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Blitzed Assessing the impact of African American NFL players as
figures of product endorsement and brand equity
Brandon L. Cates
M.S. Candidate, Sport Management
Drexel University
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Table of Contents
Introduction .............................................................................................................................................. 2-3
Research Questions ......................................................................................................................... 3
Review of Literature ................................................................................................................................ 3-11
Brand Equity ................................................................................................................................. 3-5
Consumer Self Identity & Celebrity Endorser Qualities ................................................................ 5-6
Effectiveness as Spokesperson ..................................................................................................... 6-7
Stereotypes in Sports ................................................................................................................... 7-9
Advertising “Blackness” ............................................................................................................. 9-11
Methodology ......................................................................................................................................... 11-14
Results ................................................................................................................................................. 14-20
Summary ............................................................................................................................................... 20-21
Bibliography ........................................................................................................................................... 22-24
Appendix ............................................................................................................................................... 25-35
Appendix A ............................................................................................................................... 25-30
Appendix B .................................................................................................................................... 31
Appendix C .................................................................................................................................... 32
Appendix D .................................................................................................................................... 33
Appendix E .................................................................................................................................... 34
Appendix F ..................................................................................................................................... 35
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Introduction
A number of companies use celebrities as spokespeople with the hopes of increasing sales and
reputation for their brand. In advertising, expertise and credibility of both the celebrity as well as the
company weigh heavily in the eyes of consumers in determining their loyalty to the advertised brand.
Each year, corporate advertising accounts for nearly 7% of all advertising dollars spent which further
accounts for the level of importance in product promotion for corporations (Lafferty & Goldsmith, 1999).
A recent survey conducted by Harris Interactive in 2013 indicated that professional football was
far and away the country’s most popular sport with nearly 35% of surveyed adults indicating that
professional football is their favorite sport (Rovell, 2014). Year on end, the National Football League
(NFL) produces the most watched television programs, evident by nearly 111 million people estimated to
have watched Super Bowl XLVIII this past February (Carter, 2014). Companies have continually caught
on to the popularity of football and now spend exorbitant amounts of money on minimal airtime simply in
hopes of capturing a new audience. As currently constituted, African Americans as a race comprise the
overwhelming majority of professional football players at 63% at the start of the 2013-14 season
(Lapchick, 2013). As professional football increases in popularity, both domestically and abroad, the
effect of its predominant racial membership on consumers and brands as spokespeople needs to be
assessed.
While African American athletes in other sports such as Michael Jordan, Tiger Woods and Earvin
“Magic” Johnson have had success as brand spokespeople, there has been little research involving
potential detriments in using African American football player as spokesperson for the brand. A 2012
Sports Business Journal survey of brand managers, marketing & brand executives, agencies, sports
business professors and football media determined whom they believed to be the five most marketable
NFL players. Despite the fact that the NFL is two thirds African American, the collective group of
insiders only considered two African American players “marketable (Bounds, 2012).” To further
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complicate the issue, at the conclusion of the 2013 National Football Conference championship game,
Seattle Seahawks cornerback Richard Sherman spoke passionately into a camera professing his belief that
he was the best at his position in the NFL. The post-game tirade led to both praise and vitriol from sports
analysts and fans alike; however, it did not stop Sherman from appearing in a commercial endorsing the
popular “Beats By Dre” headphones just a day after the controversial interview and later become the
highest paid player at his position in the NFL. This proposed study seeks to examine the benefits and
potential consequences of using African American spokesperson as a brand ambassador.
Research Questions
With respect to professional football’s popularity among the American consciousness as well as the
increased exposure of African Americans as ambassadors for many popular brands, the following
questions need to be explored more in depth to thoroughly understand the concept:
1. Is brand equity diminished in the eyes of the consumer when endorsed by an African American
professional football player compared to a Caucasian counterpart?
2. Does brand endorsement by an African American football player increase the consumer’s
aspirational wishes towards the player?
3. How closely do consumers identify with the athlete in the endorsement? How closely do
consumers identify with the brand?
Brand Equity
The notion of brand equity has been difficult to ascertain for many years (Aaker, 1992;
Blackston, 2000). The concept is essentially based upon quantifying intangible values in addition to
“fundamental” equities such as price, product, and packaging (Blackston, 2000) in order to analyze a
brand’s marketability. “The term originated during the 1980’s and the importance in conceptualizing,
measuring, and managing brand equity has grown important for both practitioners and academics alike
(Baalbaki, 2012).” A company or brand that possesses high brand equity has staying power in the
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marketplace that is filled with similar types of products. Additionally, other researchers (Keller, 1993;
McDowell, 2004) have looked at brand equity from the side of the consumer. They consider the essence
of brand equity to be one where unique and powerful brand loyalty associations are established. The
belief here is that the consumer ultimately determines the value of the brand and consequently the
perception of the brand should be measured by quantifying consumer opinion of the brand.
Perhaps the only study comparable to the one I performed came in evaluating the effect that the
former University of Notre Dame head football coach Tyrone Willingham had upon the institution’s
brand during the tenure of his time as the head football coach. It is a notable study because Willingham
was the first African American head coach in the history of the prestigious institution. Willingham took
over the Notre Dame football program after a decade of lackluster performance and continued scandal.
