Biology 1401 Name ___________________ - Faulkner Universityww2.faulkner.edu/admin/websites/aschlundt/B1401notes.doc · Web viewmineral. Practical ... he leaf cells, the leaf vessels

Faulkner University Science DepartmentPrinciples of Biology (BIO 1401) Chapter Notes

Concepts and Methods“the Big picture”

organizationcellorganelle organismorgan system familypopulation community, ecosystem, biosphere

producers, consumers, decomposers

life and deathunity in life diversity of lifeinterdependencyhomeostasisgrowth energymetabolism DNA, RNA, reproduction, heredityMutation/evolutionadaptation Diversity Classification/taxonomy

AnimalsPlantsFungiMonerans: two kinds protists

kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus species

TheoryScientific MethodHypothesisConclusioncontrol groupdata bias, error, accuracy and precision

Practical: Every moment of your life you are constantly involved with life – your own, those of others, those of symbionts and of sources of food and materials. Death of many organisms is required to support your life.

Homework:

Do the self quiz on your own and be prepared to answer the Review Questions: page 17.


Chemical Foundations

Unity of life concept, revisitedAtoms

subatomic particles: protonelectronneutron

atomic numberatomic massisotopes

radioactivity (decay)electron orbitals/shells

moleculesmixturescompoundsbonding:

covalentionic - disassociationhydrogen

hydrophilic/ hydrophobic substancesreactivity

solvent, solute, solution, solubilitypHacid/basebuffersaltmineral

Practical Application: A basic understanding of chemistry is fundamental in many of your daily activities. Organic chemistry is based on a small set of elements and is the basis of life, nutrients and medicines. Your understanding of hormones and toxic substances, especially carcinogens and mutagens is enhanced by a basic appreciation of life chemistry

Homework: Get ahead in your study of Biology by reading the next assigned chapter. Continue to do the self quizzes on your own. Also study the review questions and be prepared to answer them.


Carbon Compounds in Cells

Organic compoundsBonding behaviorTetrahedronSynthesis (anabolism and catabolism)Functional groups:

HydroxylAldehydeKetoneCarboxylAminophosphate

Chains and ringsClasses of reactions

Functional group transferElectron transferRearrangementCondensation/dehydrationCleavage/hydrolysis

Monomers and Polymers Saturation, unsaturation and double bondscarbohydrate

mono, di, oligo and polysaccharides starchcellulose glycogen

lipid, hydrocarbons, nonpolarfatty acidstriglyceridesphospholipidssterols

protein, polypeptidesamino acidsdisulfide bridgelevels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternaryglycoproteindenaturation

nucleic acidDNA, RNANucleotidesRibosesPhosphate 4 Bases (G, C, A, T)Double/single helixATP



Cell Structure and Function

Cell theoryEvery organism is composed of cellsThe cell is the smallest life unitAll life comes from living cells

Structural organization/compartmentalizationPlasma (cell) membraneCytoplasmCytoskeletonNucleoid region/nucleus: prokaryotes/eukaryotes

Cell membraneLipid bilayer, phospholipidsMicellesSurface-to-volume ratio

MicroscopyLight, TEM, SEMMicrograph

Eukaryotic OrganellesNucleus, envelope (pores), nucleolus, chromosomes chloroplastmitochondriacytomembrane system:

endoplasmic reticulum (ER), smooth and rough (ribosomes) golgi bodyvesicles, lysosome

central vacuole centrioles, basal bodies

Cytoskeleton componentsMicrotubulesMicrofilamentsIntermediate filaments

MotilityPseudopodsFlagella and cilia (9+2 array), MTOCStreaming

SpecializationCell wallMatrixesPlasmodesmata

Prokaryotic structuresMembrane NucleoidRibosomesCell wallCapsulePiliBacterial flagella

Practical Application: To know the parts of cells and their functions is to begin to see how tissues provide functions in organs. Also the way a disease organism affects the body is largely understood at this level.



