of clearing, and
further work is needed to fully understand these
results, but it appears that the overall level of clearing
over this period has been in balance with the overall
extent of revegetation and restoration.
7.1
7.1 Native vegetation
Figure 7.1: Annual woody vegetation clearing rates, 1988–08
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
1988
–90
1990
–92
1992
–94
1994
–96
1996
–98
1998
–00
2000
–02
2002
–04
2004
–06
2006
–07
2007
–08
Analysis period
Clea
ring
rate
(ha/
y)
Crop, pasture, thinning Infrastructure
Source: DECCW data 2009
Notes: Annual rate of clearing is derived from change detected over a two-year period (for example, 1988–90 represents two years
from around the end of 1988 to around the end of 1990) – except for 2006–07 and 2007–08, which were assessed annually
(and thus essentially comprise most of 2007 and 2008).
There is some variability in the actual length of the two-yearly intervals, depending on the availability of remote sensing
data suitable for analysis due to seasonal factors.
Biodiversity
232 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Clearing of non-woody vegetation
In effect, the estimates of clearing of woody
vegetation describe changes to open and closed
forests and woodlands. They exclude large areas of
open woodlands and arid shrublands, characteristic
of western NSW, where densities of trees and shrubs
are below the threshold of reliable detectability of
the SLATS methodology. Collectively, along with all
grasslands, these formations are commonly referred
to as ‘non-woody vegetation’.
The area of the state covered by non-woody
vegetation is roughly equivalent to, or greater than,
the area of woody vegetation, but the clearing rate
for non-woody vegetation remains unknown. As
the processes and dynamics are quite different, it is
not possible to generalise from clearing of woody
vegetation to clearing of non-woody vegetation.
The overall rate of clearing for NSW is therefore
also unknown, other than that it is somewhere in
excess of the known 20,000 ha per annum of woody
vegetation clearing.
Vegetation condition
Table 7.1 summarises the main pressures on
vegetation condition, together with estimates of the
gross changes to the level of pressures experienced
in NSW over the past decade. Assessment of the
pressures is based on whether they apply generally
to the individual vegetation classes defined by Keith
2004, and the figures represent the total number of
classes affected (to a maximum of 99 classes).
The figures are not, however, indicative of the
intensity or the significance of each pressure, or
necessarily the areas that are affected. For instance,
land clearing, which is the most severe pressure,
affects only 61 vegetation classes, whereas
climate change, soil degradation, fire regimes
and invasive species affect more classes
(99, 86, 84, 74, respectively).
Table 7.1 demonstrates that the majority of
pressures are ongoing with little sign of abatement.
Some pressures are intensifying, particularly those
associated with climate change, while a relatively
small number are abating. As there are relatively few
instances where pressures are easing and significantly
more where they are intensifying, the expectation
is that the condition of most vegetation classes
will continue to decline. The impacts of individual
pressures are summarised below.
Clearing has already been discussed, although the
effects of habitat fragmentation continue to have
an impact on vegetation condition long after the
initial clearing.
Climate change is pervasive and affects all classes of
vegetation in NSW. However, some vegetation classes
– notably alpine vegetation, wetlands and rainforests
– are likely to be especially sensitive. In alpine
habitats, for example, there has been a significant
reduction in snow cover over the past decade, and
this will affect both the area and suitability of habitat
for a range of specialist alpine species.
While most arid shrublands and grasslands are not
subject to extensive clearing, they are affected by
overgrazing. Total grazing pressure has increased,
leading to a reduction in perennial plant cover and
an increase in erosion in sensitive landscapes. Further
effects of overgrazing include lack of regeneration,
habitat simplification and an overabundance of
species which are less palatable to grazing stock.
Other significant and pervasive pressures affecting
vegetation condition are discussed as separate
issues in this report. These include invasive species
(Biodiversity 7.4), fire (Biodiversity 7.5) and soil
degradation (Land 5.1).
ResponsesTarget 1 under Priority E4 of State Plan 2006: A new
direction for NSW (NSW Government 2006) is ‘By 2015
there is an increase in native vegetation extent and
an improvement in native vegetation condition’. The
Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting Strategy is
being implemented to monitor progress towards all
E4 targets. A review of State Plan 2006 commenced in
August 2009 and this may adjust some of the plan’s
priorities and targets.
Native Vegetation Act and property
vegetation plans
The Native Vegetation Act 2003 (NV Act) was passed
with the stated intention of ending broadscale land
clearing in NSW and came into effect in December
2005. The provisions of the NV Act are largely
implemented through a framework of voluntary
agreements called property vegetation plans (PVPs)
which are negotiated between individual landholders
and catchment management authorities (CMAs).
233
7.1
7.1 Native vegetation
Table 7.1: Changes to pressures on native vegetation since 1999
Pressure
Number of affected vegetation classes
CommentIntensifying No change Abating
Land clearing
and resultant
fragmentation
9 49 2 This is the most severe* pressure, affecting about
60% of classes.
Abatement is due to introduction of the NV Act
and increases in reservation of significant areas of
some classes.
Intensification is due to coastal and urban
development and expansion of plantations
and cropping.
Climate change 99 0 0 This is the most pervasive threat which continues to
intensify with an increasing impact across all classes.
Alpine, coastal, rainforest, wetland and arid classes
are the most sensitive.
Invasive species
(weeds, feral animals
and pathogens)
20 75 0 This is the second most pervasive threat affecting
90% of all classes, an increase from 75% in 2006.**
This threat has intensified due to invasion and
establishment of weeds and diseases in new areas.
Altered fire regimes 4 79 1 This is a continuing threat to more than 80% of
classes, including fragmented landscapes where fire
exclusion limits regeneration.
Alpine and subalpine classes experienced increased
pressures due to extensive fires.
Overgrazing 24 34 3 Overgrazing affects around 66% of vegetation
classes.
Increased pressures to overgraze have come from
the drought, especially in the south of the state.
Degradation of soils 60 26 0 Erosion has continued or intensified where there
are lagged effects from reductions in perennial
plant cover.
Salinisation has intensified in lowlands due to
lagged effects from less deep-rooted vegetation in
recharge zones.
Acidification has intensified where drying wetlands
release acid sulfates.
Changes to water
regimes
2 10 0 In wetland, riparian and floodplain classes, lagged
effects of over-extraction during the 1970s and
1980s continue.
Pressures on other vegetation classes are partially
compensated by reduced drought stress since
2006 and increased environmental flow allocations
since 2000.
Harvesting of native
species for firewood
and timber
1 7 11 Firewood collection has accelerated in woodland
classes, while timber harvesting abated in some wet
and dry sclerophyll forests due to the expansion of
reserves, though this has sometimes been offset by
an increased harvest on private land.
Source: DECCW data 2009
Notes: * Severity refers to the intensity of the pressure and is not necessarily related to the number of classes affected
(for example, the effects of land clearing are more severe, but affect fewer classes than invasive species, which
are more pervasive).
** Trends are assessed over a 10-year window – not the past three years only.
Biodiversity
234 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Other measures being implemented through the
PVP framework are aimed at improving landscape
management, enhancing vegetation condition and
retaining biodiversity values across all tenures. Special
protection is therefore provided for landscape and
vegetation types that have been cleared below 30%
of their original extent. In addition, measures are
being developed to reward farmers for voluntary
conservation activities.
The Government will continue to fund its Native
Vegetation Assistance Package until June 2011. The
package was established to assist landholders who
are financially disadvantaged by laws that prevent
them from clearing native vegetation on their
property. In addition, all CMAs in NSW have access to
public funding so that they can assist landholders to
sustainably manage and restore native vegetation.
Native Vegetation Report Card
Since 2006, the NSW Government has been collecting
native vegetation data from a range of agencies to
produce a Native Vegetation Report Card within the
NSW Annual Report on Native Vegetation (DECCW
2009a). Table 7.2 shows the extent of newly reserved
areas, restored areas, managed areas and cleared
areas, all of which have some impact on the extent
or condition of native vegetation over the three-
year period.
In general, the total area of land being conserved,
restored or undergoing improved management
is substantially greater than the area approved
for clearing. However, it is too early to determine
whether the measures listed in Table 7.2 are
producing changes in vegetation extent or condition
that are detectable by monitoring systems.
Reservation
Figures for new conservation areas (Table 7.2)
represent additions to the public and private reserve
system. A dedicated system of parks and reserves
is the cornerstone of conservation programs
intended to preserve and protect native vegetation
(Biodiversity 7.3). These areas are protected from any
threat of clearing, and their condition and extent
will be managed in perpetuity with conservation
as the primary objective. About 8.4% of all land
in NSW has been incorporated into the reserve
system. Representation of vegetation formations and
classes is a key consideration in planning the future
development of the reserves system (see Table 7.7).
Increasing importance is being placed on
conservation across whole landscapes and a range of
schemes is in place to protect vegetation and habitat
values on private land, complementing the network
of reserves (see Biodiversity 7.3).
Revegetation and restoration
In Table 7.2 new restoration/revegetation of native
vegetation refers to restoration of native vegetation
and includes incentive PVPs and PVP offsets, other
CMA-funded programs and a range of other
initiatives that improve native vegetation condition
or increase its area. Restoration of native vegetation
is undertaken to improve the condition and natural
values of existing vegetation while revegetation will
increase the extent of native vegetation.
When undertaken strategically, revegetation can
play an important role in buffering existing reserves,
providing wildlife corridors and generally reducing
fragmentation of the landscape. There has been a
major and sustained increase in the area reported as
being revegetated since the implementation of the
NV Act and PVP framework in 2005, and the Natural
Resource Management (NRM) program which is
delivered through CMAs.
New management of native vegetation
New management of native vegetation in Table 7.2
incorporates a range of activities that enhance
the condition of vegetation, such as clearing of
invasive native scrub, weed removal and private
native forestry. Under the NV Act and the NRM
program, there is an increasing focus on improving
the management of land to enhance and maximise
environmental outcomes in areas where the
predominant land use is production rather than
conservation. This includes fencing areas that are
sensitive or have high value, weeding, and a range
of measures that address specific ecosystem, habitat
or species needs.
Regulation of clearing of native vegetation
The NV Act is the key legislation regulating the
clearing of native vegetation in NSW. Under the Act,
clearing is no longer permitted unless it improves
or maintains environmental values at the property
scale for each of four criteria: biodiversity, soil health,
water quality and soil salinity. A system of offsets
has been introduced which allows landowners to
clear native vegetation, provided they agree to plant,
improve, or better manage other vegetation on their
own property or elsewhere. The required offsets are
negotiated between landholders and the local CMA
under a PVP.
235
7.1
7.1 Native vegetation
Table 7.2: Native Vegetation Report Card – actions to protect vegetation in NSW
2006 2007 2008 Total
New conservation areas
Public reserve system: national park estate 52,150 164,780 36,830 253,760
Public reserve system: flora reserves 0 2,730 0 2,730
Private conservation areas: voluntary conservation
agreements
6,800 850 1,560 9,210
Private conservation areas: conservation covenants 5,110 7,400 51,650 64,160
Private conservation areas: wildlife refuges 69,880 290 200 70,370
Private conservation areas: PVPs in perpetuity n/a 1,230 2,070 3,300
Total area (ha) 133,940 177,280 92,310 403,530
Restoration or revegetation of native vegetation
Incentive PVPs 31,590 97,020 98,010 226,620
PVP offsets 3,910 9,480 4,930 18,320
Native plantations 8,290 19,580 32,630 60,500
Revegetation through other incentives (non-PVPs) 135,700 308,960 218,270 662,930
Retained as a condition of approval to clear:
Plantation and Reafforestation Act 1999 and Native
Vegetation Conservation Act 1997
6,410 9,160 9,410 24,980
Wildlife refuges: habitat restored 127,980 3,940 20 131,940
Natural regeneration excluding invasive native scrub 1,500 16,870 4,560 22,930
Total area (ha) 315,380 465,010 367,830 1,148,220
New management of native vegetation
Invasive native scrub PVPs 118,900 803,610 420,260 1,342,770
Thinning to benchmark PVPs 590 340 400 1,330
Public forest estate 390 –14,400 –6,530 –20,540
Private native forestry on state protected land 17,140 12,580 0 29,720
Private native forestry PVPs 0 38,420 108,360 146,780
Improved rangeland management 286,730 119,870 109,080 515,680
Weed removal programs 29,210 402,900 42,550 474,660
Total area (ha) 452,960 1,363,320 674,120 2,490,400
New clearing of native vegetation
Clearing PVPs approved where environmental
outcomes maintained or improved
290 3,490 1,660 5,440
Clearing under Native Vegetation Conservation Act 1997 2,520 10 0 2,530
Clearing under Plantation and Reafforestation Act 1999 250 420 400 1,070
Total area (ha) 3,060 3,920 2,060 9,040
Source: DECCW and DII data 2009
Biodiversity
236 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Compliance and enforcement
The Native Vegetation: Compliance and Enforcement
Strategy (DECCW 2009b) has been developed by the
NSW Government to promote compliance with
the NV Act and assist with community understanding
of its provisions and requirements. New remote
sensing technologies are being developed to
overcome limitations in statewide monitoring and
reporting and there have been a number of
successful prosecutions in regard to breaches of
the NV Act through illegal clearing.
Future directionsA review of the NV Act is due to take place in 2009.
This should provide an opportunity to assess the
effectiveness of the legislation and refine and
enhance the delivery of programs and incentives to
improve native vegetation and to regulate clearing.
Substantial effort is now being invested into on-ground
measures to enhance the extent and condition
of native vegetation. These measures should be
managed strategically to maximise ecological benefits
by improving habitat connectivity, reducing the
impacts of fragmentation and creating buffer zones
around high-quality native vegetation remnants.
Maintaining or improving the condition of existing
vegetation is likely to be more productive than trying
to restore land that has been substantially altered.
Nonetheless, revegetation and restoration will assist
in reversing some of the historical effects of clearing.
Significant activity has been stimulated under the
NV Act, but its effectiveness has not been monitored
systematically at fine scales, although coarse-scale
monitoring of overall performance is in place. A
framework to support better collection of information
about on-ground works to improve the status of
native vegetation and better integration of this
information with the outcomes detected by broader
monitoring systems would ensure that short-term
activity translates to more effective outcomes in the
longer term.
Although clearing may be slowed and fragmentation
reduced, pressures on vegetation condition are
still likely to increase in future due to further weed
invasions and new weed incursions, the increasing
effects of climate change and related changes to fire
regimes. These threats are less predictable and more
pervasive in nature, and hence harder to manage and
plan for, than are controls on clearing.
Further development of systems to describe and
monitor vegetation condition systematically across
the landscape will be needed in order to address
the growing threats to vegetation condition more
effectively. This will be a critical requirement to inform
the future management of native vegetation.
A better understanding of the relationship between
vegetation types or communities and the biodiversity
and natural values they supported, particularly how
this relationship varies across different classes of
vegetation condition or extent, will be important in
focusing conservation priorities and assessing the
effectiveness of vegetation management outcomes.
The impacts of climate change are expected to
produce shifts in the distribution of species. However,
the likely impacts on the composition of vegetation
communities and possible changes to their form
and structure are less well understood, particularly in
response to the interaction between altered climate
and fire regimes. More information on the dynamics
of climate change is needed, especially as they apply
to ecosystems rather than individual species.
There is now a unique opportunity to tackle the
issues of vegetation decline and climate change
simultaneously and thus make gains in both areas.
More work is needed to ensure that revegetation,
particularly for carbon sequestration, is undertaken in
such a way that it maximises benefits for biodiversity.
There is an ongoing need for fine-scale regional
mapping of vegetation communities that is
consistent across the state, including a definitive
description of the vegetation communities of NSW.
This is needed to support adaptive management
within regions, enabling effective comparison
between regions (CMAs), and providing a connection
between regional and statewide monitoring and
reporting for SoE and NRM purposes.
237
7.2 Native fauna and flora
The diversity and richness of native species in New South Wales
continues to remain under threat.
A general pattern of decline in biodiversity over the longer term is evident in changes to the extent and abundance of many native vertebrate species. However, at the same time, many resilient species have maintained their distributions, while a small number of adaptable species have flourished.
In terms of historical declines, birds have been relatively resilient compared with other vertebrate groups. However, over the shorter time frame of the past decade, the distribution of many birds has declined and the prospects for sustainability of many species are at risk. Predictably, the sustainability of most of the threatened species assessed is also at risk.
One additional species has been listed as presumed extinct since 2006. The number of threatened species has increased only slightly, whereas listed populations have increased by 20% and communities by 14%, largely as a result of listing previously unassessed entities.
The main threats to native vertebrate fauna are invasive species, particularly foxes and cats, and habitat loss. The main threats to vegetation communities and native flora are the clearing of native vegetation and incursion of invasive species, particularly exotic weeds and herbivores.
Significant legislative and policy reforms have been introduced over the past five years to enhance the protection of biodiversity, largely focused on improving habitat and addressing threats more broadly to benefit all species.
Practical outcomes are being achieved by directly addressing the main threats through effective conservation in reserves, better regulation of vegetation clearing, strategic control of priority invasive species and better management of land and water resources.
While there are some encouraging examples of population recovery, measures that influence changes in populations and the status of species generally require longer time periods to take effect.
Most species are not currently monitored systematically and a broader program to monitor a representative sample of species is needed for groups other than birds, in order to reliably detect changes in their status and trends.
7.2
7.2 Native fauna and flora
Biodiversity
238 NSW State of the Environment 2009
NSW indicators
Indicator and status Trend Information availability
Terrestrial vertebrate fauna: historical loss of
distribution
Unknown ✓
Distribution of birds: sustainability Deteriorating ✓
Threatened species: historical loss of
distribution
Unknown ✓
Threatened species: sustainability Unknown ✓
Notes: Terms and symbols used above are defined in About SoE 2009 at the front of the report.
IntroductionBiodiversity is the diversity of ecosystems, the species
and populations they support and the genes they
contain. It also encompasses the complex interactions
between living organisms and the environment
which provide the basis for a range of ecosystem
services and maintain the health and productivity of
our landscapes. NSW has a rich biodiversity, much of
which is recognised as internationally significant.
However, it is seldom possible to monitor or report
on biodiversity across its breadth (Saunders et al.
1998). This theme is largely constrained to addressing
native animal and plant species, particularly terrestrial
vertebrates and those species of native plants listed
under the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995
(TSC Act), due to the sparsity of data for other groups.
