Biology 1-2

Review for the EOC

Vocabulary Found in Many Short Answer or Multiple Choice Questions

• Reliability

• Validity

• Unintended Consequences

• Equilibrium

• Constraint

Reliability vs. Validity

Reliability

• Are your results repeatable?

• Ensuring reliability means:– Multiple trials

– Similar results when tested over and over again

– Another scientist should be able to repeat your experiment and get the same results

Validity

• Is your experiment controlled?

• Ensuring validity means:– Following steps to scientific

method such as:

– Having a proper control set-up (experiment without the manipulated variable … the normal situation)

– Accurately measuring

Unintended Consequences

• A result that took place based on your action that you didn’t intend to happen … Ooops!

• Example:– Action: Spray insecticide to kill mosquitoes

– Result: More animals die because the mosquitoes are gone and that was their food source or the poison builds up along the food chain and the top consumers die.

• Example:– Action: Remove wolves from Yellowstone National Park

– Result: Herbivores (elk, deer) reproduce too fast and eat all the vegetation so their population actually go down along with many other species.

Equilibrium• Balance or Homeostatis (steady state)

• Sometimes we call this negative feedback because it tends to work in a cycle.– Examples:

• Temperature and Blood Sugar regulation

Constraint• Something that makes a project

difficult to do or undertake.

• For example, not every experiment or field study is possible to do perfectly because of these restrictions:

– Schedule … enough time?

– Risk … can I get hurt?

– Resources … space or material?

– Budget … too expenseive?

– Quality … can it be well done?

– Scope … is it relevant?

Lab Investigations

Experimental Design and

Observational

Experimental Variables and Set-ups

Variables• Manipulated variable

– What you change.– What your experiment is

testing?– Ex: color of light on plant growth

(change light color)

• Responding variable– What you measure (growth)

• Contolled varialbes– Keep the same between set-ups

(same amount of water, soil, temperature, etc.)

Set-ups• Experimental Set-ups

– Set-ups in which you change the manipulated variable

– Example: plants grown with blue light, red light, green light

• Control Set-up– Used to compare with the

experimental set-ups to find out if the manipulated variable had an effect

– Example: plants grown in regular light

Experimental Design Labs

What’s Alive? – what was manipulated• BTB is used to detect Carbon Dioxide

• Did the beans produce Carbon Dioxide?

9/24/14 9/27/14

Figure 1

Using a control• Use a control with ONLY ONE DIFFERENCE to be sure that the beans were the cause of the change in BTB.

Notice: The control is without beans.

Therefore, beans must have caused the change.

9/24/07 9/27/07

Figure 2

Liver Lab – what was manipulated?

• H2O2 + liver (catalase) H2O + O2

• H2O2 is hydrogen peroxide

• Catalase– Breaks hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen

• Time of O2 (oxygen) bubbles released was measured

• Enzyme characteristics:– Can be reused over and over again– Cold temperature slows them up– Warm temp speeds them up– Can be destroyed if boiled … don’t work

Egg Lab

• Osmosis – The diffusion of water

• Hypertonic (saltwater)

– More salt outside the cell– Water moves out and cell shrinks

• Hypotonic (freshwater)

– Less salt outside the cell– Water moves in and cell swells/bursts

• Isotonic– Same salt in and out of the cell– No change in mass (water moves equally in and out)

Carbon Dioxide and Exercise

• When you exercise you exhale more carbon dioxide. Why?– The mitochondria is working more to produce ATP so you have energy and

carbon dioxide is a waste product of this process. Specifically, the carbon dioxide is coming from the Kreb’s cycle in the mitochondria.

– In this lab, we noticed that the “pink solution” turned clear much faster after exercise than it did at rest.

– http://www.phschool.com/science/biology_place/biocoach/cellresp/intro.html

Yeast Lab – How does the amount of food (molasses) affect respiration?

Amount of CO2 produced (air bubble in the tube)

Molasses concentration (low to high)

Aerobic Respirationuses oxygen

3 Basic Steps:1) Glycolysis (in the cytoplasm)

2) Kreb’s Cycle (mitochondria)

3) Electron Transport Chain (mitochondria)

C6H12O6 + O2 CO2 + H2O + ATP

glucose pyruvate + ATP + NADH

pyruvate NADH + FADH2 + ATP + CO2

NADH + FADH2 + O2 ATP + H20

Anaerobic Respiration• Without Oxygen

– No electron transport chain … less ATP

• 2 types:

1)Alcoholic fermentation: (bacteria, yeast)

Pyruvate + NADH Ethanol + NAD+ + CO2

2)Lactic Acid fermentation: (animals like you)

Pyruvate + NADH Lactic Acid + NAD+

What’s different about these two equations?