Cell Membranes

PhospholipidCholesterolfluid mosaiclipid bilayer

diffusion solute, solvent, solutiongradient concept

concentrationelectricpressure

membrane proteins (including glycoproteins)

transportopen and gated channel proteins (passive transport, facilitated diffusion)active transport (pumps, ATP)

receptionrecognitionadhesion

endocytosisreceptor mediated, bulk phase, phagocytosis

exocytosis, pinocytosis (contractile vacuoles)

vesicles and membrane cycling, golgi apparatus, lysosomes

osmosis passive diffusion of waterconcentration of solute

iso, hypo, and hypertonic plasmolysis

Practical Application: Reverse osmosis is a practical way to produce pure water from salty or contaminated water. Understandings of diffusion, osmosis and active transport explain a variety of biological phenomena including nervous impulse conduction, wilting and sap flow in plants, venom concentration in snakes and spiders and electrical discharge in eels.

Homework: Start getting ready for the first exam. Study terminology and look for likely essay questions in your readings.


Metabolism

MetabolismAnabolism/Catabolism

Energy Potential, Kinetic, Thermal (heat)Molecular potential (chemical)Calories

Chemical ReactionsLaws of thermodynamics

1. Total energy remains constant2. Entropy increases

(3. life exists)Law of the conservation of massreactants -> productsconcentrationsdirectionalequilibrium concept (bi-directional)exergonic/endergonic reactions

Energy transferATP, ADP, phosphorylationCoupled reactions Metabolic pathways

Degradative/BiosynthesisSubstrates/intermediates/end productsEnergy carriersEnzymes and CofactorsTransport proteins

EnzymesCatalyticReusedBidirectionalSelectiveMechanism:

Activation energy conceptActive sitesInduced fit conceptTransition state

Environmental factors:TemperaturepH

feedback inhibitioncoenzymes

Electron transfer and transport systemsOxidation-reduction reaction

Electron donor, Electron acceptor, Pathways of enzymes/proteins

Practical: This is life whether we want to acknowledge it or not. These are the mechanisms God put in us to make us and other life forms function in the material world. The proteins of life are the cogs, machines and building blocks. ATP is the fuel. Much of the future of Biology as a field of study will focus on proteins.

Homework: Start getting ready for the first exam. Study terminology and look for likely essay questions in your readings. Faulkner University Science DepartmentPrinciples of Biology (BIO 1401) Chapter Notes

Energy Acquisition

Photosynthesis/Aerobic respirationPhotoautotroph/heterotroph

LightElectromagnetic radiationSpectrumVisible lightWavelengthPrism

PigmentsAbsorption spectrumChlorophyll a and bFluorescenceAccessory pigments: caratenoids, antho and phycobilins

Photosystems: I and IILight harvestReaction centers: electron transport systems, ATP formation (noncyclic)

Light dependent reactionsChemiosmotic theory of ATP formation Excited electronsPhotolysis of water (H+ and Oxygen gas)ATP or NADPH formationThylakoid membranes of chloroplasts

Light-independent reactions (dark)Carbon fixation

C-3, C-4 and CAMCalvin-Benson cycle

RuBP, PGA, PGAL, glucoseATP and NADPH requirement

StarchCellulose

Practical application: Think about the environment when you contemplate the concepts explained in this chapter. Think about the effects that photosynthesis has on the chloroplast, he leaf cells, the leaf vessels and on the air surrounding the leaves. There are a number of connecting surfaces involved that give an interface between the inner cellular photochemistry and the outside environment. We, as air-breathers, also interface with this same air.


Energy-Releasing Pathways

ATP formation from compounds made by producer organisms

Aerobic RespirationGlycolysis (in cytoplasm)

GlucosePhosphorylation PyruvateATP input/output, (net)Can be part of anaerobic respiration: see below

Krebs Cycle (in mitochondria)CO2 producedATP formedCoenzyme A, acetyl-CoACitrate, isocitrate, alpha-ketoglutarate, succinyl-CoA, succinate, fumarate, malate, oxaloacetateNADH, FADH2, ATP

Electron Transport System (between compartments of the mitochondria)H+ formed as NADH and FADH2 deliver electrons to the systemO2 accepts electrons, makes H2O with acid ATP formed as H+ reenters the inner compartment