While information on some individual species of
native plants, invertebrates and microorganisms
may exist, broad statewide information providing
systematic coverage of groups as a whole is limited
to native vertebrate fauna and threatened species.
Even for these groups the data is seldom collected
systematically and there are significant gaps in
overall coverage.
Comprehensive information on changes to the extent
and abundance of vertebrates and some threatened
plants has recently been compiled. Analysis of this
data has enabled reporting of some changes and
patterns in the status of species and some limited
assessments of the future sustainability of species.
Status and trendsNSW has experienced declines and extinctions in
a broad suite of native plants and animals since
settlement (Dickman et al. 1993; Smith et al. 1994;
Campbell 1999). Mammals have experienced the
most significant declines with 26 of 138 species
(19%) now extinct. In addition, 35 species of plants,
12 species or subspecies of birds, and one species
each of reptiles, fish and invertebrates are also now
listed as presumed extinct under threatened species
legislation. Since SoE 2006, one additional species,
the green sawfish (Pristis zijsron), has been listed as
presumed extinct.
Native fauna
Historical declines
There were an estimated 897 species of native
terrestrial vertebrates in NSW at the time of
settlement. Changes in distribution since settlement
(specifically losses) were estimated from species
records for all terrestrial vertebrate species with
adequate and reliable data (Figure 7.2).
To develop an understanding of the changing state of
species diversity in NSW, current records (since 1995)
of species distribution were compared with historical
records of distribution (Mahon et al. in prep.). The
assessment used all available data of sufficient
quality from a range of sources. As no systematic
monitoring was undertaken to generate this data, the
coverage contains many gaps and may not be fully
representative of missing species.
Changes in distribution over the past 230 years could
be estimated with a reasonable level of confidence
for about half of all terrestrial vertebrate species.
Estimating distributional change for the remaining
species is problematic because there is little or
no historical data or because the available data
is unreliable. Species such as microbats are often
difficult to detect or have undergone recent changes
in taxonomy.
239
Approximately 4% of all native terrestrial vertebrate
species in NSW are presumed to be extinct, while a
further 7% of species (13% of those assessable) have
lost at least half their former distribution. Mammals
have fared poorly (Morton 1990; Dickman et al.
1993), with nearly one-fifth of all species presumed
extinct and a further 10% of species (18% of those
assessable) having lost at least half their distribution.
The introduction of cats and foxes played a large
role in early declines and extinctions of mammals
(Dickman 1996a; Dickman 1996b; Smith & Quin 1996).
All other taxonomic groups have suffered significant
declines although no extinctions of amphibians have
been recorded (Smith et al 1994; Campbell 1999).
However, of all the vertebrate groups, birds have
proven to be the most resilient.
Some species classified as showing no significant
decline may have expanded in range since
settlement, but the nature of the data prevents
reliable assessment of range expansions.
Nevertheless, range expansions of native fauna
may have negative impacts on other native species
and therefore would be unlikely to indicate an
improvement in overall outcomes for biodiversity.
Sustainability of native fauna
The sustainability of native species refers to the
likelihood of species persistence over future decades
and has been assessed for terrestrial vertebrates using
modified International Union for the Conservation
of Nature (IUCN) Red-List criteria (IUCN 2001; IUCN
2008; Figure 7.3). In particular, estimates of total
population size and distribution, trends in population
7.2
7.2 Native fauna and flora
Figure 7.2: Historical decline in the distribution of native terrestrial vertebrates
Presumed extinct
Severe decline
Moderate decline
No significant decline
No data
Mammals Reptiles
BirdsAmphibians
10%
7%
28%
55%
2%
4%7%
40%
47%
19%
44%
20%
10%
<1%
14%
21%
8%
57%
n=83 n=45
n=13 n=22
7%
Source: DECC data 2008
Notes: Severe decline – change in distribution ≥50%
Moderate decline – 25–50% distributional change
No significant decline – change in distribution <25%
Biodiversity
240 NSW State of the Environment 2009
size and distribution, and estimates of extinction
risk from population modelling were used to assess
the sustainability of each species. Species were only
assessed if they are actively monitored at a regional
or state scale and the data was sufficiently reliable.
As a result, relatively few species have been assessed,
but confidence in most of the assessments is good
(Mahon et al. in prep).
Just over a quarter of native terrestrial vertebrate
species are monitored sufficiently in NSW to allow
an assessment of sustainability at the statewide
scale. The relatively large number of assessments of
birds reflects the regular surveys conducted by Birds
Australia for the Atlas of Australian Birds (Barrett et
al. 2003). The limited data available for other groups
is sufficient to reliably describe the status of the
individual species, but is not representative of their
taxonomic groups.
The sustainability assessments show that 64% of all
fauna species that are assessable and 65% of birds
have a moderate or greater risk of extinction (Mahon
et al. in prep.). The data for birds, based on 217
species (48% of all species), reflects clearly detectable
contractions in range over the past 10 years for a
majority of the species assessed.
Prospects for the long-term sustainability of many of
the bird species assessed are considered poor, and
this data is the clearest evidence available that the
decline in species appears to be ongoing. While there
is insufficient data to describe recent trends in other
vertebrate groups, there is little reason to expect
outcomes to be dissimilar, especially as birds were
the most resilient group in terms of historical declines
(see Figure 7.2).
Figure 7.3: Sustainability of native terrestrial vertebrates
Substantial risk
Moderate risk
Low risk
Sustainable
No data
Mammals Reptiles
BirdsAmphibians
96%
2%
6%
11%
13%47%
19%
76%
20%
10%
<1%
14%
21%
8%
100%
n=83 n=45
n=13 n=22
7%
Extinct
Severe risk
2% 2%
8%
8%
1%
3%
1%
Source: DECC data 2008
241
The assessments of historical decline and the
sustainability of fauna species described above reveal
widespread gaps in the availability of data and limited
capacity to reliably detect changes in the status
of, and particularly the ongoing trends in, species
distribution and abundance. While it would not be
feasible to monitor outcomes for all species, there is a
clear need for broader monitoring of a representative
range of species (not just vertebrate fauna), in order
to reliably report changes in the status and trends of
species diversity.
Native flora
Plant species diversity has declined significantly since
settlement (Burgman et al. 2007), but there is little
suitable data to quantify the rate or magnitude of
decline. The decline is due to a range of pressures
acting alone or in combination, including vegetation
clearing and disturbance, heavy grazing and the
impacts of invasive species.
Even where native vegetation remains, the richness
of plant species may be diminishing. This is due
to the fragmentation of populations in isolated
communities which are unviable over the long term
and are gradually being lost from the landscape. The
simplification of species-level plant diversity has been
recorded in many locations across Australia (Burgman
et al. 2007).
Threatened species
Listed threatened species, populations and
ecological communities
The TSC Act and Fisheries Management Act 1994
(FM Act) provide for the listing of threatened species
(Table 7.3). Individual species, populations and
ecological communities that are assessed as being
at risk of extinction in NSW are listed, based on the
threat categories outlined by the IUCN.
7.2
7.2 Native fauna and flora
Table 7.3: Number of listed species, populations and ecological communities
Species
Total number
of species in
NSW* Extinct
Critically
endangered Endangered Vulnerable
Endangered
populations
Total listed
species or
communities**
Mammals 138 26 0 17 39 10 82 (59%)
Birds 452 12 1 28 85 6 126 (28%)
Amphibians 83 0 0 15 13 1 28 (34%)
Reptiles 230 1 0 16 25 1 42 (18%)
Plants 4,677 34 15 346 231 24 626 (13%)
Aquatic plants ? 1 0 0 0 0 1
Fish 55
(freshwater)
1 2 7 2 2 12
Sharks and rays ? 1 1 0 1 0 3
Marine mammals 40 0 0 2 5 0 7
Invertebrates ? 1 0 18 1 2 20
Algae ? 0 0 1 0 0 1
Aquatic algae ? 0 1 0 0 0 1
Fungi 36,000 0 0 5 4 0 9
Total ? 77 20 455 406 46 958
Changes since
April 2006
n/a 0 (0%) n/a + 3 (<1%) + 1 (<1%) + 8 (21%) + 4 (<1%)***
Ecological
communities
n/a 2 87 2 n/a 91
+11(14%)
Source: DECC data 2008 and DPI data 2009
Notes: Terrestrial data listed under the TSC Act as at 19 December 2008.
Fisheries data listed under the FM Act as at 23 January 2009.
* From SoE 2006
** Listed species or ecological communities only, excludes listed endangered populations
*** Excludes endangered populations
Biodiversity
242 NSW State of the Environment 2009
At present a total of 957 species (including 77 that
are presumed to be extinct), 46 populations and
91 ecological communities are listed as threatened.
The number of species listings has risen only slightly
since last reported in 2006, but there have been more
substantial increases in the listings of populations
(21%) and communities (14%). These changes primarily
reflect the pattern of new listings for populations and
communities that had not previously been assessed
under the listing criteria of the relevant Acts.
Changes in the numbers of species, populations and
ecological communities listed between reporting
periods may therefore reflect changes in information
rather than actual changes in the status of native
flora and fauna (Keith & Burgman 2004). Many species
are also not listed as vulnerable or endangered even
though their abundance and range may be declining,
as they are not considered to be under threat
at present.
Historical declines in threatened species
Figure 7.4 shows that native species of terrestrial
vertebrates listed as threatened have experienced
greater range contractions than all terrestrial
vertebrate species (Figure 7.2). This is not surprising
since many of these species have been listed because
they have experienced declines in distribution and
abundance, in order that resources can be directed
towards protecting them (see Responses). Only 30%
of threatened invertebrate species have been studied
sufficiently to allow an assessment of trends over the
past 200 years, but the majority of these have also
experienced severe declines (Mahon et al. in prep).
The methods to assess historical decline were
developed specifically for fauna species, as records of
flora species have generally not been collected with
the same level of consistency over the past 200 years.
However, where the data allows, these methods have
also been applied to threatened flora species and
ecological communities. The available data for flora
reveals a similar pattern of decline to the fauna data
described previously (Mahon et al. in prep; Figure 7.4).
As expected, most of the threatened ecological
communities for which data is available have also
experienced substantial declines in range. These
communities are generally defined on an ad hoc
basis when they undergo assessment for listing, so
the data available is likely to selectively describe
communities that are subject to a degree of threat.
Sustainability of threatened species
As for terrestrial vertebrates (Figure 7.3), the
sustainability of threatened flora and fauna in NSW
was also assessed based on modified IUCN Red-List
criteria where suitable monitoring data was available
(IUCN 2001; IUCN 2008). However, there is no widely
accepted method for assessing the sustainability of
ecological communities.
Again, limited data of a suitable nature is available
for assessing the sustainability of threatened species.
Of the species that could be assessed, the majority
(94% of threatened fauna and 82% of threatened
plants) have a moderate or greater risk of extinction,
mainly due to ongoing contractions in range, as
described previously for birds, or to severely restricted
distributions. The prospects for the long-term
sustainability of most NSW threatened species
are generally poor.
Figure 7.4: Historical declines in threatened native animals, plants and ecological communities
Threatened
ecological communities
Threatened
native plants
Threatened
native animals
57%
5%
15%
5%73% 57%
n=31 n=63 n=91
5%
8%
8%
38%
Presumed extinct Severe decline Moderate decline No significant decline No data
2%13%
13%
7%
10%
Source: DECC data 2008
Notes: Severe decline – change in distribution ≥50%
Moderate decline – 25–50% distributional change
No significant decline – change in distribution <25%
243
PressuresThe decline in vertebrate species is largely due to
the pressures that arise from meeting human needs
including food production, urban expansion and
consumption of natural resources. The loss and
degradation of habitat has been compounded by
the introduction of pests and weeds, diseases, the
impacts of altered fire regimes and pollution that
alone, or in combination, affect individual species
and ecosystems.
The major pressures on species diversity in NSW
include:
clearing, fragmentation and disturbance of native
vegetation (Biodiversity 7.1)
land degradation (Land 5.1)
the introduction of invasive species (particularly
foxes and cats) and weeds (Biodiversity 7.4)
overgrazing by cattle, sheep and invasive
herbivores (Biodiversity 7.1)
changes to fire regimes (Biodiversity 7.5)
changes to water flows (Water 6.1)
the introduction of exotic diseases
overfishing and fishing bycatch (Biodiversity 7.6)
climate change (Climate Change 2.3).
Overall, the processes that have an impact on
threatened species are the same as those threatening
biodiversity more generally.
Listed key threatening processes
The TSC Act and FM Act both list processes that
threaten the sustainability of native plants and
animals, especially threatened species. At present
there are 33 key threatening processes (KTPs) listed
in the schedules of the TSC Act and seven KTPs listed
in the schedules of the FM Act. Four KTPs have been
added to the schedules since 2006.
Table 7.4 provides a summary of the KTPs listed under
the TSC Act, grouped by the type of processes or
threats they describe. Out of 33 KTPs listed, pest and
weed invasions are the subject of 18 (55%). Clearing
of native vegetation is dealt with under a single KTP.
A further seven KTPs involve various forms of habitat
modification. KTPs in NSW were reviewed recently
(Auld & Keith 2009).
Table 7.4: Summary of the key threatening processes listed in NSW
Issue Number of KTPs
Pest animals 13
Habitat alteration 7
Invasive weeds 5
Disease 3
Species harvesting 2
Clearing 1
Climate change 1
Altered fire regimes 1
Total 33
Source: DECC and DPI data 2008
Clearing and disturbance of native vegetation is the
threat affecting the greatest number of threatened
species (87%), followed by the introduction of
invasive species (70%) (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006).
However, introduced pests (particularly predators)
are believed to have caused a greater number of
extinctions than any other type of threat (Dickman
1996a; Dickman 1996b). The clearing of native
vegetation and impacts of introduced species remain
the two most significant threats to biodiversity
in NSW.
Climate change
The distributions of most species and ecological
communities are largely determined by
biogeographical factors, including a range of climate
variables. Climate change is likely to exacerbate the
impacts of other threats on flora and fauna, as species
already under pressure will have lowered resilience
to cope with the impacts of climate change. Climate
change is likely to have the greatest impact on
species with restricted distributions and limited ability
to shift their range (DECCW in prep.). There is already
some evidence that climate change is beginning
to have an impact on biodiversity in NSW (Climate
Change 2.3).
7.2
7.2 Native fauna and flora
Biodiversity
244 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Responses
Legislative and policy frameworks
Under priority E4 of State Plan 2006: A new direction
for NSW (NSW Government 2006) the targets are:
Target 2: ‘By 2015 there is an increase in the
number of sustainable populations of a range of
native fauna species’
Target 3: ‘By 2015 there is an increase in the
recovery of threatened species, populations and
ecological communities’.
A review of State Plan 2006 commenced in August
2009 and this may adjust some of the plan’s priorities
and targets.
Legislation
The main legislation affecting conservation of
species in NSW is the TSC Act, which provides a
number of mechanisms for protecting threatened
species, populations, communities and their habitats,
and the FM Act, which provides similar protection for
threatened fish, marine invertebrates and
marine vegetation.
Recent legislative reforms have seen the introduction
of two new listing categories for critically endangered
species and vulnerable ecological communities
(Table 7.3).
Strategic policy framework
Since SoE 2003 there has been a fundamental shift
in focus from the recovery of individual threatened
species, an approach which is largely reactive,
to a more strategic focus on conservation at the
landscape level and the protection of communities
and habitats. Consistent with this new approach,
there is now a greater emphasis on addressing the
threats to biodiversity and the processes and drivers
of biodiversity decline more generally. The objective
is to maximise the benefits for all species and not just
those that have been listed as threatened.
A range of strategies is available to address the
decline in biodiversity and enhance conservation
and recovery. These will be described in a revised
NSW Biodiversity Strategy which is under review,
and include:
securing protection of habitat in perpetuity in
the terrestrial reserves and marine parks systems,
supplemented by a range of conservation
mechanisms on private land (Biodiversity 7.3)
stopping or reducing broadscale clearing of native
vegetation through regulation, approvals and
compliance systems (Biodiversity 7.1)
restoring or rehabilitating vegetation and habitat
and improving land management, delivered mainly
through a variety of property vegetation plans
(PVPs) (Biodiversity 7.1)
improving landscape connectivity through
revegetation, and establishing corridors and
linkages between parks and reserves, including
the Great Eastern Ranges Initiative (Biodiversity 7.1;
Biodiversity 7.3)
identifying species, populations and communities
that are under threat and the KTPs that cause them
to be threatened
reducing the threats to biodiversity through
priorities action statements and threat
abatement plans.
Threat abatement plans
Threat abatement plans (TAPs) are developed to
manage listed KTPs and aim to:
outline actions to manage the threatening process
explain how the success of these actions will
be measured
identify the authorities that will be responsible for
carrying out those actions
provide a cost estimate and timetable for carrying
out the plan.
There are 10 TAPs in operation in NSW and several
more in preparation. At present most TAPs target
threats from invasive species and disease.
The Predation by the Red Fox TAP was the first to
be completed under the TSC Act (NPWS 2001)
and was recently updated. The plan implements
fundamental changes to strategies for fox control, in
order to enhance the conservation of native fauna. In
particular, the plan identifies priorities for fox control
and sets out a framework for collaborative programs
of control across all tenures. It also describes best-
practice guidelines for fox control and provides for
monitoring programs which measure the response of
threatened species to fox control.
Priorities action statements
The NSW Government has implemented reforms
to streamline the delivery of recovery actions for
threatened species, populations and ecological
communities. Priorities action statements (PASs)
245
provide a strategic approach to the recovery of
threatened species and threat abatement planning
by listing and prioritising all conservation actions.
There is one PAS for entities listed under the TSC Act
and another for entities listed under the FM Act.
The PAS for the TSC Act, which mainly applies to
terrestrial species, identifies 34 broad strategies for
recovery of threatened species and abatement of
KTPs. These are summarised under 11 types in Table
7.5. Each of the strategies has more specific actions
listed under them. The PAS prioritises conservation
actions in terms of the importance of the action, the
likelihood of success and the ease of implementation.
The number of actions which concern monitoring
(768) is particularly high and reflects the NSW
Government’s efforts to address data deficiencies
that are evident in the knowledge of species and
their sustainability.