While his winning percentage was relatively mediocre in his three year stint at Notre Dame, his tenure
was marked with both on-field and academic successes. The Fighting Irish went to two bowl games and
the grade point average of his players at the time of his departure was marked as the highest in the history
of the football program (Bruening & Lee, 2007). An analysis of brand equity in this scenario did not
consist of surveys but rather an evaluation of tangible instruments that are regularly used to denote
success. Minority applications to the university increased 39.9% in 2002-2003, and the feeling amongst
the faculty was positive about Willingham becoming the face of the university. Members of Notre
Dame’s Black Alumni became disappointed at the evaluation of Willingham’s performance citing “he
was a member of their family” and further helped Notre Dame continue a “national perception of
diversity (Bruening & Lee, 2007).” Former football alumni also endorsed Willingham and embraced him
for helping Notre Dame regain its prestige. However, even with the success Willingham was able to
attain, his presence created a divide amongst many. While the university did reach bowl games, they did
not reach a Bowl Championship Series (BCS) game thus missing out on a major revenue stream.
Television ratings for Notre Dame games fell to a 2.5 market share, and his team record was .500 during
his final season as head coach. Analyzing his impact on such a marquee brand in college sports is difficult
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but the evaluation of the brand gives us a case study to follow when looking at NFL players and their
impact on brands they endorse.
Consumer Self Identity & Celebrity Endorser Qualities
Companies believe that the key to winning over consumers is to market what is appealing to
them. One of the most effective ways companies do this is by aligning their message with that of a
celebrity. Consumers often develop their own self-concept & identity by using brands (Belk, 1988;
Wernerfelt, 1990; Aaker, 1992; Chernev, Hamilton, & Gal, 2011). Celebrity endorsements are vital to
helping to create symbolism between the brand and consumers. In their study, Escalas and Bettman
wanted to find symmetry between brands and customers in their study. The study supported the belief that
brand endorsement by celebrities that customers aspired to be more like helped to improve the
consumer’s self-brand connection. Conversely, brands that were endorsed by celebrities that the consumer
did not aspire to be like detracted from a consumer’s connection to the brand (Escalas & Bettman, no
date). The belief prior to the study was that consumers constructed their own self-identity through brands
in which they were loyal to. Their research into this belief consisted of two studies: 1) assessing the
strength of brand loyalty and celebrities that consumers aspired to be like, and 2) assessing how much a
consumer’s need for self-esteem enhancement and desire to be more like a celebrity are connected. While
these studies did find correlations between aspirational celebrities and consumers, there were some
elements of the study that can be further explored. First, the impact of commercials within various age
groups should be evaluated. A commercial could feature a brand promoted by a celebrity who has
aspirational qualities for one age group and non-aspirational qualities for another age group. Secondly, the
study did not critically look at the impact a celebrity’s negative press has on the aspirational effect they
have on consumers. Finally, the research also gave no insight into how much a celebrity’s race impacts a
consumer’s affinity towards the celebrity and the brand they are endorsing. Sufficiently measuring this
allows study into correlations between race, celebrity affinity, and consumer behavior.
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The degree to which celebrities are considered trustworthy and likable in marketing campaigns is
another area that is worthy of study. Credibility and attractiveness (likeability, familiarity) of the athlete
spokesperson are the two most important concepts in establishing whether or not the athlete is effective as
a spokesperson (McGinnis & Ward, 1980). The Source Credibility Model was first developed through
research in psychology but is now being used in marketing and communications to discuss celebrity
endorsement. This model analyzes the success and credibility of the message based upon the source
delivering the message (McCracken, 2005). McCracken’s belief is that celebrities are constant, typically
from typecasting that takes place in the entertainment industry, and thus are effective spokespeople for
companies. Consistency is passed along to consumers through endorsements and thus makes the celebrity
appear credible, and the endorsed product has legitimacy (Simmers, Damron-Martinez, & Haytko, 2009).
An additional model, the Source Attractiveness Model is also used but evaluates celebrity endorsement
through a different parameter. The Source Attractiveness Model first theorized by McGuire in 1985 states
that sources that are more familiar and likeable in the eyes of the consumer will have a better and more
favorable response.
Effectiveness as Spokespeople
While credibility is vital to both the brand and the celebrity endorser, it is also important to note
that celebrities themselves are a brand. Athletes particularly are at a disadvantage depending on how their
respective leagues/teams market them to the public. For example, a hard hitting safety in the NFL may
not be the best spokesperson for a national flower company like FTD. Conversely, the player may want to
add humor to his personal brand & FTD may see consider the humor in using that player in an
endorsement to reach a new demographic. The example here underscores the fact that using an athlete to
accomplish a company’s marketing goals has been the source of debate for quite some time now
(Abromson, 2005; MarketingCharts staff, 2009; Solomon, 2011; Fusfeld, 2011). Some in the industry feel
that having athletes as spokespeople could be more of an impediment rather than an advantage. Arthur
Solomon, who has spent over 25 years in marketing, feels there is greater benefit in not having athletes as
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spokespeople. “Too often the athlete becomes the story, and the message that the client wants and expects
to be delivered is given short shrift (Solomon, 2011).” Further, Miciak and Shanklin reported that only
one in five commercials that involved celebrity endorsers lived up to the expectations of the sponsor
(Miciak & Shanklin, 1994). Likewise, athletes have similar numbers relative to endorsement effectiveness
with 21% of Harris Interactive polled respondents saying that they found athletes to be most persuasive
when endorsing a product (MarketingCharts staff, 2009).
