Biomechanics of Human Performance Triple Jump Assignment Final

Ben Greenwood Biomechanics of Human Performance Word Count: 4361


Introduction

The triple jump is one of the most complex track and field events and consists of an approach phase

and three consecutive flight phases (Coh & Kugovnik, 2011). The complexity of the event is based on

the athlete’s ability to balance the horizontal velocity deficit of the approach phase, with the

production of the vertical velocity of the centre of mass (COM) (Allen et al, 2013; Perttunen et al;

2000). Additionally, triple jumpers must be able to endure the large ground reaction forces (GRF)

that are typically greatest during the step phase of the jump (Ramey & Williams, 2010).

Furthermore, Studies have found that GRF result in a reduction in the mean horizontal and vertical

forces (Figure 1.) and greater musculoskeletal injury prevalence (Cissik, 2013). However, elite triple

jumpers are able to minimise the horizontal velocity deficit through the utilisation of an optimum

take-off (TO) angle and the ability to maintain the propulsive force during the TO phase (Eissa, 2014).

The ability of a triple jumper to withstand large GRF and maintain the propulsive force during the

take-off (TO) and landing phases is down to their anatomical make-up and training regime (Chand et

al, 2012). The muscles of the lower extremity are essential as flight distance is influenced by muscle

strength and eccentric force enhancement (Seyfarth et al, 2000). Studies has revealed that the

strengthening of the gluteus maximus, rectus femoris and hamstring muscles is essential in

increasing the TO distance and flight distance of each phase (Antonini, 2015). Therefore, those

aspiring to perform on the international stage should look to implement exercises that target

specific muscle groups.

Ricardo’s Profile

The progression from a county triple jumper into an elite one is highly competitive and physically

demanding (Dziewiecki et al, 2013). One particular athlete who is looking to make this progression is

Ricardo, who currently competes for South Leeds Athletics club. Ricardo’s primary aim is to

represent Britain at the 2020 Olympic Games by winning the British Universities and College Sport

(BUCS) Championships in June and qualifying for the National Amateur Athletics Association (AAA)

Championship in August. With his aim in mind, Ricardo is seeking biomechanical support in regards

to his performance enhancement and injury prevention.

Ricardo is twenty-two years old, stands at 6ft 2 inches (188cm) and weighs approximately 209lb

(95kg) (Table 1). In addition to information on Ricardo’s demographics, his coach has provided a

series of strength and jumping exercise measurements (Table 2). This information will be analysed so

that any major weaknesses in Ricardo’s performance can be identified and facilitated.


Variable Measurement

Age 22 years

Height 188cm (6 foot 2 inches)

Weight 209lb (95kg)

Body mass index (BMI) 26.88 (overweight)

Segment Length (cm) Mass (kg)

Thigh 43.62 13.45

Shank 46.44 4.11

Foot 7.99 1.30

Lower leg 98.05 18.86Table 2: Ricardo’s and Jonathan Edwards’ measurements in a variety of strength and jump related exercises.Table 3: Ricardo’s lower extremity segment lengths and masses (based on information from De Leva (1996) and Plagenhoeff et al (1983)

Table 1: Ricardo’s demographic variables

Exercise Ricardo Jonathan Edwards

Standing long jump 3.25m 3.14m

Standing triple jump 9.29m

Countermovement jump 0.71m

Five-rep max squat 135kg 230kg

One-rep max clean 120kg 132.5kg

One-rep max bench press 100kg 102.5kg

Long jump 7.4m 7.41m


Deterministic Model

One method of analysing the triple jump for subsequent performance enhancement is by the use of

a deterministic model (Figure 1.), which provides a holistic understanding of a sporting action

(Glazier, 2015). A deterministic model is defined as a modelling paradigm that determines the

relationships between a movement outcome measure and the biomechanical factors that produce

such a measure (Chow & Knudson, 2011; Hay & Reid, 1988). According to research, an effective

deterministic model must identify mechanical factors that completely determine the factors

included at the next highest level (Chow, 2001; Hay, 1985). The mechanical factors included in Figure

1. determine the factors that refer back to the main goal of maximising overall jump distance.

