Blues

This article is about the music genre. For other uses, seeBlues (disambiguation).Blues is a genre[2] and musical form that originated

Robert Johnson, an influential Delta blues musician

in African-American communities in the "Deep South"of the United States around the end of the 19th cen-tury. The genre is a fusion of traditional African mu-sic and European folk music,[1] spirituals, work songs,field hollers, shouts and chants, and rhymed simple narra-tive ballads.[3] The blues form, ubiquitous in jazz, rhythmand blues and rock and roll, is characterized by the call-and-response pattern and specific chord progressions, ofwhich the twelve-bar blues is the most common. Theblue notes are also an important part of the sound. Bluesshuffles or walking bass reinforce the trance-like rhythmand form a repetitive effect called a groove.Blues as a genre possesses other characteristics such aslyrics, bass lines, and instruments. The lyrics of earlytraditional blues verses consisted of a single line repeatedfour times. It was only in the first decades of the 20thcentury that the most common current structure becamestandard: the so-called AAB pattern, consisting of a line

sung over the four first bars, its repetition over the nextfour, and then a longer concluding line over the last bars.Early blues frequently took the form of a loose narrative,often relating troubles experienced within African Amer-ican society.Many blues elements, such as the call-and-response for-mat and the use of blue notes, can be traced back to themusic of Africa. The origins of the blues are also closelyrelated to the religious music of the Afro-American com-munity, the spirituals. The first appearance of the bluesis often dated to after emancipation and, later, the de-velopment of juke joints. It is associated with the newlyacquired freedom of the former slaves. Chroniclers be-gan to report about blues music at the dawn of the 20thcentury. The first publication of blues sheet music was in1908. Blues has since evolved from unaccompanied vo-cal music and oral traditions of slaves into a wide varietyof styles and subgenres. Blues subgenres include countryblues, such as Delta and Piedmont, as well as urban bluesstyles such as Chicago and West Coast blues. World WarII marked the transition from acoustic to electric bluesand the progressive opening of blues music to a wideraudience, especially white listeners. In the 1960s and1970s, a hybrid form called blues rock evolved.

1 Definition

1.1 Etymology

The term may have come from the term “blue devils”,meaningmelancholy and sadness; an early use of the termin this sense is found in George Colman's one-act farceBlue Devils (1798).[4] Though the use of the phrase inAfrican-American music may be older, it has been at-tested to since 1912, when Hart Wand's "Dallas Blues"became the first copyrighted blues composition.[5][6] Inlyrics the phrase is often used to describe a depressedmood.[7]

1.2 Lyrics

The lyrics of early traditional blues verses probably of-ten consisted of a single line repeated four times. Itwas only in the first decades of the 20th century that themost common current structure became standard: the so-called AAB pattern, consisting of a line sung over thefour first bars, its repetition over the next four, and then a

1

2 1 DEFINITION

longer concluding line over the last bars.[8] Two of thefirst published blues songs, "Dallas Blues" (1912) and"Saint Louis Blues" (1914), were 12-bar blues featuringthe AAB structure. W. C. Handy wrote that he adoptedthis convention to avoid the monotony of lines repeatedthree times.[9] The lines are often sung following a patterncloser to a rhythmic talk than to a melody.Early blues frequently took the form of a loose narrative.The singer voiced his or her “personal woes in a worldof harsh reality: a lost love, the cruelty of police offi-cers, oppression at the hands of white folk, [and] hardtimes.”[10] This melancholy has led to the suggestion ofan Igbo origin for blues because of the reputation theIgbo had throughout plantations in the Americas for theirmelancholic music and outlook to life when they wereenslaved.[11][12]

The lyrics often relate troubles experienced withinAfrican American society. For instance Blind LemonJefferson's “Rising High Water Blues” (1927) tells aboutthe Great Mississippi Flood of 1927:

“Backwater rising, Southern peoples can'tmake no timeI said, backwater rising, Southern peoples can'tmake no timeAnd I can't get no hearing from that Memphisgirl of mine.”

However, although the blues gained an association withmisery and oppression, the lyrics could also be humorousand raunchy as well:[13]

“Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off ofme,Rebecca, Rebecca, get your big legs off of me,It may be sending you baby, but it’s worryingthe hell out of me.”