Perception and racial stereotypes in sports
Historical stereotypes about African Americans led us to believe that they are athletically superior
compared with other races. Prior research has determined that stereotypes are simply a cognitive
substitution system of our brains when sufficient information about the subject was absent. “Humans
have neither the cognitive capacity, time, nor the desire to process all the information available to us
(Harrison Jr., 2001).” The dependency on information about the subject or group influences our behavior
and feelings regarding the individual(s). Harrison comments that as we gather more information about
the subject, we are less reliant on stereotypes to define them. Further, stereotypes also contribute in
diminishing the public’s perception/confidence in an individual as well. Hughes and Baldwin determined
that stereotypes were “necessary parts of human life.” “The role of stereotypes is to “help us attain
rewards (utilitarian function), defend our self-esteem (ego-defensive function), express important parts of
how we think and see ourselves (value-expressive function), and organize the world around us (Hughes &
Baldwin, 2002).” While the research indicates the necessity for stereotypes, their prevalence, as well as
conveyance in the media, can lead to discrimination and unrealistic expectations on a group of
individuals. Research shows that African Americans as a group are represented on television in roles
such as “criminal, matriarch, or welfare mother” and news reports about minority crime can lead to a
negative perception of minorities being threatening. While African Americans have had increased
exposure in the media through the years, the imagery has not always been consistent with progress.
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Stereotypes on athletes have been positive and negative for both African American and Caucasian
athletes. The perception has been that white athletes have low natural athletic ability but counter with
high work ethic and intelligence. For the African American athlete, the exact opposite rings true. The
belief here is that African Americans have natural athletic talent but possess low intelligence and do not
need to work very hard in order to be good in sports (Buffington & Fraley, 2008; Inzlicht & Schmader,
2012). These revelations on stereotypes contribute to the belief that whites are inferior to African
Americans in the athletic arena but superior as it relates to hard work and intelligence. In a study
conducted by researchers from the University of Arizona & Princeton University, the concept of athletic
inferiority among whites and blacks was put to the test. The researchers used 80 participants (40 African
American, 40 White) to measure performance in the sport of golf. Randomly, the tested subjects were
assigned test frame conditions to study the effect that natural athletic ability, sports intelligence, and race
all had on performance. The participants were instructed to complete a test consisting of 10 different
phases in as few golf strokes as possible. As the test progressed, the researcher changed the putting
surface according to a pre-tested pattern of increasing difficulty (Stone, Sjomeling, Lynch, & Darley,
1999). At the conclusion, the participants completed a survey in which they were asked to rate their
performance in comparison to the other participants as well as how biased they thought the test was in
regards to their natural & strategic ability. Prior stereotypes about race did factor into the performance of
the participants as well as the results of the study. “As predicted, when performance on the golf task was
framed as diagnostic of sports intelligence, Black participants performed significantly worse compared
with when the athletic task was framed as diagnostic of natural athletic ability (a positive stereotype about
Black athletes) or when the test was framed as a measure of a nonstereotyped dimension (Stone,
Sjomeling, Lynch, & Darley, 1999).” The study also showed that sport was one of many areas in which
African Americans were deemed as inferior to their White counterparts. While the study was void of
many important variables, it was important in noting how much pre-derived racial beliefs impact
behavior. In addition “white and black athletes perform more poorly in certain sports because,
psychologically, the burden of stereotype threat interferes with their ability to perform up to their physical
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and socialized potential (Inzlicht & Schmader, 2012).” If the results of the golf study are carried over to
the concept of marketing African American football players to consumers, then I believe that their
endorsement is not having the desired effect. The presence of stereotypes has made sports an “acceptable”
arena for African Americans to thrive, however, that has come at a price.
Advertising “Blackness”
Sports itself contains a crossroads where historical stereotypes and cultural acceptance intersect.
On-field positions themselves reveal the contrasts of black athletes, masculinity, and socially imposed
stereotypes. As of this writing, there are only six African American starting quarterbacks in the NFL
while other skill positions like wide receiver, running back and cornerback are disproportionally
populated with African Americans. “The racial segregation by position in the NFL reflects the “black
brawn versus white brains distinction…quarterback remains one of the most protected and segregated
positions in football (Jackson II & Hopson, 2011).” The standing belief of placing identity or images on a
culture or group is referred to as scripting (Jackson II & Hopson). Scripting, as identified by the authors,
has become accepted as a normal belief system although it could be considered negative in meaning. As it
relates to the media, scripting shapes our attitude towards member(s) of a particular culture or group.
Scripting consists of two essential parts, the gaze and social prescriptions. Through a combination of
acknowledging visible differences as well as stereotypical views towards the black frame, anxiety towards
African Americans is created. Using the career of a prominent African American NFL player as a case
study gives a better understanding of the complexities that scripting has on our views of other races as
well as the difficulties African American athletes themselves have had in defining their own self-identity.
