Biology and · 2019. 5. 31. · Rajasthan, salt desert (> 10,000 km2) in the western region of Gujarat and cold desert (1,09,990 km2) in the trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, Jammu

Biology andManagement

of India’s Wildlife

Dr. D.K. BelsareM.Sc., Ph.D., S.S.E., D.Sc., F.N.A.Sc., F.Z.S.I.

Former Professor of Bioscience andHead of the Department of Bioscience,

Barkatullah University, Bhopal, M.P. (India)

Dr. Rakesh Kumar Singh (Bhabua)D.F.Sc., Ph.D. (Israel), F.Z.S.I., F.I.A.E.S.,

F.S.L.Sc., F.I.A.Sc., F.I.F.S.I.,Former Consultant of the

World Bank of Bangladesh and Nigeria.

ISO 9001:2015 CERTIFIED

© AuthorsNo part of this publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, ortransmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,recording and/or otherwise without the prior written permission of the authors and thepublisher.

First Edition : 2019

Published by : Mrs. Meena Pandey for Himalaya Publishing House Pvt. Ltd.,“Ramdoot”, Dr. Bhalerao Marg, Girgaon, Mumbai - 400 004.Phone: 022-23860170, 23863863; Fax: 022-23877178E-mail: [email protected]; Website: www.himpub.com

Branch Offices :New Delhi : “Pooja Apartments”, 4-B, Murari Lal Street, Ansari Road,

Darya Ganj, New Delhi - 110 002.Phone: 011-23270392, 23278631; Fax: 011-23256286

Nagpur : Kundanlal Chandak Industrial Estate, Ghat Road,Nagpur - 440 018.Phone: 0712-2738731, 3296733; Telefax: 0712-2721216

Bengaluru : Plot No. 91-33, 2nd Main Road Seshadripuram,Behind Nataraja Theatre, Bengaluru - 560 020.Phone: 080-41138821; Mobile: 09379847017, 09379847005

Hyderabad : No. 3-4-184, Lingampally, Besides Raghavendra SwamyMatham, Kachiguda, Hyderabad - 500 027.Phone: 040-27560041, 27550139

Chennai : New No. 48/2, Old No. 28/2, Ground Floor, Sarangapani Street,T. Nagar, Chennai - 600 012. Mobile: 09380460419

Pune : First Floor, “Laksha” Apartment, No. 527, Mehunpura,Shaniwar Peth (Near Prabhat Theatre), Pune - 411 030.Phone: 020-24496323, 24496333; Mobile: 09370579333

Lucknow : House No. 731, Shekhupura Colony, Near B.D. Convent School,Aliganj, Lucknow - 226 022.Phone: 0522-4012353; Mobile: 09307501549

Ahmedabad : 114, “SHAIL”, 1st Floor, Opp. Madhu Sudan House, C.G. Road,Navrang Pura, Ahmedabad - 380 009.Phone: 079-26560126; Mobile: 09377088847

Ernakulam : 39/176 (New No. 60/251), 1st Floor, Karikkamuri Road,Ernakulam, Kochi - 682011.Phone: 0484-2378012, 2378016; Mobile: 09387122121

Bhubaneswar : Plot No. 214/1342, Budheswari Colony,Behind Durga Mandap, Bhubaneswar - 751 006.Phone: 0674-2575129; Mobile: 09338746007

Kolkata : 108/4, Beliaghata Main Road, Near ID Hospital, Opp. SBI Bank,Kolkata - 700 010. Phone: 033-32449649; Mobile:07439040301

DTP by : Rajani Jadhav.Printed at : Geetanjali Press Pvt. Ltd., Nagpur (N). On behalf of HPH.

Dedicated to

This book is dedicated to my teacher,Late Dr. Har Swarup

Former Vice Chancellor,Jiwaji University, Gwalior, India.

Preface

India’s wildlife is distributed in Palaearctic, Ethiopian andOriental biogeographical realms and constitutes 26 endemic specieswhich are critically endangered as per IUCN List. Three species, i.e.,Indian Wild Ass, Leopard and Red Fox are threatened to extinction.Many of its wild cats, which balance India’s ecosystems, are on theverge of extinction. The Tiger, which is an ‘icon’ of India, mayvanish in near future and efforts are being made to conserve itspopulation at any cost. The meeting of 13 countries held atSt. Petersburg (Russia) on 23-24 November, 2010 to plan out forconservation of Indian Tiger’s population indicates the importanceof this magnificent species of wildlife. Once it becomes extinct,it will not be restored. The healthy forests are recognized by thepresence of tiger population, because they are at the apex ofecological pyramid. However, the main aim of this book is to focusthe attention of other wildlife species, which are equally importantfor the health of forests of India and to balance its ecosystems. Themanagement of wildlife should, therefore, be done in scientificmanner and considering India’s ethnic diversity (Belsare, 2002). Thenatural heritage of India was made famous in Rudyard Kipling’s TheJungle Book and has had a profound impact on people’s perceptionsof the country’s wildlife. Another important point to mention here isthe threat posed by endocrine disruptive chemicals in environmentcoming from disposal of plastic waste, biomedical waste andpharmaceutical industrial effluents, that enter our waterways andsoil. The conservationists must pay immediate attention to controlthis pollution so that we may not loose our precious wildlife species.

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank Professor Wilfred Bassus of TharandtInstitute, Germany for his visits to forests of Madhya Pradesh during1983-85 and suggestions made regarding wildlife of this State whenhe used to accompany us during field studies. Our (DKB) thanks arealso due to Professor Dr. Jan Dobrowlski of Center ofEnvironmental Studies, Krakow, Poland for arranging my lectureson Wildlife Management and to Late Professor E. Seidel of Berlin,UNEP Coordinator for Ecosystem Management (DKB) for givingme an opportunity to deliver lectures on Wildlife Biology andManagement at Technical University, Dresden (Germany) duringTraining Course sponsored by UNEP for participants from thetropical countries for the period 1980 to 1987. We are also gratefulto Mr. J.J. Dutta, Chief Warden Wildlife Wing of Madhya PradeshForest Department for providing facilities in National Parks forstudy on wildlife.

Introduction

The Indian subcontinent represents the confluence of threebiogeographical realms of Wallace classification. These arePalaearctic (desert and Northeastern Himalaya), and the rest of thecontinent as Ethiopian (Afro-tropical) and Oriental (Indo-Malayan)realms. Hordridge (1967) presented a life zone system such as icedesert (Trans-Himalayan), moist forest in the Himalayas and theeastern part of Peninsula, in the Western Ghats, and Andaman &Nicobar Islands; dry forest over most of the Northern plains and thePeninsula; thorn woodland dry forest from Punjab to Tamil Naduand the desert/scrub in the extreme western portions. Udvardy (1975)distinguished eight biogeographic zones such as, the Malabarrainforest, the Western Ghats, the Bengalian rainforest: parts of WestBengal, Assam and other rainforests of the Northern-east, theIndus-Ganges Monsoon forests – most of the Northeastern Frontierareas, the Mahanadia – Eastern (coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh andOrissa), the Coromandal (Eastern Ghats), the Deccan Thorn Forest(much of the Deccan plateau), the Thar Desert (arid zones of Gujaratand Rajasthan), the Laccadive Islands, the Andaman & NicobarIslands, the Himalayan High Lands, and the Tibetan(Trans-Himalayan cold desert area of Himachal Pradesh and Jammu& Kashmir). Rodgers and Panwar (1988) recognized tenbiogeographic zones and twenty biotic provinces. These are: (1) theTrans-Himalaya with one province (18,423 km2), (2) the Himalayaswith four provinces (2,10,662 km2), (3) the Indian desert with twoprovinces (2,15,757 km2), (4) the Semiarid Zone with two provinces(5,45,850 km2), (5) the Western Ghats with two provinces (1,32,606km2), (6) The Deccan Peninsula with five provinces (13,80,380 km2),(7) the Gangetic Plain with two provinces (3,54,782 km2), (8) theNortheast India with two provinces (17,134 km2), (9) the Islandswith three provinces (8,249 km2) and (10) the Coasts with twoprovinces (82,813 km2).

The grassland ecosystem of India covers 3.9 per cent (12million ha) of its total landmass. The bamboo forests are notincluded in this ecosystem. There are five broad grass cover typesfound in India (Belsare, 2006). These are: 1. Sehima-Dichanthiumtype which is spread over peninsular India. The key species areSehima nervosum, Heteropogon contortus, Dichanthium annulatum,and Themeda quadrivalvis. 2. Dichanthium-Cenchrus-Lasiurustype which are found in northern parts of Gujarat, Rajasthan,Western Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and semi-arid Punjab. There are11 perennial grasses, 19 legumes and 26 herbs. 3. Phragmites-Saccharum-Imperata type which spread over the alluvial plains ofGanga and delta plains of West Bengal and Assam Valley. There are19 species of perennial grasses, 16 legumes and 40 herbs.4. Themeda-Arundinella type covering the northern plains to theouter humid hills of the Himalayas, in Assam, Manipur, West Bengal,Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and Jammu & Kashmir.There are 47 perennial grass species, 9 species of legumes and30 herbs. The temperate-Alpine type is distributed over the higheraltitudes of Jammu & Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Himachal Pradeshand Assam. There are 47 species of perennial grasses, 6 species oflegumes and 67 species of herbs.