How can you set up an experiment to detect the difference?

Photosynthesis Lab – Leaf Disc

• What was being manipulated?

• What happened?

• What would determine whether the experiment was reliable and valid?

Snail and Elodea

• Use BTB to detect the release (produced) of Carbon Dioxide.– Blue to green or yellow show this.

• Use BTY to detect the use (taken in) of Carbon dioxide.– Yellow to green or blue shows this.

Hypothesis 1:Snails produce CO2.

Experimental Control

BTB BTB

Hypothesis 1: Results

Experimental Control

BTY BTB

Results: Snails produce carbon dioxide

Hypothesis 2:Elodea takes in CO2.

Experimental Control

BTY BTY

Hypothesis 2: Results

Experimental Control

BTB BTY

BT BT

Results: Elodea uses carbon dioxide in the light.

Hypothesis 3:Snails produce CO2 in the dark.

Experimental Control

BTB BTB

Hypothesis 3: Results

Experimental Control

BTY BTB

Results: Snails produce carbon dioxide in the dark

Hypothesis 4: Elodea uses (takes in) CO2 in the dark.

Experimental Control

BTY BTY

Hypothesis 4: Results

Experimental Control

BTY BTY

BT BT

Results: Elodea does not use carbon dioxide in the dark.

Hypothesis 5:Elodea produces (releases) CO2 in the dark.

Experimental Control

BTB BTB

Hypothesis 5: Results

Experimental Control

BTY BTB

Results: Elodea produces carbon dioxide in the dark.

Observation Labs

Diffusion Lab with Dialysis Tubing• Diffusion

– The movement of molecules from an area of high to low concentration

• Permeable– Molecules can pass through the membrane

• Impermeable– Molecules cannot pass through the membrane

• Semipermeable– Some molecules can pass through the membrane

while others cannot

Why are cells so small?

Size (cm) 3 x 3 2 x 2 1 x 1 0.5 x 0.5

SA:V 2 : 1 3 : 1 6 : 1 12 : 1

Conclusion: Small cells have a larger SA:V ratio. This ratio allows the cell to diffuse materials in and out more efficiently.

Which cell would you want to be? Why?

Cell A Cell B

Answer: Cell B Surface Area : Volume (SA:V) ratio is greater!

Access to nutrients and waste removal is easier.

Time for Mitosis• www.biology.arizona.edu

– Click on Onion Root Tips at the Top and follow the directions

– Mitosis is the type of cell division that makes exact copies of cells for growth and repair

Interphase Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Total

Number of cells

36

Percent of cells

100%

Biomolecules

What are Organic Compounds?

• Sugars, Fats, Food, Yourself! – Compounds that contain carbon (basis of all

living things) – Extracted from living things– Examples: Pancakes, Beef, Bread, Butter

• Inorganic Compounds– Usually do not contain Carbon– Examples: Salt, Rust, Water.

All Organic Compounds have a Monomer-Polymer relationship

• Monomers– Sub-units– Building blocks of a

larger structure• Examples:

– Monosaccharides

» glucose

– Amino acids

– Fatty acids

– Nucleotides

• Polymers– Larger molecules– Two or more monomers

linked together.• Examples:

– Polysaccharides

» starch

– Proteins

– Fats

– DNA or RNA

You Are What You Eat!

• Carbohydrates

• Proteins

• Lipids

• Vitamins and Minerals

What happens now?

• When you repair yourself or form new parts you have to put together many molecules.

• The food you eat needs to be broken down!

• You can then piece back together the small parts to make you!

Metabolism (break down and build up reactions)

Keep in mind you are what you eat. You breakdown your food and rearrange it to make the molecules that build and repair your cells. Food is used for energy and building blocks.

Carbohydrates

• General Formula: CH2O

• Example: C6H12O6 (glucose)

• Pasta, Apple pie, Chocolate cake, Juice!