The career of Donovan McNabb is a case study that shows the dichotomy between cultural
acceptance and historical scripting. McNabb grew up in the inner city of Chicago, IL, but later attended
Syracuse University becoming a four year starter at quarterback. When he was drafted by the Philadelphia
Eagles, he helped lead the team to four straight NFC Championship games and a Super Bowl appearance
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in 2003 against the New England Patriots. His persona, however, is in direct contrast to the era in which
he was born. “Although he (McNabb) is of the hip-hop age where the bad Negro persona is embraced by
so many of his peers, he represents an “everyman” identity---middle-class values and characteristics that
many individuals regardless of their cultural background can identify with (Jackson II & Hopson, 2011).”
McNabb was bred in a lifestyle that stood in opposition to the one that has now been popularized by hip-
hop culture. He did not personify the “fight the establishment” philosophy that came to define the
emergence of hip-hop. McNabb’s upbringing to that point could be considered assimilation by some into
white culture. After the loss in Super Bowl XXXIX to the New England Patriots, McNabb and then
teammate Terrell Owens had a public dispute regarding the future of Owens’ contract with the Eagles.
McNabb did not speak in favor of Owens, but rather sided with the management in terms of the decision
making process. “When two black men are at odds and one is characterized as fighting against
management and the other is perceived as being aligned with the management – that depiction recalls the
powerful inscription of the good Negro/the bad Negro (Jackson II & Hopson, 2011).” The principle of the
good Negro/bad Negro has been theorized and discussed by African American leaders dating back to
W.E.B. DuBois and Malcolm X. The issue discusses the double consciousness that blacks have had
dating back to first being brought to American from the African continent; the duality of maintaining a
sense of the African soul versus assimilation into the greater American society. This dilemma
characterizes how African Americans have been forced into historically narrow narratives regarding
identity. When the African American athlete is branded and marketed by advertisers, the constructs of
cultural acceptance & historical scripting have a great deal to do with how the athlete is promoted.
Advertisers, while not always as prevalent, use racial stereotypes in defining “blackness” as well.
Research done by Crockett (2008) suggests that blackness in advertising is used in multifaceted ways in
order to assure the correct message is portrayed to viewers. The results in this study were consistent with
earlier findings relating to stereotypical behaviors involving race. The study appeared to be objective in
the way it collected, analyzed and accessed the ways in which “blackness” is exhibited. Crockett recorded
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1700 commercials over a three week period from both broadcast and cable television including morning,
afternoon, evening, prime-time and late-night programming. After taking out advertisements that included
spots for local television & public service (among others), Crockett was able to produce a representative
sample of 839 advertisements of which to form his sample. It must be noted that only roughly a quarter of
those 839 contained some symbolic, visual, or rhetorical representation of “blackness (Crockett, 2008).”
Television advertising is the most consistent form of how we shape and analyze the race itself. “ Media
images provide a diffuse confirmation of one’s world view, promote acceptance of current social
arrangements, and reassure people that things are the way they ought to be…Television commercials, in
particular, make race and gender stereotypes readily available (Coltrane & Messineo, 2000).” According
to a 2011 survey, the average United States household has 2.5 TV sets and with nearly 38% of American
households having at least one TV set (MarketingCharts staff, 2011), television’s impact of on our
everyday lives is undeniable.
Methodology
In the present study, an examination of the response(s) of consumers to advertising promoted by
African American NFL players was assessed. By examining these effects, the purpose was to (1)
determine how race is marketed within the construct of the advertisement, (2) evaluate how each
advertisement positively or negatively impacted consumer opinions of the brand, and (3) analyze if the
spokesperson factored into the consumer’s decision to ultimately purchase the product. It was
hypothesized that advertisements that feature an African American NFL player left a consumer with a
negative opinion of the brand overall as opposed to a similar advertisement by a Caucasian NFL player.
Research Design
The study combines both quantitative and qualitative analysis. To collect data, I used an
electronic questionnaire as the module. Aside from the practicality of the instrument, the questionnaire
was able to assess large amounts of information within a short period. Additionally, the questionnaire
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aided me in quantifying the data in order to compare and contrast the results, which allowed me to
effectively analyze the data. With the help of an expert panel, I designed the questionnaire in analyzing
consumer responses to four different advertisements. Because I believed consumers had familiarity with
finances and the food & beverage industry, the advertisements shown to respondents included two from
Visa Card and two from Campbell’s Chunky Soup. The advertisements featured both an African
American NFL player as well as a Caucasian NFL player as the spokesperson. Keeping this as the
independent variable eliminated brand/celebrity congruency that could have led to different results. At the
beginning of the survey, I combined aided and unaided brand awareness questions to determine how
strong of a relationship the respondents had with the brands that were being examined. I believed that
these brands were well established within the greater culture, thus the unaided brand awareness questions
showed an emotional attachment to the brand as well as gave a “measure of global preference (Kapferer,
1992)” by consumers. Conversely, the aided brand awareness questions asked the respondents to give
their opinion of a brand when prompted in relation to similar brands within the same category. At the end
of the questionnaire, respondents were asked demographic questions including race, gender, educational
status and household income.