From Big Joe Turner's “Rebecca”,a compilation of traditional blueslyrics

Hokum blues celebrated both comedic lyrical content anda boisterous, farcical performance style.[14] Tampa Red'sclassic “Tight Like That” (1928) is a sly wordplay withthe double meaning of being “tight” with someone cou-pled with a more salacious physical familiarity. Explicitcontents led to blues sometimes being called dirty blues.Lyrical content of music became slightly simpler in postwar-blues which focused almost exclusively on relation-ship woes or sexual worries. Many lyrical themes thatfrequently appeared in pre-war blues such as economicdepression, farming, devils, gambling, magic, floods anddry periods were less common in post-war blues.[15]

Author Ed Morales has claimed that Yoruba mythol-ogy played a part in early blues, citing Robert John-son's "Cross Road Blues" as a “thinly veiled reference to

Eleggua, the orisha in charge of the crossroads”.[16] How-ever, the Christian influence was far more obvious.[17]Many seminal blues artists such as Charley Patton orSkip James had several religious songs or spirituals intheir repertoires.[18] Reverend Gary Davis[19] and BlindWillie Johnson[20] are examples of artists often catego-rized as blues musicians for their music, although theirlyrics clearly belong to the spirituals.

1.3 Form

The blues form is a cyclic musical form in which a re-peating progression of chords mirrors the call and re-sponse scheme commonly found in African and African-American music. During the first decades of the 20thcentury blues music was not clearly defined in terms ofa particular chord progression.[21] With the popularityof early performers, such as Bessie Smith, use of thetwelve-bar blues spread across the music industry dur-ing the 1920s and 30s.[22] Other chord progressions, suchas 8-bar forms, are still considered blues; examples in-clude "How Long Blues,” "Trouble inMind,” and Big BillBroonzy's "Key to the Highway.” There are also 16-barblues, as in Ray Charles's instrumental “Sweet 16 Bars”and in Herbie Hancock's "Watermelon Man.” Idiosyn-cratic numbers of bars are also encountered occasionally,as with the 9-bar progression in "Sitting on Top of theWorld" by Walter Vinson.The basic 12-bar lyric framework of a blues compositionis reflected by a standard harmonic progression of 12 barsin a 4/4 time signature. The blues chords associated toa twelve-bar blues are typically a set of three differentchords played over a 12-bar scheme. They are labeled byRoman numbers referring to the degrees of the progres-sion. For instance, for a blues in the key of C, C is thetonic chord (I) and F is the subdominant (IV).The last chord is the dominant (V) turnaround, markingthe transition to the beginning of the next progression.The lyrics generally end on the last beat of the tenth baror the first beat of the 11th bar, and the final two barsare given to the instrumentalist as a break; the harmonyof this two-bar break, the turnaround, can be extremelycomplex, sometimes consisting of single notes that defyanalysis in terms of chords.Much of the time, some or all of these chords are playedin the harmonic seventh (7th) form. The use of the har-monic seventh interval is characteristic of blues and ispopularly called the “blues seven”.[23] Blues seven chordsadd to the harmonic chord a note with a frequency in a7:4 ratio to the fundamental note. At a 7:4 ratio, it is notclose to any interval on the conventional Western diatonicscale.[24] For convenience or by necessity it is often ap-proximated by a minor seventh interval or a dominantseventh chord.In melody, blues is distinguished by the use of theflattened third, fifth and seventh of the associated major

3

A minor pentatonic scale; play

scale.[25] These specialized notes are called the blue orbent notes. These scale tonesmay replace the natural scaletones, or they may be added to the scale, as in the case oftheminor blues scale, in which the flattened third replacesthe natural third, the flattened seventh replaces the natu-ral seventh and the flattened fifth is added between thenatural fourth and natural fifth. While the 12-bar har-monic progression had been intermittently used for cen-turies, the revolutionary aspect of blues was the frequentuse of the flattened third, flattened seventh, and evenflattened fifth in the melody, together with crushing—playing directly adjacent notes at the same time (i.e., mi-nor second)—and sliding, similar to using grace notes.[26]The blue notes allow for key moments of expression dur-ing the cadences, melodies, and embellishments of theblues.Blues shuffles or walking bass reinforce the trance-likerhythm and call-and-response, and they form a repetitiveeffect called a groove. Characteristic of the blues sinceits Afro-American origins, the shuffles played a centralrole in swing music.[27] The simplest shuffles, which werethe clearest signature of the R&B wave that started in themid-1940s,[28] were a three-note riff on the bass stringsof the guitar. When this riff was played over the bassand the drums, the groove “feel” was created. Shufflerhythm is often vocalized as "dow, da dow, da dow, da”or "dump, da dump, da dump, da":[29] it consists of un-even, or “swung,” eighth notes. On a guitar this may beplayed as a simple steady bass or it may add to that step-wise quarter note motion from the fifth to the sixth of thechord and back. An example is provided by the followingguitar tablature for the first four bars of a blues progres-sion in E:[30][31]