• Simple Energy Source

3 types of carbohydrates:– Monosaccharides

• One molecule of sugar• Glucose, Fructose

– Disaccharides• 2 monosaccharides linked together• Maple Syrup, Lactose (milk sugar)

– Polysaccharides• Many monosaccharides linked together• Starch, Glycogen(stored energy in our liver and muscle),

Cellulose (used to thicken ice cream).

Proteins

• Made up of Amino Acids

• C, H, O and N

• Functions:– Some energy storage– Make up many parts of our body

• Ex: Hair, Blood cells, Hormones (insulin)

– Enzymes: special proteins that speed up a chemical reaction.

Lipids• C, H, O

• High Energy Storage

• Types– Fats: Glycerol and Fatty Acids

• Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats

– Steroids: Cholesterol– Oils– Waxes– Phospholipids: make up cell membranes

Enzymes

• Special proteins that speed up chemical reactions to a biologically useful rate.

• Examples:– Salivary amylase – breaks starch into glucose– Catalase – breaks hydrogen peroxide into water and oxygen– Protease – breaks proteins into amino acids– Lipase – breaks fats into fatty acids and glycerol

Enzymes have an optimal environment at which they work best

The Cell

The cell theory

a) Cells are the basic unit of life

b) All living things are composed of cells

c) Cells arise from preexisting cells• Plant from plant• Animal from animal

Cell membrane – phospholipid bilayer

Phosphate head like water (hydrophilic).

Lipid tails don’t like water (hydrophobic).

Some molecules can slip through the phospholipid bilayer but many molecules will have to use a protein channel (not shown) to get through.

Cell Parts and Their Jobs

Parts of the cell:• Cell membrane

– “gate keeper”• Nucleus

– Contains DNA• Chromosomes

– “blueprints”• Nucleolus

– Makes ribosomes• Cytoplasm

– Jelly-like inside of cell where most reactions take place

Cell organelles:• Mitochondria

• “powerhouse”• Golgi apparatus

– “packaging dept.”• Lysosome

– “shredder”, digestion• Endoplasmic reticulum

– “transportation dept.”• Chloroplast

– Makes food via photosynthesis

• Vacuole– “storage” of water/food

Animal vs. Plant Cell

• Animal Cell– Round– No cell wall– Centriole for division

• Plant Cell– Rectangular– Cell wall– Chloroplast for

photosynthesis

http://www.biolessons.com/lessonplans/cellularbiology/plant_animal_cell/plant_animalcell.asp

Different Cells• Prokaryote

– Bacteria– No “true” nucleus– Cell wall– No organelles with

membranes

• Eukaryote– Animal and Plant– Organelles– Nucleus

Movement in and out of Cells• Diffusion

– Movement of molecules from high to low concentrations– No energy needed

• Passive transport

• Facilitated Diffusion– Need a protein channel but still passive

• Active Transport– Uses energy to move molecules from low to high

concentration

• Osmosis– Diffusion of water (no energy)

Transport in/out of Cells

Some times molecules are so big they can’t even fit through the protein channels.

The membrane can fold in or out to form vesicles that carry lots of material.

Endocytosis – membrane folds in and brings along the materials it needs.

Exocytosis – membrane folds out and gets rid of waste or sends out materials for other cells.

Cells and Solutions

• Hypotonic– Less solute (salt)

outside the cell– “freshwater”

• Hypertonic– More solute (salt)

outside the cell– “saltwater”

• Isotonic– Equal solutes in/out of

cell

Cellular Reproduction

• Cell Cycle– Interphase

• G1• S• G2

– Mitosis• Prophase• Metaphase• Anaphase• Telophase

– Cytokinesis

Interphase

• G1– General cell growth

• S phase– DNA replication

• G2– Second growth phase, organelles double

Mitosis makes exact copies of the cell for growth and repair.

Meiosis makes sex cells with only half the chromosomes (one of each kind) for reproduction.

Mitosis would copy each chromosome and divide them evenly to make two identical cells.

Meiosis would copy each chromosome and then divide them twice so that the egg and sperm end up with only one of each kind (one #1, one #2 and so on). What’s the chance a child will receive the exact egg or sperm as their sibling?

Looking at the chromosomes can you determine the gender of the person?