Multiple sessions were conducted using a random sampling of participants. The study measured
the feelings and opinions of consumers; thus I determined that there would be no advantages in
disqualifying any segment or population. The sessions were held at various locations (three in Drexel
University undergraduate classrooms, one at local shopping mall) as well as postings of the survey link on
numerous social media streams including Twitter and Linkedin in order to create a broad base of
respondents. Bearing in mind the purpose of the study, I believed that this was the most effective way in
gauging and assessing experiences/opinions from a diverse audience. The respondent goal was set at 100
in order to reduce saturated results and create a representative sample size. These sessions, which
stretched across a wide subject base, allowed me to analyze and compare results across different
participating groups. Other design techniques such as a longitudinal or time design investigating
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consumer attitudes to the advertisements over an extended period were not suitable for the small interval
of time the study was allotted. Similar surveys and other case studies surrounding brand equity and
consumer opinion on branding was readily available through multiple sources and used in formulating
results for this study. Looking at this in conjunction with the quantitative analysis from the results of the
questionnaire gave a more in-depth perspective on brand equity.
Participants in the present study consisted of a total of 101 completed surveys (118 surveys were
started resulting in a 14% dropout rate). Of the 101 completed surveys, 76 were male (76%), and 25 were
female (25%). 52 of the participants (51%) were between the ages of 18 and 25, 30 (30%) were between
the ages of 26 and 34, 11 (11%) between the ages of 35 and 44, 7 (7%) between 45 and 54 and 1 (1%)
being over the age of 65. An identical number of African Americans and Caucasians (45) made up the
ethnic majorities of the survey with only 11 persons (11%) being from other ethnic origins. Exactly 40
persons (39%) constituted undergraduate students at Drexel University. Approximately two thirds of
respondents (66%) stated that they watched professional football during the season between zero and
seven hours a week.
As stated, I conducted multiple sessions of the survey to create a broad respondent base. For the
sessions I conducted with the Drexel University undergraduates, I broke up the questionnaire by first
showing the advertisements one at a time and then having the participants answer the subsequent survey
questions afterwards. Conversely, as I went to a local shopping mall as well as posted the questionnaire to
my social media streams, I embedded each respective advertisement into the questionnaire so that it
(advertisement) preceded and corresponded with the questions that went with that particular
advertisement. All participants were told that their inclusion in the survey was completely voluntary, and
their responses were confidential.
Through this method, as well as use of prior qualitative secondary research in regards to brand
equity and advertising, the necessary information was gathered to fulfill the purpose of this study: (1) to
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determine how race is marketed within the construct of the advertisement, (2) evaluate how each
advertisement positively or negatively impacted consumer opinions of the brand, and (3) analyze if the
spokesperson factored into the consumer’s decision to ultimately purchase the product or recommend the
product to others.
Results
The research questions focused on a multitude of questions relating to brand perception, racial
stereotyping and celebrity affinity in order to determine if African American NFL players had an
influence on purchase intent and representation of the brand.
Visa Card
In an unaided brand awareness question, 48.3% of respondents identified Visa as the first credit
card company they thought about in regards to the credit card industry. However, the Visa brand was
deemed most favorable in comparison to its competitors in this study. Visa also scored extremely high on
usage, with 95% of the respondents stating that they had used a Visa Card at some point. In terms of
brand awareness before the variables of the study were implemented, I assessed Visa Card to be favorable
and likeable.
Overall with the Visa Card advertisements, I found that likeability of the celebrity spokesperson
coincided closely with whether or not the respondent thought the spokesperson was effective in his role of
marketing the product. In the two commercials that respondents viewed, as celebrity likeability increased
the effectiveness of the spokesperson increased as well. The Visa commercials shown to respondents
featured the professional athlete as the lone spokesperson of the product. As demonstrated in Figures 1
and 2, while the change was slight, the participants overall tended to have higher favorability ratings
towards the commercial that featured the Caucasian athlete (Visa Card advertisement 2) compared to the
one that featured the African American athlete (Visa Card advertisement 1). Segmenting the responses by
race yielded some interesting variance as well. Caucasian respondents tended to have higher total scores
15
on average compared to African American respondents after viewing Visa Card advertisement 2 featuring
the Caucasian athlete. African American respondents reported a higher score based on the issue of
likeability of the African American spokesperson. For both advertisements, they (African American
respondents) had lower scores than both the average and Caucasians when assessing effectiveness of the
spokesperson and likelihood of recommending the product to a friend.
Figure 1
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Figure 2
Campbell’s Chunky Soup
Similarly as Visa Card, Campbell’s Chunky Soup scored highly in terms of product awareness
and usability among respondents. While Campbell’s Soup itself was a near unanimous response to the
unaided brand awareness question, the Campbell’s Chunky Soup brand specifically was the second most
popular canned soup brand surveyed in terms of favorability and 77% of the respondents stated they had
eaten Campbell’s Chunky Soup. Here again, Campbell’s Chunky Soup can be considered favorable, and
respondents were conscious of the brand.
In contrast to the Visa advertisements, the participants overall had higher scores with respect to
the advertisement that featured the African American spokesperson (Campbell’s Chunky Soup
advertisement 1). However, respondents did report they would still be more likely to recommend the
product to a friend after watching the advertisement that featured the Caucasian spokesperson. Measuring
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the scores by race showed that African American and Caucasian participants considered the other
ethnicity more likeable than their own. I found this the most telling aspect considering the nature of both
the advertisements themselves were identical. Both commercials featured the athlete as well as their
mother as the spokespeople. They were gentle, lighthearted, and humorous in how the product was
marketed to the consumer. Despite these differences, overall participants still were more likely to
recommend the product in response to the advertisement that featured the Caucasian athlete.