BioBanking
The Biodiversity Banking and Offsets Scheme
(BioBanking), which commenced in August 2008,
is a market-based scheme designed to reduce the
impacts of development on biodiversity, particularly
threatened species and ecological communities.
BioBanking provides the opportunity for developers
to offset development impacts on biodiversity at
a site by improving its management at other sites,
provided that overall biodiversity values are improved
or maintained. Offset (biobank) sites must have the
same threatened species or ecological communities
as those affected by the development, and sites must
be managed for conservation in perpetuity.
At the same time, BioBanking provides an
opportunity for rural landowners (offset providers or
private conservation stewards) to generate income by
managing land for conservation. Biodiversity credits
can be generated by committing to enhance and
protect biodiversity through a biobanking agreement
and these credits can be sold, generating funds for
the management of the site.
Land Alive gives Aboriginal landowners a chance to
create jobs and business opportunities by managing
land for conservation through BioBanking. Aboriginal
landowners can generate income while enhancing
their role as land stewards with their unique
knowledge of Aboriginal culture.
Planning and biocertification
Recent changes to legislation provide for mechanisms
to better integrate planning needs with biodiversity
conservation objectives on a strategic basis at the
regional level. Regional strategies balance social,
economic and environmental objectives in setting
out a blueprint for future development (see People
and the Environment 1.2).
7.2
7.2 Native fauna and flora
Table 7.5: Conservation actions by category assigned to threatened species and ecological communities by the TSC Act priorities action statement
Action category Number of actions Actions commenced
Recovery planning and policy development 342 224
Restoration and translocation 151 103
Community engagement in private land conservation 355 249
Monitoring of populations 768 399
Pest control 192 72
Weed control 262 214
Fire management 249 148
General habitat management 405 235
Habitat protection 114 70
Research 208 114
Other 59 29
Total 3,105 1,857
Source: DECC data 2008
Notes: Data applies only to listings under the TSC Act.
No data is available on the number of actions completed.
Biodiversity
246 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Regional conservation plans, such as for the Lower
Hunter, will complement the regional strategies by
assessing the likely impacts of future development
in establishing a practical framework to improve
or maintain biodiversity at the landscape level.
Regional conservation plans (one has been finalised
to date) will identify conservation priorities, including
additional reserves and important corridors,
and guide the process of providing biodiversity
certification (biocertification) of environmental
planning instruments (EPIs), such as local
environmental plans. It also provides direction for
investment in biodiversity through market-based
instruments, such as BioBanking, and for other
sources, such as catchment management authorities.
Biocertification of EPIs is a new mechanism for
conserving biodiversity and protecting threatened
entities listed under the TSC Act. Certification enables
the streamlining of development assessments and
approvals by a planning authority. Once an EPI
is certified, site-by-site assessment of threatened
species is not required for any subsequent
developments within the area covered by the EPI.
On-ground programs and
management
The protection of native species and reduction
of threatening processes is directed by the
framework described above and delivered
through the following programs.
Reservation
A dedicated system of parks and reserves is the
cornerstone of conservation efforts to preserve
and protect biodiversity and ecosystems in NSW.
Approximately 8.4% of land and 34% of marine
waters has been incorporated into the reserve
system. Conservation in reserves is supplemented
by a range of conservation measures for other
public and private lands (Biodiversity 7.3).
Protected areas provide refuge for a significant
proportion of threatened species, and approximately
85% of all vertebrate groups are represented within
the reserve system (DEC 2005). The large number of
PAS actions relating to community engagement for
conservation activities on private land (355 in total)
reflects the increasing commitment to, and support
for, conservation on private land.
Regulation of clearing
The clearing of native vegetation and harvesting of
non-plantation native forest timber on rural lands are
regulated under the Native Vegetation Act 2003, and
enhanced systems for enforcement and monitoring
compliance are now in place. Approvals for clearing
of native vegetation have fallen significantly and
clearing of woody vegetation has remained stable
for a number of years. At the same time, measures
to promote revegetation and improve the condition
and management of native vegetation have been
implemented through PVPs. Provision is made for
important corridors and buffers in urban planning
processes (Biodiversity 7.1).
Management and control of invasive species
Eradication of invasive species is seldom feasible.
However, control of high priority invasive species,
such as foxes and bitou bush, is targeted at areas
of high conservation value and is being delivered
through TAPs. Broadscale rabbit control is being
delivered through the release of myxomatosis
and rabbit haemorrhagic disease, while rats, mice
and rabbits have been eradicated from several
NSW islands. However, the intensive control that
is necessary to improve the condition of flora and
fauna is largely limited to some conservation reserves
(Biodiversity 7.4).
Management of native species
The NSW Government oversees a Kangaroo
Management Program that monitors numbers
of the four large kangaroo species to ensure that
populations do not expand at the expense of other
native fauna.
Recovery plans for threatened species
Recovery plans have been used to guide on-ground
management and have resulted in positive outcomes
for a number of threatened species. These programs
require ongoing funding, in some cases for many
years, to maintain the positive outcomes.
Adaptation to climate change
The NSW Government’s response to climate change
impacts on biodiversity includes the NSW Biodiversity
and Climate Change Adaptation Framework (NSW
Government 2007) and the Adaptation Strategy for
Climate Change Impacts on Biodiversity (DECC 2007).
The adaptation strategy aims to reduce the impacts
of climate change by building the reserve system
and protecting high quality vegetation remnants,
247
improving connectivity across the landscape to
allow for the movement of species, restoring
habitat in highly fragmented ecosystems to improve
resilience, and taking action to protect individual
priority species.
A Statement of Intent for Anthropogenic Climate
Change, which is currently being prepared in
response to the listing of anthropogenic climate
change as a KTP, will propose actions to deal with
the impacts of climate change on biodiversity in
NSW (Climate Change 2.3).
Other threats
The use of water from rivers, wetlands and
groundwater sources has also been regulated, with
some allocations now being made for environmental
flows (Water 6.1; Water 6.2). Management of fire has
focused largely on reducing risks to people. However,
research on the relationships between fire and the
population dynamics of a range of Australian flora
and fauna is now allowing optimal fire regimes to
be developed to maintain biodiversity and to be
considered in fire management (Biodiversity 7.5).
Future directionsNew reforms and mechanisms to enhance the
conservation of biodiversity have been introduced
since 2003, and this process is ongoing. Reviews of
legislation and of the effectiveness of investments
to conserve threatened species using the PAS are
planned for 2010. Consideration will be given to the
optimal targeting of resources across the landscape
so that large-scale threats are managed through tools
such as regional planning.
In many cases it is still too early to assess the
effectiveness of these new measures in addressing
issues that are pervasive and long-standing.
Significant trends and changes in the status of species
often become clear only over longer time frames, and
it will require sustained commitment to conservation
objectives and perseverance to achieve lasting gains
and the sustainability of many native species.
The strategic approach to conservation at the
landscape level will continue. By addressing the
main threats to biodiversity and the drivers of
biodiversity decline, outcomes and benefits will be
maximised for all species. However, species-specific
recovery actions may still be developed in cases
where specific habitat requirements are identified or
where the only populations remaining are in highly
disturbed habitats.
Regional programs that deliver on-ground actions to
address strategic conservation objectives or diminish
the impacts of threatening processes are likely to
achieve the most effective outcomes in maintaining
the diversity of native species.
Climate change is expected to place further stress on
already fragmented ecosystems and will lead to shifts
in the distribution of native species, resulting in both
losses and gains at the regional level. Measures to
improve connectivity across landscapes and build the
health and resilience of natural systems will enhance
the capacity of species and ecosystems to cope with
disturbance and adapt to changes in climate.
The information that presently supports the listing
of threatened species is not collected systematically
and this may lead to imbalances in the listings.
The provisions of the Monitoring, Evaluation and
Reporting Strategy should allow for monitoring that is
more representative and targets specific information
gaps. This will provide a more effective basis for
establishing the status of species in the future and
ensure that those species in real need of protection
are identified.
Greater research effort will provide a better
understanding of conservation and species dynamics,
and their interaction with threatening processes
and disturbances. This will assist in optimising
conservation outcomes within different land uses and
across the whole landscape.
More information is also needed about the factors
contributing to the resilience or success of some
native species and processes, such as expansions
in range or increases in population, in contrast to
the contractions or declines of many other native
species. Such processes are less commonly studied
than threats but are likely to significantly influence
future outcomes for biodiversity, and should be
considered against a broader perspective of the
global homogenisation of biodiversity through the
mass movement of species.
7.2
7.2 Native fauna and flora
Biodiversity
248 NSW State of the Environment 2009
7.3 Reserves and conservation
There has been an increase of 3.5% in the overall area of the reserve
system, with significant additions in under-represented areas.
At January 2009, the New South Wales terrestrial reserve system covered 6.7 million hectares or 8.4% of the state. Since 2006, the reserve system has grown by 236,346 ha, an increase of 3.5%.
The representativeness of the protected area system is improving, but some subregions and vegetation classes are still under-represented, particularly in the central and western regions.
In regions where remnant vegetation is scarce, opportunities for further additions to the formal reserve network are limited and measures to promote conservation are being actively pursued, both in reserves and on other tenures.
Conservation on private and other public land plays an important role in providing greater connectivity across whole landscapes. It complements the public reserve system by expanding the range of natural values that are protected and provides buffers and corridors to enhance the network of reserves.
The system of marine protected areas now covers 345,000 ha or 34% of NSW waters. Only two NSW marine bioregions – the Hawkesbury Shelf and Twofold Shelf – do not have marine parks but a number of aquatic reserves have been established in the former while only about 10% of the Twofold Shelf lies within NSW waters.
Zoning plans are used to deliver effective multiple-use management of marine parks. New zoning plans have been implemented for the Batemans and Port Stephens–Great Lakes marine parks, and existing plans for the Solitary Islands and Jervis Bay marine parks are being reviewed for the first time.
NSW indicators
Indicator and status Trend Information availability
Areas of terrestrial reserve system Improving ✓✓✓
Area of marine protected areas system Improving ✓✓✓
Notes: Terms and symbols used above are defined in About SoE 2009 at the front of the report.
249
IntroductionAddressing the decline of biodiversity is one of the
greatest environmental challenges facing NSW.
Conservation in both private and public reserves
is an important part of the strategy to address
this challenge.
Protected areas are the cornerstone of conservation
efforts in NSW. A substantial network of protected
areas, which provides a foundation for biodiversity
conservation, has been established across the state.
The public reserve system performs three main
functions:
protecting the full range of habitats and
ecosystems, plant and animal species, and
significant geological features and landforms
protecting areas of significant cultural heritage
providing opportunities for recreation and
education.
However, more than 90% of land in NSW lies outside
public reserves and, in order to provide effective
conservation across the whole landscape and protect
the full complement of natural values, conservation
measures are increasingly being directed beyond the
boundaries of the reserve system.
In the marine environment a system of multiple-use
zoning plans provides protection and conservation
of marine and coastal ecosystems and habitats, while
allowing for a wide range of beneficial uses.
Status and trends
Terrestrial reserve system
Extent
At 13 February 2009 the area of the NSW reserve
system protected under the National Parks and
Wildlife Act 1974 (NPW Act) and Brigalow and
Nandewar Community Conservation Area Act 2005
(BNCCA Act) had grown to 789 parks, a total of
6,713,577 hectares, representing approximately 8.38%
of NSW (Table 7.6).
Since 2006, the area protected under both these Acts
has increased by 236,558 ha (3.5% of the state’s area).
Significant additions to the reserve system during this
period include Yanga National Park (65,080 ha), Upper
Nepean State Conservation Area (25,237 ha) and the
Worimi reserves (1879 ha). This does not include the
major purchase of ‘Toorale’, a property of 90,000 ha
that, once gazetted, will form a major extension to
Gundabooka National Park in north-western NSW,
a critically under-represented ecosystem in the
reserve system.
Map 7.3 shows the location of reserves in the NSW
national parks estate and reserves managed by
Forests NSW, as well as the marine parks and
aquatic reserves.
Table 7.6 describes the main types of parks
represented within the terrestrial reserve system and
the additions during the latest period of reporting.
There have been significant additions to most types
of parks and these have largely focused on addressing
gaps and enhancing the representation of poorly
conserved ecosystems and natural values.
Progress towards a comprehensive, adequate
and representative reserve system
The NSW Government is committed to the
objectives of building a comprehensive, adequate
and representative (CAR) system of reserves and
has adopted national targets for the reservation
of ecosystems set out in Directions for the National
Reserve System (NRS) (NRMMC 2005). The targets
are based on bioregions defined in the Interim
Bioregionalisation of Australia (IBRA) (Thackway
& Cresswell 1995).
Comprehensiveness is the need to conserve
samples of each element of biodiversity in protected
areas. The coarse-level national target is for at least
80% of the number of extant regional ecosystems
to be included in the NRS in each IBRA bioregion by
2015 (NRMMC 2005).
Representativeness is an extension of
comprehensiveness whereby the full variability of
biodiversity is protected. The coarse-level national
target is that examples of at least 80% of extant
regional ecosystems should be included in the NRS in
each IBRA subbioregion by 2020 (NRMMC 2005).
Adequacy is the long-term capacity or resilience
of protected areas to sustain the biodiversity within
their boundaries. It is dependent on the design of
reserves (size, shape, configuration and location in
the landscape), adjacent land uses and management
regimes. There are, as yet, no specific targets for the
adequacy of the NRS.
7.3
7.3 Reserves and conservation
Biodiversity
250 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Table 7.6: Extent and types of terrestrial protected areas and changes since 2006
Type of
protected area Description
Number of areas
and size in ha*
Change since
January 2006*
NSW national parks estate
National parks Large areas encompassing a range of ecosystem types,
allowing for recreation that is compatible with the
natural features of the parks
185 (5,017,361) 12 new national parks
(increase of 106,895 ha)
Nature reserves Areas of unique interest for biodiversity, generally
smaller than national parks
396 (887,866) 6 new nature reserves
(increase of 27,968 ha)
Aboriginal areas Places of significance to Aboriginal people or sites
containing relics of Aboriginal culture
14 (11,717) 2 new areas
(increase of 13 ha)
Historic sites Areas of national importance, including buildings,
objects, monuments and landscapes
15 (3,066) No change**
State
conservation
areas
Areas it has been agreed are able to be managed for
conservation, provide opportunities for sustainable
visitor use and permit mining interests
110 (447,811) 15 new areas
(increase of 99,765 ha)
Regional parks Conserved areas in a natural or modified landscape
which provide opportunities for recreation
14 (7,289) 3 new parks
(increase of 1,760 ha)
Karst
conservation
reserves
Areas of limestone or dolomite characterised by
landforms, such as caves and their decorative features,
produced by solution, abrasion or collapse or by
underground drainage
4 (4,565) No new reserves, but
an increase of 156 ha
to existing reserves
Community
conservation
areas: Zone 1
As for national parks 27 (124,996) No increase
Community
conservation
areas: Zone 2
As for Aboriginal areas 5 (21,618) No increase
Community
conservation
areas: Zone 3
As for state conservation areas 19 (187,288) No increase
Total 789
(6,713,577)
8.38% of NSW
236,558 ha
Wilderness declarations
Wilderness areas Remote and undisturbed areas of sufficient size to
enable long-term preservation of their natural systems
and biological diversity, currently gazetted over existing
national parks and nature reserves
49 contiguous
areas
(2,057, 759)
2 new wilderness areas
and additions to 3
existing areas (increase
of 138,902 ha)
Wild rivers Waterways in near-pristine condition in terms of animal
and plant life and water flow, and free of unnatural
rates of siltation or bank erosion, currently gazetted
over existing national parks and nature reserves
7*** 2***
Reserved areas in state forests
State forest
dedicated
reserve
Dedicated reserve (Special protection): Managed to
maximise protection of very high natural and cultural
conservation values and not available for timber
harvesting (Zones FMZ1 and PMP1.3).
25,636 ha
(1.29% of total
native forest
estate)
Increase of 542 ha
5 additional flora
reserves set apart
(2,262.5 ha), with some
reserves transferred to
national parks
251
7.3
7.3 Reserves and conservation
Table 7.6: Extent and types of terrestrial protected areas and changes since 2006 (continued)
Type of
protected area Description
Number of areas
and size in ha*
Change since
January 2006*
Reserved areas in state forests (continued)
State forest
informal
reserve: Special
management
Informal reserve (Special management): Specific
management and protection of natural and cultural
conservation values where it is not possible or practical
to include them in Zone 1. Not available for timber
harvesting (Zones FMZ2 and PMP1.2).
169,658 ha
(8.52% of total
forest estate)
Reduction of 57,428 ha
Transfer of tenure
to national parks as
part of the Western
Regional Assessment
State forest
informal
reserve: Harvest
exclusion
Informal reserve (Harvest exclusion): Management for
conservation of identified values and/or ecosystems
and their natural processes. Areas where harvesting
is excluded but other management and production
activities not permitted in Zones 1 or 2 may be
appropriate, such as grazing or mineral exploration
(Zone FMZ3a).
283,340 ha
(14.23% of total
forest estate)
Decline of 35,907 ha
Transfer of tenure
to national parks as
part of the Western
Regional Assessment
Source: DECC and DPI data 2009
Notes: * As at 13 February 2009
** A 1-ha increase in the area of historic heritage has been recorded, probably due to improvement in mapping accuracy
*** Number of rivers and their associated tributaries
Map 7.3: National parks and forests reserves, marine parks and aquatic reserves in NSW
Biodiversity
252 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Map 7.4 shows the proportion of land in public
reserves in each of the 18 bioregions of NSW.
The National Land and Water Resources Audit
recommended 15% as an appropriate target for
the reserve system in each bioregion of Australia
(CoA 2002).
The bioregions of eastern NSW are generally well
reserved compared with bioregions in the central
and far west of the state which are generally
under-represented. Of the 18 bioregions in NSW,
11 still have less than 50% representation of their
regional ecosystems within the reserves system
(comprehensiveness). At a finer scale, 79 of the 129
subregions in NSW still have less than 50 of their
regional ecosystems represented within the NRS
(representativeness). Despite the reasonably high
levels of comprehensiveness and representativeness
of ecosystems in the eastern and alpine bioregions
(Table 7.7), the adequacy of the reserves in these
bioregions could still be improved (DECC 2008b).
The reservation goals adopted in the NSW National
Parks Establishment Plan 2008 are based on the
principle that existing and future opportunities for
building a full CAR system will vary greatly across
the state (DECC 2008b). It recognises that in regions
where little native vegetation remains the prospects
of establishing a formal public reserve system are
limited and long-term reservation goals are
adjusted accordingly.