Anaerobic respiration= fermentationGlycolysis

Same pathwayWill stop if pyruvate builds up

Fermentation Pyruvate converted to lactate to accept electronsEthanol formation

by way of acetaldehydeCO2 released

Alternative pathways Food digestion Intracellular conversionsFats

Glycerol becomes PGALFatty acids become PGAL

CarbohydratesGlycogen

ProteinsAminoacids

carbon backbones for pyruvate and acetyl-CoAamino (ammonia) dumped as Urea

Practical applications: The understanding of these metabolic processes is the basis of many specialty areas in animal and human science, including nutrition, digestion, biosynthesis, physiology, muscular energetics, thermoregulation and the production and excretion of nitrogenous wastes (kidney function). In industry these processes are so well understood that many important microorganisms are practical to grow to process for extracting including a wide variety of organic compounds and food additives.


Mitosis

Cellular reproductionGrowthDivision/fissionMultiplicationMother cells -> daughter cellsInheritance, duplication, distribution, mechanismsNuclear phenomenaNon-nuclear considerationsChromosomes

Chromatid: Sister chromatids:CentromerePloidy

Diploid: 2nHaploid: 1n Other ploidy: tetraploid

Mitosis: Meiosis: (reduction of diploid to haploid) Somatic cells germ cells2n -> 2 x 2n -> 2n + 2n 2n -> 2 x 2n -> 2 x 1n + 2 x 1n -> 1n + 1n + 1n + 1n

Cell cycleG1 = first growth periodS = DNA synthesis periodG2 = second growth periodM = mitosis

ProphaseMetaphaseAnaphaseTelophase

Cytoplasmic division/Cytokinesis/cleavage or cell plate formation

ComponentsCondensed chromosomes

ChromatinHistones

Nucleosomes Kinetochore

Spindles10k microtubulesmotor proteins

cell plate (plants)vesicle convergence

Practical Applications: Knowledge of mitosis and the cell cycle is the basis of organismal growth, vegetative (asexual) reproduction, tissue healing, regeneration of lost body parts and cancer. Faulkner University Science DepartmentPrinciples of Biology (BIO 1401) Chapter Notes

Meiosis

Sexual reproductionGametes

sex cellsspermseggs (ova)spores

GametogenesisGerm cellsSpermatogenesisOogenesis

Fertilization, zygote formation, conceptionChromosomes, sister, chromatids, homologuesPloidy:

diploid haploidthe “meaning” of the diploid numbers of organisms

genes and alleleskaryotype, genotype and phenotypeStages of meiosis

Meiosis IProphase IMetaphase IAnaphase ITelophase ICytokinesis

Meiosis IIProphase IIMetaphase IIAnaphase IITelophase II

Cytokinesis Critical alignmentsReductionCrossing over, recombination and chiasmataAlternation of generations

Practical Applications: Knowledge of meiosis is the basis of understanding sexual reproduction. Mendel’s laws are best understood in view of what occurs in meiosis. Odd forms of meiosis lead to diseases that are not uncommon in our species.


Observable Patterns of Inheritance

GeneticsGenes, loci, homologous chromosomes, alleles, pairs

Inheritance“law” of blending

Mendelian geneticsTrue (pure) breeding/hybridsHomozygotes/heterozygotesDominant/recessive traitsGenotype/phenotypeP, F1, F2

Crosses: mono and dihybrid, test crossesPunnett squares and probabilityLaws

SegregationIndependent assortment

Modern understandingsChromosomal linkagesDominance varitions

IncompleteCodominancePleiotropyInteractions: epistasis

Polygenetics Continuous variationEnvironmental effectsExtranuclear inheritance

Practical Applications: Knowledge of basic genetics explains most of what happens in the expression of the genotype into a phenotype. Don’t forget “Nature vs. Nurture”.