Figure 1. divides the overall distance into the hop distance, step distance and jump distance. A study

by Hay (1999), defined the hop distance as the horizontal distance from the toe of the TO foot at the

TO of the hop to the toe of the same foot at the TO of the step; the step distance as the horizontal

distance from the toe of the TO foot of the step to the toe of the other foot at the TO of the jump

and the jump distance as the horizontal distance from the toe at the TO of the jump to the point of

landing.

Whilst all three phases are essential to triple jump performance, an individual’s phase ratio may

reveal which phases the athlete relies on the most to enhance their overall jump distance. Coh and

Kugovnik (2011) described the hop dominated technique as having an emphasis on the distance of

hop, the jump dominated technique as having an emphasis on the distance of last phase and a

balanced technique whereby the distances of all three phases is emphasised.

The phase distances divide into the landing distance, flight distance and the TO distance. A study by

Bartlett and Bussey (2013) states that the flight distance is the most important of the three sub-

Table 4: Ricardo’s and Jonathon Edwards’ triple jump variables.

Triple jump variable Ricardo Jonathan Edwards

Triple jump 13.50m 18.29m

Approach distance 36m 40m

Hop distance 4.95m (38.85%) 5.78m (31.7%)

Step distance 3.19m (25.04%) 5.85m (32.0%)

Jump distance 4.60m (36.11%) 6.64m (36.3%)

Hop angle at TO 11.6°Step angle at TO 4.8°Jump angle at TO 20°

12.74m


distances as it determines the projectile properties of the jump. Figure 1. displays that the flight

distance is determined by the acceleration, TO vertical velocity, TO horizontal velocity, TO angle and

the relative height of the COM at TO; all of which contribute to the projectile motion associated with

flight (Linthorne & Everett, 2006) However, it could be argued that the inclusion of the triple jump

phases in Figure 1., cannot be easily implemented into practical application and subsequent training

regimes (Chow & Knudson, 2011).

One of the main criticisms of the deterministic model approach is that they are putatively based on

the principles of mechanics and therefore do not allow any room for practical application (Glazier &

Robins, 2012; Chow & Knudson, 2011). A study by Chow and Knudson (2011) emphasised the need

for sports biomechanists to explore alternative theoretical frameworks that offer greater

explanatory power and practical application. For this reason, Figure 1. incorporates a number of

anthropometric factors including physique, posture and segment length, which can provide greater

practical application to the triple jump model.

Summary

The information on Ricardo’s demographic and exercise information will be analysed in order that

any major weaknesses in Ricardo’s performance can be identified and facilitated. The issues and

solutions regarding Ricardo’s performance will be compared with the determinants displayed in

Figure. 1. The coach has highlighted the following areas that require investigation:

Key mechanical factors required for successful triple jump.

Additional test that may provide important information for future use.

Specific areas that Ricardo can improved to enhance his performance.


Main Body

Flight Phase Mechanics

The overall distance of a triple jump is determined by the phase distances and the ability to utilise

the optimum phase ratio (Song & Ryu, 2011). A study by Hay (1999) found that 49% of athletes used

a hop dominated technique, 44% used a balanced technique, and 7% used a jump dominated

technique. These results were replicated by Ricardo, who’s score of 12.74m established that he

utilised a hop dominant technique (Table 4). However, studies have revealed that employing a jump

dominated technique minimised the horizontal velocity deficit, compared to the hop-dominated and

balanced techniques (Hay, 1999; Yu & Hay, 1996). Therefore, the jump distance in Figure 1. should

be considered to be a greater determinant of overall distance than either the hop or step distance.

The inclusion of the phase distances in Figure 1. was due to misleading information surrounding

optimal phase ratios; since successful jumps can contain phases of similar distances to unsuccessful

jumps, but make up smaller proportions of the overall distance (Allen et al, 2013). Therefore, the

primary focus should remain on phase distances, with phase ratios as secondary criteria. Various

studies have shown that statistical relationships often take no account of biomechanical limitations

and can often lead to optimal phase ratio predictions that are outside the ranges employed by elite

triple jumpers (Brimberg et al, 2006; Yu & Hay, 1996).

