Biological Control in IPM Programs in the Pacific

R. Muniappan, Program Director,

IPM CRSP, Virginia Tech

Biological Control Programs in the Pacific

• Invasive Alien Plants (IAP) – Terrestrial and aquatic plants in the natural ecosystems and fruit and plantation crops.

• Invasive Alien Arthropods (IAA) – In the fruit and plantation crops.

• Invasive Alien Arthropods (IAA) – In the vegetable crops.

• Invasive Alien Microbes (IAM) – In agriculture.

• Need for incorporation of Biocontrol in IPM (especially in vegetable crops)

Biological Control of Terrestrial and Aquatic Invasive Alien Plants (IAP)

• Chromolaena odorata

• Coccinia grandis

• Lantana camara

• Parthenium hysterophorus

• Mimosa diplotricha

• Mikania micrantha

• Clidemia hirta

• Eichhornia crassipes

• Pistia stratiotes

• Salvinia molesta

• Sida spp.

• Miconia calvescens and others

Chromolaena odorata(Asteraceae)

•Origin – Neotropics•Introduced to India – 1845•Introduced to Guam – 1960s•Current distribution: Humid tropics of Asia, Africa, Australia (Queensland), and Pacific

Pareuchaetes pseudoinsulata(Lepidoptera: Arctiidae)

Insect induced defenseDefoliation of C. odorata

•Introduced to Guam –1986.•Cultures supplied to

Indonesia, South Africa, PNG, and Micronesia .

Cecidochares connexa(Diptera: Tephritidae)

Origin : Neotropics (Colombia)Introduced to Indonesia in 1993,and Guam 1998.Established in Micronesia, Indonesia, PNG, East Timor, India.

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International workshops held

• 1988 - Bangkok, Thailand• 1991 - Bogor, Indonesia• 1993 - Abidjan, Ivory

Coast• 1996 - Bangalore, India• 2000 - Durban, South

Africa• 2003 - Cairns, Australia• 2006 - Pingtung, Taiwan • (2010 – Nairobi, Kenya)

17 News letters published since 1988

Proceedings published- 7

International Organization for Biological Control – Working Group on Chromolaena

Pareuchaetes and Cecidochares

• Pareuchaetes proven to be partially effective in countries where it has been established.

• Insect induced defense in C. odorata reduces its effectiveness.

• Cecidochares connexa - Easy to establish

• Effective in reducing seed production

• Effectiveness may be affected by local parasitoids

Ivy gourd, Coccinia grandis

•Origin – Africa•Introduced as vegetable•Invasive – Hawaii and

Mariana Islands•Birds spread the seeds• Vines touching soil will

take root•Resistant to herbicides

C. grandis in Saipan

M. oedipus - adult

C. grandis in Guam

M. oedipus - larvaMelettia oedipus(Sesiidae)

Origin – Kenya, AfricaIntroduced:

Hawaii – 1996Guam – 2007Saipan – 2007

Leaf mining weevil, Acythopius cocciniae (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Gall forming weevil, Acythopius burkhartorum (Coleoptera: Curculionidae)

Coccinia grandis – Before and after introduction of natural enemies

(slides – Hawaii Dept of Agriculture)

Lantana camara(Verbenaceae)

Efforts to biocontrol started in 1902

41 agents have been released on lantana

Effective agents:•Teleonemia scrupulosa•Ophiomyia lantanae•Uroplata girardi•Epinotia lantana•Lantanophaga pusillidactyla•Eutreta xanthochaeta

Uroplata girardi(Coleoptera: Chrysomelideae)

Adult beetle Leaf mined by larva

Adults feed on the leaves and larvae mine the leaves

Performs well under semi-shaded conditions

Established in Cook Islands, FSM, Fiji, Guam, Hawaii, New Caledonia, Niue, CNMI, Palau, PNG, Samoa, Solomon Islands, Vanuatu

Teleonomia scrupulosa (Tingidae)Established in most of the Pacific Islands.Effective in dry season and not in wet season.Egg parasitoids recorded in India.Severe defoliation causes displacement of other natural enemies present.