In regions where over 70% of native vegetation
remains relatively intact, the objective of building a
full CAR system remains achievable. In areas with less
than 70% of native vegetation, realistic long-term
reservation goals are adjusted, depending on the
proportion of native vegetation remaining. However,
in areas where less than 30% of native vegetation
remains intact, a full CAR reserve system is no
longer achievable.
Map 7.4: Reservation of bioregions in NSW
253
7.3
7.3 Reserves and conservation
Table 7.7: Progress towards long-term reservation objectives
NSW section of
the bioregion
Area
(ha)
Area in
managed
reserves*
(ha)
Reserves
(% of
bioregion)
Remaining
native
vegetation
cover (% of
bioregion)
Progress
towards
comprehensive-
ness**
(%)
Progress
towards
representative-
ness***
(%)
Regions where over 70% of native vegetation remains relatively intact
Mulga Lands 6,583,051 233,778 3.6 100 63 41
Channel Country 2,337,430 218,662 9.4 100 46 31
Simpson-Strzelecki
Dunefields
1,069,056 118,921 11 100 44 44
Broken Hill
Complex
3,791,288 75,441 2.0 100 33 25
Australian Alps 460,146 376,367 82 96 100 100
Murray–Darling
Depression
7,922,590 441,901 5.6 93 51 44
South-east Corner 1,160,786 495,967 43 82 100 98
Riverina 7,018,240 123,154 1.8 72 55 27
Regions where 30–70% of native vegetation remains relatively intact
Cobar Peneplain 7,369,824 177,238 2.4 69 40 37
NSW North Coast 3,990,185 974,171 24 66 99 85
Sydney Basin 3,800,249 1,446,049 38 66 947 77
Darling Riverine
Plains
9,397,488 158,110 1.7 65 36 30
South-east
Queensland
1,658,869 225,047 14 53 100 71
South-eastern
Highlands
4,715,273 696,716 15 42 94 63
New England
Tableland
2,856,696 260,254 9.1 42 80 53
Brigalow Belt South 5,629,736 465,747 8.3 42 55 36
Nandewar 2,070,751 76,042 3.7 34 53 55
Regions where less than 30% of native vegetation remains relatively intact
South-western
Slopes
8,192,519 157,197 1.9 16 33 24
Source: Adapted from DECC 2008b
Notes: * Area in formal reserves managed by DECCW
** Comprehensiveness target, measured against NRS target: examples of at least 80% of the number of extant regional
ecosystems in each bioregion will be represented by 2015
*** Representativeness target, measured against NRS target: examples of at least 80% of the number of extant regional
ecosystems in each subbioregion will be represented by 2020
Biodiversity
254 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Private land conservation
More than 90% of the land in NSW is outside public
conservation reserves and many of the reserves in
the protected area network are relatively small and
isolated, rather than the large, continuous areas
needed to optimally maintain diversity. In order
to maintain healthy ecosystems across the whole
landscape, it is necessary to look beyond the borders
of the protected area network.
In regions which have been highly cleared, all
remaining native vegetation is of significant
conservation value so the role of conservation on
private lands is critical in helping to arrest the
decline in biodiversity.
Where native vegetation types are substantially
under-represented in the NSW reserve system, the
need for complementary conservation measures on
private land is also high. Some vegetation formations
are now found almost entirely on private land, with
only 1% of grasslands, 3% of grassy woodlands, 3%
of semi-arid woodlands and 4% of arid shrublands
represented in the public reserve system.
Private land conservation schemes
The NSW Government has developed a range of
measures to encourage and support conservation
on private land, including conservation agreements
and wildlife refuges. The variety of schemes available
provides flexibility for property owners wishing
to conserve biodiversity with differing levels of
government assistance available, depending on
the level of commitment preferred (Figure 7.5). In
response to these schemes the level of involvement
of private landholders in biodiversity conservation
has grown substantially over recent years.
Conservation partnerships
The NSW Conservation Partners Program
establishes and supports long-term partnerships
with landholders willing to protect and conserve
biodiversity and heritage values on private land.
Landholders can choose from a range of options
which recognise and formalise their commitment
to conservation on their properties. Government
support is available, matched to the level of
protection provided.
Conservation agreements are voluntary, legally
binding covenants that provide protection of
biodiversity and natural heritage values in perpetuity.
The area under the agreement is registered on
the land title, ensuring that if the land is sold the
agreement and management requirements remain
in place. Rates relief and tax concessions are available
to landholders for land subject to a conservation
agreement. There are currently 245 conservation
agreements covering an area of 23,319 ha.
Figure 7.5: Level of commitment required and level of support provided for different private land conservation programs
Level of protection for biodiversity
Le
ve
l o
f g
ov
ern
me
nt
sup
po
rt
an
d l
an
dh
old
er
com
mit
me
nt
Property Registration
(Land for Wildlife and Conserve Wildlife schemes)
Property visit Management advice Property signage
‘Bush Matters’ newsletter Technical information Local networking Field days
Wildlife Refuges
Brief plan of management
Long-term commitment
Conservation Agreements
Legal agreement with detailed plan of management
Permanent covenant
Rate exemption
$$$ for on-ground work
Source: Adapted from DEC 2005
255
Wildlife refuges are declared to enable landholders
to nominate all or part of a property where land will
be managed to retain wildlife and habitat values. A
property report and management plan are prepared
outlining actions needed to maintain natural values,
while ensuring that other compatible property
management objectives will still be achieved.
A wildlife refuge declaration is free and provides
landholders with the flexibility to change the status
of the refuge if required. There are 647 wildlife refuges
covering all or part of properties, with a total area
of 1,933,000 ha.
Property registration is an arrangement that is
better suited to landholders wishing to conserve
wildlife on private land who prefer not to sign a
formal agreement. Applicants can register all or
part of a property under the Land for Wildlife or
Conserve Wildlife schemes. These schemes provide
information and support to assist landholders in
managing wildlife and habitats, as well as networking
opportunities to share experiences with other
landholders with similar interests. There are 250
private landholders in property registration schemes.
Nature Conservation Trust agreements
The Nature Conservation Trust of NSW (NCT) is
an independent organisation promoting nature
conservation on private land. The NCT operates a
revolving fund scheme that buys properties with
high conservation value, registers in-perpetuity
trust agreements on the title, and then resells them
with the agreement on the title. Private landowners
entering into covenants may access a range of
benefits, including technical advice and assistance
with management costs. The NCT currently owns
and manages about 20,000 ha of land in NSW.
Privately owned conservation reserves
Substantial areas of native vegetation are owned and
managed by non-government organisations, such as
Bush Heritage Australia (BHA – formerly the Australian
Bush Heritage Fund) and the Australian Wildlife
Conservancy (AWC). At February 2008, Bush Heritage
owned and managed 2048 ha in five reserves of high
quality native vegetation, while Australian Wildlife
Conservancy owns and manages 65,000 ha in the
Scotia Sanctuary.
Management to enhance biodiversity on
private land
A property vegetation plan (PVP) is a voluntary but
legally binding agreement between a landholder
and the local catchment management authority
(CMA). While PVPs were introduced to approve
clearing where overall environmental outcomes
are maintained or improved, a range of PVPs are
now available covering various aspects of habitat
improvement, such as revegetation or restoration
of vegetation and better management of land
and habitat.
Conservation on other tenures
Forests NSW conservation zones
Forests NSW uses a land classification system that
sets out management intent across state forests and
identifies areas of forest set aside for conservation
and areas available for timber harvesting and other
activities (SFNSW 1999). Through this zoning system
about 479,000 ha of state forests (24% of the forests
estate) is excluded from harvesting for conservation
reasons. In addition, approximately the same amount
is excluded from harvesting for various silvicultural
reasons. These areas make a significant contribution
to the protected area network across NSW.
Travelling stock routes
Travelling stock routes (TSRs) are located on Crown
land. Approximately 700,000 ha of TSRs in the Eastern
and Central divisions of NSW are currently being
assessed for their natural values. They are largely
situated in environments that are poorly represented
in the formal conservation reserve system. Their
frequent association with agricultural activity places
them in environments that are poorly conserved and
heavily disturbed.
A large proportion of TSRs are in bioregions or
subregions (IBRA) which are less than 5% reserved
and, in some cases, TSRs provide the best, or only,
opportunity for conservation of threatened species
or communities. The linear network of TSRs forms
a fundamental system of landscape corridors,
particularly in the sheep–wheat belt and tablelands.
7.3
7.3 Reserves and conservation
Biodiversity
256 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Marine reserve system
Marine protected areas are coastal, estuarine
or ocean areas that are managed to conserve
marine biodiversity. They range from small, highly
protected areas that focus on species or community
protection to large multiple-use areas that include
complex linkages of ecosystems and habitats (NSW
Government 2001).
The establishment of a representative system of
marine protected areas is widely regarded, both
nationally and internationally, as one of the most
effective mechanisms for protecting biodiversity
(ANZECC TFMPA 1998).
The National Representative System of Marine
Protected Areas is being developed by the federal
and state governments throughout Australia’s marine
jurisdiction. The primary goal in NSW is to establish a
CAR system of marine protected areas that includes a
full range of marine biodiversity at ecosystem, habitat
and species levels (NSW Government 2001).
The NSW Government has adopted the system
of marine and coastal bioregions as the basis for
establishing and managing the NSW representative
system of marine protected areas (EA 1998;
CoA 2006). The integrated marine and coastal
bioregionalisation of Australia (IMCRA) describes a
series of bioregions for oceanic, nearshore marine
and coastal waters (EA 1998; CoA 2006). There are
six bioregions in NSW waters (Figure 7.6).
Marine protected areas in NSW complement a range
of pollution reduction, catchment management and
fisheries management programs that also contribute
to marine conservation.
Types of marine protected areas
There are three types of marine protected areas in
NSW: marine parks, aquatic reserves and the marine
components of national parks and nature reserves
(NSW Government 2001).
Marine parks are zoned to conserve marine
biodiversity, maintain ecological processes and
provide for a range of sustainable uses, such as
recreational and commercial fishing, diving, boating,
snorkelling, diving and tourism. There are four types
of zones: sanctuary, habitat protection, general use
and special purpose zones.
National parks and nature reserves include about
46% of the NSW coastline. Many national parks and
nature reserves contain significant and extensive
areas of marine ecosystems and habitats.
Aquatic reserves are declared primarily to conserve
the biodiversity of fish and marine vegetation, and
typically support a variety of fishing and collecting
activities.
Extent of marine protected areas
An integrated system of marine protected areas is
being developed in NSW, including marine parks,
aquatic reserves, national parks and nature reserves,
to achieve the optimum conservation of biodiversity
and habitat protection (NSW Government 2001).
The state’s marine parks are managed by the Marine
Parks Authority. Six marine parks have been declared
and zoned for multiple uses: Cape Byron, Solitary
Islands, Lord Howe Island, Port Stephens–Great Lakes,
Jervis Bay and Batemans marine parks. This system of
marine parks covers approximately 345,100 ha (~34%)
of NSW state waters (Map 7.3). No additional marine
parks have been declared since 2006 but the zoning
plans for Batemans and Port Stephens–Great Lakes
commenced operation in 2007.
Zoning plans provide various levels of biodiversity
protection in marine parks by regulating activities
according to zones, regulating specific activities to
manage environmental impacts, and protecting
particular species.
In summary:
Sanctuary zones account for 12–27.5% of each
marine park and provide the highest level of
protection by prohibiting all forms of fishing and
collecting. Activities that do not harm plants,
animals and habitats are permitted, including
boating and diving.
Habitat protection zones account for 19–73% of
each marine park and conserve marine biodiversity
by protecting habitats and reducing high impact
activities. Recreational fishing and some forms of
commercial fishing are permitted.
General use zones account for up to 53% of each
marine park. A wide range of activities is permitted,
including commercial and recreational fishing,
provided that they are ecologically sustainable.
Special purpose zones account for up to 0.2% of
each marine park and are used when there are
special management needs, including protection
of Aboriginal and other cultural features, or for
marine facilities.
257
Zoning plans regulate some specific activities: for
example, there are restrictions on anchoring and
the use of vehicles and personal watercraft in some
areas. They may also provide additional protection
for species of particular significance and only some
species can be taken from habitat protection zones
while some species are protected throughout entire
marine parks.
Management under other legislation, such as
fisheries management arrangements, or protection of
threatened species under the Fisheries Management
Act 1994 and Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995,
also applies.
Total area of NSW waters included in the various
zones of marine parks of each bioregion is shown
in Figure 7.6.
Twelve aquatic reserves cover around 2000 ha of NSW
waters. Ten of these are located in the Hawkesbury
Shelf bioregion around Sydney and there is one on
the north coast and one on the south coast.
Coastal areas are currently protected in 62 national
parks and nature reserves, covering more than 10%
of NSW estuary waters. These parks include ocean
coastlines, estuarine waters, shoreline and wetlands,
coastal lakes, intertidal ocean beaches and rocky
shores, and ocean islands. Some areas of national
parks and nature reserves overlap marine parks (such
as Myall Lakes) or aquatic reserves (for example,
Barrenjoey Head and Towra Point).
Coastal areas that are reserved in national parks and
nature reserves are located throughout all marine
and coastal bioregions along the coast of NSW, from
the Tweed estuary in northern NSW to Nadgee Lake
in southern NSW. They range from large parks with a
variety of oceanic and estuarine marine ecosystems,
habitats and species (such as Eurobodalla and Myall
Lakes national parks) to small parks with particular
marine and coastal features (Corrie Island, John
Gould, Montague Island and Tweed Estuary
nature reserves).
7.3
7.3 Reserves and conservation
Figure 7.6: Areas of marine park zones by bioregion in NSW waters
Sanctuary Habitat protection General use Special Total (all zones)
6%
9%27%7%6%
16%
23%73%14%19%
11%
15%16%15%
33%
47%
100%
37%40%
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
300,000
350,000
400,000
Tweed-Moreton Manning Shelf
Lord HoweProvince
HawkesburyShelf
Batemans Shelf
Twofold Shelf
Total(all regions)
Are
a (h
a)
Source: Marine Parks Authority data 2009
Notes: Due to rounding effects the summed totals for individual zones within a region may not equal the total
percentage for the region.
Special zones are small and are only found in the Tweed-Moreton (0.05%), Manning Shelf (0.1%) and
Batemans Shelf (0.2%) bioregions.
Biodiversity
258 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Pressures
Threats to values in terrestrial reserves
Weeds, pest animals and altered fire regimes are
identified as the three most common threats to
reserve values (Table 7.8). Although weeds are a
threat in more parks than either pest animals or fire,
the estimated area affected is less, possibly due to the
localised nature of many weed incursions.
Pest animals affect the greatest area of parks. Many
pest animal species are widespread and can travel
long distances, creating a greater potential for
damage over wide areas. Wildfires are sporadic
and vary greatly in impact as a result of intensity,
frequency, season and fire history. However, the
potential severity of the threat of fire is greater than
either pests or weeds, and affects a greater area of the
parks system at the highest level of threat described
in Table 7.8 (severe).
Climate change
Climate change is likely to exacerbate the impacts of
stresses on biodiversity caused by introduced species
and altered fire regimes. Changes in the make-up of
reserves due to losses and gains of both native and
exotic plant and animal species are an inevitable
consequence of climate change. The objectives
of future reserve management need to shift from
preventing ecological change to managing change
to minimise biodiversity loss (CSIRO 2008).
Threats to conservation on
private land
The pressures on private land conservation are
much the same as those in the formal reserve
system. In addition, the predominant land use will
generally be a form of production, which is rarely
completely compatible with purely conservation
objectives. Unusually harsh climatic conditions, such
as sustained drought, may periodically exacerbate the
incompatibilities and highlight the pressures arising
from competing land management needs on
private land.
Threats to marine protected areas
The key threats to the values of marine protected
areas are largely the same as the key threats to
marine biodiversity and the marine environment.
They include resource use, invasive species, pollution
from marine and land-based sources, and climate
change (MBDWG 2008).
Resource use
Resource use includes activities such as fishing,
aquaculture, mariculture, dredging and spoil
dumping, exploration and extraction of minerals,
oil and gas, shipping and tourism. These can affect
biodiversity both directly (such as by altering habitats)
and indirectly (for example, by changing food webs).
Marine protected areas are intended to conserve
marine biodiversity and maintain ecological processes
while providing for the sustainable use of resources.
Activities that are conducted within marine protected
areas are managed to ensure the sustainability of
the activities and that they do not threaten their
values. Some resource-use activities are restricted to
particular zones or may be prohibited throughout
marine protected areas.
Table 7.8: Extent and severity of most commonly reported threats to terrestrial park values
Type of
threat
Number of parks
identifying
this threat
(total parks: 759)
Estimated
proportion*
of parks affected
(%)
Estimated
extent of all threats
(any level of threat)**
(ha)
Estimated
extent of
severe threat**
(ha)
Area of park
system effectively
managing threat***
(%)
Weeds 580 17.9 1,177,367 110,955 90
Pests 470 35.9 2,356,613 163,674 95
Fire 343 26.6 1,747,297 174,130 94
Source: DECC State of the Parks data 2007
Notes: * Calculated by taking the median point from categorised area data (for example, localised (<5%), scattered (5–15%),
widespread (15–50%) and throughout a park (>50%))
** Level of threat includes mild, moderate, high and severe. Severe threat is defined as one that is likely to lead to a loss of
reserve values in the foreseeable future if the threat continues at current levels
*** Effective management is defined as meeting the precautionary principle, that is, that impacts on values are negligible,
diminishing, or not increasing
259
Climate change
Climate change is expected to affect marine life in
south-eastern Australian waters due to the combined
effects of changes to climate and oceanographic
factors, such as currents. The general effects of
climate change are expected to include changes in
the distribution and abundance of species (such as
distributions shifting to the south along the NSW
coast), changes in the timing of life cycle events (for
example, spawning migrations occurring earlier),
changes in physiology, morphology and behaviour
(such as rates of reproduction and development) and
impact on biological communities due to differential
effects on individual species (Hobday et al. 2007).
Establishing CAR systems of protected areas is an
integral part of the most effective response to the
threat of climate change (Hobday et al. 2007; Dunlop
& Brown 2008).