Figure 3
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Figure 4
Other Aspects
Supplementary questions in the study discussed issues that established the impact of traits such as
celebrity affinity and stereotypes. Of the questions I presented to the participants, “celebrities they aspired
to be more like” scored highest in determining purchase intent as shown in Figure 5. This characteristic
held true when the question was broken down by race, gender, and educational level as well. Participants
also acknowledged the prevalence of stereotypes sometimes being true, but did not feel that advertising
played a role in their perception of other races. When I factored in age of participants, some of the beliefs
began to change somewhat. As the participant’s age level increased, they also tended to be influenced by
celebrities that looked like them (participant) in addition to celebrities that they aspired to be like.
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Figure 5
Limitations
While this study provided important information surrounding African American NFL players as
spokespeople and ambassadors for brands, a few limitations must be discussed. First, the questionnaire
was administered two separate ways using both a mass format as well as multiple group sessions. A more
uniform pattern of data collection could have produced different results. Secondly, I did not ask
participants specific questions as to why they answered questions the way that they did. Follow up
interviews/questionnaires would have been beneficial in determining those answers. Third, the length of
the survey produced a higher dropout rate than what was expected. 62% of the respondents completed the
survey within a timeframe of 7-14 minutes. In order to attain the appropriate responses and answers to the
research questions, however, it may not have been feasible to have a shorter survey. Fourth, one of the
advertisements that I used featured an NFL player that played the majority of his career in the city of
which I conducted the survey. Of all the commercials shown to participants, his had the highest
favorability rankings among all categories of respondents. I believe had the survey been taken in a
different region or territory, the results would have been different. Finally, I attempted to use non-
20
marquee faces of the NFL that I believed the general public may not have a great awareness of unless
they were avid football watchers. If I used a player in an advertisement that was deemed to have a higher
public familiarity ranking, such as Peyton Manning or Tom Brady, purchase intent and likability scores
would be vastly different.
Summary
As shown, brand equity is a difficult measure to ascertain. Prior research gave this study the
necessary elements to explore whether or not African American NFL athletes are detrimental to a brand
when they are a representative of it. With consideration to the aspects surrounding this particular topic,
consumers reported higher connections to endorsers whom they liked. Furthermore, it was impossible for
me to determine whether or not participants aspired to be more like the specific athletes that were used
simply because those questions were not asked specifically about the advertisements. Aspirational
questions were used simply as supplemental material in order to determine general beliefs regarding
celebrity endorsement. Overall, I found that the most important elements in analyzing brand equity were
brand awareness, celebrity likeability, and consumer aspirational wishes. When these traits are all taken
into account, the race of the endorser does not play much or a role in purchase intent. The brands studied
were strong enough in terms of brand awareness and usage that the endorser would have played a
minimal role in diminishing their credibility.
It should be noted, however, that race did play a factor in whether or not the consumer eventually
decided to recommend the product to a friend. Respondents tended to favor the advertisement that
featured the Caucasian athlete even though they may have found the African American athlete a more
effective and likeable endorser. This characteristic along with respondents noting (slightly more than the
average) that “stereotypes are often true” should not be discounted. It may be necessary for future
research to determine if stereotypes play a role in secondary purchase intent. This would have helped me
in determining whether or not race played a role in purchase decisions specifically for the participants I
21
examined. Moreover, future researchers may be benefited by establishing a proper scale to measure
athlete awareness specifically. Without asking directly if the consumers were aware of whom the athletes
in the study were, it was hard to quantify whether or not they had an emotional attachment to them or
identified with them. The likeability factor was an idea crafted largely by how the athlete is portrayed in
the advertisement. While humorous, the Visa Card commercials presented a dichotomy to consumers; an
aggressive African American athlete versus the light-hearted playful Caucasian athlete. I believe this has
a great deal to do with likeability. Both the Campbell’s Chunky Soup advertisements featured the athletes
listening to their mothers and playing more of a subservient role within the advertisement. As stated, the
scores tended to be higher and likeability was stronger overall. This study gives further evidence as to
what determines brand equity in the eyes of the consumer, but does acknowledge the race and stereotypes
are still relevant factors that warrant additional research.
22
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25
Appendix A: Survey Questionnaire
Marketing Research Questionnaire
My name is Brandon Cates and I am a second year sport management graduate student at Drexel
University. The purpose of this study is to access the similarities and differences in product advertising
for African American NFL (National Football League) players and Caucasian NFL players.
Please answer the following questions based on evaluation of the advertisements. Explaining your
answers will enhance my understanding of the data. Please circle best response.
1. What single company comes to mind when you think of the credit card industry?
2. How familiar are you with that specific company?
a. I’ve heard of them, but never used their products
b. I use their products occasionally
c. I use their products on a regular basis
3. On a scale of 1 to 10, 10 being most positive, 1 being most negative, please rate your general
perception of the following companies:
a. Visa
b. MasterCard
c. Discover
d. American Express
4. Have you ever used a Visa Card before?
a. Yes
b. No
26
Visa Card ad 1: Patrick Willis/strength training
Please answer the following questions as they relate to Visa Card advertisement 1 (football player at
house) that you just watched with 1 being most negative and 5 being most positive.