Blues shuffle or boogie in E major ( Play ).

E7 A7 E7 E7 E |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------| B |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------| G |----------------|----------------|----------------|----------------| D |----------------|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-|----------------|----------------| A|2—2-4-2-5-2-4—2-|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-|2—2-4—2-5—2-4—2-| E |0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|----------------|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|0—0-0—0-0—0-0—2-|

2 History

2.1 Origins

Main article: Origins of the blues

The first publication of blues sheet music was in 1908:Antonio Maggio’s “I Got the Blues” is the first publishedsong to use the word blues. Hart Wand's "Dallas Blues"followed in 1912; W. C. Handy's "The Memphis Blues"followed in the same year. The first recording by anAfrican American singer was Mamie Smith's 1920 ren-dition of Perry Bradford's “Crazy Blues”. But the originsof the blues date back to some decades earlier, probablyaround 1890.[32] They are very poorly documented, duein part to racial discrimination within US society, includ-ing academic circles,[33] and to the low literacy of ruralAfrican American community at the time.[34]

Chroniclers began to report about blues music inSouthern Texas and Deep South at the dawn of the 20thcentury. In particular, Charles Peabody mentioned theappearance of blues music at Clarksdale, Mississippi andGate Thomas reported very similar songs in southernTexas around 1901–1902. These observations coincidemore or less with the remembrance of Jelly Roll Mor-ton, who declared having heard blues for the first timein New Orleans in 1902; Ma Rainey, who rememberedher first blues experience the same year in Missouri;and W.C. Handy, who first heard the blues in Tutwiler,Mississippi in 1903. The first extensive research in thefield was performed by Howard W. Odum, who pub-lished a large anthology of folk songs in the countiesof Lafayette, Mississippi and Newton, Georgia between1905 and 1908.[35] The first non-commercial recordingsof bluesmusic, termed “proto-blues” by Paul Oliver, weremade by Odum at the very beginning of the 20th centuryfor research purposes. They are now utterly lost.[36]

Other recordings that are still available were made in1924 by Lawrence Gellert. Later, several recordingswere made by Robert W. Gordon, who became head ofthe Archive of American Folk Songs of the Library ofCongress. Gordon’s successor at the Library was JohnLomax. In the 1930s, together with his son Alan, Lomaxmade a large number of non-commercial blues recordingsthat testify to the huge variety of proto-blues styles, suchas field hollers and ring shouts.[37] A record of bluesmusicas it existed before the 1920s is also given by the record-ings of artists such as Lead Belly[38] or Henry Thomas[39]who both performed archaic blues music. All thesesources show the existence of many different structuresdistinct from the twelve-, eight-, or sixteen-bar.[40][41]

The social and economic reasons for the appearance ofthe blues are not fully known.[42] The first appearanceof the blues is often dated after the Emancipation Actof 1863,[33] between 1870 and 1900, a period that coin-cides with post emancipation and, later, the development

4 2 HISTORY

John Lomax (left) shaking hands with musician “Uncle” RichBrown in Sumterville, Alabama

of juke joints as places where Blacks went to listen tomusic, dance, or gamble after a hard day’s work.[43] Thisperiod corresponds to the transition from slavery to share-cropping, small-scale agricultural production, and the ex-pansion of railroads in the southern United States. Sev-eral scholars characterize the early 1900s development ofbluesmusic as amove from group performances to amoreindividualized style. They argue that the development ofthe blues is associated with the newly acquired freedomof the enslaved people.[44]