Responses
Terrestrial reserve system
The NSW Government is committed to
building on the reserve system in line with the
principles of comprehensiveness, adequacy and
representativeness. NSW already maintains a
substantial network of terrestrial conservation
reserves in which much of the state’s biodiversity is
represented and recent additions have substantially
enhanced the coverage of the reserve network.
National Parks Establishment Plan
Despite ongoing additions the reserve network is not
yet complete. The NSW National Parks Establishment
Plan 2008 identifies long-term objectives, and
establishes priorities for building the terrestrial reserve
system in each biogeographic region of NSW (DECC
2008b). It recognises that this will be part of a long-
term mission that may take up to 50 years to achieve.
The broad priorities described by the plan are:
establishment of new reserves in many parts
of far western and central western NSW, where
reservation currently protects less than 5% of
the landscape
building up existing reserves on the western slopes
and tablelands
fine-tuning of existing reserve boundaries along
the coast and coastal ranges, where nearly 30% of
the landscape is presently protected.
Plans of management
Under the National Parks and Wildlife Act 1974 a
plan of management must be prepared for each
terrestrial park and reserve. These plans lead to better
understanding of the natural and cultural features
that must be protected and how to best manage
them. As at June 2009, 270 plans were adopted
covering 380 parks and reserves. In total, more than
4.8 million hectares are now covered by a plan of
management, representing almost 73% of the
reserve system.
State of the Parks
Through the State of the Parks program, the
condition of parks is monitored and the management
of pressures on protected areas evaluated in order
to find better ways to manage these areas more
effectively. A State of the Parks survey was undertaken
in 2007, and the data compiled is being used to
support planning and management decisions on a
range of issues.
Healthy Parks Healthy People
Contact with nature and the availability of
recreational opportunities can reduce the stresses
of urban living and enhance community cohesion,
health and wellbeing. NSW has a strong history of
providing a range of recreational opportunities in its
parks and reserves that allow residents and visitors to
appreciate and learn about the state’s unique natural
environment and cultural heritage.
A target under Priority E8 of State Plan 2006: A new
direction for NSW (NSW Government 2006) which
relates to people’s use of parks, sporting and
recreational facilities and participation in the arts and
cultural activities, is: ‘Increase the number of visits
to State Government parks and reserves by 20% by
2016’. A review of State Plan 2006 commenced in
August 2009 and this may adjust some of the plan’s
priorities and targets.
Healthy Parks Healthy People is a program to improve
the accessibility of parks and reserves, foster an
appreciation of their benefits and optimise access to
recreational opportunities. New visitation plans are
being developed to achieve the State Plan target.
Currently, the parks system caters to over 38 million
visits each year.
7.3
7.3 Reserves and conservation
Biodiversity
260 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Taskforce on Tourism and National Parks
in NSW
The NSW Taskforce on Tourism and National Parks
was established to provide advice on opportunities
to enhance sustainable ecotourism in the public
reserve system, compatible with the objectives of
conservation (DECC 2008c).
Private land conservation
Outside the reserve system, the NSW Government
is working with landholders, CMAs and other
government agencies to establish a range of
conservation agreements over private and other
public lands which contain important natural
and cultural heritage values (DECC 2008b). Non-
government organisations such as NCT, BHA
and AWC are now making increasingly valuable
contributions to conservation.
Since 2004, the variety and flexibility of the
mechanisms available to support conservation on
private land has been significantly expanded and
refined. Such measures are increasingly targeted to
provide greater connectivity across whole landscapes
and complement the reserve system by protecting
natural values that are under-represented, as well
as providing buffers and corridors to enhance the
network of reserves.
Great Eastern Ranges Initiative
The Great Eastern Ranges Initiative is a program
designed to strengthen the resilience of natural
systems in adapting to future environmental threats,
such as climate change. To achieve this objective
the aims of the program are to maintain, improve
and reconnect ‘islands’ of natural vegetation
along the great eastern ranges which extend for
2800 kilometres from the Australian Alps north of
Melbourne to the Atherton Tablelands north-west of
Cairns. Communities, agencies and governments in
NSW, Victoria, Queensland and the Australian Capital
Territory are all involved in this project. The NSW
Government is providing more than $7 million over
three years to implement the initiative in the state.
Conservation covenants: perpetual lease
conversion program
The conversion of Crown leases to freehold under the
Crown Lands (Continued Tenures) Act 1989 presents
a unique opportunity to conserve biodiversity by
placing covenants on property titles during the
conversion process. Approximately 650,000 ha of
freehold land title will be covenanted to provide
additional levels of protection of existing biodiversity
values. As at 3 August 2009, about 137,000 ha had
been conserved in this way. The NSW Government
has provided $13 million over four years under the
City and Country Environment Restoration Program
to purchase a select number of leases with high
conservation value for inclusion in the public
reserve system.
Marine protected areas
The NSW Government is committed to building a
network of marine protected areas that protects a
cross-section of marine biodiversity in NSW in line
with CAR principles.
Zoning plans are used as the framework to deliver
effective multiple use management of marine parks.
Since the last SoE report, the commencement of
zoning plans for the Batemans and Port Stephens–
Great Lakes marine parks has substantially enhanced
the management of the system of marine protected
areas. The current focus of improvement is to
refine the day-to-day management of the existing
marine parks.
Under the provisions of the Marine Parks Act 1997,
zoning plans must be reviewed after their first five
years of operation and every 10 years thereafter.
Reviews are now being conducted for the first two
parks established, Jervis Bay and Solitary Islands.
Future directionsThe ongoing commitment to building a
representative terrestrial reserve system in NSW
and establishing a representative system of marine
protected areas should be maintained.
The building of a fully representative terrestrial
reserve system that meets CAR objectives is a long-
term goal that may take several decades to achieve.
The NSW National Parks Establishment Plan 2008
(DECC 2008b) recognises this and provides directions
for development over the next 10 years.
The main priorities for further development of the
terrestrial reserve system are under-represented
ecosystems and habitats, rivers and wetlands in
western NSW, critical landscape corridors, lands
within important water catchments and culturally
significant places.
Conservation on private and other public land will
play an increasingly important role in supplementing
261
the public reserve system by expanding the range
and extent of the natural values that are protected.
Measures that encourage further conservation on
private land should be supported and new initiatives
that facilitate conservation should continue to be
explored and refined.
A range of mechanisms that provide habitat
protection and improve the state of native
vegetation have been developed, including PVPs
and BioBanking. Land management practices that
maintain or enhance habitat values on private land
and improve connectivity across landscapes should
be encouraged and actively promoted.
The growing influence of climate change will require
greater flexibility and an adjustment to the objectives
of park management in future, from managing to
prevent ecological change at present to managing
adaptive change in ecosystems to minimise the loss
of biodiversity and natural values.
A comprehensive and well-structured network of
reserves, supplemented by strategically located and
focused conservation measures on private land, will
provide the most effective protection to mitigate
against the effects of climate change.
Efforts to promote greater use and increased public
awareness and appreciation of parks, reserves
and protected areas will play an important role in
maintaining support for reservation.
Improved coordination and integration of
management of the coastal reserves in the terrestrial
reserve system and marine protected areas is
desirable to optimise outcomes across all marine and
coastal ecosystems.
Zoning plans provide for multiple use management
of all marine parks and enable a range of sustainable
uses to occur in conjunction with the objectives
of biodiversity conservation. The management of
the marine protected area system is undergoing
continuous improvement, and it is anticipated that
zoning plan reviews will commence for Lord Howe
Island Marine Park late in 2009 and Cape Byron
Marine Park in 2011.
7.3
7.3 Reserves and conservation
Biodiversity
262 NSW State of the Environment 2009
7.4 Invasive species
Invasive species remain one of the greatest threats to biodiversity
in New South Wales and one of the most intractable. Over half of
all listed key threatening processes relate to invasive species, and
pests and weeds have been identified as a threat to over 70% of all
threatened species.
The main vertebrate pests found in NSW are now widespread across the state. Predation by foxes and cats is implicated in the decline or extinction of numerous small- to medium-sized animals. Introduced herbivores, particularly rabbits and feral goats, have an impact on native species and ecosystems through overgrazing of native vegetation, land degradation and competition with native herbivores.
To date around 1650 exotic plant species have become established in NSW and more than 300 of these have been described as significant environmental weeds.
New invasive species, particularly weeds, continue to arrive and become established. Combining prevention, early detection and rapid eradication is the most cost-effective way to minimise the impacts of these new arrivals.
Complete eradication is seldom feasible once an invasive species becomes widely established, so control must then focus on protecting assets where the environmental benefits of control will be greatest.
There is no effective basis to estimate the full impact of invasive species upon the environment.
NSW indicators
Indicator and status Trend Information availability
New invasive species Unknown ✓✓
Emerging invasive species Unknown ✓
Widespread invasive species Unknown ✓
Notes: Terms and symbols used above are defined in About SoE 2009 at the front of the report.
263
IntroductionHistorically, introduced species have contributed
significantly to the decline and extinction of native
species in NSW, with foxes and cats, in particular,
implicated in the extinction of numerous small- to
medium-sized ground-dwelling mammals (NPWS
2001). It is also well-established that human
disturbance has greatly accelerated the invasion rate
of introduced species (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006;
Coutts-Smith et al. 2007).
Statewide monitoring programs have recently been
established, so for the first time it is possible to report
on the distribution and abundance of new and
emerging pests and weeds, and widespread pest
species. Many invasive species are broadly established
across NSW and most areas now contain a range of
weed and pest animal species.
Little is known about the magnitude of the collective
impacts of invasive species, either on biodiversity or
the whole environment. Some recent advances have
been made in our understanding of the impacts of
invasive species, specifically on threatened species
(Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006; DEC 2006a; Coutts-
Smith et al. 2007; NLMG 2009). It is clear, however,
that the scale of the task of controlling the impacts
of widespread invasive species vastly exceeds the
resources available, and that complete eradication of
established species is rarely achievable.
Status and trends
Extent of the issue
Invasive species place a substantial burden on the
Australian economy. Invasive weeds have been
estimated to cost about $4 billion per year in lost
production, control costs and other impacts (McLeod
2004), while the cost of pest animals to the Australian
economy is over $1 billion annually (DPI 2008a). Pest
animal control alone exceeds $60 million annually
in Australia (NLWRA 2008). In NSW weeds account
for $600 million per annum in lost production and
control costs.
Large numbers of invasive species are widely
established and most areas of the state contain
a range of weeds and pest animals. Around 3000
introduced weed species have established self-
sustaining populations in Australia. Over 1650 of
these have naturalised in NSW, and more than 300
have been recognised as significant environmental
weeds (Downey et al. 2009, unpublished data).
More than 650 species of land-based animals have
also been introduced to Australia since 1788 and, of
these, 73 have established wild populations (NLWRA
2008). However, not all of these species are regarded
as a threat to biodiversity. Aquatic pest species
make up around a quarter of all freshwater fish
species in NSW rivers and over 200 species of marine
organisms have been introduced into Australian
waters (DPI 2008a). It is not presently known how
many invertebrate species have been introduced into
Australia (Coutts-Smith et al. 2007).
7.4
7.4 Invasive species
Table 7.9: Main introduced animal species with an impact on listed threatened species
Carnivores Herbivores Fish Other
Feral cats Feral goats Gambusia Honey bees
Red foxes Feral rabbits European carp Grass skinks*
Feral pigs Feral pigs Redfin perch Feral pigeons
Wild dogs Feral deer Goldfish Buff banded rail*
Black rats Wild horses Tench** Introduced worms
Brown rats Weatherloach Black ants*
House mice Rainbow trout
Cane toads Brown trout
Masked owls*** Banded grunter****
Blackbirds
Song thrushes
Source: Coutts-Smith et al. 2007
Notes: Introduced species are species found outside their normal range and include both exotic species and translocated natives.
* Mainland NSW species that have translocated to Lord Howe Island where they are a threat to endemic native species
** While tench was identified as a threat to a number of threatened species at the time of their listing, it has not been
recorded in NSW for over a decade.
*** Native species that is itself listed as threatened on the mainland but has been translocated to Lord Howe Island where it
has a become a threat to endemic species
**** Native species translocated to other rivers in NSW
Biodiversity
264 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Distribution of pest animals in NSW
For management purposes invasive species are
described as widespread, emerging or new, and
each of these categories is managed differently.
A widespread species is any invasive species that
is firmly established within a region. An emerging
species is any invasive species that has newly
established and is expanding its range. A new species
is any invasive species that has not been recorded
previously in NSW, but has the potential to invade.
Thirty pest animal species have been identified
as posing a threat to at least one endangered or
vulnerable species in NSW (Coutts-Smith et al. 2007).
Foxes, feral cats and wild dogs are the carnivores with
the greatest impact on biodiversity. The herbivores of
greatest concern are rabbits, feral goats and feral pigs,
while in aquatic environments European carp and
gambusia are the most significant pests (Table 7.9)
Widespread species
The distribution and abundance of seven widespread
pest animals – foxes, feral cats, feral goats, rabbits,
feral pigs, wild dogs and carp – have been surveyed
and Map 7.5 presents the overall results. The map
shows that these pest animals are broadly and
relatively evenly distributed across the whole state
and that no part of NSW is unaffected by the main
pest animal species. The heaviest concentrations of
pest animal species are in some parts of the north-
west of the state.
Map 7.5: Distribution and abundance across NSW of widespread pest animals with a high impact
Notes: The distribution and abundance index scores were determined by combining the frequency and abundance of each
species recorded in each grid cell.
265
New and emerging species
The distribution and abundance of five new and
emerging pest animals of concern – camels, horses,
donkeys, deer and cane toads – have been surveyed
and Map 7.6 presents the overall results. These
animals are scattered across the state with the
greatest numbers along the coastal slopes and plains.
Deer have the widest distribution of the species
surveyed and are thought to be expanding into
forested areas that have remained relatively free
of pest animals.
Distribution of environmental weeds
in NSW
Invasive weeds may be exotic or translocated
native species, but those that have the greatest
environmental impact are predominantly introduced
species. Weeds threaten biodiversity both directly
through competition and indirectly through their
impacts on ecosystem structure and function.
Under the Australian Weeds Strategy, 20 introduced
plants are identified as Weeds of National Significance
because of their invasiveness, potential for spread,
and economic and environmental impacts. A number
of these are widespread and include alligator weed,
bitou bush, blackberry, bridal creeper, Chilean
needle grass, lantana, salvinia, serrated tussock and
some species of willow. A number have restricted
distribution, for example Athel pine, boneseed,
7.4
7.4 Invasive species
Map 7.6: Distribution and abundance across NSW of new and emerging pest animal species
Notes: The distribution and abundance index scores were determined by combining the frequency and abundance of each
species recorded in each grid cell.
Biodiversity
266 NSW State of the Environment 2009
cabomba, hymenachne, mesquite and parkinsonia,
while occasional parthenium weed incursions from
Queensland have been eradicated.
A recent analysis of 1650 weed species in NSW found
that more than 300 are likely to have significant
impacts on biodiversity (Downey et al. 2009,
unpublished data). Table 7.10 contains a list of the 20
most commonly identified environmental weeds in
NSW, identified in terms of the number of threatened
species that are impacted by them.
A number of weeds have also been identified as
collective threats based on functional groupings:
these include exotic grasses, vines and scramblers,
legumes and aquatic weeds. While they do not figure
strongly in the listings of individual weeds, the first
two have a significant effect collectively (see Figure
7.7). The significance of aquatic weeds may have
been underestimated in this analysis (Coutts-Smith
& Downey 2006).
Table 7.10: Most commonly identified weed species posing a threat to biodiversity in NSW
Common name Scientific name Common name Scientific name
Lantana Lantana camara Paspalum Paspalum dilatatum
Bitou bush and boneseed Chrysanthemoides
monilifera
Wandering jew Tradescantia fluminensis
Blackberry Rubus fruticosus agg. Maderia vine Anredera cordifolia
Kikuyu Pennisetum clandestinum Coolatai grass Hyparrhenia hirta
Scotch broom Cytisus scoparius Prickly pear Opuntia spp.
Crofton weed Ageratina adenophora Moth vine Araujia sericiflora
Camphor laurel Cinnamomum camphora Groundsel bush Baccharis halimifolia
Small-leaved privet Ligustrum sinense Japanese honeysuckle Lonicera japonica
Mistflower Ageratina riparia African boxthorn Lycium ferocissimum
African lovegrass Eragrostis curvula African olive; common olive Olea europaea
Source: Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006; DECCW data 2009
Table 7.11: Number of weeds in each catchment management authority region in NSW
CMA region
Number of weed
species present Total flora
Contribution of
weeds to total
flora (%)
Number of weeds
that impact
threatened
species
Sydney Metropolitan 758 2,356 32 101
Hawkesbury–Nepean 733 3,012 24 98
Northern Rivers 627 3,282 19 100
Hunter/Central Rivers 580 2,893 20 96
Southern Rivers 577 2,907 20 98
Murrumbidgee 531 2,159 25 67
Central West 502 2,197 23 59
Namoi 475 1,917 25 72
Lachlan 447 1,781 25 54
Murray 439 1,641 27 55
Border Rivers–Gwydir 427 2,029 21 63
Western 242 1,463 17 29
Lower Murray–Darling 187 896 21 25
NSW total 1,386 6,634 21 127
Source: Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006
267
Widespread species
There are so many widespread weeds in NSW
that it is not practical to map their distribution
and abundance. A coarse pattern of distribution is
available by looking at the number of weeds and
the number of threats aggregated by catchment
management authority (CMA) region (Table 7.11).
The Sydney region has the highest number of weeds
(758) and the highest number of threatening species
(101), while the lowest number of weeds (187) and
threatening species (25) is in the Lower Murray–
Darling region. Numbers are highest near the coast
and in high rainfall areas, and decline from east to
west (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006).
Despite some variation, no part of the state is
unaffected by weeds that threaten biodiversity.
Weeds now make up more than 20% of the flora
of all regions of NSW.
New and emerging species
Map 7.7 shows the spatial distribution of new and
emerging invasive weed species.
The weed abundance index used in Map 7.7 is based
on the species listed as noxious weeds (classes 1,
2, 3 and 5), either within a local government area
(LGA) or across the whole of NSW. The system of
listing weeds as noxious is a mechanism intended
specifically to prevent their spread (see Responses) so
these listings correspond well with the categories of
new and expanding weeds. Broadly, there are greater
concentrations of these weeds in eastern coastal
regions, around major urban centres and in higher
rainfall areas. Most new weed incursions are garden
escapes (Groves & Hosking 1998).