5. Overall, how would you rate the effectiveness of the spokesperson in Visa Card advertisement 1?
1 2 3 4 5
Not Effective Very Effective
6. The spokesperson in Visa Card advertisement 1 was likable.
1 2 3 4 5
Not Likable Very Likable
7. How likely are you to recommend a Visa Card to a friend after watching advertisement 1?
1 2 3 4 5
Not Likely Very Likely
27
Visa Card ad 2: Drew Brees/fantasy football
Please answer the following questions as they relate to Visa Card advertisement 2 (football player at
house) that you just watched with 1 being most negative and 5 being most positive.
8. Overall, how would you rate the effectiveness of the spokesperson in Visa Card advertisement 2?
1 2 3 4 5
Not Effective Very Effective
9. The spokesperson in Visa Card advertisement 2 was likable.
1 2 3 4 5
Not Likable Very Likable
10. How likely are you to recommend a Visa Card to a friend after watching advertisement 2?
1 2 3 4 5
Not Likely Very Likely
11. What single company comes to mind when you think of the canned soup industry?
12. How familiar are you with that specific company?
a. I’ve heard of them, but never used their products
b. I use their products occasionally
c. I use their products on a regular basis
13. On a scale of 1 to 10, 10 being most positive, 1 being most negative, please rate your general
perception of the following companies:
a. Progresso
b. Campbell’s
c. Healthy Choice
d. Campbell’s Chunky Soup
e. Swanson’s
14. Have you ever eaten Campbell’s Chunky Soup before?
a. Yes
b. No
28
Campbell’s Chunky Soup ad 1: Donovan McNabb/mom on sideline
Please answer the following questions as they relate to Campbell’s Chunky Soup advertisement 1
(mom on sideline) that you just watched with 1 being most negative and 5 being most positive.
15. Overall, how would you rate the effectiveness of the spokesperson in Campbell’s Chunky Soup
advertisement 1?
1 2 3 4 5
Not Effective Very Effective
16. The spokesperson in Campbell’s Chunky Soup advertisement 1 was likable.
1 2 3 4 5
Not Likable Very Likable
17. How likely are you to recommend Campbell’s Chunky Soup to a friend after watching
advertisement 1?
1 2 3 4 5
Not Likely Very Likely
29
Campbell’s Chunky Soup ad 2: Clay Matthews/mom cave
Please answer the following questions as they relate to Campbell’s Chunky Soup advertisement 2
(mom on sideline) that you just watched with 1 being most negative and 5 being most positive
18. Overall, how would you rate the effectiveness of the spokesperson in Campbell’s Chunky Soup
advertisement 2?
1 2 3 4 5
Not Effective Very Effective
19. The spokesperson in Campbell’s Chunky Soup advertisement 2 was likable.
1 2 3 4 5
Not Likable Very Likable
20. How likely are you to recommend Campbell’s Chunky Soup to a friend after watching
advertisement 2?
1 2 3 4 5
Not Likely Very Likely
21. Please answer the following questions openly and truthfully (1-strongly disagree, 2- somewhat
disagree, 3- neutral, 4- somewhat agree, 5- strongly agree)
a. Some stereotypes are often true.
b. I am more likely to purchase a product from someone who looks like me.
c. I am more likely to purchase a product from someone I aspire to be like.
d. Advertising plays a large role in my perception of other races.
e. The presence of celebrities in advertising effects my decision to purchase a product.
f. I would buy a product if my favorite celebrity were endorsing it.
22. How often do you watch professional football during the season?
a. 0-3 hours per week
b. 4-7 hours per week
30
c. 8-11 hours per week
d. More than 12 hours per week
e. I do not watch professional football
23. What is your sex?
a. Male
b. Female
24. What is your age?
a. 18-25
b. 26-34
c. 35-44
d. 45-54
e. 55-64
f. 65+
25. What is your ethnicity?
a. African American
b. American Indian
c. Asian American
d. Latino/Chicano/Spanish origin
e. White American
f. Non-U.S. citizen/Permanent Resident
g. More than one race
26. What is your highest level of education completed?
a. Less than high school
b. High school/GED
c. Some college
d. 2 year college degree (Associates)
e. 4 year college degree (BA/BS)
f. Master’s Degree
g. Doctoral Degree
h. Professional Degree (JD/MD)
27. What was your family’s combined household income last year?
a. Less than $34,999
b. $35,000 - $49,999
c. $50,000 - $74,999
d. $75,000 - $99,999
e. $100,000 - $149,000
f. $150,000 - $199,000
g. Greater than $200,000
31
Appendix B: Mean Score and Standard Deviation to Visa Advertisement 1
Composite Score Visa Card 1 (all participants)
Composite Score Visa Card 1 (Caucasian participants only)
Composite Score Visa Card 1 (African American participants only)
32
Appendix C: Mean Score and Standard Deviation to Visa Card Advertisement 2
Composite Score Visa Card Advertisement 2 (all participants)
Composite Score Visa Card Advertisement 2 (Caucasian participants only)
Composite Score Visa Card Advertisement 2 (African American participants only)
33
Appendix D: Mean Score and Standard Deviation to Campbell’s Chunky Soup Advertisement 1
Composite Score Campbell’s Chunky Soup Advertisement 1 (all participants)
Composite Score Campbell’s Chunky Soup Advertisement 1 (Caucasian participants only)
Composite Score Campbell’s Chunky Soup Advertisement 1 (African American participants only)
34
Appendix E: Mean Scores and Standard Deviation Campbell’s Chunky Soup Advertisement 2
Composite Score Campbell’s Chunky Soup Advertisement 2 (all participants)
Composite Score Campbell’s Chunky Soup Advertisement 2 (Caucasian participants only)
Composite Score Campbell’s Chunky Soup Advertisement 2 (African American participants only)
35
Appendix F: Mean Scores and Standard Deviation to Supplemental Questions
Composite Score (all respondents)
Proposal For Diversity in Sports
Marketing Symposium Brandon L. Cates
Graduate Student, Sport Management
Drexel University
Mission Statement
“The Diversity in Sports Marketing Symposium’s mission
is to connect industry professionals in the fields of
academia, athletics, marketing, advertising, and mass media
to engage in discussion & offer suggestions on issues
involving the construct of race in sports marketing.”