According to Lawrence Levine, “there was a direct rela-tionship between the national ideological emphasis uponthe individual, the popularity of Booker T. Washington’steachings, and the rise of the blues.” Levine states that“psychologically, socially, and economically, African-Americans were being acculturated in a way that wouldhave been impossible during slavery, and it is hardly sur-prising that their secular music reflected this as much astheir religious music did.”[44]

There are few characteristics common to all blues music,because the genre took its shape from the idiosyncrasiesof individual performances.[45] However, there are somecharacteristics that were present long before the creationof the modern blues. Call-and-response shouts were anearly form of blues-like music; they were a “functionalexpression ... style without accompaniment or harmonyand unbounded by the formality of any particular musicalstructure.”[46] A form of this pre-blues was heard in slavering shouts and field hollers, expanded into “simple solosongs laden with emotional content”.[47]

Blues has evolved from the unaccompanied vocal musicand oral traditions of slaves imported from West Africa

and rural blacks into a wide variety of styles and subgen-res, with regional variations across the United States. Al-though blues (as it is now known) can be seen as a musi-cal style based on both European harmonic structure andthe African call-and-response tradition that transformedinto an interplay of voice and guitar,[48][49] the bluesform itself bears no resemblance to the melodic stylesof the West African griots, and the influences are faintand tenuous.[50][51] Additionally, there are theories thatthe four-beats-per-measure structure of the blues mighthave its origins in the Native American tradition of powwow drumming.[52]

In particular, no specific African musical form can beidentified as the single direct ancestor of the blues.[53]However the call-and-response format can be traced backto the music of Africa. That blue notes pre-date theiruse in blues and have an African origin is attested byEnglish composer Samuel Coleridge-Taylor's “A NegroLove Song”, from his The African Suite for Piano com-posed in 1898, which contains blue third and seventhnotes.[54]

The Diddley bow (a homemade one-stringed instrumentfound in parts of the American South in the early twen-tieth century) and the banjo are African-derived instru-ments that may have helped in the transfer of Africanperformance techniques into the early blues instrumentalvocabulary.[55] The banjo seems to be directly importedfrom western African music. It is similar to the musi-cal instrument that griots and other Africans such as theIgbo[56] played (called halam or akonting by African peo-ples such as theWolof, Fula andMandinka).[57] However,in the 1920s, when country blues began to be recorded,the use of the banjo in blues music was quite marginaland limited to individuals such as Papa Charlie Jacksonand later Gus Cannon.[58]

Blues music also adopted elements from the “Ethiopianairs”, minstrel shows and Negro spirituals, including in-strumental and harmonic accompaniment.[59] The stylealso was closely related to ragtime, which developed atabout the same time, though the blues better preserved“the original melodic patterns of African music.”[60]

Charley Patton, one of the originators of the Delta blues style,playing with a pick or a bottleneck slide.

The musical forms and styles that are now considered

2.2 Pre-war blues 5

the “blues” as well as modern "country music" arose inthe same regions during the 19th century in the southernUnited States. Recorded blues and country can be foundfrom as far back as the 1920s, when the popular record in-dustry developed and created marketing categories called"race music" and "hillbilly music" to sell music by blacksfor blacks and by whites for whites, respectively. At thetime, there was no clear musical division between “blues”and “country,” except for the ethnicity of the performer,and even that was sometimes documented incorrectly byrecord companies.[61][62]

Though musicologists can now attempt to define “theblues” narrowly in terms of certain chord structures andlyric strategies thought to have originated in West Africa,audiences originally heard the music in a far more gen-eral way: it was simply the music of the rural south, no-tably the Mississippi Delta. Black and white musiciansshared the same repertoire and thought of themselves as"songsters" rather than “blues musicians.” The notion ofblues as a separate genre arose during the black migra-tion from the countryside to urban areas in the 1920s andthe simultaneous development of the recording industry.“Blues” became a code word for a record designed to sellto black listeners.[63]

The origins of the blues are closely related to the religiousmusic of the Afro-American community, the spirituals.The origins of spirituals go back much further than theblues, usually dating back to the middle of the 18th cen-tury, when the slaves were Christianized and began tosing and play Christian hymns, in particular those ofIsaacWatts, which were very popular.[64] Before the bluesgained its formal definition in terms of chord progres-sions, it was defined as the secular counterpart of thespirituals. It was the low-down music played by the ruralBlacks.[65]