Chromosomes and Human Genes

Chromosomal basis of inheritanceGene, chromosome, homologues, recombination, meiosis, gametogenesisAutosomes and sex chromosomesKaryotypes analysisSex determination in humans

X and Y chromosomesDevelopment

Linkage groupsX and Y linked genes, reciprocal test crosses

RecombinationTightness of linkage Length of chromosomeMapping

Map units = frequency of recombinationPhysical units

Human genetic analysisPedigrees

SymbolsPatterns

Genetic disordersAutosomal

RecessiveDominant

x-linkeddominantrecessive

nondisjunctioneuploidy, aneuploidy and polyploidy

autosomal: Downsex chromsome syndromes: Turner, Klinefelter, XXY, XYY

chromosome structure abnormalitiesdeletion, duplication, inversion, translocation

age of onset of effects of disordertreatments, counseling, screening, prenatal diagnosisPreimplantation diagnosis

Practical Applications: To be forewarned of an impending birth of a genetically different child is to begin to prepare the whole family for the special accommodations that will be needed. Abortion is not an option.Homework: do the odd problems and check your work.


DNA Structure and Function“This molecular constancy and variation among species is the foundation for the unity and diversity of life.”

History1868 – Miescher: puss and semen studies led to isolation of nucleic “acids”1928 – Griffith: mouse studies of “dead” disease traits inheritance1949 – Chargraff: [Adenine] = [Thymine] and [Guanine] = [Cytosine] 1951 – Pauling: deduced 3D structure of protein1951 – Franklin: x-ray diffraction images of DNA (compared to known chemicals) implied helical structure1953 – Watson and Crick: proposed molecular structure of DNA1950’s – Delbruck, et al, studies of bacteriophage DNA cores

DNA Nucleotides: one base to one phosphate to one deoxyribose

Helical structureDouble/ two-stranded3.4 nm per full twistopposing directions – bidirectional

base pairing – hydrogen bonds base sequence

a “sense” strandthe order of G, C, A, T

self replicationsemiconservative: one of the old strand resides in the new pair of strandsenzymes: DNA polymerase, ligase, unwinding enzymesreplication forks: origins at binding sites, bidirectional,triphosphorylated nucleotides create new strand

continuouslydiscontinuously: Okazaki fragments

Chromosomal proteins: scaffolding between genes?

DNA repairExcision repairUV lightCancer and mole plotting

Practical application: The understanding of DNA replication is at the heart of the cellular reproduction of life. The success of our built-in DNA repair mechanisms ensures a near perfect continuity of life. It also explains how some damaged cells survive to give us cancers and other mutated tissues.


From DNA to Proteins

Garrod’s hypothesis: inherited traitabnormally high levels of urinary (metabolic) substances related to a key enzyme in a metabolic pathway

One gene – one polypeptide: Transcription and translation requiredRNA

Three kindsmRNA = Messenger = gene transcript – made as neededtRNA = Transfer = has RNA “anticodon” and carries AA’s – made abundantly for all translationsrRNA = Ribosomal = special transcript to make new ribosomes – takes one to make one

TranscriptionRNA assembly

DNA unwinding Role of uracil: A – U not A - TPromoterRNA polymeraseDNA rewinding

Processing (modification of transcript)Introns and exonsExcisionPoly-A tail

TranslationMigration of mRNA through nuclear pores into ctoplasmCodons – the genetic code

Base sequence triplets64 translate to 20 AA’s

RibosomesTwo kindsAssemble in ER Sites of mRNA translation and polypeptide assembly

tRNAPossess anticodonEnzymatically attached to appropriate AATransfer the AA to ribosome and enter in according top the mRNA sequence

StagesInitiation

mRNA loaded into ribosomal unit – AUG = STARTinitiation complex formedappropriate tRNA locked in

ElongationPolypeptide chain forms and growsSequence of AA’s determined by codons on mRNAForming polypeptide begins to take on its 3D formmRNA may enter another ribosome to start the translation process again before completing the first translation – chains of ribosomal events

Termination STOP codon halts elongation

Release factorsFinal protein “shipped out”

Gene mutationsSimple mutation

Base-pair substitutionInsertionDeletion

ComplexTransposable elements

Causes: spontaneous, mutagenic chemicals and ionizing radiationReverse translation??