The desert ecosystems of India are natural ecosystemscharacterized by very low rainfall (< 600 mm) and are broadlydistinguished into sandy warm desert in the far western region ofRajasthan, salt desert (> 10,000 km2) in the western region ofGujarat and cold desert (1,09,990 km2) in the trans-Himalayanregion of Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir and Lahaul-Spiti in HimachalPradesh.

India has a rich variety of wetland habitats, ranging from riversystem of 14 major rivers, 44 medium-sized rivers to 55 minorrivers with total linear length of 45,000 km. Some of the largestrivers in the world are in India and 80 per cent of the total length iscovered by 14 major rivers (Belsare, 2010). Besides these, there areseveral streams and village ponds to large lakes and reservoirs, thelongest rivers, coastal lagoons, estuaries and brackish waters, coral

reefs, mangroves, open coastal and oceanic waters. There arenumerous man-made wetlands like reservoirs behind dams andimpoundments and aquatic ponds. These ecosystems can be groupedinto two categories, i.e., marine and brackish or freshwater on thebasis of salinity. The ecosystems supported on the coast are estuaries,coral reefs, mangroves, sea grassbeds, sandy beaches, rocky beaches,lagoons and salterns. Oceanic ecosystem covers an area of 1.5 to1.6 million km2.

India represents 2.4 per cent of the world’s area, but accountsfor 7.3 per cent of its faunal wealth (Belsare, 2006). The IndianConstitution specifies that “it shall be the duty of every citizen ofIndia to protect and improve the natural environment includingforests, lakes, rivers, and wildlife and to have compassion for livingcreatures.”

Even under tremendous development pressures, India harborsan impressive array of wildlife. This is mainly due to its cultural andreligious significance combined with a very strong legal andconstitutional framework for wildlife protection, active judiciary,and a proactive civil society sector.

Contents

1 Wild Fauna of India 1 – 272 Wild Flora of India 28 – 313 Ramsar Sites of Wetlands 32 – 504 Fauna of Salt Desert 51 – 525 Fauna of Cold Desert 536 Wildlife of Mangrove Ecosystems 54 – 587 Biology of Some Representative Species of

Wildlife59 – 148

8 Biology of Some Representative Species ofTerrestrial Birds

149 – 164

9 Biology of Some Representative Species ofWaterfowls

165 – 189

10 Biology of Some Representative Species ofReptiles

190 – 202

11 Biology of Some Representative Species ofIndian Frogs

203 – 209

12 Threats to Wildlife 210 – 21913 Conservation of Wildlife 220 – 24914 Impact of Ecotourism 250 – 25215 Wildlife Action Plan, Government of India

(2002-2016)253 – 304

16 Methods to Study Wildlife 305 – 32917 Guidelines for Scientific Research in the

Wildlife Protected Areas of India330 – 334

18 Legislation for Protection of Wildlife 335 – 349References 350 – 378Appendices 379 – 386

1Wild Fauna of India

Although documentation of faunal species of India is far fromcomplete, it has rich fauna as noted from the vertebrate taxadescribed from time to time. Several new species of freshwater arerecently reported. Similarly, surveys in the Western Ghats havereported nearly 110 new amphibian species. There are new recordsof mammals from the north-eastern region of India. The non-humanprimate species are increased from 15 to 21. There are two majorcenters of species richness, i.e., Western Ghats and EasternHimalayas in which many endemic species are reported. TheWestern Ghats has 139 species of mammals, 508 species of birds,127 species of reptiles (mostly snakes), 121 species of amphibiansand 218 species of fish (Ranjit Daniels, 2007).

Recent survey done by Zoological Survey of India describedProtozoa (2577 sp), Mesozoa (10 sp), Porifera (486 sp), Cnidaria(842 sp), Ctenophora (12 sp), Platyhelminthes (1622 sp), Rotifera(330 sp), Gastrotricha (100 sp), Kinorhyncha (10 sp), Nematoda(2850 sp), Acanthocephala (229 sp), Sipuncula (35 sp), Mollusca(5070 sp), Echiura (43 sp), Annelida (840 sp), Onychophora (1 sp),Arthropoda (68389 sp), Crustacea (2934 sp), Insecta (59353 sp),Arachnida (5818 sp), Pycnogonida (16 sp), Chilopoda (100 sp),Diplopoda Symphyla (162 sp), Merostomata (4 sp), Phoronida (2 sp),Bryozoa (Ectoprocta) (3 sp), Endoprocta (200 sp), Pogonophora(10 sp), Priapula (3 sp), Hemichordata (30 sp), Protochordata(765 sp), Cephalochordata (119 sp), Urochordata (4952 sp), Pisces(119 sp), Amphibia (2.72), Reptilia (several sp), Aves (2546 sp) and

2 Biology and Management of India’s Wildlife

Mammalia (209 sp). Thus, the total number of species constitutes7.28 per cent of the total species found in the world. The endemicspecies are 9.23 per cent of the total endemic species in the world.The microbial fauna are ubiquitous in distribution and incorporatealgae (40,000 sp), bacteria (3,000 sp), fungi (69,000 sp), protozoans(40,000 sp) and viruses (5,000 sp).

1. The fauna of salt desert is represented by fish (Sciana sp),Polynemus indicus; amphibians (Rana tigrina, R. cyanophlyctis,R. limnocharis, R. hexadactyla, Bufo melanostictus, Microhylaornata, Ophisops jerdonii, O. microlepis, Acanthodactylus cantoris);reptiles (Geckos – Cyrtodactylus kachensis, Hemidactylus brookii,H. leschenaultia, H. flaviviridis); lizards (Sitana ponticeriana,Calotes versicolor, Agama agilis, A. minor); skinks (Mabuyamacularia, Eutropis carinata, Ablepharus grayanus, Riopa punctata,Eumeces taeniolatus, Ophiomorus raithmahi); monitor (Varanusbengalensis), turtle (Lissemys punctata); chameleon (Chamaeleozeylanicus); snakes (Ramphotyphlops braminus, Eryx johnii,Xenochrophis piscator, Psammophis leithii, P. condaranus,Bungarus caeruleus, Naja naja, Echis carinata); birds (Streptopeliasenegalensis, Centropus sinensis, Corvus macrorhynchus, Columbalivia, Psittacula krameri, Acridotheres tristis, Francolinuspondicerianus, Turdoides caudatus, Dicrurus adsimilis, Upupaepops) and mammals (Hemiechinus auritus, Paraechinus minusminus, Rhinopoma microphyllum kinneari, Tophozous kachhensis,Tadarida aegyptiaca, Lepus nigricollis, Tatera indica, Merioneshurrianae, Rattus meltodo).

The elevated islands or ‘bets’ are inhabited by a number ofrodents including Gerbillus, Tatera and Meriones. The Great IndianSalt Desert, Rann of Kutch, is represented by the Indian Wild Ass,Equus hemionus khur.

2. The fauna of cold desert is represented by the Tibetan WildAss or Kiang (Equus hemionus kiang), Snow Leopard (Pantherauncia), Wolf (Canis lupus), Himalayan Marmot (Marmota holak),Long-tailed Marmot (M. caudate), Woolly Hare (Lepus oiostolus),Woolly Flying Squirrel (Eupetaurus cinereus), Yak (Bos grunniens),


Wild Goat (Capra hircus), Shapu or Urial (Ovis orientalis), GreatTibetan Sheep or Nayan (Ovis ammon hodgsoni), Marco Polo’sSheep (O. ammon polii), Chiru (Pantholops hodgsoni), TibetanGazelle (Procapra picticaudata), Bharal or Blue Sheep (Pseudoisnayaur), Ibex (Capra ibex), and Kabul Markhor (Capra falconerimegaceros). The other species are Himalayan Weasel (Mustelaerminea), Beach Marten (Martes foina) and Tibetan Polecat(M. putorius).

3. Mammalian Fauna of India

ORDER – Carnivora (Carnivores)(i) Cats (Family Felidae) – Bengal Tiger (Panthera tigris tigris),

Asiatic Lion (Panthera leo persica), Asiatic Wildcat (Felis silvestrisornata), Leopard (Panthera pardus), Snow Leopard (Pantherauncia), Clouded Leopard (Pardofelis nebulosa), Golden Cat(Catopuma temminckii), Caracal (Caracal caracal schmitzi),Marbled Cat (Pardofelis marmorata charltoni), Leopard Cat(Prionailurus bengalensis), Rusty Spotted Cat (Prionailurusrubiginosus), Fishing Cat (Prionailurus viverrinus), Jungle Cat(Felis chaus), Pallas Cat (Felis manul), Eurasian Lynx (Lynx lynx),Tibetan Lynx (Felis lynx isabellina) and Asiatic Cheetah (Acinonyxjubatus venaticus – extinct from India).

(ii) Canines (Family Canidae) – Indian Fox (Vulpesbengalensis), Blanford’s Fox (Vulpes cana), Tibetan Sand Fox(Vulpes ferrilata), Red Fox (Vulpes vulpes), Golden Jackal (Canisaureus), Grey Wolf (Canis lupus) and Dhole (Cuon alpinus).