7.4
7.4 Invasive species
Map 7.7: Distribution of new and emerging weeds in NSW
Notes: The distribution and abundance index scores were determined by combining the frequency and abundance of each
species recorded in each grid cell.
Biodiversity
268 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Distribution of aquatic pests
The NSW Government is collecting baseline data
on new, emerging and widespread introduced
freshwater fish species from 470 sampling sites.
This will deliver improved information for the next
SoE report. So far, 411 sites have been sampled,
with 40% of all fish recorded at these sites
introduced fish species. Table 7.12 provides some
detail about the abundance of individual introduced
fish species recorded.
Table 7.12: Introduced fish at sampling sites
Fish species (non-native)
% of sites
where present
Common carp 56.5
Mosquitofish 47.9
Goldfish 33.7
Rainbow trout 10.8
Redfin perch 9.4
Brown trout 8.3
Eel tailed catfish
(translocated native species)
3.3
Oriental weatherloach 1.5
Climbing galaxias
(translocated native species)
0.3
Platy 0.2
Source: DPI data 2008
Since 2006, the platy (Xipophorus maculates), a
fish species native to Mexico, was the only newly
introduced fish species recorded in NSW rivers.
More than 200 exotic species have been introduced
into Australia’s marine environment. Of those found
in NSW, very few are listed on the schedule of marine
pests to be targeted in Australia. Most of these
have limited distributions and are not considered a
serious threat to biodiversity in NSW. These include
several species of toxic dinoflagellates and several
species of invertebrates. The European shore crab has
been recorded in 12 estuaries or coastal lakes, from
Batemans Bay south to the Wonboyn River, while the
European fanworm and New Zealand screw shell are
both restricted to Twofold Bay (DPI 2008b).
The aquarium weed caulerpa (Caulerpa taxifolia) is the
most significant threat to the marine environment
as it spreads easily from small fragments and can
quickly colonise seagrass beds. An invasive strain of
caulerpa was first recorded in NSW coastal waters in
April 2000. It has since spread to 14 estuaries, with
new infestations in Batemans Bay, Durras Lake, the
Hawkesbury River and Lake Wallangoot since SoE
2006 (DEC 2006b), while its elimination from Lake
Macquarie has recently been confirmed.
Environmental impacts of
invasive species
Impacts on threatened species
Collectively, weeds and pest animals have been
identified as a threat to approximately 70% of the
threatened species listed under the Threatened
Species Conservation Act 1995 (TSC Act) and the
Fisheries Management Act 1994 (FM Act). Invasion by
exotic species has an impact on the second highest
number of threatened species (after land clearing)
(Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006). The level of impact
of selected key pest and weed threats to threatened
species is illustrated in Figure 7.7.
Individually, widespread pest animals, such as feral
cats and foxes, have a greater impact than individual
weed species. However, collectively, the number of
weeds is much greater and their combined impact
is broader than the impact of pest animals. Weeds
have a negative impact on 45% of threatened
species, populations and ecological communities
in NSW, while pest animals directly threaten 40% of
them (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006; Coutts-Smith
et al. 2007).
Listings of invasive species as key
threatening processes
The magnitude of the impacts of pest and weed
species is reflected in the listing of a relatively large
number of invasive species as key threatening
processes (KTPs) under both state and federal
legislation. Eighteen of the 33 listed KTPs in NSW deal
with the impacts of weed and pest animal species.
Pest animals listed as KTPs include rabbits, foxes,
feral cats, ship rats, feral pigs, feral goats, deer, cane
toads, gambusia and four invertebrates (feral honey
bees, fire ants, yellow crazy ants and large earth
bumblebees). Weed species listed as KTPs include
lantana, bitou bush and Scotch broom, while vines
and scramblers are listed collectively, as are exotic
perennial grasses.
269
Broader environmental impacts
The total impact of introduced species on biodiversity
or the environment as a whole is difficult to quantify.
Most of the information available on the impacts of
invasive species on biodiversity concerns impacts
specifically on threatened species, not on all flora
and fauna (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006). Even this
is descriptive only of the extent of impacts and is not
in any way indicative of their magnitude.
The broader impacts of invasive species upon the
environment and ecosystem health are substantial,
but remain largely unquantified. These impacts
include soil degradation, landscape and habitat
disturbance, decline in vegetation condition, and
changes to watercourses and water quality.
PressuresInvasive species, which are the subject of this issue,
are themselves a pressure on the environment.
Therefore the discussion that follows relates
specifically to risk factors that exacerbate the impacts
of invasive species.
Habitat disturbance
Disturbed and nutrient-enriched ecosystems are at
greatest risk of incursion by invasive species. This
applies to both physical disturbances and imbalances
in the natural biota (Lake & Leishman 2004). Invasive
species are generally unaffected by the constraints
that operate in intact natural systems and are able to
rapidly exploit disturbed areas, where natural systems
are under stress.
Greater mobility and trade
Greater mobility and the globalisation of international
trade have significantly increased the movement
of people and goods across Australia’s borders in
recent years. This increases the risk of accidental
introductions, particularly of diseases and insect
and other invertebrate pests. The ballast water
and hull fouling of cargo ships are well-known
pathways for the incursion of many pests into the
marine environment.
The nursery trade is responsible for introducing many
new plant species into Australia and many have
escaped from gardens to become weeds. Sixty-five
per cent of the weed species in NSW that pose a risk
to threatened species were introduced as ornamental
plants (Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006) and some are
still available for sale in NSW. The aquarium industry
is responsible for introducing a number of fish and
7.4
7.4 Invasive species
Figure 7.7: Numbers of NSW species, populations and ecological communities threatened by selected terrestrial invasive species
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
Feral cats
Foxes Lantana Feral goats
Rabbits Exotic perennial
grasses
Feral pigs
Bitou bush and
boneseed
Exotic vines and
scramblers
Cane toads
Terrestrial invasive species
Num
ber o
f lis
ted
entit
ies
impa
cted
Source: Modified form Coutts-Smith & Downey 2006
Notes: The threatened species, populations and ecological communities are those listed under the TSC Act.
The invasive species selected are generally those listed as key threatening processes.
Data was compiled by aggregating the threats affecting each threatened species, identified at the time of listing, across all
threatened species.
Biodiversity
270 NSW State of the Environment 2009
aquatic plant species that have been released into
the wild and flourished. Illegal international trade in
a variety of exotic species is a further pathway for
unplanned introductions.
Changes in distribution
Many invasive species are yet to reach their
distribution limits. For example, weed species such as
orange hawkweed, boneseed, olives, cabomba and
some exotic vines occupy only a small part of their
potential range. Even widespread species, such as
lantana, bitou bush, blackberry and Coolatai grass,
have the potential to spread further. Pest animal
species such as cane toads are continuing to spread
southwards and westwards from the far north coast,
while a national program is under way to eradicate
red fire ants before they spread into NSW.
Climate change
Limited data is available on the potential impacts of
climate change on invasive species in the future (DPI
2008a). It is likely that the impact of invasive species
will increase as a result of climate change. Invasive
species are generally well adapted as colonisers of
disturbed ecosystems and will probably cope better
with changes in environmental conditions, such as
increased temperatures and changes in rainfall and
fire regimes that are likely to result from climate
change. Species movements and contractions
of both native and exotic species due to climate
change are likely to differentially favour invasive
species. The Weeds and Climate Change program is
a collaborative research program to understand the
interaction between climate change and invasive
species, with preliminary results of this research now
becoming available.
Lack of information
Information on the distribution and abundance of
invasive species is patchy and largely subjective in
nature. A framework has been established through
the New South Wales Invasive Species Plan 2008–2015
(DPI 2008a) and the Natural Resource Management
Monitoring, Evaluation and Reporting (MER) Strategy.
In many cases there is a lack of standardised
procedures and databases to collect and maintain
consistent information at the statewide level.
Other than the impacts on threatened species,
there is no basis to record or estimate the impacts
of invasive species on the environment. This lack
of information limits the ability to identify priorities
and manage the impacts of invasive species on
biodiversity and reduce the threats they pose to
the environment as a whole. The lack of information
about the impacts of invasive species upon systems
and processes at the landscape level is a significant
risk in effectively managing adaptation to
climate change.
ResponsesTarget 4 under Priority E4 of State Plan 2006: A new
direction for NSW (NSW Government 2006) is: ‘By 2015
there is a reduction in the impact of invasive species’.
The MER Strategy is being implemented to monitor
progress towards all E4 targets. A review of State Plan
2006 commenced in August 2009 and this may adjust
some of the plan’s priorities and targets.
Legislation
A variety of laws, policies and programs are
administered by a range of government agencies to
manage invasive species in NSW. The most important
legislation relating to invasive species management
are the Noxious Weeds Act 1993, Rural Lands Protection
Act 1998, Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995
(TSC Act), Fisheries Management Act 1994 (FM Act),
Game and Feral Animal Control Act 2002 and the
Commonwealth Quarantine Act 1908.
Invasive Species Plan
The response of the NSW Government to invasive
species impacts is set out in the NSW Invasive Species
Plan 2008–2015 (DPI 2008a). The plan describes a
range of strategies to control or reduce the impacts
of invasive species that are most effective at different
stages in the cycle of incursion and establishment of
an invasive species (Figure 7.8).
The four main strategies identified are:
prevention, precautionary measures with the
objective of preventing the arrival of any new
species that are likely to become invasive and have
a significant impact
eradication, the detection and permanent removal
of any newly arrived invasive species that is likely to
have a significant impact before it can establish a
self-sustaining population
containment, restricting the spread of recently
established or emerging invasive species for
which there is no longer any realistic prospect
of eradication
protection, targeting control at the most severe
impacts of widespread invasive species to areas of
high conservation value (asset protection).
271
Management of invasive species
Management of new invasive species:
prevention and eradication
Prevention of initial incursions and the early detection
and rapid eradication of new incursions are the most
cost-effective ways of managing invasive species,
as eradication is seldom feasible once an invasive
species has become established. This is the primary
focus of the Australian Biosecurity System for Primary
Production and the Environment (AusBIOSEC).
The system is being enhanced through a whole-
of-government project, which was established in
October 2005. The aim is to bring together, under
an overarching national framework, biosecurity
activities being undertaken by federal, state and
territory governments, industry, landholders and
other key stakeholders in primary production and
the environment.
The NSW New Weed Incursion Plan 2009–2015 (DPI
2009b) has recently been developed to address
the first two objectives of the NSW Invasive Species
Plan 2008–2015 (DPI 2008a) as it relates to weeds.
This plan will help coordinate the surveillance
and identification of weeds and weed pathways,
risk assessment of species and implementation of
effective barriers to prevent their establishment.
The plan will also outline how responses to weed
incursions will be coordinated, implemented,
monitored and reported.
There are few management programs targeting
invertebrates, apart from those which deal with
regular outbreaks of plague locusts. However, one
of the most successful programs has been the
apparent eradication of an incursion of yellow crazy
ants detected in 2004 at Goodwood Island, near the
mouth of the Clarence River. Following a collaborative
campaign of regular treatment and surveillance of the
infested area during 2004 and 2005, no yellow crazy
ants have been observed on the island since 2005.
Management of emerging invasive species:
containment
Containment is the main focus of strategies for
managing emerging invasive species. Once an
invasive species becomes established and starts to
expand in range, the main objective shifts to limiting
its spread. Containment zones have been established
for several Weeds of National Significance including
bitou bush (on the south coast and far north coast)
and lantana (south coast). The objective of weed
management in these zones is complete eradication
of the weed species.
Noxious weeds are listed in the schedules of
the Noxious Weeds Act 1993. Weeds that are
declared noxious have the potential to cause
significant environmental or economic impacts,
can be controlled by reasonable means and, most
importantly, still have the potential to spread
within an area, or to other areas. Most listings apply
regionally to LGAs, although some species are listed
for the whole state.
7.4
7.4 Invasive species
Figure 7.8: Strategy for managing new, emerging and widespread weeds in NSW
Weed management
Asset protection
Containment
Eradication
Prevention
Invasion point Time
Area invaded
Source: DPI 2009a
Biodiversity
272 NSW State of the Environment 2009
When a weed becomes so widespread that
eradication or containment is no longer feasible,
its declaration as a noxious weed may be repealed,
as it no longer meets the criteria for listing. Some
widespread weeds are not listed in areas where they
are abundant, but may be listed in neighbouring
areas where their distribution is limited, though there
is the potential for further spread.
Table 7.13 describes the five classes of noxious weeds
listed in NSW, either statewide or regionally, and
the number of species currently listed in each class,
anywhere in the state.
Management of widespread invasive species:
asset protection
While prevention and eradication of new threats
and the containment of emerging threats are more
cost-effective control strategies, many invasive
species are already widely established in NSW and
are responsible for the majority of environmental
impacts. No matter what resources are deployed, it
is virtually impossible to eradicate, or achieve long-
term and lasting landscape-level control, of any
invasive species that has become widespread. The
rare exception is where a suitable biological control
has been identified (as for prickly pear, water hyacinth
and, to a lesser extent, rabbits).
Table 7.13: Numbers and types of noxious weeds listed in NSW
Control class Definition Objectives of management Number listed*
Class 1: State
Prohibited Weeds
Plants that pose a potentially
serious threat to primary
production or the environment
and are not present in the state
or are present only to a limited
extent
Prevent introduction and
establishment
27
Class 2: Regionally
Prohibited Weeds
Plants that pose a potentially
serious threat to primary
production or the environment
of a region to which the order
applies and are not present in the
region or are present only to a
limited extent
Prevent introduction and
establishment
11
Class 3: Regionally
Controlled Weeds
Plants that pose a serious threat
to primary production or the
environment of an area to which
the order applies, are not widely
distributed in the area and are
likely to spread in the area or to
another area
Reduce extent and impact 43
Class 4: Locally
Controlled Weeds
Plants that pose a threat
to primary production, the
environment or human health, are
widely distributed in an area to
which the order applies and are
likely to spread in the area or to
another area
Minimise negative impact
on community, economy
or environment
96
Class 5: Restricted
Plants
Plants that are likely, by their
sale or the sale of their seeds or
movement within the state or an
area of the state, to spread in the
state or outside the state
Prevent introduction into
NSW, spread within NSW
or from NSW to another
jurisdiction
36
Source: DPI data 2008
Notes: Apart from Class 1 which is statewide only, weeds are counted in a class if they are listed in that class anywhere in the state,
either regionally or statewide. Some species will appear in more than one class as they may be listed under different classes
in different regions.
* The numbers given reflect the minimum value as sometimes an entire genus is listed which contains a number of
unspecified species
273
The control of widespread species must therefore
be strategically targeted to reduce their impact on
priority assets (native species, populations, regional
ecosystems and ecological communities). This
requires the prioritisation of both the entities most at
risk and the most effective sites for control, to identify
where the benefits are expected to be greatest based
on the likelihood of recovery of biodiversity.
Threat abatement plans (TAPs) for invasive species
are based on the principles described above and
are covered in greater detail in Biodiversity 7.2. TAPs
have been implemented for foxes, gambusia and
bitou bush, and are being developed for lantana
and feral goats. An important component of all
TAPs for invasive species is monitoring programs to
measure the response of priority threatened species
in order to demonstrate the effectiveness of controls.
Results from the fox TAP have demonstrated positive
outcomes for some species, such as the improved
breeding success of little terns.
However, with more than 300 weed species
considered to have an impact on biodiversity, it is
not practical to develop single-species TAPs for each
species. Therefore, an asset-protection approach is
now being developed to apply to all widespread
weeds at a regional scale.
Management of aquatic pests
The FM Act lists species that are restricted for import
(live) into NSW without a permit. The species listed
have been identified as posing a significant threat to
wildlife, ecosystems, human health or the aquaculture
industry. The list is divided into two classes: noxious
fish that pose such a significant threat to the
environment or production that destruction orders
are in place (eight species and one genus), and other
noxious species that may only be imported into
NSW with a permit (19 species, 14 genera and nine
families). Noxious species are not permitted to be
kept privately and must be destroyed.
Future directionsWith the growth in global travel and trade, it is
inevitable that new and potentially invasive species
will continue to be introduced into NSW, either
deliberately or accidentally. A key challenge is to
prevent new incursions or contain and eradicate
emerging species quickly to avoid further additions to
the current array of widespread invasive species.
Measures to more effectively identify species that are
potentially invasive and prevent their introduction by
the agricultural, horticultural and aquarium industries
and the wider community, reinforced by a greater
awareness of environmental impacts among these
sectors, would assist in reducing future incursions.
The prevention and eradication of new threats
must be complemented by an increasing focus
on managing widespread invasive species to
protect assets (native species, populations, regional
ecosystems and ecological communities) at locations
where the benefits of control will be greatest. The
TAPs for foxes and bitou bush are good models of
how this prioritisation process is working.
To demonstrate the effectiveness of control
programs, it is important to monitor the response
of both the invasive species and the native species
affected by them, to confirm that invasive species are
a limiting factor in the success of conservation and
recovery programs.
In order to provide broadscale control of widespread
invasive species that is both effective and affordable,
further research is essential, particularly on biological
controls.
Measures that afford some control over the
introduction of marine species from overseas via
ballast water are now in place, but hull fouling is less
well controlled.
Climate change will produce shifts in the distribution
of both introduced and native species. A better
understanding of the interactions between climate
change, natural systems and invasive species will
assist in managing the adaptation of biodiversity
to changes in climate. Future priorities for invasive
species management will need to be sufficiently
flexible to mitigate the effects that climate change
may have on invasive species incursions, spread
and impacts.
Better information on the distribution and spread of
invasive species, and better systems for collecting
and maintaining data that is available statewide in a
consistent and standardised way would significantly
improve knowledge and management of invasive
species. This will assist all facets of management
including improving detection, identifying priorities,
directing controls, monitoring effectiveness and
reporting outcomes, as well as promoting better
understanding of the issues.
7.4
7.4 Invasive species
Biodiversity
274 NSW State of the Environment 2009
7.5 Fire
Fire is a significant and ongoing threat to human settlement
and ecosystem integrity. An understanding of the role of fire
regimes in ecological systems is increasingly being factored into
decision-making.