Practical application: This is much of what complex life at the whole organism level amounts to: genes in active cells decoding into mRNA’s to become proteins and expressed traits. Development is related to the polarity, the environment and the intercellular communication networks that form in the embryo to control/regulate these processes..


Controls Over GenesGenetic expression – cells exert control over selves and each other

the phenotypecell type and functioncell environment – chemicals, signals and outside factorsdevelopment adaptationprogrammed cell death

control systems conceptregulatory proteins – interactionsoperon concept: promoter, repressor binding site, linked genesprokaryotic controls: simple, on-off, rapid response to environmental changes

negative controlrepressor compound blocks promoter (target molecule)inhibition of transcriptionpresence of a signal chemical removes repressor

positive controlpromotion of transcriptionactivator protein

eukaryotic controls: much more intricate in complex organismscell differentiation

embryonic originsspecialization

cell activity: selective expressiontranscription controls

gene amplificationDNA rearrangementsChemical modifications

post-transcription controlstranscript processing: alternative splicingtranslation controls: degradation and inactivationprotein processing: activation, inhibition, stability

short and long term aspects of expressionExamples

Transcription: lampbrush chromosomes observed in amphibiansX chromosome inactivation

Barr bodies and skin mosaicCalico cats

Signaling mechanismsHormones

Stimulation or inhibition of target cellsEnhancers – binding sitesHormonal control of gene expression is like a full symphony orchestra

Sunlight signalsPhytochrome in plants

Cancer revisited

Oncogenes Loss of gene control

Growth factors Tumors: benign vs. malignantMetastasis

Traits of cancer cellsChanges in membrane and cytoplasmAbnormal rate of cell divisionWeakened adhesionlethality

Practical applications: This is what genes are all about. Understanding these gene expression control mechanisms is the first step in understanding the mystery of life. These are also the “tip of the iceberg” in the whole story. We do not yet know all of the intricacies of the interactions involved.


Recombinant DNA and Genetic Engineering

GermplasmTechnology, engineering and therapySports and hybridizationDNA

Restriction enzymesRFLP’s (restriction fragment length polymorphisms)

Modification enzymesDNA amplification

Cloning vector - plasmidsPolymerase chain reaction (PCR) - billions quicklycDNA and reverse transcription based on mRNA

DNA fingerprintingTandem repeatsGel electrophoresesis

DNA sequencingGel electrophoresesis

DNA librariesProbesScreeningApplication

Recombination –a new definitionPlant tissue culture (an aside)DNA ligaseRecombinant plasmidsGenetic alteration (engineering)

Beneficial genesMethods of gene transfer

PlasmidsVirusesElectroporation

BacteriaPlantsAnimals

Human genome project35,000 have been studied so far0.1% of human genome varies = 3,200,000 bp

400 are related to genetic disorderedGene therapies in humans

Human enhancement Safety issues


Emergence of Evolutionary Thought“In the beginning…”

“Any population can evolve when individuals differ in one or more inheritable traits that are responsible for differences in the ability to survive and reproduce.”

Biological Science History lesson – a quest for the “meaning of life” and the “secret of life”Ancient Greece

Hippocrates -Natural Cause theoryAristotle – Continuum of organization, taxonomy of kinds

Early ChristiansGenesis, the inspired word of GodCreation of speciesThe GardenThe Fall

European exploration of the worldBiogeography data first compiled

Overwhelming quantities of informationMany kindsWide distributionSimilar traitspatterns

Center of creation theories (where was the garden?)Comparative morphology, anatomy and physiology

Patterns of similarityBasic body plan theoryHomologous organsSnakes have leg bones!

Geology - fossilsSequential prehistoric dataMultiple sites of origin theoriesNewer species descending from older theories (evolution)

Global awareness – 1900’sRock-solid Christian Faith:

God is the designer and distributor of Earth speciesEmergence of modern Christian explanations of God’s creation

Atheistic explanations and challenges – Is God dead?