Epinotia lantana (Tortricidae)

Established in FSM, Guam, Hawaii, CNMI, Marshall Islands, Palau, PNG

Hypana laceratalis (Noctuidae)

Established in CNMI, Fiji, Guam, New Caledonia, Palau, Yap

Parthenium hysterophorus(Asteraceae)

Source: Modified from University of Queensland’s Centre for Biological Information Technology

Origin –Tropical North and South America

Distribution in the Pacific – PNG, New Caledonia Vanuatu and Hawaii

Natural enemies: 11 insect species and 2 fungi were introduced to Australia

Zygogramma bicolorata(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae)

•Introduced to Australia in 1980

•Introduced to India in 1984

•Under quarantine – South Africa and Ethiopia

•Failed in quarantine – Sri Lanka and PNG

Parthenium defoliated by Zygogramma

FIRST ANNOUNCEMENT AND CALL FOR EXPRESSIONS OF INTEREST

Combined workshop:

8th International Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Chromolaena odorata and Other Eupatorieae

and

Workshop on Biological Control and Management of Parthenium hysterophorus

Nairobi, Kenya, August/November 2010

Mimosa diplotrichaOrigin: Tropical America

Distribution: Most of the Pacific Islands except Marshall Is., Tonga, Kiribati, Tokelau, and Tuvalu

Natural enemy: Heteropsylla spinulosa –Effective – Established in Guam, CNMI, FSM, Cook Is., Samoa, Fiji, PNG, and Solomon Is.

Giant sensitive plant, Mimosa diplotricha(Mimosaceae)

Pictures: L. Kuniata

M. diplotricha infested area in Papua New Guinea

Heteropsylla spinosa – Effect of nirogen application

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Water hyacinth, Eichhornia crasssipes

Origin – NeotropicsWorld’s worst aquatic weed

Neochetina eichhorniae(Coleoptera: Curculionidae) introduced to Fiji, PNG, Solomon Islands and Vanuatu.Neochetina bruchiintroduced to PNG.

Waterhyacinth in a lake before and after release of Neochetina eichornieiae and N. bruchi in

South Africa(Photos: Coetzee et al.)

Salvinia molesta contol by Cyrtobagous salviniaePhotos : P. Room and S. Bauer

Introduced – Fiji 1991, PNG

(Before and after in Australia)

Pistia stratiotes (Araceae) before and after introduction of Neodronomus affinis in a lake in Ivory Coast(Photos: M. Julien)

Introduced: PNG – 1985, Vanuatu 2006

Mikania micrantha

Liothrips mikaniae – Solomon Islands – 1988 (NE)

Puccinnia spegazzini – Fiji and PNG (2007)

Clidemia hirta

Liothrips urichi – Fiji (1930), Hawaii (1953), Palau (1972), Solomon Is. (1938, 73, 75), Samoa

Miconia calvescens

Colletotrichum gloeosporioides – Tahiti

Sida spp.

Calligrapha pantherina – Fiji (2002), Vanuatu (2004)

Weed Country Benefit/cost ratio

Acacia longifolia (Andr.) willd South Africa 104

Acacia pycantha Benth South Africa 665

Acacia saligna (Labill.) Wendl.) South Africa 800

Azolla filiculoides South Africa 2.513

Eichhornia crassipes BeninAustralia

12427.5

Lantana camara South AfricaAustraliaAustralia

225.69

Benefit cost analysis for the biological control of invasive

weeds in the tropics

Weed Country Benefit/cost ratio

Mimosa diplotricha Australia 17.6

Mimosa pigra Australia 0.8

Opuntia aurantiaca South Africa 709

Opuntia spp. Australia 312.3

Parthenium hysterophorus Australia 7.2

Pistia stratoides Australia 27.5

Prosopis spp. Australia 0.5

Salvinia molesta AustraliaSri LankaZimbabwe

27.553

10.6

Benefit cost analysis for the biological control of invasive

weeds in the tropics (Cont.)