Depending on the religious community a musician be-longed to, it was more or less considered as a sin toplay this low-down music: blues was the devil’s music.Musicians were therefore segregated into two categories:gospel and blues singers, guitar preachers and songsters.However, at the time rural Black music began to getrecorded in the 1920s, both categories of musicians usedvery similar techniques: call-and-response patterns, bluenotes, and slide guitars. Gospel music was neverthelessusing musical forms that were compatible with Christianhymns and therefore less marked by the blues form thanits secular counterpart.[65]

2.2 Pre-war blues

The American sheet music publishing industry produceda great deal of ragtime music. By 1912, the sheet musicindustry had published three popular blues-like composi-tions, precipitating the Tin Pan Alley adoption of blueselements: “Baby Seals’ Blues” by “Baby” F. Seals (ar-ranged by Artie Matthews), “Dallas Blues” by Hart Wand

and "The Memphis Blues" by W. C. Handy.[66]

Sheet music from "Saint Louis Blues" (1914)

Handy was a formally trained musician, composer andarranger who helped to popularize the blues by transcrib-ing and orchestrating blues in an almost symphonic style,with bands and singers. He became a popular and prolificcomposer, and billed himself as the “Father of the Blues";however, his compositions can be described as a fusionof blues with ragtime and jazz, a merger facilitated us-ing the Cuban habanera rhythm that had long been a partof ragtime;[16][67] Handy’s signature work was the "SaintLouis Blues".In the 1920s, the blues became a major element ofAfrican American and American popular music, reach-ing white audiences via Handy’s arrangements and theclassic female blues performers. The blues evolved frominformal performances in bars to entertainment in the-aters. Blues performances were organized by the TheaterOwners Bookers Association in nightclubs such as theCotton Club and juke joints such as the bars along BealeStreet in Memphis. Several record companies, such asthe American Record Corporation, Okeh Records, andParamount Records, began to record African Americanmusic.As the recording industry grew, country blues perform-ers like Bo Carter, Jimmie Rodgers (country singer),Blind Lemon Jefferson, Lonnie Johnson, Tampa Red andBlind Blake became more popular in the African Ameri-can community. Kentucky-born Sylvester Weaver was in1923 the first to record the slide guitar style, in which aguitar is fretted with a knife blade or the sawed-off neck

6 2 HISTORY

of a bottle.[68] The slide guitar became an important partof the Delta blues.[69] The first blues recordings from the1920s are categorized as a traditional, rural country bluesand a more polished 'city' or urban blues.

Country blues

Country blues performers often improvised, either with-out accompaniment or with only a banjo or guitar.Regional styles of country blues varied widely in theearly 20th century. The (Mississippi) Delta blues wasa rootsy sparse style with passionate vocals accompa-nied by slide guitar. The little-recorded Robert John-son[70] combined elements of urban and rural blues. Inaddition to Robert Johnson, influential performers ofthis style included his predecessors Charley Patton andSon House. Singers such as Blind Willie McTell andBlind Boy Fuller performed in the southeastern “deli-cate and lyrical” Piedmont blues tradition, which used anelaborate ragtime-based fingerpicking guitar technique.Georgia also had an early slide tradition,[71] with CurleyWeaver, Tampa Red, “Barbecue Bob” Hicks and James“Kokomo” Arnold as representatives of this style.[72]

The lively Memphis blues style, which developed in the1920s and 1930s near Memphis, Tennessee, was influ-enced by jug bands such as the Memphis Jug Band orthe Gus Cannon’s Jug Stompers. Performers such asFrank Stokes, Sleepy John Estes, Robert Wilkins, JoeMcCoy, Casey Bill Weldon and Memphis Minnie used avariety of unusual instruments such as washboard, fiddle,kazoo or mandolin. Memphis Minnie was famous forher virtuoso guitar style. Pianist Memphis Slim be-gan his career in Memphis, but his distinct style wassmoother and had some swing elements. Many blues mu-sicians based in Memphis moved to Chicago in the late1930s or early 1940s and became part of the urban bluesmovement.[73][74]