Theories emergingCuvier – mass extinction and catastrophism theoryLamarck – environmental factors and the “acquired characteristics” theoryLyell - Theory of uniformity – Wegener – continental driftDarwin and Wallace – natural selection theory

TraitsSurvival adaptations

What does “Hindsight is 20-20” mean in this context?Faulkner University Science DepartmentPrinciples of Biology (BIO 1401) Chapter Notes

Microevolution

Population concept of individuals with traits

morphologicalphysiologicalbehavioral

Gene pool of alleles (remember how genes are expressed and controlled)Polymorphism Continuous variation (small, incremental differences in genotypic expression)Inheritance: 10600 combinations possible

Two parents (each 223 chromosomal combinations)Independent assortmentCrossing overMutation (gene deactivation)Chromosomal abnormalities

Allelic frequenciesHardy-Weinberg ruleGenetic equilibrium (an idealized case: a kind of theory)

No mutationLarge populationGene pool isolation (no immigration)Gene not repro or survival criticalRandom mating

Changes caused by circumstancesMicroevolution: small scale changes in the gene pool

Gene flowNatural selection (viv a vis artificial selection)Genetic drift

Mutation revisitedRate:

10-5 per gene locus per gamete per generationone gamete per 100,000 is mutated

LethalNeutralBeneficial ????

Natural selectionReproductive capacityLimited resources/competitionGene pool concept

Variation in phenotypesFitness: according to current environmentNatural selection resultsKinds

Directional: resistancesStabilizing: fixing traitsDisruptive: splitting the gene poolBalancing: sexual dimorphismDriftBottle necksFounder effect

Speciation

Practical application: Was there speciation? Is it occurring now? Where?


Speciation

“Species are groups of interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups.”

Species (kind)Morphological definition:

based on appearancelife stages questionseffects of environmentcan morphologically identical organisms be different species?

Biological definition: applies to sexually reproducing organismsBased on reproductionSame as long as form, physiology, behavior permit interbreeding Fertile offspring

Origins? That is the question?

Genetic change and isolation (speciation)Not purposeful, a byproduct of genetic changeGene pools’ gene flows and divergenceGradual and variable in patternMechanisms of reproductive isolation and genetic compatibility

PrezygoticTemporalBehavioralMechanical EcologicalGametic mortality and biochemical changes

PostzygoticEarly death of embryoImplantation failure (in mammals)Offspring inviabilityOffspring sterility

Role of geography (allopatric speciation)BarriersTime factors

DriftFounder effect and bottlenecks

Other kinds of speciationSympatric

PolyploidyParapatric (sketchy evidence)

Two main patternsCladogenesis: branching (two from one)Anagenesis: new from old

Diagrams: TreesGradualPunctuated

Adaptive radiation conceptExtinctions


The Puzzle

Don’t forget what it says in Genesis

Microevolution vs. MacroevolutionMacro patterns: long term studies of lineages

Genetic persistence: basic unifying traits of lifeGenetic divergence: speciationGenetic disconnect: extinction

Fossils: 250,000 species?FossilizationImprintsStratification: Law of SuperpositionConcept of a “fossil record”

Gaps and completenessReadability?

TimeBiblicalGeologic Time scale (mya)

Eras, periods, epochs

Plate tectonicsContinental Drift: 1908 – F. TaylorPangea – Alfred WegenerSeafloor spreadingMagnetic field alignment

Comparative BiologyEmbryology

Theory:“The early embryos of vertebrates strongly resemble one another BECAUSE they have inherited the same ancient plan for development”

MorphologyHomologous structures in widely divergent speciesAnalogous (similar) structures in (seemingly) unrelated species – convergence

BiochemistryGenetics

Close genetic similarities between species with pronounced morphological differencesMolecular clock concept

ProteinsAA sequences

Taxonomy and Systematic BiologyBinomial naming system: Genus and speciesK p c o f g s Sub and super groupings added Developed from lower to higherPhylogeny now is a directing forceCladistic taxonomy

Traits quantifiedCladograms

How many kingdomsWhittaker – 1969 – fiveArchaebacteria – sixth kingdom


Theories of the Origin of LifeWhy connect this to our current studies?

“Although the story is not yet complete…”“There are major gaps in the story of life’s origins.”