Following the assessment of phase distance, it is evident that Ricardo’s step distance is considerably

shorter than his hop and jump distances. Furthermore, his step phase ratio of 25.04% falls short of

the commonly suggested 30% (Allen et al, 2013; Hay, 1992). A study by Mohammed et al (2015)

revealed that a number of elite triple jumpers including; Jonathon Edwards, Christian Taylor and

Philips Idowu produced step phase ratios of around 30% in the 2009 and 2011 World

Championships. Mohammed et al (2015) also revealed that the lowest step phase ratio amongst the

athletes was Leevans Sands’ fifth round jump of 27% which was still 1.96% greater than Ricardo’s

step phase ratio. Therefore, it is essential that Ricardo focuses on increasing his step distance in

order to maximise overall jump distance. When referring to Figure 1., it is important that the step

distance is considered to be one of the major determinants of overall distance, as this is a major

weakness in Ricardo’s performance.

The flight distance plays a major role in both phase distances and phase ratios as it determines the

acceleration due to gravity, TO vertical and horizontal velocity, TO angle, relative height of COM at


TO and aerodynamic forces. A study by Yeadon and Mikulcik (1996) noted that the horizontal and

vertical velocities during the flight phase are strong indicators of overall jump distance. Furthermore,

a number of studies have investigated the relationship between the increase in vertical velocity

during the flight phase and the consequent deficit in horizontal velocity, and its effect on the phase

ratio of the phase distances (Yu and Hay, 1996; Yu, 1999). However, the findings from these studies

are somewhat inconclusive and are therefore difficult to implement into Ricardo’s program.

However, Guiman and Burca (2015) revealed that at the point of TO, the horizontal velocity

developed in the approach phase decreases by 1-2 m/s (9.5-14%) of the TO velocity. The decreasing

horizontal velocity and the increasing vertical velocity indicate that the specific decrease is higher

when both the athlete’s COM and jump height increases (Tiupa et al, 1982). Subsequently,

horizontal and vertical velocities are considered to be major factors in determining the flight

distance in Figure 1. as disparity between the two can reduce overall jump distance. Therefore, it is

essential that Ricardo is producing an appropriate TO angle, as well as looking to optimise his

individual mass and minimise GRF.

As an aspiring elite triple jumper, it is essential that Ricardo follows every precaution to avoid injury,

that could otherwise stunt his development. Triple jumpers are susceptible to landing injuries

because of the large GRF placed on the lower extremity during the landing phases (Ramey &

Williams, 1985). When GRF are too great, the musculoskeletal system is unable to disperse the

forces, thus increasing the chance of injury (Irmischer et al, 2004; McNitt-Gray, 1991). These injury

risks are intensified if the magnitude of the loading rate is high due to shock absorption and force

distribution occurring in the musculoskeletal system during landing (Puddle & Maulder, 2013; Bauer

et al, 2001). Research regarding injury prevention on jump landing mechanics has been

underwhelming. However, a few studies found that specific muscle strengthening (Pertunnen et al,

2000; Ramey & Williams, 1985), augmented feedback (Eriksen et al, 2013) and running shoe design

(Clark et al, 2014; Logan et al 2010) have led to a reduction in injuries related to high GRF. Therefore,

Ricardo should look to implement muscle strengthening, augmented feedback and gait analysis

methods into his training regime.

As previously stated, it is important that Ricardo is able to optimise his TO angle in order to maximise

the phase distances and subsequent overall distance. However, research focusing on the optimum

TO angle of the phase distances has produced conflicting results. A study by Hay (1993) found that

the optimum TO angle of the jump phase should be approximately 43°. Conversely, a study by

Linthorne et al (2005) calculated that the optimum TO angle for the jump phase was 21°. The

majority of literature agrees that the optimum TO angle of the jump phase lies between 18° and 25°


(Tsuboi, 2010; Linthorne, 2001). Thus, Ricardo’s jump phase appears to be within this range and

therefore his hop (11.6°) and step (4.8°) TO angles may need to be examined further.