Urban blues

City or urban blues styles were more codified and elab-orate as a performer was no longer within their local,immediate community and had to adapt to a larger,more varied audience’s aesthetic.[75] Classic female urbanand vaudeville blues singers were popular in the 1920s,among them Mamie Smith, Gertrude “Ma” Rainey,Bessie Smith, and Victoria Spivey. Mamie Smith, morea vaudeville performer than a blues artist, was the firstAfrican-American to record a blues song in 1920; hersecond record, “Crazy Blues”, sold 75,000 copies in itsfirst month.[76]

MaRainey, the “Mother of Blues”, and Bessie Smith each"[sang] around center tones, perhaps in order to projecther voicemore easily to the back of a room.” Smith would"... sing a song in an unusual key, and her artistry inbending and stretching notes with her beautiful, power-ful contralto to accommodate her own interpretation was

Bessie Smith, an early blues singer, was known for her powerfulvoice.

unsurpassed.”[77] Urban male performers included popu-lar black musicians of the era, such as Tampa Red, BigBill Broonzy and Leroy Carr. An important label of thisera was the chicagoean Bluebird label. Before WWII,Tampa Red was sometimes referred to as “the GuitarWizard”. Carr accompanied himself on the piano withScrapper Blackwell on guitar, a format that continuedwell into the 1950s with people such as Charles Brown,and even Nat “King” Cole.[69]

A typical boogie-woogie bassline

Boogie-woogie was another important style of 1930s andearly 1940s urban blues. While the style is often as-sociated with solo piano, boogie-woogie was also usedto accompany singers and, as a solo part, in bands andsmall combos. Boogie-Woogie style was characterizedby a regular bass figure, an ostinato or riff and shifts oflevel in the left hand, elaborating each chord and trillsand decorations in the right hand. Boogie-woogie waspioneered by the Chicago-based Jimmy Yancey and theBoogie-Woogie Trio (Albert Ammons, Pete Johnson andMeade Lux Lewis).[78] Chicago boogie-woogie perform-ers included Clarence “Pine Top” Smith and Earl Hines,who “linked the propulsive left-hand rhythms of the rag-time pianists with melodic figures similar to those ofArmstrong’s trumpet in the right hand.”[75] The smooth

2.3 1950s 7

Louisiana style of Professor Longhair and, more recently,Dr. John blends classic rhythm and blues with bluesstyles.Another development in this period was big band blues.The "territory bands" operating out of Kansas City, theBennie Moten orchestra, Jay McShann, and the CountBasie Orchestra were also concentrating on the blues,with 12-bar blues instrumentals such as Basie’s "OneO'Clock Jump" and "Jumpin' at the Woodside" and bois-terous "blues shouting" by Jimmy Rushing on songs suchas “Going to Chicago” and "Sent for You Yesterday.”A well-known big band blues tune is Glenn Miller's "Inthe Mood.” In the 1940s, the jump blues style devel-oped. Jump blues grew up from the boogie woogie waveand was strongly influenced by big band music. It usessaxophone or other brass instruments and the guitar inthe rhythm section to create a jazzy, up-tempo soundwith declamatory vocals. Jump blues tunes by Louis Jor-dan and Big Joe Turner, based in Kansas City, Missouri,influenced the development of later styles such as rockand roll and rhythm and blues.[79] Dallas-born T-BoneWalker, who is often associated with the California bluesstyle,[80] performed a successful transition from the earlyurban blues à la Lonnie Johnson and Leroy Carr to thejump blues style and dominated the blues-jazz scene atLos Angeles during the 1940s.[81]

2.3 1950s

The transition from country to urban blues, that beganin the 1920s, had always been driven by the successivewaves of economic crisis and booms and the associatedmove of the rural Blacks to urban areas, the Great Mi-gration. The long boom in the aftermath of World WarII induced a massive migration of the African Americanpopulation, the Second Great Migration, which was ac-companied by a significant increase of the real incomeof the urban Blacks. The new migrants constituted a newmarket for the music industry. The name race record dis-appeared and was succeeded by rhythm and blues. Thisrapidly evolving market was mirrored by the BillboardRhythm and Blues Chart. This marketing strategy rein-forced trends within urban blues music such as the pro-gressive electrification of the instruments, their amplifi-cation and the generalization of the blues beat, the bluesshuffle, that became ubiquitous in R&B. This commer-cial stream had important consequences for blues musicwhich, together with Jazz and Gospel music, became acomponent of the R&B wave.[82]