Altered fire regimes since settlement (either too much or too little fire, or fire of too high or too low an intensity) can have major detrimental effects on the structure of most ecosystems and the populations of many endangered species.
Fire is a natural part of the Australian landscape. Getting the right balance between preserving natural ecosystems and the need to ensure community safety and the protection of assets is the key to achieving appropriate fire management.
One of the principal tools for fire management is hazard reduction burning, but the optimal level of burning is still a matter of debate in the scientific and public arenas. Over the past three years about 110,000 hectares of hazard reduction activity per year have been conducted in New South Wales.
Arson is likely to be responsible for over half of all wildfires, and increased community awareness and vigilance has an important role to play in fire prevention.
NSW indicators
A key component of long-term monitoring of the effects of fire on ecological systems is matching fire history
to vegetation. The Rural Fire Service (RFS) is compiling fire history data across NSW, in conjunction with land
management agencies. While there are still some limitations because of the nature of historical data collection,
data accuracy is being significantly improved as it is now being collected on an annual, coordinated basis.
Indicators will be able to be measured once a statewide vegetation layer becomes available.
IntroductionFire has been present on the Australian continent
for millions of years and is a key factor in plant
and animal population dynamics in most NSW
ecological communities. Many Australian animals
and plants have evolved not only to survive, but
also to benefit from the effects of fire. A substantial
proportion of NSW flora depends on fire to assist in
reproductive processes.
In Australia, fire has been managed since the earliest
human presence. Although the fire regimes practised
by Aboriginal people before settlement are not
fully understood by the scientific community, it is
evident that the pattern of fire in the landscape has
changed over the past 200 years (Williams et al. 2001).
The introduction of property ownership by private
individuals and the need to protect stock and assets
has altered fire regimes and therefore the ecology
across a variety of landscapes.
275
Status and trends
Incidence of fire
Bushfires possess immense destructive force and may
result in substantial social costs, including the loss of
human lives, buildings, infrastructure and livestock.
In extreme cases, such as the Canberra bushfires of
2003 and the Victorian bushfires of 2009, they are
natural disasters that claim many human lives, inflict
broad destruction on assets across the landscape, and
severely disrupt essential services. The effects of fires
in NSW are conventionally reported in terms of their
extent and social impacts and costs.
The incidence of fire varies greatly each year
(Table 7.14). The number of fires is closely linked
to prevailing weather patterns. Fire bans may be
declared by the Minister for Emergency Services
for any part of NSW. This is likely when hot, dry and
windy conditions occur or are predicted for areas
containing dry vegetation where the potential for
fire to spread is high. The number of statewide fire
bans is indicative of the extent of fire danger weather
conditions across NSW during a fire season.
The primary factors determining the severity and
extent of bushfires are wind speed, temperature,
relative humidity and dryness of the fuel. Other
contributing factors include the fuel type, fine fuel
load, the physical structure of vegetation and the
terrain in which the fire is burning. The effectiveness
of fire suppression actions also determines the
extent and severity of running fires.
Fire ecology
The impact of bushfires is commonly reported in
terms of areas burnt and lives and assets lost, but this
is an insufficient basis to determine the ecological
effects of fires, which depend on fire intensity,
season and previous fire history. Understanding the
ecological outcomes of fire is further impeded by a
poor knowledge of the response of animals to fire.
Ecological communities are dynamic systems where
fire is just one of the natural disturbances that bring
change. Fires shape the structure, composition and
function of most plant communities, creating specific
habitats required by a range of species. Differing
patterns of fire history will differentially favour some
species and associations, and suppress others, leading
to variability in the landscape.
However, if fires occur too frequently, even fire-
tolerant species may become locally extinct when
their life cycles are interrupted by, for example, a
subsequent fire killing adults and juveniles before
they reach reproductive age. Conversely, the
exclusion of fire may not provide an opportunity for
the regeneration of fire-dependent species, such as
those that require fire for germination of seed, also
leading to local extinctions. Broad changes in fire
patterns may also result in habitat transformation,
ranging from structural vegetation changes through
to a shift from one vegetation type to another, or
decreasing habitat resilience to invasive species.
7.5
7.5 Fire
Table 7.14: Bushfires and damage between 2002–03 and 2007–08
Fire season No. of fires*
Statewide
fire bans
(days)
No. of s.44
declarations
in a fire
season**
Days between
first and last
s.44 declaration
in a fire
season**
Lives lost
as a direct result
of fire
2002–03 5,642 13 61 151 3
2003–04 1,764 0 10 31 0
2004–05 2,659 1 20 16 0
2005–06 2,865 5 38 150 2
2006–07 3,361 0 36 151 2
2007–08 2,271 0 7 75 0
Source: RFS data 2008
Notes: * Derived by adding the number of fires from the four RFS regions. Any fire that occurred across the boundary of two
regions will be counted twice
** Section 44 declarations apply to fires where the RFS Commissioner controls operations
Biodiversity
276 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Altered fire regimes have been described as a
threat to over 80% of the state’s vegetation classes
(see Biodiversity 6.1). High-frequency fire has been
identified as a significant cause of biodiversity loss in
NSW and is listed as a key threatening process under
the Threatened Species Conservation Act 1995.
The interval between fires is a critical factor in
the capacity of individual species to survive and
reproduce (Bradstock & Kenny 2003). Minimum fire
intervals have therefore been developed for the
maintenance of biodiversity. These allow sufficient
time between fires for species to complete crucial
stages of their life cycles essential for regeneration,
such as plants being able to reach an age where
they are capable of producing adequate seed.
Table 7.15 presents minimum fire intervals for a
range of vegetation formations, Also included in
Table 7.15 are the maximum fire intervals for a
number of vegetation formations which serve as
a general guide to their longer term requirements
for fire to enable renewal of vegetation before
senescence. The greatest biodiversity is maintained by
varying the length of inter-fire intervals spatially and
temporally within the specified range between the
minimum and maximum intervals (Kenny et al. 2003).
Table 7.15: Fire intervals for vegetation formations
Vegetation formation*
Minimum fire interval
where biodiversity
management is the
focus (years)
Minimum fire
interval where fire
management is the
focus (years)**
Maximum fire
interval (years)
Rainforests No fire No fire No fire
Alpine complex No fire No fire No fire
Estuarine and saline wetlands No fire No fire No fire
Grasslands 3 2 10
Grassy woodlands 8 5 40
Dry sclerophyll forests
(shrub/grass subformation)
8 5 50
Dry sclerophyll forests
(shrubby subformation)
10 7 50
Semi-arid woodlands
(shrub/grass subformation)
9 6 40
Semi-arid woodlands
(shrubby subformation)
15 10 40
Arid shrublands
(chenopod subformation)
No fire No fire No fire
Arid shrublands
(acacia subformation)
15 10 40
Forested and freshwater wetlands
(excluding montane bogs and
fens, coastal freshwater lagoons
and montane lakes which have
no tolerance of fire)
10 7 35
Heathlands 10 7 30
Wet sclerophyll forests
(grassy subformation)
15 10 60
Wet sclerophyll forests
(shrubby subformation)
30 25 60
Source: DEC data 2005
Notes: * Vegetation formations are as described in Keith 2004
** These intervals are absolute minimums with respect to maintaining biodiversity as they provide little or no buffer for
adequate seed production
277
7.5
7.5 Fire
Refining the frequency of burning appropriate for
various vegetation formations in NSW is likely to
remain the subject of scientific investigation for some
time, in part due to the diverse array of species and
communities and the length of time required to
assess the long-term impacts of fire. This is also true
with respect to gaining a landscape understanding of
the ecological effects of changes in fire intensity and
the season of burning.
Fire management
Fire management strategies
The emphasis of fire management should be on
hazard reduction and minimising risk (Ellis et al. 2004).
The primary objective of fire management
by all agencies is to protect human life and property,
with biodiversity conservation an important, but
secondary, consideration. Asset protection zones
provide for reduced fuel loads adjacent to houses
and other assets. The most common method of
reducing fuel in these zones is by mechanical means.
To achieve fire management objectives (specifically
in the strategic fire advantage zones identified in
bush fire risk management plans) some areas require
fuel loads to be reduced more frequently than is
required by the minimum intervals for biodiversity
described previously. Reduced minimum intervals
have been developed for areas where strategic fire
advantage zones have been identified. These intervals
are absolute minimums with respect to maintaining
biodiversity as they provide little or no buffer for
adequate seed production.
Biodiversity requirements can often be incorporated
into fire management practices. However,
compromises that result in suboptimal outcomes for
biodiversity conservation may be required at times
(DEC 2005) particularly in asset protection zones.
Appropriate assessment is undertaken on a case-by-
case basis in these circumstances.
Hazard reduction
Hazard reduction burning to reduce fuel loads
outside the peak fire season is a key fire management
tool practised widely across the state. This is
complemented by other key measures, such as
mechanical works to maintain setbacks around
strategic assets, firebreaks and fire trails. The annual
levels of hazard reduction burning and total areas of
hazard reduction management are described in Table
7.16. These figures appear to be relatively stable with
hazard reduction activities carried out on around
110,000 ha per year for the period reported.
Ecological burns
Although some managed burns fulfil both hazard
reduction and ecological roles, there is limited
information available on fires conducted solely for
ecological purposes, such as implementing burns to
avoid breaching the maximum fire interval. However,
the NSW Government is adopting the approach of
identifying underburnt and overburnt vegetation
types based on both fire history records and the
fire thresholds identified in Table 7.15. The work of
collecting data across NSW is still in development,
although an example is provided in the Ben Boyd
National Park and Bellbird Creek Nature Reserve Fire
Management Strategy which is available as a series
of maps in poster form depicting vegetation, fire
management zones, fire history, fire potential and
burning interval thresholds for vegetation.
Table 7.16: Area of hazard reduction management by tenure
Year
Hazard
reduction
methods*
Land tenure**
Local
government
authority
(ha)
NSW
parks
(ha)
Private
land
(ha)
State
forest
(ha)
Other
(ha)
Total
(ha)
2005–06 Burning only 838 29,070 3,155 38,008 790 71,861
All methods 31,387 32,026 3,647 38,008 2,674 107,742
2006–07 Burning only 177 23,718 8,498 43,715 1,905 78,013
All methods 25,495 23,840 8,892 43,716 2,295 104,238
2007–08 Burning only 1,163 48,497 13,958 30,719 3,861 98,198
All methods 10,464 49,514 21,656 30,719 12,203 124,556
Source: RFS annual reports, such as RFS 2008
Notes: * All methods includes burning and mechanical works
** Areas of hazard reduction do not include grazing land
Biodiversity
278 NSW State of the Environment 2009
PressuresFire, which is the subject of this issue, is itself a
pressure on the environment. Therefore the
discussion that follows in this section relates
specifically to risk factors that exacerbate the
threat of fire.
Causes of fire
Data from the 2002–03 to 2004–05 fire seasons
indicates that the incidence of fire was markedly
higher in densely populated areas along the
NSW coast compared with larger but less densely
populated areas elsewhere. There appears to be a
strong relationship between the incidence of fire
and population density.
Data on the causes of fire from both the RFS and NSW
National Parks and Wildlife Service (NPWS) indicates
that most fires are due to human intervention rather
than natural processes. Such fires may result from
arson, accidental ignition or escapes from prescribed
burn-offs, with arson being the most common cause.
Using RFS data, investigations by the Australian
Institute of Criminology into the causes of 466
fires between 2001 and 2004 found that 64% were
deliberately lit and the proportion did not vary greatly
in subsequent fire seasons. Data from NPWS supports
this general pattern, with almost half of the fires
started in national parks during 2003–04 attributed
to arson, although this proportion has dropped in
the latest data available (Table 7.17).
Fire and climate change
The incidence of wildfire is influenced by fire-weather
risk, which is expected to rise as a result of climate
change (Hennessy et al. 2006). A recent study projects
the likely increase in fire-weather risk across regions
of south-eastern Australia (Lucas et al. 2007). The
frequency of days with ‘extreme’ ratings on the Forest
Fire Danger Index is predicted to generally increase
by 5–25% for the low climate change scenarios and
15–65% for the high climate change scenarios by
2020. By 2050, the increases are generally 10–50%
for the low scenarios and 100–300% for the high
scenarios. In addition, ‘fire danger’ seasons are
predicted to become longer and start earlier in the
year, but there is still some uncertainty as to whether
the number of days when it is safe to conduct hazard
reduction burning will decrease, or whether the
window of suitable days will shift to earlier and later
in the year than at present.
Responses
Fire protection and management
Under the Rural Fires Act 1997 (RF Act), the RFS is
responsible for the prevention, mitigation and
suppression of bushfires within rural fire districts.
All functions performed by the RFS are required
to be consistent with the principles of biodiversity
conservation and ecological integrity stipulated by
the Protection of the Environment Administration
Act 1991.
The RF Act provides for the establishment of the
NSW Bush Fire Coordinating Committee (BFCC) and
district Bush Fire Management Committees (BFMCs)
which are required to prepare and adopt bushfire
risk management plans and operations coordination
plans for each rural fire district. The risk management
plans identify assets at risk from wildfire, including
environmental assets, and specify a range of
strategies and actions appropriate for the protection
of these assets and the agencies responsible
for implementing them. These include hazard
reduction, property planning, community education,
preparedness and ignition management strategies.
Operations coordination plans establish guidelines for
coordinated firefighting and contain environmentally
based restrictions. Operations maps also include
provision for the consideration of environmental
assets during firefighting operations.
The Bush Fire Environmental Assessment Code
2006 provides a framework for the environmental
assessment and approval of bushfire hazard
Table 7.17: Causes of investigated bushfires in NSW
Land tenure Period Deliberate Accidential Natural Burn-off Unknown Total
RFS 2001–04 298 68 51 36 13 466
RFS 2005–08 450 30 75 73 92 720
National parks 2003–04 126 13 48 33 43 263
National parks 2006–08 189 79 295 52 197 812
Sources: AIC 2005a; AIC 2005b; DEC 2005; DECC data 2008
279
reduction. Environmental assessments consider the
impacts of prescribed burning and mechanical works
on natural values, including vegetation, threatened
species and heritage items, as well as their effects
on soil stability, air and water quality. Minimum fire
intervals (see Table 7.15) and threatened species
guidelines are a critical component of environmental
assessments. Outcomes of these assessments are
used by the RFS and some other authorities to issue
conditional bushfire hazard reduction certificates that
provide approval for conducting these activities.
Integrating bushfire protection into the planning
system through the Planning for Bush Fire Protection
framework will ensure safer developments in
bushfire-prone areas. A key approach is the
consideration during the planning phase of setbacks
around dwellings to provide protection from
bushfires. Proposed developments may be resited
if the environmental impacts of these setbacks are
likely to be significant. Higher building construction
standards may also be adopted to offset the distance
required for setbacks.
Community education and prevention
The FireWise program provides community-based
support for at-risk groups and is a key component
of the hazard management program. The RFS is
also establishing the AIDER Program to assist infirm,
disabled and elderly residents living in bushfire-prone
areas to undertake fuel reduction and to support
these residents in living safely and confidently in
the community.
The Hotspot Project is a new program involving
agencies and non-government organisations to
assist landholders develop and implement fire
management plans for their properties. Although the
primary focus of these programs is on protection of
life and property, all the elements of the programs
take environmental issues into consideration when
they are developed.
A range of measures has been implemented to
reduce the rate of arson in NSW. In response to the
2001 Christmas bushfires, the Crimes Amendment
(Bushfires) Act 2002 was passed, adding the new
offence of lighting bushfires to the Crimes Act 1900.
While some strategies, such as educational programs
for school students and the thorough screening
of volunteer firefighters, are designed to prevent
the crime, others focus on developing better
investigative techniques so that more arsonists will
be apprehended.
Knowledge and information
The Bushfire Risk Information Management System
(BRIMS) is maintained by fire authorities and public
land managers. BRIMS provides a vital resource for
the storage of data on fires across the state. Long-
term data on where fires start and how they spread
will be invaluable for determining fire management
strategies, the allocation of firefighting resources,
and the prevention of arson and accidental
ignitions. Collated data on prescribed burns will also
provide insight into the effect of fire history both
operationally and from an environmental impact
perspective. Only six years of data has been included
to date so the full potential of the database is yet to
be realised.
The NSW Government has funded the Centre for
Environmental Risk Management of Bushfires at the
University of Wollongong to conduct research into
bushfire management issues. It also supports work
being done by other research institutions such as the
Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre (CRC).
Future directionsThe incidence of high fire-risk days – and
consequently the frequency of wildfire – is expected
to rise due to climate change. The number of days
when it is safe to conduct hazard reduction burning
may be reduced or shift to earlier and later in the
year. This creates the need for a flexible approach to
the implementation of bushfire hazard reduction.
A recent innovation is the introduction of seasonal
work crews to assist rural fire brigades with hazard
reduction preparation. The extra assistance will allow
fire brigades to concentrate on conducting more
burns safely and effectively, thereby saving time and
capitalising on windows of suitable weather.
Fire management strategies will increasingly be based
on better knowledge of fire behaviour and ecology,
and better techniques for fire suppression. This will
help to counteract, to some extent, the effects of
climate change.
Fire patterns have generally been approached
as a natural response by fire to unnatural fire
management regimes. Evidence is now emerging
that, particularly near more populated areas, the
pattern of fire is largely not of natural causes.
The incidence of arson and knowledge of the
behavioural patterns of arsonists is being increasingly
incorporated into fire management strategies.
7.5
7.5 Fire
Biodiversity
280 NSW State of the Environment 2009
It is imperative to support new and ongoing research
into all aspects of fire behaviour, management and
suppression, as well as fire ecology, building design,
property management and community resilience
to enhance our capacity for living with fire.
It is recognised that there is scope for better
maintenance and use of the data and information
that is collected about fire, and more could be
collected. Alignment of the data held by agencies
is improving, resulting in greater consistency of
the figures reported. Information is also improving,
leading to more sophisticated analyses of wildfire
patterns, effects and environmental impacts, and
particularly the use of decision-support and related
applications for fighting fires and managing hazards.
281
7.6 Fisheries
Commercial wild fish landings and the overall numbers of anglers
are relatively stable in New South Wales. Some species are
overfished, prompting further refinement of harvesting controls.