(iii) Bears (Family Ursidae) – Sloth Bear (Melursus ursinus),Himalayan Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus), Brown Bear (Ursusarctos) and Malayan Sun Bear (Helarctos malayanus).

(iv) Panda (Family Alluropodinae. It resembles a bear becauseof its short legs and tail, small rounded ears and large paw, e.g.RedPanda (Alliurus fulgans).


(v) Mustelids (Family Mustelidae)

Martens – Weasel-like animals differing mainly in beinglargely arboreal.

Nilgiri Marten (Martes gwatkinsii), Himalayan Yellow-throatedMarten (Martes flavigula) and Beech Marten (Martes foina).

Weasels – Long, muscular bodies that have a reputation forbeing courageous and bold. Another weasel trait is stealth, whichallows it to sneak up on prey.

Striped-backed Weasel (Mustela strigidorsa), Yellow-belliedWeasel (Mustela kathiah), Pale Weasel (Mustela altaica), HimalayanWeasel (Mustela sibirica), Ermine/Stoat (Mustela erminea ferghanae)and Tibetan Polecat (Mustela putorius larvatus).

Badgers – Heavily built animals with short legs, short tail andbroad flat head. Their loose tuft skin, powerful jaws and the foulsmell glands make them dangerous.

Hog Badger (Arctonyx collaris), Burmese Ferret Badger(Melogale personata) and Chinese Ferret Badger (Melogalemoschata).

Ratel (Mellivora capensis)

Otters – Oriental Small-clawed Otter (Amblonyx cinereus),Common Otter (Lutra lutra) and Smooth Indian Oter (Lutrogaleperspicillata).

(vi) Civets (Family Viverridae) – They have long body (aboutthe size of domestic cat), short legs and a tapered head with smallears and a long bushy tail.

Large Indian Civet (Viverra zibetha), Himalayan Palm Civet(Paguma larvata), Small-toothed Palm Civet (Arctogalidiatrivirgata), Brown Palm Civet (Paradoxurus jerdoni), MalabarLarge-spotted Civet (Viverra civettina), Malabar Civet (Viverramegaspila), Small Indian Civet (Viverricula indica), Binturong(Arctitis binturong albifrons), Toddy Cat (Paradoxurushermaphroditus) and Spotted Linsang (Prionodon pardicolor).


(vii) Mongooses (Family Herpestidae) – Weasel-like animals.Indian Marsh Mongoose (Herpestes palustris – endemic), CommonMongoose (Herpestes edwardsii), Small Indian Mongoose(Herpestes javanicus), Brown Mongoose (Herpestes fuscus), RuddyMongoose (Herpestes smithii), Crab-eating Mongoose (Herpestesurva) and Striped-necked Mongoose (Herpestes vitticollis).

(viii) Hyaenas (Family Hyaenidae) – Striped Hyaena (Hyaenahyaena).

ORDER – Insectivora(i) Hedgehogs (Family Erinaceidae) – Madras Hedgehog

(Paraechinus micropus nudiventris – endemic), Long-eared DesertHedgehog (Hemiechinus collaris), Brandt’s Hedgehog (Hemiechinushypomelas) and Indian Pale Hedgehog (Paraechinus micropus).

(ii) Moles (Family Talpidae) – Small burrowing mammalscharacterized by a pointed snout, rudimentary eyes, soft thick velvetyfur and having long powerful claws on the forelimbs.

White-tailed Mole (Parascaptor leucura) and Himalayan Mole(Euroscaptor micrura).

(iii) Shrews

Family Soricidae

Tiny creatures, often mistaken for rats or mice. They are mainlyinsectivorous.

Eurasian Pygmy Shrew (Sorex minutus), Himalayan WaterShrew (Chimarrogale platycephala himalayica), Mole Shrew(Anourosorex squamipes), Tibetan Water Shrew (Nectogale eleganssikhimensis), Flat-headed (Kashmir) Shrew (Sorex planiceps),Asiatic Shrew/Hodgson’s Brown-toothed Shrew (Soriculuscaudatus), Indian Long-tailed Shrew (Soriculus leucops), SmallLong-tailed Shrew/Arboreal Brown-toothed Shrew (Soriculusmacrurus) and Sikkim Large-clawed Shrew (Soriculus nigrescensnigrescens).


Family CrocidurinaeWhite-toothed Andaman Shrew (Crocidura andamanensis),

Grey Shrew (Crocidura attenuata), Southeast Asian White-toothedShrew (Crocidura fuliginosa), Horsfield’s Shrew (Crocidurahorsfieldi), Andaman Spiny Shrew (Crocidura hispida), Jenkin’sShrew (Crocidura jenkinsi), Bicolored White-toothed Shrew(Crocidura leucodon), Nicobar Shrew (Crocidura nicobarica), PaleGrey Shrew (Crocidura pergrisea), Kashmir White-toothed Shrew(Crocidura pullata), Kelaart’s Long-clawed Shrew (Feroculusferoculus), Musk Shrew (Suncus dayi – endemic), Savi’s PygmyShrew (Suncus etruscus), House Shrew/Musk Shrew (Suncusmurinus), Anderson’s Shrew/Yellow-throated Shrew (Suncusstoliczkanus) and Hill Shrew (Suncus montanus – endemic S. Indiaand Sri Lanka).

ORDER – Scandentia(i) Treeshrews (Family Tupaiidae) – Most primitive mammals

climb trees like squirrels and have long bushy tail.

Nicobar Treeshrew (Tupaia nicobarica), Indian Treeshrew(Anathana ellioti), Northern Treeshrew (Tupaia belangeri) and PeguTreeshrew (Tupaia glis lepcha).

Retain Herbivores

1. Ungulates

ORDER – Perissodactyla – Odd-toed Ungulates(i) Horses (Family Equidae) – Kiang (Equus kiang) and Asiatic

Wild Ass (Equus hemionus khur).

(ii) Rhinoceroses (Family Rhinocerotidae) – Rhinoceros(Rhinoceros unicornis).

ORDER – Artiodactyla – Even-toed Ungulates(i) Pigs (Family Suidae) – Pygmy Hog (Porcula salvania) and

Indian Wild Boar (Sus scrofa).


(ii) (Family Camelidae) – Dromadary Camel (Camelusdromadrius).

(iii) Chevrotains (Family Tragulidae) – Indian SpottedChevrotain (Moschiola indica).

2. DeersFamily Moschidae – Musk Deer (Moschus chrysogaster) and

Black Musk Deer (Moschus fuscus).

Family Cervidae – Cheetal/Spotted Deer (Axis axis), Hog Deer(Axis porcinus), Swamp Deer (Cervus duvauceli duvauceli),Barasingha (C. duvauceli branderi), Thamin, Sangai or ManipurBrow-antlered Deer (Cervus eldii eldii), Sambar (Cervus unicolor),Hangul (Cervus affinis hanglu), Barking Deer/Munjtac (Muntiacusmuntjak), Leaf Muntjac (Muntiacus putaoensis) and Black Muntjac(Muntiacus crinifrons).

(v) Bovids (Family Bovidae)Domestic Yak (Bos grunniens), Gaur (Bos gaurus), Wild

Buffalo (Bubalus arnee) and Takin (Budorcas taxicolor).

Antelopes – Nilgai (Boselaphus tragocamelus), Chinkara(Gazella bennettii), Four-horned Antelope/Chousingha (Tetracerusquadricornis), Blackbuck (Antilope cervicapra), Chiru or TibetanAntelope (Pantholops hodgsoni) and Tibetan Gazelle (Procaprapicticauda).

Goats – Wild Goat or Sind Ibex (Capra aegagrus), Markhor(Capra falconeri), Ibex (Capra ibex), Nilgiri Tahr (Nilgiritragushylocrius – endemic), Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus),Serow (Naemorhedus sumatraensis = Capricornis sumatraensis),Bharal (Pseudois nayaur nayayr), Marco Polo Sheep (Ovis ammonpolii), Nayan or Great Tibetan Sheep (Ovis ammon hodgsonii), Urial/Shapu (Ovis orientalis vignei), Red Goral (Naemorhedus baileyi),Grey Goral (N. goral hodgsonii) and Brown Ghoral (Naemorhedusgoral goral).


ORDER – ProboscideaElephants (Family Elephantidae) – Asian Elephant (Elephas

maximus).

ORDER – Primates(i) Old World Monkeys (Family Cercopithecidae) – Stump-

tailed Macaque (Macaca arctoides), Assamese Macaque (Macacaassamensis pelops), Crab-eating Macaque (Macaca fascicularis),Nicobar Long-tailed Macaque (Macaca fascicularis umbrosa),Rhesus Macaque (Macaca mulatta), Arunachal Macacque (Macacamunzala), Pig-tailed Macacque (Macaca nemestrina), BonnetMacaque (Macaca radiata – endemic), Tibetan Macacque (Macacathibetana), Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus – endemic),Common Langurs (Semnopithecus spp.), Nepal Grey Langur(Semnopithecus schistaceus), Kashmir Grey Langur (Semnopithecusajax), Tarai Grey Langur (Semnopithecus hector), Northern PlainsGrey Langur (Semnopithecus entellus), Black-footed Grey Langur(Semnopithecus hypoleucos), Southern Plains Grey Langur(Semnopithecus dussumieri), Tufted Grey Langur (Semnopithecuspriam), Silvered Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus cristatus), GoldenLangur (Trachypithecus geei), Nilgiri Langur (Trachypithecusjohnii – endemic), Capped Langur (Trachypithecus pileatus),Phayre’s Leaf Monkey (Trachypithecus phayrei) and HimalayanLangur (Presbytis entellus schistaceus).