Questions (always remember Genesis: In the beginning…)What was Earth like when life first appeared?Could it have originated spontaneously? Theories?Must it have come from off world? Theories? Can we devise experiments and computer models to test the plausibility and support or reject these?

ToolsCuriosity, logic and “lateral” thinking (imagnation)Lenses: Telescope, MicroscopeSciences: Biology, Chemistry, PhysicsFaster, more capable computers

EvidencesTimeEarth

Materials: atmospheric gasses, crust, mantle, oceans, salts and other dissolved mineralsAstrophysics

Other planets atmospheres : was the first Earth atmosphere oxygen free?Planetary origin theories

Miller’s experimentsFox’s studies

Origin of life processesMetabolic agents, catalysts?Self replication: RNA first? DNA? Connection to protein synthesis?Membranes

Containers?Osmosis?Electrical potentialsActive transport?Micelles

Proto-cell concept

Stromatolites – mat fossils

A Tree of lineagesAnaerobic origins of three life types (Archaen Eon)

EubacteriaArchaebacteria – eventually three kinds emergeMegacells

Photosynthesis originated in eubacteria

Atmospheric oxygen increases (Proterozoic Eon starts)Endosymbiont concept

Engulfed bacteria as organellesMegacells host certain kinds of eubacteria – first eukaryotes – animals emergeSome of same kinds of cells host photosynthetic eubacteria – plants emerge

Atmosphere becomes more oxygenated (20%)Land organisms emerge from the sea

Major events theoretically displayed in the fossil recordContinental migrationMass extinctionsSubsequent radiations

Practical application: Does the high diversity and distinct kinds distributed over the continents reflect any natural phenomena at play or is it all according to a detailed original plan of God’s design?


Ch 49: The Biosphere

Ecology – levels of study:Earth scale:

Biosphere level – interactions with lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphereClimate:

Temperature zones: LatitudeAltitude

Precipitation zones: air and water circulation patternsOcean currentsPrevailing windsTopography: rain shadow example

Biomes 6 terrestrial biogeographic realmsPredictable arrangement of biomesSoils Specific biomes

DesertShrublands, woodlands and grasslandsTropical forestsConiferous (boreal) forestsTundra: arctic and alpine

Hydrosphere levelFreshwater provinces

LakesZonation: littoral, limnetic, profundalOverturn and the thermoclineTropic conditions

Streams Riffles, pools and runs

Ocean provincesPlankton and marine “snow”Hydrothermal vents

LME’s – large marine ecosystems (ecoregions, ecozones)Benthic vs. pelagic

Coastal: interface of land and seaCoral reefsMangrove EstuariesIntertidal zone: rocky vs. sandy

UpwellingsEl Nino


Ecosystems

Structure and function are similar in all ecosystems

Trophic levels: “Who’s who” = who eats whomPlants rule (primary producers)Herbivores - primary consumersCarnivores – secondary consumersDetritivores and decomposers Other vores

Omnivores InsectivoresGranivoresFrutivores

Energy flows (one way) through the ecosystems: LightCarbon compoundsHeatLight againFood chains and websEcological pyramidsGross and net primary productivity –

kcal/sq m/yrHarnessing solar energy Transfers and “losses”

Biogeochemical (Nutrient) cyclesCycling not flowingHydrologic

CarbonNitrogenPhosphorusModeling

Greenhouse effect and global warming


Ecosystems (continued)

Ecology at the Community levelNiche concept:

role in the “play of life”specific means of acquiring food

Habitat, territories and rangesFood chainsFood webs

Symbiotic relationshipsPredation

One way benefitspredator/prey

ParasitismOne way benefitsHost/parasiteExternal and internalParasites of parasites

CommensalismsOne way benefitsInternal and external

MutualismsTwo-way benefitsExternal and internal

Families Human parallels

Carve out “your own niche”Interpersonal relationshipsCareer choices – societal roles

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Biology 1401 Name ___________________ - Faulkner Universityww2.faulkner.edu/admin/websites/aschlundt/B1401notes.doc · Web viewmineral. Practical ... he leaf cells, the leaf vessels