After World War II and in the 1950s, new styles ofelectric blues music became popular in cities such asChicago,[84] Memphis,[85] Detroit[86][87] and St. Louis.Electric blues used electric guitars, double bass (slowlyreplaced by bass guitar), drums, and harmonica playedthrough a microphone and a PA system or a guitar am-plifier. Chicago became a center for electric blues from1948 on, when Muddy Waters recorded his first success:

Muddy Waters, described as “the guiding light of the modernblues school”[83]

John Lee Hooker

“I Can't Be Satisfied.”[88] Chicago blues is influenced to alarge extent by the Mississippi blues style, because manyperformers had migrated from the Mississippi region.Howlin' Wolf, Muddy Waters, Willie Dixon and JimmyReed were all born in Mississippi and moved to Chicagoduring the Great Migration. Their style is character-ized by the use of electric guitar, sometimes slide guitar,harmonica, and a rhythm section of bass and drums.[89]J. T. Brown who played in Elmore James's bands or J.B. Lenoir's also used saxophones, but these were usedmore as “backing” or rhythmic support than as solo in-struments.Little Walter, Sonny Boy Williamson (Rice Miller) andSonny Terry are well known harmonica (called "harp"by blues musicians) players of the early Chicago bluesscene. Other harp players such as Big Walter Horton

8 2 HISTORY

Otis Rush, a pioneer of the 'West Side Sound'

were also influential. Muddy Waters and Elmore Jameswere known for their innovative use of slide electric gui-tar. Howlin' Wolf and Muddy Waters were known fortheir deep, “gravelly” voices.Bassist and composerWillie Dixon played amajor role onthe Chicago blues scene. He composed and wrote manystandard blues songs of the period, such as "HoochieCoochie Man,” "I Just Want to Make Love to You" (bothpenned for Muddy Waters) and, "Wang Dang Doodle"and "Back Door Man" for Howlin' Wolf. Most artists ofthe Chicago blues style recorded for the Chicago-basedChess Records and Checker Records labels. Smallerblues labels of this era included Vee-Jay Records andJ.O.B. Records. During the early 1950s, the dominat-ing Chicago labels were challenged by Sam Phillips' SunRecords company in Memphis, which recorded B. B.King and Howlin' Wolf before he moved to Chicago in1960.[90] After Phillips discovered Elvis Presley in 1954,the Sun label turned to the rapidly expanding white audi-ence and started recording mostly rock 'n' roll.[91]

In the 1950s, blues had a huge influence on mainstreamAmerican popular music. While popular musicians likeBo Diddley[86] and Chuck Berry,[92] both recording forChess, were influenced by the Chicago blues, their en-thusiastic playing styles departed from the melancholy as-pects of blues. Chicago blues also influenced Louisiana'szydeco music,[93] with Clifton Chenier[94] using blues ac-cents. Zydeco musicians used electric solo guitar andcajun arrangements of blues standards.Overseas, in England, electric blues took root there dur-ing a much acclaimed Muddy Waters tour. Waters, un-suspecting of his audience’s tendency towards skiffle, anacoustic, softer brand of blues, turned up his amp andstarted to play his Chicago brand of electric blues. Al-though the audience was largely jolted by the perfor-mance, the performance influenced local musicians suchas Alexis Korner and Cyril Davies to emulate this louderstyle, inspiring the British invasion of the Rolling Stones

and the Yardbirds.[95]

In the late 1950s, a new blues style emerged on Chicago’sWest Side pioneered by Magic Sam, Buddy Guy and OtisRush on Cobra Records.[96] The 'West Side Sound' hadstrong rhythmic support from a rhythm guitar, bass gui-tar and drums and as pefected by Guy, Freddie King,Magic Slim and Luther Allison was dominated by am-plified electric lead guitar.[97][98]

Other blues artists, such as John Lee Hooker had influ-ences not directly related to the Chicago style. John LeeHooker’s blues is more “personal,” based on Hooker’sdeep rough voice accompanied by a single electric gui-tar. Though not directly influenced by boogie woogie, his“groovy” style is sometimes called “guitar boogie”. Hisfirst hit, "Boogie Chillen,” reached #1 on the R&B chartsin 1949.[99]