(ii) Lesser Apes (Gibbons) (Family Hylobatidae) – Hoolockgibbon (Hylobates hoolock).

(ii) Lorises (Family Lorisidae) – Slender Loris (Loristardigradus) and Bengal Slow Loris (Nycticebus bengalensis).

ORDER – Chiroptera – Bats(i) Fruit Bats (Family Pteropodidae) – Salim Ali’s Fruit Bat

(Latidens salimalii), Malaysian Fruit Bat (Cynopterus brachyotis),Short-nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopterus sphinx), Niphan’s Tailless FruitBat (Megaerops niphanae), Egyptian Fruit Bat (Rousettusegyptiacus), Fulvous Fruit Bat (Rousettus leschenaulti), Mountain


Fruit Bat (Sphaerias blanfordi), Greater Long-tongued Fruit Bat(Macroglossus sobrinus), White-collared Tailless Fruit Bat(Megaerops wetmorei), Golden-capped Fruit Bat (Pteropusvampyrus), Dawn Bat (Eonycteris spelaea), Nicobar/Erabu FlyingFox (Pteropus faunulus), Indian Flying Fox (Pteropus giganteus)and Christmas Island Flying Fox (Pteropus melanotus).

(ii) Mouse-tailed Bats (Family Rhinopomatidae) – Mouse-tailed Bat (Rhinopoma microphyllum) and Small Mouse-tailed Bat(Rhinopoma hardwickii).

(iii) Sheath-tailed Bats (Family Emballonuridae) – Long-armedSheath-tailed Bat (Taphozous longimanus), Black-bearded Sheath-tailed Bat (Taphozous melanopogon), Sheath-tailed Bat (Taphozoussaccolaimus), Theobald’s Tomb Bat (Taphozous theobaldi), Naked-rumped Tomb Bat (Taphozous nudiventris) and Tomb Bat/EgyptianTomb Bat (Taphozous perforatus).

(iv) False Vampire Bats (Family Megadermatidae) – IndianFalse Vampire Bat (Megaderma lyra) and Asian False Vampire Bat(Megaderma spasma).

(v) Horseshoe Bats (Family Rhinolophidae) – Horsfield’sHorseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus pearsonii), Least Horseshoe Bat(Rhinolophus pusillus), Rufous Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus rouxi),Intermediate Horseshoe Bat/Acuminate Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophusaffinis), Kindred Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus cognatus), GreaterHorseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus ferrumequinum), Great IndianHorseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus luctus), Mitred Horseshoe Bat(Rhinolophus mitratus – endemic to Bihar), Chestnut Horseshoe Bat(Rhinolophus subbadius), Trefoil Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophustrifoliatus) and Dobson’s Horseshoe Bat (Rhinolophus yunanensis).

(vi) Leaf-nosed Bats (Family Hipposideridae) – Dusky Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros ater), Least Round-leaf Horse-shoe Bat(Hipposideros cineraceus), Large Malayan Leaf-nosed Bat(Hipposideros diadema), Fulvous Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosfulvus), Tailless Leaf-nosed Bat (Coelops frithi), Great HimalayanLeaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros armiger), Old World Leaf-nosed Bat


(Hipposideros durgadasi), Common Round-leaf-nosed Bat(Hipposideros galeritus), Great Ceylon Leaf-nosed Bat(Hipposideros lankadiva), Intermediate Round-leaf Bat(Hipposideros larvatus), Round-leaf Bat (Hipposideros pomona),Split Round-leaf Bat/Bellary Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposiderosschistaceus) and Schneider’s Round-leaf Bat (Hipposideros speoris).

(vii) Evening Bats (Family Vespertilionidae) – Asian/EasternBarbestelle Bat (Barbastella leucomelas), Northern Serotine Bat(Eptesicus gobiensis), Dobson’s Bat (Eptesicus pachyotis), CommonSerotine Bat (Eptesicus serotinus), Bobinskii’s Serotine (Eptesicusnilssoni – endemic to Kashmir), Tate’s Serotine Bat (Eptesicustatei), Tickell’s Bat (Hesperoptenus tickelli), Korean Orange-whiskered Bat (Myotis formosus), Great Evening Bat (Ia io), Hairy-faced Bat (Myotis annectans), Lesser Mouse-eared Bat (Myotisblythii), Daubenton’s Bat (Myotis daubentonii), Large-footed Bat(Myotis hasseltii), Horsfield’s Myotis Bat (Myotis horsfieldii), Long-fingered Bat (Myotis longipes), Large Brown Myotis Bat (Myotismontivagus), Dark-whiskered Bat (Myotis muricola), Whiskered Bat(Myotis mystacinus), Peshwa Bat (Myotis peshwa), Ridley’s Bat(Myotis ridleyi), Little Brown Bat (Myotis sicarius), Small-toothedWhiskered Bat (Myotis siligorensis), Leisler’s Noctule/Hairy-armedBat (Nyctalus leisleri), Medium-sized Noctule Bat (Nyctalusmontanus), Common Noctule Bat (Nyctalus noctula), Hemprich’sLong-eared Bat (Otonycteris hemprichii), Dormer’s Pipistrelle Bat(Pipistrellus dormeri), Dormer’s Bat (Scotozous dormeri), Dobson’sChocolate Bat (Pipistrellus affinis), Cadorna’s Pipistrelle Bat(Pipistrellus cadornae), Kelaart’s Pipistrelle Bat (Pipistrellusceylonicus), Kuhl’s Pipistrelle Bat (Pipistrellus kuhlii), Thomas’Pipistrelle Bat (Pipistrellus paterculus), Common Pipistrelle Bat(Pipistrellus pipistrellus), Savi’s Pipistrelle Bat (Pipistrellus savii),Least Pipistrelle Bat (Pipistrellus tenuis), Brown Longeared Bat(Plecotus auritus), Grey Longeared Bat (Plecotus austriacus),Temminck’s House Bat/Lesser House Bat (Scotophilus kuhlii),Philippine Bamboo Bat (Tylonycteris pachypus), FrostedBat/Particolored Bat (Vespertilio murinus), Round-eared tube-nosed


Bat (Murina cyclotis), Tube-nosed Insectivorous Bat (Murina grisea),Hutton’s Tube-nosed Bat (Murina huttoni), Great Tube-nosed Bat/Long-nosed Goblin Bat (Murina leucogaster), Gilgit Tube-nosed Bat(Murina tubinaris), Little Tube-nosed Bat (Murina aurata), SmallBent-winged Bat (Miniopterus pusillus), Schreiber’s Long-fingeredBat (Miniopterus schreibersii), Hairy-winged Bat (Harpiocephalusharpia), Hardwicke’s Forest Bat (Kerivoula hardwickii), PapilloseWoolly Bat (Kerivoula papillosa), Painted Butterfly Bat (Kerivoulapicta), Yellow Desert Bat (Scotoecus pallidus), Harlequin Bat(Scotomanes ornatus) and Common Yellow-bellied Bat (Scotophilusheathii).

(viii) Free-tailed Bats (Family Molossidae) – Wroughton’sFree-tailed Bat (Otomops wroughtoni), Egyptian Free-tailed Bat(Tadarida aegyptiaca), Wrinkled-lipped Bat (Tadarida plicata =Chaerephon plicata) and European Free-tailed Bat (Tadaridateniotis).

ORDER – PholidotaPangolins (Family Manidae) – These are mammals with large,

overlapping pointed scales from head to tip of tail. During danger,they roll their body into a ball. They can erect their scales in an arrayof knife-like blades.

Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata), Malayan Pangolin(Manis javanica) and Chinese Pangolin (Manis pentadactyla aurita).

ORDER – RodentiaRodents are animals that gnaw.

Squirrels (Family Sciuridae) – Small slender bodied creatureswith long tail that balance their body.

Jungle Striped Squirrel (Funambulus tristriatus – endemic),Red-bellied Tree Squirrel (Callosciurus erythraeus), Hoary-belliedHimalayan Squirrel (Callosciurus pygerythrus), Orange-belliedHimalayan Squirrel (Dremomys lokriah), Three-striped PalmSquirrel (Funambulus palmarum), Five-striped Palm Squirrel(Funambulus pennantii), Dusky-striped Squirrel (Funambulus


sublineatus), Pernyi’s Ground Squirrel (Dremomys pernyi), Red-cheeked Squirrel (Dremomys rufigenis), Layard’s Palm Squirrel(Funambulus layardi), Himalayan Marmot (Marmota himalayana),Bobak Marmot (Marmota bobak himalayana), Golden Marmot(Marmota caudata), Malayan Giant Squirrel (Ratufa bicolorgigantea), Indian Giant Squirrel (Ratufa indica, R. indica centralis,R. indica dealbata, R. indica indica and R. indica maxima), GrizzledGiant Squirrel (Ratufa macroura) and Himalayan Striped Squirrel(Tamiops mcclellandii).