Figure 1. demonstrates that the hop and step TO angles are also determinants of their respective

phase distances and corresponding overall distance. A study by Eissa (2014) found that one elite

triple jumper produced hop and step TO angles of 20.5° and 21.5°, respectively. Therefore, this

athlete’s hop and step TO angles are significantly greater than those produced by Ricardo. These

results can be explained by Ricardo’s relatively short approach distance of 36m and his inability to

increase his speed during the final six metres of the runway (0.71s). Linthorne et al (2005) states that

in order to produce low TO angles and therefore rely heavily on horizontal velocity, athletes use a

long approach distance and a fast pace. In contrast, Ricardo utilises a short distance, a constant

speed and low TO angles during the hop and step phases. Ricardo’s inability to increase his speed

during the final six metres reduces his overall distance potential as the last two steps should be

quicker than the preceding ones (Coh & Kugovnik, 2011; Myers, 1989). Additionally, research

suggests that an approach distance of 40m is used more effectively by elite triple jumpers than the

36m used by Ricardo (Stubbs, 2011; Song & Ryu, 2011). Ricardo’s unconventional technique

minimises the height of his COM, thus reducing his overall jump distance (Rao et al, 2014).

Therefore, Ricardo should aim to increase his approach distance and optimise his hop and step TO

angles.

Landing Phase Mechanics

Although the flight distance is considered to be the most important phase in determining the phase

distances, the landing distance also plays an important role. Bouchouras et al (2009) stated that the

ideal landing technique is achieved when the angular momentum during flight is equal to the body

weight torque. As a result of this, the athlete is able to maximise their phase distance, which

translates into better landing efficiency. Figure 1. demonstrates that any changes in body position

such as body weight torque can create imbalances in the landing technique. Thus, affecting the

landing distance and overall jump distance.

An optimum trunk rotation angle and timing of the landing technique are essential in order to

maximise the linearity of the landing angle and the subsequent landing distance. Figure 2. displays

the noticeable change in the height of the COM during the landing phase. Despite a lack of research

regarding the optimum trunk angle during the landing phase, a study by Blackburn and Padua (2009)

found that trunk flexion moves the trunk COM and associated weight force closer to the knee joint.

The approximation of the trunk COM and knee joint decreases the moment arm for the trunk weight


force about the knee. Consequently, the reduction in trunk weight force on the knee joint results in

less musculoskeletal injuries. As previously stated, it is essential that Ricardo remains injury-free in

the lead up to the BUCS and AAA Championships.

The landing and TO phases of the triple jump are complex; therefore, only elite athletes are able to

perform these phases effectively. One major limitation of the deterministic model is that they

typically tell us what complex performance parameters are important but not how these

performance parameters are generated (Glazier & Robins, 2012). An example of this is presented in

Figure 1. whereby the

trunk angle has been identified

as a determinant of the landing

distance but there is no

suggestion as to how this factor

can be implemented

into Ricardo’s performance.

TO Phase Mechanics

Figure 1. demonstrates that the TO distance is determined by the body position at TO. Whilst the TO

distance is not as important as the flight distance, a triple jumper must reach the end of the run-up

with the TO foot placed accurately on the TO board (Linthorne, 2001). At TO, elite athletes attempt

to minimise the distance between the front of their toe and the foul line in order to maximise overall

distance (Scott et al, 1997). Therefore, the ability to achieve an optimum TO distance is determined

by the approach distance.

Figure 2: The effect of trunk angle () on the COM height during landing


Although Ricardo’s approach distance (36m) requires evaluation, it is vital that his reformed distance

allows him to produce the correct foot placement on the TO board. Failure to adapt to the reformed

length will result in an increased foul count (too long) or a reduction in TO distance and subsequent

overall jump distance if the approach distance (too short).

Anthropometrics

Physique

Figure 1. demonstrates that the TO angle, relative height of the COM and horizontal TO velocity are

affected by a number of anthropometric factors including an athlete’s mass, posture and physique.