Brandon Cates
Founder & Organizer
Diversity In Sports Marketing Symposium
Location, Date, Pricing
• September 17, 2014
• Near beginning of the 2014-
15 NFL season
• University Club
• $50/hour (approx. $400)
• 100 person occupancy
• Goal of 75 attendees
• Free for Drexel students
• $10/students with college ID
• $20 for all others
Sample Invitation Letter To
Speakers
Symposium Itinerary
*Date and location subject to change
Symposium Invite List
Invite SentFollow Up
SentGuest Occupation Contact Information
5/7/14 Donald CrawfordPrincipal Consultant (Sports, Sponsorship, Partnership
Marketing) at Fidelum Partners [email protected]
5/7/14 J. Michael WilsonDirector of Sales & Marketing at Heritage Sports Radio
Network (302) 492-1132; [email protected]
5/7/14 Daniella JonesCOO of Imaging Solutions Inc. (sports and entertainment
management firm) (914) 355-6246; [email protected]
5/7/14 James Buford President/CEO omeon1 Sports Group
5/7/14 Kenneth Shropshire Author, attorney, consultant, eduator (215) 898-3017; [email protected]
5/7/14 Dr. Eric Zillmer Athletic Director/Drexel University 215-895-1977; [email protected]
5/8/14 Jon Entine Author, journalist [email protected]
5/8/14 Jeff Long President/Pattison Sports Group (484)-356-1029; jeffpattisonsportsgroup.com
5/13/14 Brian Papson VP Marketing/Philadelphia Eagles [email protected]
5/13/14 Mike Missanelli Sports Talk Radio Host/97.5 The Fanatic 610-677-8500; [email protected]
5/13/14 Dr. C Keith HarrisonAssociate Prof Sport Business Management Program/Univ. of
Central Florida [email protected]; [email protected]
Bomani Jones ESPN contributor
5/14/14 Kevin Blackistone Sports journalist/professor/ESPN contributor 301-405-2418; [email protected]
5/14/14 BJ Zellars President/Activation Sports Marketing [email protected]
5/14/14 Mimi DixonSr Integrated Marketing Manager at Campbell Soup
Company [email protected]
Diversity in Sports Marketing Syposium Guest List*
*Invitees as of 5/15/2014
Event Team for the Day
• 1 lead instructor (myself)
• 3-4 Sport Management Department Faculty Members
• 2 for morning sessions/2 in afternoon
• 10-12 student volunteers
• Registration, set up, tear down
• 4-6 moderators
• 2 of these to be alternates
• 1-2 videographers
• 1 photographer
September 17, 2014
Site Estimated Actual Estimated Cost Breakdown
Room and hall fees $500.00 $500.00
Site staff N/A N/A
Equipment N/A N/A
Tables and chairs N/A N/A
Total $500.00 $500.00
Decorations Estimated Actual
Flowers N/A N/A
Candles N/A N/A
Lighting N/A N/A
Balloons $20.00 $20.00
Paper supplies N/A N/A
Total $20.00 $20.00
Publicity Estimated Actual
Banners/Signage $100.00 $100.00
Photocopying/Printing N/A N/A
Postage N/A N/A
Total $100.00 $100.00
Media Estimated Actual Estimated vs. Actual
Telephone N/A N/A
Transportation N/A N/A
Photographer/Videographer N/A N/A
Total $0.00 $0.00
Refreshments Estimated Actual
Food & Beverages $1,200.00 $1,200.00
Staff and gratuities $500.00 $500.00
Total $1,700.00 $1,700.00
Program Estimated Actual
Performers N/A N/A
Speakers (Honorarium) $500.00 $500.00
Travel N/A N/A
Hotel N/A N/A
Other N/A N/A
Total $500.00 $500.00
Miscellaneous Estimated Actual
Raffle Items N/A N/A
Gifts (Speakers) $100.00 $100.00
Total $100.00 $100.00
Total Expenses Estimated Actual
$2,920.00 $2,920.00
Event Budget: EXPENSES (Projected 100 participants/10-12 speakers)
Diversity in Sports Marketing
Symposiusm Budget
$0.00
$200.00
$400.00
$600.00
$800.00
$1,000.00
$1,200.00
$1,400.00
$1,600.00
$1,800.00
Estimated Actual
17%
1%
4%
0%
58%
17%
3%
Site DecorationsPublicity MediaRefreshments ProgramMiscellaneous