Flying Squirrels (Family Pteromyidae) – Kashmir WoollyFlying Squirrel (Eupetaurus cinereus), Parti-coloured Flying Squirrel(Hylopetes alboniger), Kashmir Flying Squirrel (Hylopetes baberi),Small Kashmir Flying Squirrel (Hylopetes fimbriatus), Hairy-footedFlying Squirrel (Belomys pearsonii = Trogopterus pearsonii),Namdapha Flying Squirrel (Biswamoyopterus biswasi), Grey-headedFlying Squirrel (Petaurista elegans), Hodgson’s Flying Squirrel(Petaurista magnificus), Noble Giant Flying Squirrel (Petauristanobilis), Giant Red Flying Squirrel (Petaurista petaurista), LargeBrown Flying Squirrel (Petaurista philippensis) and SmallTravancore Flying Squirrel (Petinomys fuscocapillus).

Old World Mice/Rats

Family Muridae(i) Mice

Korean Field Mouse (Apodemus draco), Long-tailed FieldMouse (Apodemus orestes), Kashmir Wood Mouse (Apodemusrusiges), Wood Mouse (Apodemus sylvaticus), Wroughton’s WoodMouse (Apodemus wardi), Pencil-tailed Tree Mouse (Chiropodomysgliroides), Manipur Mouse (Diomys crumpi), Indian Field Mouse(Mus booduga), Fawn-coloured Mouse (Mus cervicolor), Cook’sMouse (Mus cookii), House/Ricefield Mouse (Mus dunni = Musterricolor), Servant Mouse (Mus famulu – endemic to the WesternGhats), Shrew Mouse (Mus pahari), Spiny Mouse (Mus phillipsi),Spiny Field Mouse (Mus platythrix – endemic), Grey Spiny Mouse(Mus saxicola), Long-tailed Tree Mouse (Vandeleuria oleracea


dumeticola), Indian Long-tailed Tree Mouse (Vandeleurianilagirica), Indian Desert Jird (Meriones hurrianae), EurasianHarvest Mouse (Micromys minutus) and Malabar Spiny Dormouse(Platacanthomys lasiurus).

(ii) Rats

Indian Bush Rat (Golunda ellioti), Blanford’s Rat (Cremnomysblanfordi), Cutch Rock Rat (Cremnomys cutchicus), Elvira Rat(Cremnomys elvira – known only from Kurumbapatti, Salem),Large-toothed Giant Rat/Millard’s Rat (Dacnomys millardi millardi),Indian Mole Rat (Bandicota bengalensis), Bandicoot Rat (Bandicotaindica), Short-tailed Mole (Nesokia indica), Bower’s Rat (Berylmysbowersii), Kenneth’s White-toothed Rat (Berylmys mackenziei),Manipur White-toothed Rat (Berylyms manipulus), Edward’s GiantRat (Leopoldamys edwardsi edwardsi), Murray’s Soft-furred Rat(Millardia gleadowi), Asian Soft-furred Rat (Millardia kondana),Soft-furred Field Rat or Metad (Millardia meltada), Manipur BushRat (Hadromys humei), Miller’s Rat (Rattus burrus – endemic toNicobars), Polynesian/Pacific Rat (Rattus exulans), Himalayan Rat(Rattus nitidus), Brown Rat/Norway Rat (Rattus norvegicus), PalmRat (Rattus palmarum – endemic to Nicobars), Kerala Rat (Rattusranjiniae – endemic to Western Ghats), Sikkim Rat (Rattussikkimensis = Rattus remotus), Andaman Rat (Rattus stoicus),Brahma White-bellied Rat (Niviventer brahma), Smoke-bellied Rat(Niviventer eha), Lang Bian White-bellied Rat (Niviventerlangbianis), White-bellied Rat (Niviventer niviventer niviventer),Tenasserim White-bellied Rat (Niviventer tenaster), MalaysianWood Rat/Malaysian Field Rat (Rattus tiomanicus), Turkestan Rat(Rattus turkestanicus), Bay Bamboo Rat (Cannomys badius badius),Hoary Bamboo Rat (Rhizomys pruinosus), Little Himalayan Rat(Niviventer eha), Chestnut Rat (Niviventer fulvescens), Ghose’sWhite-bellied Rat (Niviventer niviventer monticola) and Indian BushRat (Golunda elloti).


(iii) Hamsters and Gerbils

Ladakh Hamster (Cricetulus alticola), Armenian Hamster(Cricetulus migratorius), Indian Gerbille (Tatera indica), IndianHairy-footed Gerbil (Gerbillus gleadowi) and Baluchistan Gerbil(Gerbillus nanus).

(iv) Voles – Small short-tailed rodents.

White-tailed Mountain Vole (Alticola albicauda), KashmirMountain Vole (Alticola montosa), Royle’s Mountain Vole (Aticolaroylei), Silvery Mountain Vole (Alticola argentatus), Thomas’sMountain Vole (Alticola stracheyi), Pere David’s Vole (Eothenomysmelanogaster), Murree Vole/Punjab Vole (Hyperacrius wynnei),Blyth’s Vole (Microtus leusurus) True’s Vole (Hyperacrius fertilis)and Sikkim Vole (Microtus sikimensis).

Family Zapodidae(i) Jumping Mice – Jumping Mouse (Sicista concolor).

(ii) Old World Porcupines – Bush-tailed Porcupine (Atherurusmacrourus assamensis) and Indian Porcupine (Hystrix indica).

(iii) Marmots – Large rodents with blunt snout, a short bushytail and short legs. They are burrowing animals and hibernate duringwinter. Himalayan Marmot (Marmota bobak himalayana) andEastern Red Marmot (Marmota hemachalanus).

ORDER – Lagomorpha(i) Hares and Rabbits – Hispid Hare (Caprolagus hispidus),

Cape Hare (Lepus capensis), Indian Hare/Blacknaped Hare (Lepusnigricollis) and Woolly Hare (Lepus oiostolus).

(ii) Pikas – These are miniature rabbits but ears are not solengthy. They do not have tail and their fur is fine. They have shortlegs. Nubra Pika (Ochotona nubrica), Black-lipped Pika (Ochotonacurzoniaed), Forrest’s Pika (Ochotona forresti), Ladakh Pika(Ochotona ladacensis), Large-eared Pika (Ochotona macrotis),Himalayan Mouse-hare/Royle’s Pika (Ochotona roylei) andMountain Pika (Ochotona thibetana).


ORDER – Cetacea

Whales, Dolphins and Porpoises (Aquatic Mammals)Dolphins (Family Delphinidae) – Common Dolphin (Delphinus

delphis), Pilot Whale (Globicephala macrorhynchus), Risso’sDolphin (Grampus griseus), Irrawady Dolphin (Orcaellabrevirostris), Orca (Orcinus orca), Melon-headed Whale(Peponocephala electra), False Killer Whale (Pseudorca crassidens),Pygmy Killer Whale (Feresa attenuata), Humpback Dolphin (Sousachinensis), Spinner Dolphin (Stenella longirostris), Indo-PacificBottlenose Dolphin (Tursiops aduncus), Fraser’s Dolphin(Lagenodelphis hosei), Pantropical Spotted (Bridled) Dolphin(Stenella attenuata), Striped Dolphin (Stenella coeruleoalba) andRough-toothed Dolphin (Steno bredanensis).

River Dolphins (Family Platanistidae) – Ganges River Dolphin(Platanista gangetica gangetica) and Indus River Dolphin(Platanista gangetica minor).

WhalesFamily Balaenopteridae – Minke Whale (Balaenoptera

acutorostrata), Sea Whale (Balaenoptera borealis), Bryde’s Whale(Balaenoptera edeni), Blue Whale (Balaenoptera musculus), FinWhale (Balaenoptera physalus) and Humpback Whale (Megapteranovaeangliae).

Family Balaenidae – Southern Right Whale (Eubalaenaaustralis).

Family Ziphiidae – Cuvier’s Beaked Whale (Ziphiuscavirostris), Blainville’s Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon densirostris)and Ginkgo-toothed Beaked Whale (Mesoplodon ginkgodens).

Family Phocoenidae – Pygmy Sperm Whale (Kogia breviceps),Dwarf Sperm Whale (Kogia sima), Finless Porpoise (Neophocaenaphocaenoides) and Sperm Whale (Physeter macrocephalus).

ORDER – SireniaFamily Dugongidae – Dugong (Dugong dugon).


BirdsThere are 1,228 species of birds found in India; approximately

82 species are listed as threatened in the IUCN Red List ofThreatened Animals (IUCN, 2006).