According to the information presented in Table 1., Ricardo’s mass of 95kg and his height of 6 foot 2

inches signifies that his BMI is 26.88 (overweight). A study by Pavlovic et al (2013) focused on the

anthropometric space of elite male triple jumpers at the 2008 Beijing Olympics (Table 5). The study

found that the average BMI of the elite triple jumpers was 22.77 (normal). Additionally, studies have

found that elite triple jumpers have BMI measurements within the ‘normal’ category (Pavlovic, 2006;

Kapetanakis et al, 2010). Furthermore, elite triple jumpers Jonathon Edwards, Christian Taylor and

Viktor Kuznyetsov have been found to have BMI measurements of 21.43, 22.35 and 20.47

respectively (Pavlovic et al, 2010). Therefore, it can be assumed that Ricardo needs to reduce his

mass, as this is a determinant of his ability to alter horizontal and vertical velocity.

Triple jumper Height (cm) Mass (kg) BMI

N. Evora (POR) 183 74 22.15

P. Idowu (GBR) 197 87 22.42

L. Sands (BAH) 191 82 22.52

A. Girat (CUB) 202 71 22.46

M. Oprea (ROM) 191 86 23.62

J. Gregorio (BRA) 202 102 25.00

O. Ackike (GBR) 188 75 21.24

OVERALL MEAN 193 82 22.77


Table 5: Basic demographic variables of elite male triple jumpers. Adapted from Pavlovic et al (2013).

Figure 1. shows that segment length and the athletes height is a determinant of the individual’s

physique and height of COM. Table 5 demonstrates that the average height of a number of elite

male triple jumpers (193cm) is greater than Ricardo’s height of 188cm. The reason for the elevated

height statistics in elite triple jumpers is because they are able to increase the height of their COM

and corresponding phase distances (Alonso et al, 2012).

Segment Length

The segment length and height of an athlete determines the height of their COM and their TO

velocities (Saiyed et al, 2015; Harris & Steudel, 2012). The findings of Plagenhoef et al (1983) and

information presented in Table 3. shows that Ricardo and Christian Taylor are the same height

(188cm) and have the same segment lengths. Therefore, Christian Taylor’s significantly greater

overall jump distance must be down to other factors, including phase ratios, muscular involvement

and training methods.

Numerous studies have revealed that athletes with longer segments are able to produce greater

vertical velocities at TO than those with shorter segments (Aouadi & Nawi Alanazi, 2015; Saiyed et al,

2015; Harris & Steudel, 2012). Consequently, Ricardo’s long segments give him an advantage over

shorter athletes. A study by Davis et al (2006) revealed that a greater foot length may serve to

provide additional mechanical leverage by which the ankle plantar flexors exert a propulsive force.

According to Figure 1. the exertion of a propulsive forces is determined by the motor neuron firing

rate and recruitment of motor units. These neuromuscular processes contribute to greater mean

horizontal and vertical accelerating and decelerating forces, and subsequent horizontal TO velocity.

However, a study by Harris and Steudel (2012) found that longer segment lengths reduced

horizontal TO velocity as longer limbs enhance the work done by increasing the height of the COM as

potential energy.

Training Regime


Muscle Involvement

The lack of major discrepancies in regards to Ricardo’s performance suggests that his problems are

primarily related to the musculoskeletal system, in particular, his training regime. As previously

stated, the primary muscles involved in maximising the overall distance of the triple jump are the

gluteus maximus, quadriceps, hamstrings, tibialis anterior, soleus and gastrocnemius (Antonini,

2015; Pandy & Zajac, 1991). A study revealed that strengthening specific muscle groups is the most

effective way of increasing overall jump distance (Nagano & Gerritsen, 2001). Therefore, Ricardo

should look to incorporate a number of lower extremity exercises into his training regime.

Whilst the lower extremity muscles should be considered as a priority in Ricardo’s training regime,

the muscles of the trunk including the internal oblique’s, external oblique’s and rectus abdominis

should not be overlooked. A study by Norees (2008) found that the trunk muscles, in particular, the

rectus abdominis maintained postural control and produced trunk flexion during the jump (Norees,

2008). As a trunk flexor, the rectus abdominis contributes to the initial landing angle and landing

distance shown in Figure 1. Therefore, Ricardo should incorporate trunk strengthening exercises into

his training regime in order to increase his landing distance.