Over 100 key species of finfish and shellfish are harvested in NSW. Where it has been possible to determine the status of these stocks, most have been classified as fully fished, indicating that harvesting is probably sustainable, but that there should be no significant expansion of commercial or recreational catches. Three species are considered overfished, prompting a review of management arrangements for those species. Fifty key species have an uncertain or undefined exploitation status, although this number has steadily declined since 2001–02.
Fisheries management addresses impacts of fishing on the target stocks as well as broader environmental impacts, such as effects on bycatch species. All major commercial fisheries in NSW have now been subject to a full environmental impact assessment. Recreational fisheries are more complex to assess, so approaches other than environmental assessment are required. The recent review and subsequent strengthening of bag and size limits for harvested species is one such approach.
NSW indicators
Indicator and status Trend Information availability
Status of key fish stocks Stabilising ✓✓
Impacts of aquatic harvesting
(commercial and recreational)
Stabilising ✓
Notes: Terms and symbols used above are defined in About SoE 2009 at the front of the report.
7.6
7.6 Fisheries
IntroductionWild harvest fisheries include species taken by
both the commercial and recreational sectors from
NSW estuaries, bays, beaches and ocean waters.
Commercial fishing also occurs outside the three
nautical mile territorial waters under the Offshore
Constitutional Settlement between NSW and the
Commonwealth government where some species
and fishing methods are managed by the state.
Fish populations can exhibit substantial natural
variability in population size, structure, condition
and spatial extent. The difficulty in directly observing
fish populations makes it a significant challenge to
assess and manage stocks. Continuing improvements
in the management and regulation of commercial
and recreational fisheries, as well as ongoing
marine habitat protection, will help to ensure the
sustainability of fisheries resources.
Biodiversity
282 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Status and trends
Fish stocks
Fish stocks that are shared between the commercial
and recreational sectors (such as mulloway) can
be most efficiently assessed using information
that is primarily from the commercial sector, as
representative data from the recreational sector is
more expensive to obtain. Assessment of fisheries
resources has been identified as a priority in
the development of management strategies for
commercial fisheries and environmental assessments.
Key harvested species in NSW are monitored
on an ongoing basis using a range of methods,
including an analysis of catch and ‘effort’ data, and
approaches which analyse the length and age-
composition of catches. Historical records show
that the stocks of some species remain stable,
despite significant harvesting, usually because of
individuals’ rapid growth, high fecundity and early
maturity. Other species, such as sharks and rays,
are prone to overfishing because of low growth
rates, low fecundity and late maturity. There are also
considerable challenges identifying certain species of
fish, particularly when they are similar in appearance
to related species (as is the case with many species
of shark). Table 7.18 shows the status of various
fish stocks in NSW that were determined using a
standardised approach (DPI 2006). Detailed reporting
on stock status for all key species is available from the
Status of Fisheries Resources in NSW 2006/07 (Scandol
et al. 2008).
Freshwater fish and fisheries
The status of freshwater fish is traditionally assessed
on an ‘assemblage’ basis rather than a ‘species’ basis.
Thus, ‘fish assemblages’ is an indicator used to assess
the overall condition of riverine ecosystems under the
Monitoring Evaluation and Reporting Strategy (also
see Water 6.2). Data is collected from all NSW river
systems using standardised electro-fishing techniques
supplemented by small bait traps on a three-year
rolling program. This data is used to calculate metrics
on ‘expectedness’ (that is, relative to expected pre-
settlement assemblages) and ‘nativeness’ (that is, the
relative abundance of native to alien species). The
data could also be used, however, to examine trends
in the abundances of particular species through time
or in particular parts of the state. Such analyses are
not currently done on a routine basis. No freshwater
commercial fisheries have operated since 2001, with
the exception of those which harvest European carp
and yabbies.
Pressures
Commercial fisheries catch
NSW has several thousand fish species and several
hundred are harvested regularly by commercial
fishers. Most of the commercial catch is derived from
the state’s marine waters (75% in 2007–08), with
smaller proportions harvested from estuarine waters
(25%) and very minor quantities from inland waters
(<1%). Figure 7.9 illustrates the trend in the total
commercial catch of finfish, crustaceans and molluscs
since 1997–98, after catch reporting became more
systematic. Overall landings for all species have been
relatively stable since 1998–99, varying between
15,000 and 18,000 tonnes per annum.
For marine ecosystems, reef fish have been proposed
as potential indicators of overall condition (see also
Water 6.5). Reef fish data comes from commercial
catch statistics (catch per unit effort) from the ocean
trap fishery as this fishery effectively targets offshore
rocky reef habitats. Catches from this fishery of 24
species over the last 10 years were considered.
Averaged across all species, catch rates have
remained stable over this time.
Figure 7.9: NSW commercial fisheries landings, 1997–98 to 2007–08
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
1997
–98
1998
–99
1999
–00
2000
–01
2001
–02
2002
–03
2003
–04
2004
–05
2005
–06
2006
–07
2007
–08
Land
ings
(ton
nes/
year
)
Finfish Crustaceans Molluscs
Source: DPI data 2008
Notes: Figures for 2007–08 are preliminary.
283
7.6
7.6 Fisheries
Table 7.18: Status of various NSW fish stocks
Species
Exploitation status
2006–07*
Commercial catch trend
2004–05 to 2007–08**
Abundance trend
2004–05 to 2007–08**
Marine and estuarine finfish species
Yellowfin bream Fully fished Stable Stable
Dusky flathead Fully fished Increasing Stable
Sand whiting Fully fished Stable Stable
Luderick Moderately fished Stable Stable
River eels Some catchments fully
fished
Stable Increasing
Sea mullet Fully fished Stable Stable
Yellowtail scad Fully fished Stable Increasing
Blue mackerel Moderately fished Decreasing No data
Snapper Growth overfished Stable Increasing
Yellowtail kingfish Growth overfished Stable Stable
Blue-eye trevalla Moderately fished Stable Stable
Gemfish Overfished Stable Stable
Silver trevally Growth overfished Decreasing Stable
Eastern sea garfish Overfished Decreasing Stable
Leatherjackets Fully fished Stable Stable
Mulloway Overfished Stable Stable
Marine and estuarine shellfish species
Abalone Fully fished or affected
by parasite perkensis
Quota dependent Decreasing
Eastern rock lobster Fully fished Quota dependent Increasing
Eastern king prawn Growth overfished Stable Increasing
School prawns Growth overfished Increasing Increasing
Spanner crabs Fully fished Stable Stable
Bugs Fully fished Decreasing Decreasing
Blue swimmer crabs Fully fished Stable Decreasing
Source: DPI data 2008
Notes: Exploitation status is reviewed each year by DII fishery scientists and managers who consider a very broad range of
information, including estimates of fish mortality, patterns in length composition, commercial catch and effort data, and
any information available from the recreational fishery (DPI 2006). The quota-managed lobster and abalone fisheries are
assessed using an alternative process.
* Exploitation status:
Moderately fished: the stock is likely being fished at a level that may allow for a limited increase in the commercial or
recreational catch
Fully fished: catches are likely to be sustainable, but there is little scope for increases in either the recreational or
commercial catch
Growth overfished: fish are being harvested at a size smaller than the biological and economic optimum. Although
growth overfishing can be sustainable, additional monitoring and assessment is required
Overfished: current fishing levels are unlikely to be sustainable and yield would be higher in the long term if the fishing
pressure was reduced until the population recovered
Undefined: there is currently little information about the status of this stock which would enable a credible determination
of stock status to be made
** Catch or abundance trend: a qualitative indication about the relative trend in commercial catch or abundance.
Abundance is inferred from catch corrected for effort (or catch per unit effort) from passive fishing gear, such as
fish traps
Biodiversity
284 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Measuring overall commercial fishing effort in NSW
is not straightforward because around 30 different
catch methods are regularly used and they are not
readily comparable. As a surrogate for total fishing
effort, the number of commercial catch returns
can be used as an effort indicator. Figure 7.10
shows a steady decrease in reported returns from
commercial fishing since 1997–98. This decrease is
a result of the implementation of marine parks and
recreational fishing havens and subsequent buyouts
of commercial effort. Recently, there has also been a
reduction in fishing effort due to high fuel and low
product prices. There has, therefore, been an increase
in the average catch per return, but this is most
likely the result of fewer active fishers rather than an
increased abundance of fish.
Recreational fisheries catch
Estimates from a national survey of recreational
fishing in 2000–01 indicate that NSW recreational
fishers catch around 13 million fish each year, as well
as 17 million prawns, crabs and lobsters, and 2 million
bait fish (Henry & Lyle 2003). The total recreational
harvest is estimated to be about 40% of the estuarine
commercial harvest, and around 20% of the oceanic
commercial harvest, but the share of the resource
varied greatly among species. Several common
estuarine fish species (bream, dusky flathead and
whiting) were harvested in greater numbers by
recreational than commercial fishers. Undersize fish
discarded by recreational fishers experience variable
mortality rates depending on the species caught and
how they are handled during capture.
Estimating the recreational catch in NSW is difficult
and expensive due to the large number of anglers
involved, the complexity of the activity and the lack
of adequate information on anglers to conduct
cost-effective surveys. Extensive onsite surveys were
completed in the Greater Sydney region from 2007
to 2009, with anglers being interviewed about their
fishing activity rather than self-reporting.
There are no effective indicators for recreational
catch in NSW because of likely changes in the avidity
of anglers and their efficiency. There are numerous
drivers for change in recreational fishing, including
recreational fishing havens, shifting demography
(including ‘sea-changers’) and the introduction of
better fishing gear (particularly soft plastic lures).
All of these changes will put upward pressure on
recreational catches. An informative time-series for
angling is the number of receipts issued for one-
Figure 7.10: NSW commercial fishery monthly catch returns, 1997–98 to 2007–08
1997
–98
1998
–99
1999
–00
2000
–01
2001
–02
2002
–03
2003
–04
2004
–05
2005
–06
2006
–07
2007
–08
0
2,000
4,000
6,000
8,000
10,000
12,000
14,000
16,000
Num
ber o
f cat
ch re
turn
s
Source: DPI data 2008
Notes: Figures for 2007–08 are preliminary.
Figure 7.11: Receipts issued for one- and three-year recreational fishing fees in NSW, 2001–02 to 2007–08
0
50,000
100,000
150,000
200,000
250,000
Rece
ipts
issu
ed
One year fee Three year fee
2001
–02
2002
–03
2003
–04
2004
–05
2005
–06
2006
–07
2007
–08
Source: DPI data 2008
285
and three-year recreational fishing licence fees
(Figure 7.11). One- and three-year licence fees are
paid by the more avid recreational fishers who are
likely to harvest most of the catch. Anglers who only
fish occasionally pay a lower fee for a licence for a
short period. Although the trend in Figure 7.11 is
relatively stable for three-year licence fees, the figure
provides limited insight into possible changes of the
overall recreational harvest.
Shark Meshing (Bather Protection)
Program
The NSW Shark Meshing (Bather Protection) Program
has operated in the Sydney region (Newcastle,
Central Coast, Sydney North, Sydney South and
Illawarra) since 1937. The program has been effective
in reducing fatal shark attacks at major metropolitan
beaches, with only one fatality at a netted beach
since the SMP began.
While reducing the risk of shark attack, shark
meshing is also listed as a key threatening process in
recognition of its impact on threatened species. Nets
150 metres long and 6 m high with 50–60 cm mesh
size are set from September to April each year. Data
on the incidental catch as a result of the program
since 1950 shows there has been a large reduction
in the number of sharks caught each year. Between
1990–91 and 2007–08, catches as a result of the
program have averaged approximately six sharks per
month in the Sydney region (DPI 2009c). Non-shark
species caught in the nets and released when still
alive include rays, which make up the majority of
the bycatch, and the occasional dolphin, turtle and
seal. More than half the rays entangled in the nets
are released alive, with seals and turtles also more
resilient to entanglement and being released alive.
Responses
Fish stock status
Improving the understanding of the status of fish
stocks requires an ongoing commitment to the
collection of better information, collaboration with
other research and management agencies, and
development of more effective assessment methods.
Strategies in place include:
introduction of new logbooks for commercial
fisheries from July 2009 to record better
information on catch, effort and fishing
methods used
surveys of the recreational fishery to gain an
understanding of the size and number of fish
caught by anglers, such as the exercise completed
in the Greater Sydney region from 2007 to 2009
introduction of guides for hard-to-identify
species, such as the shark identification guide for
commercial fishers (DPI 2008c)
continued investment in the development and
application of risk-based assessment methods that
are highly applicable to species caught in smaller
quantities (Astles et al. 2006)
implementation of scientific decision-making
processes to determine stock status using a
complex mixture of information from NSW and
elsewhere (DPI 2006).
When it has been determined that a species is
overfished, there is a requirement for a recovery
program. A recovery program for eastern sea garfish
was implemented in 2005. The recovery of gemfish
is primarily a federal responsibility as the Southern
and Eastern Scalefish and Shark Fishery is the
dominant source of fishing mortality of this species.
A recovery program is not required for species
that are determined as ‘growth overfished’ if the
combination of the existing harvest strategy and
life history characteristics of the species provides
sufficient protection for the stock from the effects
of fishing.
Harvesting
A range of responses is used to manage commercial
and recreational fisheries in NSW. Measures that
directly limit the impact of fishing activities include:
regulation of commercial fishing operations
through licence, gear and species restrictions
application of catch quotas to control harvest
rates (sharks, rock lobster, abalone and red sea
urchins only)
bag and boat limits for recreational fishers
byproduct catch limits
temporal and spatial closures
application of minimum legal lengths to protect
immature fish and, less commonly, maximum legal
sizes to protect spawning stocks
improvement of the selectivity of both commercial
and recreational fishing gear to minimise bycatch
improvement in the handling practices for
commercially discarded or recreationally released
fish to improve survival.
7.6
7.6 Fisheries
Biodiversity
286 NSW State of the Environment 2009
Management through broad frameworks to protect
fish populations and habitats is available using
approaches that include:
fishery management strategies, environmental
assessments, reviews of environmental factors and
ecological risk assessments
implementation of share management plans
and other strategies to improve the viability of
commercial fisheries.
The NSW Government is involved in projects to
reduce bycatch in commercial and recreational
fisheries. These projects have been successful in
minimising the waste of resources in a number of
fisheries and can reduce the bycatch of some
species by 90%, while having limited impact on
the catch of target species. Research into minimising
the mortality of line-caught fish discarded by
recreational fishers is being undertaken (see Butcher
et al. 2008 for guidelines).
A general recreational fishing licence fee, introduced
in 2001, has generated funds to buy out commercial
fishing businesses and establish 30 recreational
fishing havens. Overall, about $18 million has
been spent buying back around 250 commercial
fishing operations. Marine park buyouts have also
contributed considerably to the reduction in the
number of fishing businesses in NSW.
Removal of commercial fishing from Lake Macquarie
and Tuross Lake has seen an improvement for
recreational fishing in those areas (Steffe et al.
2005). Recreational fishing havens are expected to
mitigate conflict over access for recreational and
commercial fishing.
Bag and size limits for recreational fishing have
been reviewed and strengthened following public
consultation in 2005. Daily bag and possession limits
are currently applied to more than 80 finfish and
shellfish species.
Aquaculture has the potential to reduce
pressure on the demand for wild fish stocks, but
inappropriate and unregulated development also
poses environmental risks. The Department of
Industry and Investment (DII) is encouraging the
responsible development of aquaculture through
use of sustainable aquaculture strategies which
are enacted under State Environmental Planning
Policy 62 – Sustainable Aquaculture. The NSW oyster
industry and the draft NSW Land Based Sustainable
Aquaculture Strategy (DPI 2009d) outline best-practice
management in relation to species, site, design and
operational activities. The strategy also provides a
simplified whole-of-government approval process for
the development of an aquaculture farm.
DII has also developed the Hatchery Quality
Assurance Scheme to comply with the Freshwater
Fish Stocking Fishery Management Strategy. Twelve
industry and government hatcheries in NSW are
accredited under the scheme, which provides
freshwater fish for restocking into NSW waterways.
The scheme promotes best practice and focuses on
ensuring fingerlings are healthy and meet genetic
standards for restocking programs.
Shark meshing
The Shark Meshing (Bather Protection) Program
has recently been reviewed and a Report into the
NSW Shark Meshing (Bather Protection) Program was
produced (DPI 2009c). This report has informed the
development of the Joint Management Agreement
and Management Plan under the state’s fisheries
management legislation.
Future directionsThere has been significant reform to ensure the
long-term sustainability and viability of the NSW
commercial fishing industry and stabilise the harvest
of living aquatic resources. Importantly, issues such as
bycatch reduction are now fundamental components
of fisheries management strategies. However, it will
take some time to measure the statewide benefits to
fish stocks.
Recreational fishing is regulated differently from
commercial fishing because, in most cases, the
activities vary substantially. Additional restrictions on
bag and size limits have been imposed on anglers
and these will be tightened if stocks are determined
to be overfished or subject to other significant risks.
DII also has an extensive recreational fishing advisory
campaign, including the Fishcare Volunteer Program
and a statewide primary schools education program,
to promote responsible and sustainable fishing.
The stresses on fisheries resources are likely to
increase in the long term because of improvements
in the technologies used to locate and harvest fish as
well as population growth and other demographic
changes. Coastal and estuarine developments also
have the potential to degrade fish habitat, including
the habitat required by juvenile fish. Fishing is
considered to be a potential pressure on the overall
condition of riverine, estuarine and marine aquatic
systems (see Water 6.2; Water 6.5; Water 6.6).
287
There is a high demand for locally produced
seafood and some restaurants and retailers are now
identifying the location and method used to harvest
the fish they sell. This trend is likely to continue as
the seafood industry looks for ways to add value to
their product. Efforts to assist commercial operators
to adjust their fishing practices should continue in
order to meet national and international standards to
minimise impacts on fish stocks, bycatch species and
aquatic habitats.
The Fisheries Management Act 1994 gives authority for
the conservation of fish stocks and habitats regardless
as to whether the impacts are being caused by
commercial fisheries, recreational fisheries or other
activities. Programs operate to monitor and assess
the state of key fish stocks, and recovery programs
are required once species have been determined to
be overfished. These recovery programs require more
stringent regulations on harvesting and more robust
monitoring and assessment.
Growth in aquaculture can reduce the pressures
on some fish stocks but must be managed carefully
to prevent or minimise their own impacts on
the environment.
7.6
7.6 Fisheries
Biodiversity
288 NSW State of the Environment 2009
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