Mitosis vs. Meiosis

• Mitosis animation: Click the link below– http://www.lewport.wnyric.org/jwanamaker/

animations/mitosis.html

• Meiosis animation: Click the link below– http://www.lewport.wnyric.org/jwanamaker/

animations/meiosis.html

Photosynthesis and Respiration

Photsynthesis and Respiration

• What’s energy?

• What’s ATP?

• How is energy released?

 Energy

  All living cells use energy for life processes.•   Original source is our Sun.• Autotrophs ("self-feeding") = change light

energy into food energy.– Green plants, algae

• Heterotrophs ("other feeding") = obtain their energy from other organisms.– Animals

Sunlight +H2O + CO2 O2 + C6H12O6 WATER CARBON

DIOXIDE OXYGEN GLUCOSE

  Photosynthesis

The process by which green plants change light energy to food energy. Occurs in the chloroplast.

energy input from sun

PHOTOAUTOTROPHS(plants, other producers)

HETEROTROPHS(consumers, decomposers)

nutrient cycling

energy output (mainly heat)

  Respiration • The release of energy

from sugar or starch for use by the cell

• Occurs in the mitochondria

C6H12O6+ O2 CO2 + H2O + energy (ATP)

Products of respiration are used as reactants in photosynthesis.

Photosynthesis and Respiration are cycles that work together.

Phototsynthesis needs C02, water and sunlight to make glucose.

Respiration needs glucose and O2 and releases energy ATP

ATP

ADP

ATP

adenosine triphosphate, the energy molecule that powers most cellular work

ATP is like a battery that can be recharged.

• A common fuel molecule for cellular respiration is glucose

– This is the overall equation for what happens to glucose during cellular respiration

The Overall Equation for Cellular Respiration

Glucose Oxygen Carbondioxide

Water Energy

• The efficiency of cellular respiration (and comparison with an auto engine)

Figure 6.2B

Burning glucose in an experiment

Energy released from glucose

(as heat and light)

100%

Energy released from glucose

banked in ATP

“Burning” glucosein cellular respiration

About 40%

Gasoline energy converted to movement

Burning gasolinein an auto engine

25%

Genetics

Essential Vocab• Genotype – the symbolized form; gene forumula (ex: BB)

• Phenoypte – physical appearance/description (ex: brown)

• Homozygous – 2 genes that are the same (ex: BB or bb) ; Pure Bred

• Heterozygous – 2 genes that are different (ex: Bb) ; Hybrid

• Dominant – the stronger gene; appears in the phenotype if present

• Recessive – the weaker gene; appears in the phenotype only when homozygous

Punnett Square

Parent 1 x Parent 2

CC x cc

Possible offspring:

Genotypes: 100% Cc

Phenotypes: 100% Curly

Central Dogma Review

DNA to RNA to protein (trait)

What is this process?

A. NucleusB. mRNAC. RibosomeD. tRNAE. AnticodonF. CodonG. mRNAH. What are

methionine and asparagine?

Can you determine the base sequences?

DNA complementary strand:CGG GTC GAT ATA

DNA template strand:GCC CAG CTA TAT

mRNA sequence:CGG GUC GAU AUA

amino acid sequence (polypeptide): Arg – Val – Asp – Ile

tRNA’s: GCC CAG CUA UAU

Ribosomes read the mRNA codons (3 letters) and the tRNA brings in the appropriate amino acid to build the protein (polypeptide).

If you change the DNA (mutation) it changes the mRNA which changes the protein.

Evidence of Evolution

Fossil Record

• Shows a tremendous variety of organisms

• Organisms come and go

• Reconstruct changes of organisms

• Infer behaviors (ex: sharp teeth = carnivore)

Morphology• Similar types of body structures

• Homologous Structures– Show common ancestry– Example: teeth of a bear and teeth of a dog– Example: arm of a human and flipper of a whale

• Analogous Structure– Common function but not a common anscestor– Example: wings of a bird and wings of butterfly

Biochemical and Molecular

• Exact same chemical makeup in biomolecules– Carbohydrates (sugars) – C,H,O– Proteins (amino acids) – C,H,O,N,S– Lipids (fats/oils) – C,H,O– Nucleic acids (DNA, RNA) – C,H,O,P

• Similar metabolic processes from humans to bacteria (same chemical reactions)

• Process of: DNA RNA protein is the same

Embryology• Embryos of fish,

lizards, turtles, chickens, pig, mice and humans are very similar.