The most endangered species of bird are:

White-bellied Heron (Ardea insignis), Sarus Crane (Grusantigone), Himalayan Quail (Ophrysia superciliosa), Pink-headedDuck (Rhodonessa caryophyllacea), Siberian Crane (Grusleucogeranus), Oriental Stork (Ciconia boyciana), Forest Owlet(Athene blewitti), Jerdon’s Courser (Rhinoptilus bitorquatus), White-winged Duck (Cairina scutulata), Great Indian Bustard (Ardeotisnigriceps), Bengal Florican (Houbaropsis bengalensis), Nordmann’sGreenshank (Tringa guttifer), Rufous-breasted Laughingthrush(Garrulax cachinnans), Cinereous Vulture (Aegypius monachus),White-rumped Vulture (Gyps bengalensis), Long-billed Vulture(Gyps indicus), White-headed Duck (Oxyura leucocephala), GreaterAdjutant (Leptoptilos dubius) and Lesser Florican (Sypheotidesindica).

The Migratory WaterfowlsMigratory waterfowls of India are Black-throated Diver

(Gavia arctica), Black-necked Grebe (Podiceps nigricollis), Red-necked Grebe (Podiceps grisegena), Great White Pelican (Pelecanusonocrotalus), Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus), GreatCormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo), Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea),Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea), Large Egret (Casmerodius albus),Little Bittern (Ixobrychus minutus), Great Bittern (Botaurus stellaris),Black Stork (Ciconia nigra), Oriental White Stork (Ciconiaboyciana), Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus), Eurasian Spoonbill(Platalea leucorodia), Greater White-fronted Goose (Anseralbifrons), Lesser White-fronted Goose (Anser erythropus), Bar-headed Goose (Anser indicus), Greylag Goose (Anser anser),Brahminy Shelduck (Tadorna ferruginea), Common Shelduck(Tadorna tadorna), Northern Pintail (Anas acuta), Marbled Teal(Marmaronetta angustirostris), Baikal Teal (Anas formosa),


Common Teal (Anas crecca), Spot-billed Duck (Anaspoecilorhyncha), Mallard (Anas platyrhynchos), Gadwall (Anasstrepera), Falcated Duck (Anas falcata), Eurasian Wigeon (Anaspenelope), Garganey (Anas querquedula), Northern Shoveler (Anasclypeata), Red-crested Pochard (Rhodonessa rufina), CommonPochard (Aythya ferina), Ferruginous Pochard (Aythya nyroca),Baer’s Pochard (Aythya baeri), Tufted Pochard (Aythya fuligula),Common Goldeneye (Bucephala clangula), Smew (Mergellusalbellus), Common Merganser (Mergus merganser), White-headedDuck (Oxyura leucocephala), Pallas’s Fish Eagle (Haliaeetusleucoryphus), White-tailed Sea-Eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla), GreaterSpotted Eagle (Aquila clanga), Steppe Eagle (Aquila nipalensis),Eastern Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca), Western Marsh Harrier(Circus aeruginosus), Osprey (Pandion haliaetus), Peregrine Falcon(Falco peregrinus), Common Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus),Common Crane (Grus grus), Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus),Demoiselle Crane (Grus virgo), Water Rail (Rallus aquaticus),Baillon’s Crake (Porzana pusilla), Spotted Crake (Porzana porzana),Little Crake (Porzana parva), Common Coot (Fulica atra), EurasianOystercatcher (Haematopus ostralegus), White-tailed Lapwing(Vanellus leucurus), Sociable Lapwing (Vanellus gregarius),Northern Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus), Grey Plover (Pluvialissquatarola), European Golden Plover (Pluvialis apricaria), PacificGolden Plover (Pluvialis fulva), Greater Sand Plover (Charadriusleschenaultia), Common Ringed Plover (Charadrius hiaticula),Kentish Plover (Charadrius alexandrinus), Little Ringed Plover(Charadrius dubius), Long-billed Ringed Plover (Charadriusplacidus), Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), Eurasian Curlew(Numenius arquata), Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa), Bar-tailed Godwit (Limosa lapponica), Spotted Redshank (Tringaerythropus), Common Redshank (Tringa tetanus), Marsh Sandpiper(Tringa stagnatilis), Common Greenshank (Tringa nebularia), GreenSandpiper (Tringa ochropus), Wood Sandpiper (Tringa glareola),Spotted Greenshank (Tringa guttifer), Terek Sandpiper (Xenuscinereus), Common Sandpiper (Actitis hypoleucos), RuddyTurnstone (Arenaria interpres), Asian Dowitcher (Limnodromus


semipalmatus), Eurasian Woodcock (Scolopax rusticola), Red Knot(Calidris canutus), Great Knot (Calidris tenuirostris), Sanderling(Calidris alba), Rufous-necked Stint (Calidris ruficollis), Little Stint(Calidris minuta), Temminck’s Stint (Calidris temminckii), Long-toed Stint (Calidris subminuta), Dunlin (Calidris alpina), CurlewSandpiper (Calidris ferruginea), Spoonbill Sandpiper (Calidrispygmeus), Broad-billed Sandpiper (Limicola falcinellus), Ruff(Philomachus pugnax), Red-necked Phalarope (Phalaropus lobatus),Red Phalarope (Phalaropus fulicaria), Black-winged Stilt(Himantopus himantopus), Pied Avocet (Recurvirostra avosetta),Yellow-legged Gull (Larus cachinnans), Pallas’s Gull (Larusichthyaetus), Black-headed Gull (Larus ridibundus), Slender-billedGull (Larus genei), White-winged Black Tern (Chlidoniasleucopterus), Whiskered Tern (Chlidonias hybridus), Gull-billedTern (Gelochelidon nilotica), Caspian Tern (Sterna caspia),Common Tern (Sterna hirundo), Little Tern (Sterna albifrons),Sandwich Tern (Sterna sandvicensis), Small Blue Kingfisher (Alcedoatthis), Sand Martin (Riparia riparia), Common Swallow (Hirundorustica), Red-rumped Swallow (Hirundo daurica), Red-throatedPipit (Anthus cervinus), Water Pipit (Anthus spinoletta), YellowWagtail (Motacilla flava), White Wagtail (Motacilla alba) and GreyWagtail (Motacilla cinerea).

The endangered wetland birds listed by Bird LifeInternational (2001) are Dalmatian Pelican (Pelecanus crispus),Spot-billed Pelican (P. philippensis), White-bellied Heron (Ardeainsignis), Oriental Stork (Ciconia boyciana), Lesser Adjutant(Leptoptilos javanicus), Greater Adjutant (L. dubius), White-headedDuck (Oxyura leucocephala), Lesser White-fronted Goose (Ansererythropus), White-winged Duck (Cairina scutalata), Baikal Teal(Marmaronetta augustirostris), Pink-headed Duck (Rhodonessacaryophyllacea), Baer’s Pochard (Aythya baeri), Pallas’s Fish-eagle(Haliaeetus leucoryphus), Greater Spotted Eagle (Aquila clanga),Siberian Crane (Grus leucogeranus), Hooded Crane (G. monacha),Black-necked Crane (G. nigricollis), Sarus Crane (G. antigone),Andaman Crake (Rallina canningi), Masked Finfoot (Heliopais


personata), Wood Snipe (Gallinago nemoricola), SpottedGreenshank (Tringa guttifer), Spoon-billed Sandpiper(Euryhorhynchus pygmaeus), Indian Skimmer (Rynchops albicollis),Marsh Babbler (Pellorneum palustre), Jerdon’s Babbler (Chrysommaaltirostre) and Black-breasted Parrotbill (Paradoxornis flavirostris).

Reptiles(i) Turtles and Tortoises (Family Testudinidae)

Ganges Soft-shelled Turtle (Aspideretes gangeticus), PeacockSoft-shelled Turtle (Aspideretes hurum), Assam Roofed Turtle(Batagur baska), Black Pond Turtle (Geoclemys hamiltonii),Brahminy River Turtle (Hardella thurjii), Brown-roofed Turtle(Kachuga smithii), Narrow-headed Soft-shelled Turtle (Chitraindica), Southeast Asian Box Turtle (Cuora amboinensis), IndianFlap-shelled Turtle (Lissemys punctata), Tricarinate Hill Turtle(Melanochelys tricarinata), Green Turtle (Chelonia mydas),Hawksbill Turtle (Eretmochelys imbricata), Indian Roofed Turtle(Kachuga tecta), Three-striped Roofed Turtle (Kachuga dhongoka),Red Crowned Roof Turtle (Kachuga kachuga), Cane Turtle(Vijayachelys silvatica), Leatherback Turtle (Dermochelys coriacea),Indian Black Turtle (Melanochelys trijuga), Indian Tent Turtle(Pangshura tentoria), Cantor’s Giant Soft-shelled Turtle (Pelochelyscantorii), Indian Eyed Turtle (Morenia petersi), Nagpur Soft-shelledTurtle (Aspideretes leithii), Olive Ridley (Lepidochelys olivacea),Indian Star Tortoise (Geochelone elegans), Elongated Tortoise(Indotestudo elongata) and Asian Forest Tortoise (Manouria emys).