Biocontrol of Invasive Alien Arthopods(IAA) in fruit and plantation crops

Papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatusPink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicocus hirsutusOrange spiny whitefly, Aleurocanthus spiniferusCoconut hispine beetle, Brontispa spp.Coconut rhinoceros, Oryctes rhinoceros Spiraling whitefly, Aleurodicus dispersusRed coconut scale, Furcaspis oceanicaBanana leaf roller, Erionota thraxFruit Piercing moth, Eudocima phaloniaCycad aulacaspis scale, Aulacaspis yasumatsui

Papaya mealybug, Paracoccus marginatus(Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

• Origin: Mexico• Polyphagous• Papaya more susceptible and

die out in 3 to 4 months after infestation

• Spread:• 1990s – Caribbean, Florida

and South America•2001-5 – Micronesia and

Hawaii•2008-9 – India, Indonesia,

Malaysia, Thailand, Sri Lanka, Bangladesh, Maldives

Biological control of Papaya mealybug

Papaya mealybug parasitoid

Papaya trees killed by mealybug

Parasitoids Introduced :

• Anagyrus loecki• Acerophagous papayae• Pseudleptomastrix mexicana• (Hymenoptera: Encyrtidae)

Impact of Parasites on Papaya Mealybug –Guam (Hibiscus and Plumeria)

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Pink hibiscus mealybug, Maconellicoccushirsutus (Hemiptera: Pseudococcidae)

•Native to India•Found in Hawaii 1983 and Guam 1984•Present in CNMI and FSM•In 1993, reported in Grenada, now it has spread all over the Caribbean, Florida, California and S. America

Natural Enemies of PHMB

Anagyrus kamali female and an ovipositing female (Photos: Dr. Lance Osborne)

Anagyrus kamaliAllotropa sp. near mecridaCryptoleamus montrozieri (Coccinellidae)

Population dynamics of PHMB and its natural enemies in Guam

Orange spiny whitefly (OSW),Aleurocanthus spiniferus

(Hemiptera: Aleurodidae)

• OSW was first recorded on Guam in 1951

• 1952 – Five parasitoids were introduced from Mexico

Encarsia smithi - Established on Guam

Introdueced to Kosrae, Pohnpei.

Chuuk, and Yap

Orange spiny white fly (OSW)

Aleurodicus dispersus -Spiraling whitefly

• A native of the Caribbean

• Established in Hawaii –1978

• Spread throughout the world

Natural enemies introduced:

• Encarsia haitiensis(Aphelinidae)

• Nephaspis bicolor (Coccinellidae)

Red coconut scale, Furcaspis oceanica

Parasitoid, Adelencyrtusoceanicus introduced to Guam from Ulithi (Yap) in 1988.Parasitoid emergence hole

Red coconut scale –Endemic to Caroline Islands. Established in Guam in the 1970s

Brontispa spp.

• Brontispa longissima – South pacific

• Brontispa palauensis – Palau and Guam

• Brontispa marianensis – CNMI

• Brontispa chalybeipennis – Pohnpei, Marshalls and Hawaii

• Natural enemies: Tetrasticus brontispae, Asecodes hispinarum, Chrysonotomyia sp., Chelisoches morio, Oecophylla smaragdina

Brontispa palauensis

Oryctes rhinoceros

Metarhizium application to coconut logs

Baculovirus oryctes used in all over the Pacific Islands

Fruit Piercing moth, Eudocima phalonia (Noctuidae)

Moths feeding on Guava Citrus fruit pierced by a moth

Citrus fruit drop due to fruit piercing moth damage in Vanuatu Carambola fruit pierced by a

moth

Egg parasitoids Trichogramma, Ooencyrtus and Telenomus of Eudocima phalonia

Euplectrus maternae(larval ectoparasitoid of Eudocima spp.)

•Collected in India and introduced in Guam but did not establish

Netting Fields to prevent fruit piercing moth damage to crops

Banana leaf roller, Erionota thrax

Distribution: CNMI, Guam, Hawaii, PNG

Parasitoids introducedEgg parasitoid: Ooencyrtus erionotaeLarval parasitoid: Apanteles erionotae

Cycad aulacaspis scale, Aulacaspisyasumatsui

Natural enemies introduced to GuamRhizobius lophathaeCocobius fulvus

Biocontrol of Invasive Alien Arthropods (IAA) in IPM Programs of

Vegetables

• Crucifer crop pests

• Eggplant pests

Major Pests of Crucifers

• Diamondback Moth – Plutella xylostella

• Cabbage Web Worm – Hellula undalis

• Cutworm – Spodoptera litura

• Cabbage Cluster Caterpillar – Crocidolomiapavonana

• Flea hopper – Halticus tibialis

• Aphids – Lipaphis pseudobrassicae (L.) and Brevicoryne brassicae (L.)