Training exercises

The inclusion of plyometric exercises in Ricardo’s training regime will increase the contractile

strength of his lower extremity musculature. The added contractile strength is believed to be due to

a stretching of the muscle spindles involving a myotatic reflex and resulting in an increased motor

neuron firing rate and motor unit recruitment (Clutch et al, 1983). Figure. 1 displays the importance

of the motor neuron firing rate and the recruitment of motor units in determining propulsive forces.

A study by Hsiao et al (2015) noted that a combination of the propulsive force and the individuals

COM determines the proportion of the GRF being distributed anteriorly during the approach phase.

Therefore, the inclusion of plyometric exercises will determine the acceleration of the mechanical

factors of the jump.

Plyometric exercises have been shown to improve vertical jump performance, acceleration, leg

strength and muscular power (Miller et al, 2006; Clutch et al, 1983). An increase in leg strength and

muscular power will prove beneficial to Ricardo as his measurements in the lower extremity strength

tests were poor compared to those of Jonathon Edwards. A study by Bensikaddour et al (2015) is

one of the few studies that focuses on the effects of plyometric training on triple jump performance.

The study found that plyometric training increased 30m sprint times (similar to that of Ricardo’s


approach distance) and triple jump performance (Figure 3.). However, due to the lack of research in

this area and the limitations of the study, other training methods should be considered.

Figure 3: Comparisons between the use of plyometric exercises (orange) and no plyometrics (blue) in various jumping,

hopping and running exercises. Adapted from Bensikaddour et al (2015).

A number of studies have focused on incorporating strengthening exercises such as drop jumps,

front squats and sprinting into a triple jump training regime (Makaruk et al, 2014; Cissik, 2013; Kale

et al, 2009). Drop jumps have been found to be the ‘gold standard’ of plyometric exercises in regards

to strength, speed and quickness enhancement (Singh & Singh, 2012). However, several studies have

revealed that drop jumps can cause excessive stress on muscles and joints due to the eccentric

contraction and high GRF (Makaruk et al, 2014; Singh & Singh, 2012). The complexity of the triple

jump means that a high volume of training is often required to refine the phase distances by

strengthening the major muscle groups. Burnett (2005) suggests that the due to the excessive

loading phase associated with drop jumps, countermovement jumps may provide a safer alternative

for high volume trainers.

Figure 1. displays that motor unit recruitment and motor neuron firing rate determines the breaking

force, propulsive force and subsequent time in which forces act. A study by Bosco (1982) found that

jumping and squatting exercises resulted in enhanced motor unit recruitment and improvement in

the muscles’ ability to store kinetic energy within the elastic components of the muscle. Therefore,


Ricardo should look to implement both squatting and jumping exercises into his training regime in

order to enhance the strength and speed of his lower extremity.

Conclusion

One of the major issues surrounding Ricardo’s triple jump performance is the lack of strength in his

lower extremity musculature. This weakness is displayed in Table 2. showing his performance in the

strength exercises in not comparable to that of an elite triple jumper. Therefore, it is important that

the coach incorporates countermovement jumps, front squats and plyometrics into Ricardo’s

training regime. A number of studies have revealed the importance of including trunk strengthening

exercises into Ricardo’s training regime. Trunk strengthening exercises would decrease injury

prevalence by reducing the trunk weight force being applied on the knee joint during landing.

The other major issues surrounding Ricardo’s triple jump performance are mechanical factors.

Firstly, his step distance is considerably shorter than his hop and jump distances. Studies have also

shown that his step phase ratio of 25.04% is significantly shorter than commonly suggested 30%.

Thus making, it is essential that Ricardo adheres to the lower extremity strengthening exercises in

his training regime. Secondly, it is important that Ricardo increases his approach distance from 36m

to 40m in order to increase his horizontal velocity during the approach phase.

Finally, it may be beneficial for Ricardo to decrease his individual mass as this determines his ability

to produce a high horizontal TO velocity. Additionally, Ricardo’s heightened mass may have caused

his inability to increase his speed during the final six metres of the approach phase. This will result in

a reduction in flight distance and overall jump distance.


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Biomechanics of Human Performance Triple Jump Assignment Final