(ii) Snakes

Andaman Krait (Bungarus andamanensis), Northeastern HillKrait (Bungarus bungaroides), Lesser Black Krait (Bungaruslividus), Greater Black Krait (Bungarus niger), Sind Krait (Bungarussindanus), Captain’s Wood Snake (Xylophis captaini), Sri Lanka CatSnake (Boiga ceylonensis), Common Cat Snake (Boiga trigonata),Hump-nosed Viper (Hypnale hypnale), Indian Cobra (Naja naja),Indian Black Earth Snake (Melanophidium wynaudense), Jerdon’sSnake Eye (Ophisops jerdonii), Leschenault’s Snake Eye (Ophisops


leschenaultii), Travancore Hills Thorntail Snake (Platyplectrurusmadurensis), Kerala Shieldtail Snake (Plectrurus aureus), KanaraShieldtail Snake (Plectrurus canaricus), Perrotet’s Shieldtail Snake(Plectrurus perrotetii), Python (Python molurus), Brahminy BlindSnake (Ramphotyphlops braminus), Cardamom Hills Earth Snake(Rhinophis fergusonianus), Travancore Shieldtail Snake (Rhinophistravancoricus), Madurai Earth Snake (Uropeltis arcticeps) andBombay Earth Snake (Uropeltis macrolepis).

(iii) Lizards

Water Monitor (Varanus salvator), Yellow Monitor (Varanusflavescens), Desert Monitor (Varanus griseus), Bengal Monitor(Varanus bengalensis), Clouded Monitor (Varanus nebulosus),Agamid Lizard (Coryphophylax subcristatus), Yellow-headed RockAgama (Laudakia himalayana), Indian Fringe-fingered Lizard(Acanthodactylus cantoris), Wall Lizard (Ophisops minor) andIndian Chameleon (Chamaeleon zeylanicus).

(iv) Geckos

Leopard Gecko (Eublepharis macularius), East Indian LeopardGecko (Eublepharis hardwickii), Gecko of Western India(Eublepharis fuscus) and Malayan Forest Gecko (Cyrtodactyluspulchellus).

(v) Crocodiles

Saltwater Crocodile (Crocodylus porosus), Mugger (Crocodyluspalustris) and Gharial (Gavialis gangeticus).

AmphibiaIndia has the third largest amphibian population in Asia

comprising 272 species of which 167 (66.3 per cent) species areendemic.

Family Bufonidae(i) Toads

Ornate Torrent Toad (Ansonia ornata), Silent Valley TorrentToad (Ansonia rubina), Bedom’s Toad (Bufo beddomii), Short-nosed


Toad (Bufo brevirostris), Projective-occiputed Toad (Bufo cyphosus),Himalayan Toad (Duttaphrynus himalayanus), Projective-occiputedToad Clade (Bufo hololius), Koyna Toad (Bufo koynayensis), LadakhToad (Pseudepidalea = Bufo latastii), Common Indian Toad (Bufo =Duttaphrynus melanostictus), Ridged Toad (Bufo parietalis),Ferguson’s Toad (Bufo scaber), Silent Valley Toad (Bufosilentvalleyensis), Marbled Toad (Bufo stomaticus), Green Toad(Bufo viridis), Stuart’s Toad (Bufo stuarti), Khasi Hill Rock Toad(Bufoides meghalayanus), Kemp’s Asian Tree Toad (Pedostibeskempi) and Malabar Tree Toad (Pedostibes tuberculosus).

Family MegophryidaeHasselt’s Toad (Leptobrachium hasseltii), Xizang Alpine Toad

(Scutiger gongshanensis), Nyingchi Alpine Toad (Scutigernyingchiensis), Sikkim Alpine Toad (Scutiger sikimmensis), Pale-shouldered Horn Toad (Xenophrys boettgeri), Kemp’s Bubble-nestToad (Xenophrys kempii), Glandular Horned Toad (Xenophrysmajor), Lesser Stream Horned Toad (Xenophrys parva), MedogHorned Toad (Xenophrys robusta) and Wuliangshan Horned Toad(Xenophrys Wuliangshanensis).

(ii) Frogs

Family CeratobatrachidaeCharles Darwin’s Frog (Ingerana charlesdarwini = Rana

charlesdarwini).

Family DicroglossidaeCommon Skittering Frog (Euphlyctis cyanophlyctis), Ghosh’s

Frog (Euphlyctis ghoshi), Indian Five-fingered Frog (Euphlyctishexadactylus), Chestnut Brown Frog (Fejervarya andamanensis =Limnonectes andamanensis), Calcutta Wart Frog (Fejervaryaassimilis), Bengal Wart Frog (Fejervarya brama), Short-webbedFrog (Fejervarya brevipalmata), Crab-eating Frog (Fejervaryacancrivora), Hainan Wart Frog (Fejervarya greenii), Kerala WartFrog (Fejervarya keralensis), Alpine Cricket Frog (Fejervaryalimnocharis), Murthy’s Frog (Fejervarya murthii), Mysore Frog


(Fejervarya mysorensis), De Bay Wart Frog, (Fejervarzanicobarensis), Nepal Wart Frog (Fejervarya nepalensis), NilgiriFrog (F. nilagirica), Orissa Frog (Fejervarya orissaensis),Parambikulam Frog (Fejervarya parambikulamana), RufescentBurrowing Frog (Fejervarya rufescens), Lizard-headed Frog(Fejervarya sauriceps), Sahyadri Cricket Frog (Fejervaryasyhadrensis = Limnonectes syhadrensis), Terai Wart Frog(Fejervarya teraiensis), Jerdon’s Bullfrog (Hoplobatrachus crassus),Indian Bullfrog (Hoplobatrachus tigerinus), Burmese Wart Frog(Limnonectes doriae), Penang Taylor’s Frog (Limnonecteshascheanus), Khasi Wart Frog (Limnonectes khasianus), Kuhl’sCreek Frog (Limnonectes kuhlii), Khasi Wart Frog (Limnonecteslaticeps), Taylor’s Frog (Limnonectes limborgi), Mawlyndipi WartFrog (Limnonectes mawlyndipi), Kopen Wart Frog (Limnonectesshompenorum), Resplendent Shrub Frog (Minervarya sahyadris),Annandale’s Paa Frog (Nanorana annandalii), Arnold’s Paa Frog(Nanorana arnoldi), Kashmir Torrent Frog (Nanoranabarmoachensis = Paa barmoachensis), Blanford’s Paa Frog(Nanorana blanfordii = Paa blanfordii), Cona Paa Frog (Nanoranaconaensis = Paa conaensis), Torrent Paa Frog (Nanorana ercepeae =Paa ercepeae), Hazara Torrent Frog (Nanorana hazarensis,(Nanorana liebigii = Paa liebigii), Nepal Paa Frog (Nanoranaminica = Paa minica), Mokokchung Paa Frog (Nanoranamokokchungensis = Paa mokokchungensis), Langtang Paa Frog(Nanorana polunini = Paa polunini), Songpan Slow Frog (Nanoranapleskei), Karez Frog (Nanorana sternosignata = Paa sternosignata),Murree Hill’s Frog (Nanorana vicina = Paa vicina), Sikkim AsianFrog (Ombrana sikimensis = Chaparana sikimensis), BurrowingFrog (Sphaerotheca breviceps, S. dobsoni, S. leucorhynchus),Marbled Sand Frog (Sphaerotheca rolandae), Northern Frog(Occidozyga borealis), Green Puddle Frog (Occidozyga lima),Sumatran Puddle Frog (Occidozyga sumatrana), Canopy Frog(Philautus nerostagona) and Night Frog of Western Ghat(Nyctibatrachus minimus).


Family HylidaeJerdon’s Tree Frog (Hyla annectans).

Family MicrixalidaeElegant Tropical Frog (Micrixalus elegans – endemic), Dusky

Torrent Frog (Micrixalus fuscus), Gadgil’s Tropical Frog (Micrixalusgadgili), Narain’s Tropical Frog (Micrixalus narainensis), NakedTropical Frog (Micrixalus nudis), Nilgiri Tropical Frog (Micrixalusphyllophilus), Malabar Tropical Frog (Micrixalus saxicola),Southern Tropical Frog (Micrixalus silvaticus), Swami Tropical Frog(Micrixalus swamianus) and Silent Valley Tropical Frog (Micrixalusthampii).

Family MicrohylidaeSpotted Narrow-mouthed Frog (Kalophrynus interlineatus =

K. orangensis), Narrow-mouthed Frog (Micryletta inornata),Microhylid Frogs (Ramanella anamalaiensis, R. minor, R. montana,R. marmorata, R. triangularis), White-bellied Pug-snout Frog(R. variegata), Indian Balloon Frog (Uperodon globulosus), MarbledBalloon Frog (Uperodon systoma), Malabar Black Narrow-mouthedFrog (Melanobatrachus indicus), Smooth-fingered Narrow-mouthedFrog (Kaloula baleata), Asian Painted Frog (Kaloula pulchra),Assam Painted Frog (Kaloula assamensis), Sri Lankan Bullfrog(Kaloula taprobanica), Pegu Rice Frog (Microhyla berdmorei),Mayabunder Rice Frog (Microhyla chakrapanii), Dark-sided ChorusFrog (Microhyla heymonsi), Marbled Pigmy Frog (Microhylapulchra) and Red Narrow-mouthed Frog (Microhyla rubra).