• Leafminers – Liriomyza spp.

Parasitoids of Crucifer Pests in Guam

Plutella xylostella -

• Trichogramma sp.

• Cotesia plutellae

• Chelonus blackburni

Spodoptera litura -

• Telenomus sp.

• Cotesia variventris

• Euplectrus xanthocephalus

Cotesia plutellae

Plutella xylostella and its parasitoids

Diadromus collaris

Plutella xylostella

Diadegma semiclausum

Spodoptera litura and its parasitoids

Spodoptera - adultEgg parasitoid, Telenomus sp.

Larval parasitoid, Cotesia sp. Larval parasitoid, Euplectrus sp.

Crocidolomia pavonana and its damage of Chinese cabbage

Hellula undalis and its damage of radish

Trap crops for cabbage

Chinese cabbage- Tempest – Crocidolomia pavonana, Halticus tibialisRadish- Minowase Summer Cross 3 – Hellula undalisMustard- Indian – Plutella xylostella, aphidsCollards- Vates – Plutella xylostella?

Pests of Eggplant

Grubs of Epilachna

Eucanthecona, a pentatomid bug feeding on the grub

Pediobius foveolatus introduced from Philippines to Guam In 1954 to controlEpilachna philippinensis

Eggplant fruit and shoot borer: Leucinodes orbonalisPhilippine lady beetle: Epilachna philippinensisLeafhoppers: Amrasca sp.Spider mites: Tetrasticus spp.Thrips: Thrips palmae

Biological Control of Invasive Alien Microbes (IAM)

• For control of soil borne fungal, bacterial, nematode diseases such as:

Fungi - Fusarium, etc

Bacteria – Ralstonia, etc

Nematodes – Meloidogyne, etc

Office of International Research, Education, and Development, Virginia Tech

Biological Control of Plant Diseases

Trichoderma viride for control of soil fungal diseases

Pseudomonas fluorescens for control of bacterial and nematode diseases

Bacillus subtilis for induced resistance

Soil or Seed Treatment:

Trichoderma Application in IPM

Yield difference in cauliflower Trichoderma treated v/s untreated

Trichoderma production by farmers in Indonesia

Seed treatment with Trichoderma+Pseudomonas

No seed treatment

Nematode Control in Okra Plots

The Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support Program (IPM CRSP) is managed by Virginia Tech at the International Affairs Office Building, 526 Prices Fork Road (0378), Blacksburg, VA 24061. Phone: (540) 231-6338

IPM package for vegetables delivers food security and biodiversity

Biological control is one of

the major components of

IPM. The result is a

significant increase in plant

health and yield, a dramatic

reduction in pesticide use,

improvement in biodiversity

and an increase in farmer

income.

IPM plays a major role in the

management of Invasive

Alien Plants and especially

to manage Invasive Alien

Arthropods and Microbes.

An IPM vegetable package is a set of technologies that can be applied to a given crop to obtain increased yield and reduce pesticide use. It includes the following elements:

Soil PreparationTechniques to enhance the soil—such as soil

solarizationand the addition of growth

enhancers such as neem cake, VAM, and

fertilizers—provide vegetables with the

nutrients they need and deter pests such as

weeds and nematodes.

Seed SelectionQuality seeds should be chosen according to

need and availability. Pest resistance, yield,

marketability, and suitability to the environment

are important considerations.

Seed TreatmentSeed treatments such as Trichodermaspp.,

Pseudomonas fluorescensand Bacillus subtilis

protect the seedlings from pests.

Seedling Selection and GraftingAll seedlings in the nursery should be closely

examined for viral and other diseases, and

infected seedlings should be eliminated from

the planting material. Grafting for pest

resistance should be done when needed.

Traps and BiopesticidesSticky traps, pheromone traps, and bait

traps may be used for both monitoring

and reducing pest populations. When

these populations reach an economic

threshold, biopesticidessuch as NPV can

be used.