• Embryonic pattern of development seems to be retained in many organisms.

Biogeographical data

• Organisms unique to a certain location that has been isolated for a long time.– Example: Madagascar has a variety of unique

organisms (lemurs)

• Organisms with very similar body plans are found in different areas around the world.– Example: Flightless birds (kiwi, ostrich, rhea, emu,

cassowary)

What’s a Species?

• Can different types of dogs mate and produce viable offspring that can also reproduce?

• Do different types of cichlids mate and produce viable offspring that can also reproduce?

YES! … only 1 species

NO! … 17 different speciesHow might you separate these dogs into different species? How might you separate these fish into different species?

Even though the horse and the donkey can create offspring (a mule), mules are sterile.Since mules cannot reproduce the horse and the donkey are considered to be different species.

• Are horses and donkeys considered to be the same species?

• What is a species?– A group of organisms

so similar to one another that they can interbreed and produce fertile offspring

Reflecting on the “biological species” concept (tigers and lions) … list criteria required if organisms are to be of the same species.

Interbreed in natureProduce fertile offspringShare common habitatsHave similar body structuresHave similar behaviors

Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection

• Organisms reproduce others of their kind

• More offspring than can survive to reproduce

• There are variations within populations

• Some variations are favorable

• Organisms with the favorable variation will survive to reproduce

• Over long periods of time, favorable adaptations make up most of the population

Natural Selection

Mechanisms

Normal Distribution – Bell Curve

Almost everything you can think of fits this curve!

Directional Selection

Breeders always select for the fastest greyhounds

Selects for: One extreme trait

Selects against: The most common and other extreme

Disruptive Selection

Selects For: The two extremesSelects Against: The most common

Stabilizing Selection• Tall trees

– Knocked over by wind

• Short trees– Not enough

sunlight

• Medium trees– Perfect!?

Selects For: The most common traitSelects Against: Both extremes

Review

Only acts on traits that currently exists and are best suited for reproductive success in a particular environment

Example: Tigers will not become blue just because they might want to

Natural Selection is not “goal oriented”

I wish, but heexists only

in my dreams.

He’s not blue, but he’s better than nothing!

Ecology

Energy flows in, is transferred, and exits the ecosystem.

Materials must be recycled within the ecoystyem.

Food Chain

• A linked feeding series

Food Web

• Multiple food chains interacting together

Population• Group of the same type of organisms

(species) living in an area

Producers/Autotrophs

• Make their own food; plants use photosynthesis

Consumers/Heterotrophs• Eat other organisms for food and energy

Decomposers

• Breakdown dead material and recycle it back to the soil for plants to use

Trophic Level Energy Source

% Energy Released During Metabolism

% Energy Released as Waste

% Energy Released in Total

% Energy Left to be Transferred

Total kcal Transferred based on 20,000 kcal initial

Primary Producer

Sunlight energy 60% 20% 80% 20% 4000

HerbivorePrimary producer 65% 20% 85% 15% 600

Primary Carnivore Herbivores 70% 25% 95% 5% 30Secondary Carnivore

Primary carnivore 70% 25% 95% 5% 1.5

Producers (plants)

Primary consumers (herbivores)

Secondary consumers

Tertiary consumers

What do the rectangles represent?

Each rectangle represents the amount of energy at each trophic level and thus the number of organisms that can be supported at that level.

Food Web

If the field mouse is removed the Garder Snake would die out because the field mouse is its sole source of food. The Red-tailed hawk would eventually die out as well because it only eats the field mouse and the garder snake (both of which have died out).

Food Pyramid (one possible example)

Tumble Grass

Elk, Moose, Field Mouse

Garder snake

Red-tailed hawk

Producer

Tertiary Consumer

Secondary Consumer

Primary Consumer

Trophic Levels

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Carbon-Oxygen Cycle

Photosynthesis and Respirationare responsible for most of the Carbon-Oxygen cycle.

This cycle allows Carbon and Oxygen to be recycled and reused which is good because we won’t get more!

Nitrogen Cycle Bacteria are the organisms mostly responsible for the Nitrogen cycle.

The bacteria can “fix” nitrogen from the air, dead organisms and waste into chemicals that plants can use to make proteins and nucleic acids (DNA).

Water CycleWater is continual recycled throughout ecosystems throughthe process of evaporation, condensation, and precipitation.