Family NyctibatrachidaeCream Spotted Frog (Nyctibatrachus aliciae), Tirunvelveli’s

Hill Frog (Nyctibatrachus beddomii), Deccan Wrinkled Frog(Nyctibatrachus deccanensis), Bombay Night Frog (Nyctibatrachushumayuni), Wrinkled Frog (Nyctibatrachus hussaini), KempholeyNight Frog (Nyctibatrachus kempholeyensis), Boulenger’s Narrow-eyed Frog (Nyctibatrachus major), Castle Rock Wrinkled Frog(Nyctibatrachus petraeus), Coorg Night Frog (Nyctibatrachus


sanctipalustris), Forest Night Frog (Nyctibatrachus sylvaticus),Kalakad Wrinkled Frog (Nyctibatrachus vasanthi), Malabar NightFrog (Nyctibatrachus minimus), Dattatreya Night Frog(Nyctibatrachus dattatreyaensis) and Jog’s Night Frog(Nyctibatrachus jog).

Family PetropedetidaeBeddome’s Leaping Frog (Indirana beddomii), Short-legged

Leaping Frog (Indirana brachytarsus), Spotted Leaping Frog(Indirana diplosticta), Gundia Indian Frog (Indirana gundia), Leith’sLeaping Frog (Indirana leithii), Long-toed Leaping Frog (Indiranaleptodactyla), Rao’s Leaping Frog (Indirana longicrus), KeralaIndian Frog (Indirana phrynoderma), Brown Leaping Frog (Indiranasemipalmata) and Slender-tongued Leaping Frog (Indiranatenuilingua).

Family RanidaeDehradun Stream Frog (Amolops chakrataensis), Assam Sucker

Frog (Amolops formosus), Yembung Sucker Frog (Amolopsgerbillus), Himalaya Sucker Frog (Amolops himalayanus), JaunsarStream Frog (Amolops jaunsari), Marbled Sucker Frog (Amolopsmarmoratus, Amolops monticola, Amolops viridimaculatus),Bicolored Frog (Clinotarsus curtipes = Rana curtipes, Huiachloronota = Rana chloronota, Humerana humeralis = Ranahumeralis), Fungoid Frog (Hylarana malabarica = Ranamalabarica), Hydrophylax raniceps, Pterorana khare, Hylaranatytleri = Rana tytleri, Nasirana alticola = Rana alticola, GoldenFrog (Sylvirana aurantiaca = Rana aurantiaca), Chitwan Frog(Sylvirana chitwanensis = Rana chitwanensis, Mawphlang Frog(S. danieli = Rana danieli), Boulenger’s Garo Hill Frog (Sylviranagaroensis = Rana garoensis), Hylarana leptoglossa (S. leptoglossa =Rana leptoglossa), Black-striped Frog (Sylvirana nigrovittata) andBronzed Frog (Sylvirana temporalis = Rana temporalis).


Family RhacophoridaeCherrapunjee Bush Frog (Chirixalus cherrapunjiae), Dudhwa

Tree Frog (Chirixalus dudhwaensis), Shyamrup’s Bush Frog(Chirixalus shyamrupus), Beddome’s Bush Frog (Philautusbeddomii), Konkan Bush Frog (Philautus bombayensis), Günther’sBush Frog (Philautus chalazodes), Chari’s Bush Frog (Philautuscharius), Boulenger’s Tree Frog (Philautus dubius), Yellow-belliedBush Frog (Philautus flaviventris), Garo Hills Bush Frog (Philautusgaro), Rough-skinned Bush Frog (Philautus glandulosus), MunnarBush Frog (Philautus griet), Günther’s Micro Tree Frog (Philautusjerdonii), Kemp’s Bush Frog (Philautus kempiae), Kirundadu BushFrog (Philautus luteolus), Kobo Bush Frog (Philautus microdiscus),Namdapha Bush Frog (Philautus namdaphaensis), Sacred GroveBush Frog (Philautus sanctisilvaticus), Shillong Bush Frog(Philautus shillongensis), Cross-backed Bush Frog (Philautussignatus), Similipal Bush Frog (Philautus similipalensis), BoringBush Frog (Philautus terebrans), Nilgiri Bush Frog (Philautustinniens), Nilgiri Bush Frog (Philautus tinniens), Travancore BushFrog (Philautus travancoricus), Kudremukh Bush Frog (Philautustuberohumerus), Plain-coloured Bush Frog (Philautus wynaadensis),Nicobarese Tree Frog (Polypedates insularis), False Hour-glass TreeFrog (Polypedates pseudocruciger), Cherrapunji Bush Frog(Chiromantis cherrapunjiae = Chirixalus cherrapunjiae), Doria’sAsian Tree Frog (Chiromantis doriae = Chirixalus doriae), DudhwaTree Frog (Chiromantis dudhwaensis = Chirixalus dudhwaensis),Hornbill Bubble Tree Frog (Chiromantis shyamrupus = Chirixalusshyamrupus), Assam Asian Tree Frog (Chiromantis simus =Chirixalus simus), Annandale’s Tree Frog (Chiromantis vittatus =Chirixalus vittatus), Green Tree Frog (Ghatixalus variabilis), AborBug-eyed Frog (Nyctixalus moloch, Kurixalus verrucosus =Rhacophorus verrucosus), Loei Flying Frog (Aquixalus bisacculus =Rhacophorus bisacculus), Long-snouted Bush Frog (Aquixalus naso= Polyedates naso), Arodi Bubble-nest Frog (Philautus andersoni),Taro Flying Frog (Polypedates gongshanensis), NicobareseWhipping Frog (Polypedates insularis), Java Whipping Frog(Polypedates leucomystax), Chunam Frog (Polypedates maculatus),


Mammoth Tree Frog (Polypedates pseudocruciger), Terai WhippingFrog (Polypedates taeniatus), Philippine Flying Frog (Rhacophorusappendiculatus), Twin-spotted Flying Frog (Rhacophorusbipunctatus), Kalakad Gliding Frog or Langbian FlyingFrog (Rhacophorus calcadensis), Boulenger’s Small Flying Frog(Rhacophorus lateralis), Malabar Flying Frog (Rhacophorusmalabaricus), Large Flying Frog (Rhacophorus maximus), Red-webbed Tree Frog (Rhacophorus namdaphaensis), Anaimalai FlyingFrog (Rhacophorus pseudomalabaricus), Warty Flying Frog(Rhacophorus tuberculatus), Medog Flying Frog (Rhacophorustranslineatus), Phongsaly Flying Frog (Rhacophorus kio) and HillGarden Bug-eyed Frog (Theloderma asperum).

Family SooglossidaePurple Frog (Nasikabatrachus sahyadrensis)

ORDER – Gymnophiona

Family CaeciliidaePink Blind Caecilian (Gegeneophis carnosus), Amboli Caecilian

(Gegeneophis danieli), Nadkarni’s Caecilian (Gegeneophisnadkarnii), Madhavi’s Caecilian (Gegeneophis madhavai), Fuller’sCaecilian (Gegeneophis fulleri), Krishna Caecilian (Gegeneophiskrishni), Forest Caecilian (Gegeneophis ramaswamii), Seshachari’sCaecilian (Gegeneophis seshachari), Battersby’s Caecilian(Indotyphlus battersbyi) and Maharashtra Caecilian (Indotyphlusmaharashtraensis).

Family IchthyophiidaeYellow-striped Caecilian (Ichthyophis beddomei), Bombay

Caecilian (Ichthyophis bombayensis), Garo Hill Caecilian(Ichthyophis garoensis), Humphrey’s Caecilian (Ichthyophishumphreyi), Husain’s Caecilian (Ichthyophis husaini), Long-headedCaecilian (Ichthyophis longicephalus), Kerala Caecilian (Ichthyophismalabarensis), Caecilian (Ichthyophis peninsularis), SikkimeseCaecilian (Ichthyophis sikkimensis), Ceylon Caecilian (Ichthyophissubterrestris), Three-colored Caecilian (Ichthyophis tricolor), Kerala


Caecilian (Uraeotyphlus interruptus), Malabar Caecilian(Uraeotyphlus malabaricus), Menon’s Caecilian (Uraeotyphlusmenoni), Narayan’s Caecilian (Uraeotyphlus narayani) and RedCaecilian (Uraeotyphlus oxyurus).

ORDER – Urodela

Family SalamandridaeHimalayan Newt (Tylototriton verrucosus).

ORDER – Gymnophiona

Family ChikilidaeChikilidae is a group of extremely dedicated burrowers. They

exhibit an intriguing and highly specialized reproductive behaviour.The mother builds underground nests for her eggs and coils aroundthem. The embryos hatch in about 2 to 3 months. The eggs undergodirect development, feeding on the yolk reserves and come out asminiature adults without an intervening free-swimming larval stage.

The only described species, Chikila fulleri (formerly Herpelefulleri).

Documents

Biology and · 2019. 5. 31. · Rajasthan, salt desert (> 10,000 km2) in the western region of Gujarat and cold desert (1,09,990 km2) in the trans-Himalayan region of Ladakh, Jammu