BioliogicalControlAdoption of biological control is a major

component of IPM. Local natural

enemies such as parasitoids can

significantly decrease the need for

pesticides.

Supplemental TacticsSupplemental tactics including physical

management techniques, such as using

stakes, nets, and planting trap crops or

nectar plants can be used to reduce pest

damage.

www.oired.vt.edu/ipmcrsp/

Strategic ActionStrategic action, such as irrigation and

rogueing, should be taken to keep plants

healthy, reduce re-infection, and

discourage pests. While this step is very

effective, it is often labor intensive.

This research was supported by the Integrated Pest Management Collaborative Research Support Program (IPM CRSP), which was made possible by the United States Agency for International Development and the generous support of the American people through USAID Cooperative Agreement No. EPPA-00-04-000 16-00.

Integration of Biological Control in the IPM

Grafting to confer resistance to soil-borne diseases

Dead eggplant due to bacterial wilt Healthy field of grafted eggplant

•Eggplant yield ↑ 249% in Bangladesh

•Technology transferred to India, Nepal, Uganda, Honduras and Ecuador

•Technology transferred from Bangladesh to Ohio

IPM practice in bitter melon crop in Bangladesh

Cuelure trapMashed sweet melon trap Area-wide management of melon fly

• Application of compost with Trichoderma• Setting up cuelure traps• Setting up mashed sweet melon traps• Picking disposal of fruit fly infested fruits• Release of parasitoids

Nucleopolyhedrosis Virus Application in IPM

NPVs identified for tropical vegetable pests:

Helicoverpa armigera

Spodoptera litura

Spodoptera exigua

Maruca vitrata

Plutella xylostella

NPV production by a NGO in Indonesia

Commercial production of NPV in India

Peanut bud necrosis virus of Tomato

• Transmitted by thrips

• Common in Asia

• Rogueing is effective in controlling this virus

Peanut bud necrosis virus infected tomato

Unrogued field Rogued field

Gemini virus control in tomatoes

Field without host free period Field with host free period

Healthy tomato Virus infected tomato

Transmitted by white fliesPrimarily Bemisia tabaci

Host free period for 3 months is effective in reducing the incidence

Impact on crop yield in India

Crop

Yield ( Kg/Acre )

IPM practice Farmers

practice

Eggplant 13,987 7,484

Okra 5,125 2,425

Tomato 9,533 3,573

Conclusion

Pests that are threat to the Pacific Islands

•Asian citrus psyllid – Diaphorina citri (Hawaii)

•Coconut eriophyid mite - Aceria guerreronis

•Mango fruit borer – Citripetis sp. (Saipan)

•Mango fruit fly – Bactrocera invadens

•Melon fly – Bactrocera cucurbitae (Marianas)

•Other fruit flies

•Papaya fruit fly – Bactrocera papayae

•Papaya mealybug – Paracoccus marginatus (Guam, Tinian, Palau, Hawaii)

•Red palm weevil – Rhynchophorus ferrugineus

•Solenopsis mealybug – Phenacoccus solenopsis (New Caledonia)

• Banana leaf roller – Erionota thrax (Marianas, Hawaii)

• Chromolaena – (Micronesia, PNG)

• Citrus greening

• Cycad aulacaspis scale – Aulacaspis yasumatsui

(Hawaii, Marianas, Palau)

• Eggplant fruit and shoot borer – Leucinodes orbonalis

• Mango leafhoppers – Idiocopus spp. (Palau)

• Parthenium – (Hawaii, PNG, Vanuatu, New Caledonia)

• Orthezia insignis - (Guam)

• Western flower thrips – Frankliniella occidentalis (Hawaii)

Pests that are threat to the Pacific Islands Cont.

Tospo, Gemini, and Poti insect transmitted viruses:

•Tomato spotted wilt virus•Peanut bud necrosis virus on tomatoes•Tomato yellow leaf curl virus •Several other virus diseases

Thank You

Acknowledgements:Pacific Biocontrol Workshop Organizing Committee

Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, Univ. of Hawaii

U.S. Forest Service

Land Care, New Zealand