By the late 1950s, the swamp blues genre developed nearBaton Rouge, with performers such as Lightnin' Slim,[100]Slim Harpo,[101] Sam Myers and Jerry McCain aroundthe producer J. D. “Jay” Miller and the Excello label.Strongly influenced by Jimmy Reed, Swamp blues has aslower pace and a simpler use of the harmonica than theChicago blues style performers such as Little Walter orMuddy Waters. Songs from this genre include “Scratchmy Back”, “She’s Tough” and "I'm a King Bee.” Alan Lo-max’s recordings of Mississippi Fred McDowell wouldeventually bring him wider attention on both the bluesand folk circuit, with McDowell’s droning style influenc-ing North Mississippi hill country blues musicians.[102]

2.4 1960s and 1970s

By the beginning of the 1960s, genres influenced byAfrican American music such as rock and roll and soulwere part of mainstream popular music. White perform-ers had brought African-American music to new audi-ences, both within the U.S. and abroad. However, theblues wave that brought artists such as Muddy Waters tothe foreground had stopped. Bluesmen such as Big BillBroonzy and Willie Dixon started looking for new mar-kets in Europe. Dick Waterman and the blues festivalshe organized in Europe played a major role in propagat-ing blues music abroad. In the UK, bands emulated U.S.blues legends, and UK blues rock-based bands had an in-fluential role throughout the 1960s.[103]

Blues performers such as John Lee Hooker and MuddyWaters continued to perform to enthusiastic audiences,inspiring new artists steeped in traditional blues, such asNewYork–born TajMahal. John LeeHooker blended hisblues style with rock elements and playing with youngerwhitemusicians, creating amusical style that can be heardon the 1971 album Endless Boogie. B. B. King's virtuosoguitar technique earned him the eponymous title “king ofthe blues”.In contrast to the Chicago style, King’s band used strong

2.4 1960s and 1970s 9

Blues legend B.B. King with his guitar, “Lucille”.

brass support from a saxophone, trumpet, and trombone,instead of using slide guitar or harp. Tennessee-bornBobby “Blue” Bland, like B. B. King, also straddled theblues and R&B genres. During this period, Freddie Kingand Albert King often played with rock and soul musi-cians (Eric Clapton, Booker T & the MGs) and had amajor influence on those styles of music.The music of the Civil Rights[104] and Free Speech move-ments in the U.S. prompted a resurgence of interest inAmerican roots music and early African American mu-sic. As well as Jimmi Bass Music festivals such as theNewport Folk Festival[105] brought traditional blues toa new audience, which helped to revive interest in pre-war acoustic blues and performers such as Son House,Mississippi John Hurt, Skip James, and Reverend GaryDavis.[104] Many compilations of classic prewar blueswere republished by the Yazoo Records. J. B. Lenoirfrom the Chicago blues movement in the 1950s recordedseveral LPs using acoustic guitar, sometimes accompa-nied by Willie Dixon on the acoustic bass or drums. Hissongs, originally distributed in Europe only,[106] com-mented on political issues such as racism or VietnamWarissues, which was unusual for this period. His AlabamaBlues recording had a song that stated:

I never will go back to Alabama, that is notthe place for me (2x)You know they killed my sister andmy brother,and the whole world let them peoples go downthere free

White audiences’ interest in the blues during the 1960s in-creased due to the Chicago-based Paul Butterfield BluesBand and the British bluesmovement. The style of British

Texas blues guitarist Stevie Ray Vaughan

blues developed in the UK, when bands such as The Ani-mals, Fleetwood Mac, John Mayall & the Bluesbreakers,The Rolling Stones, The Yardbirds, and Cream and Irishmusician Rory Gallagher performed classic blues songsfrom the Delta or Chicago blues traditions.[107]

The British and blues musicians of the early 1960s in-spired a number of American blues rock fusion per-formers, including The Doors, Canned Heat, the earlyJefferson Airplane, Janis Joplin, Johnny Winter, The J.Geils Band, Ry Cooder, and The Allman Brothers Band.One blues rock performer, Jimi Hendrix, was a rarity inhis field at the time: a black man who played psychedelicrock. Hendrix was a skilled guitarist, and a pioneerin the innovative use of distortion and feedback in hismusic.[108] Through these artists and others, blues musicinfluenced the development of rock music.[109]

Santana, which was originally called the Carlos SantanaBlues Band, also experimented with Latin-influencedblues and blues rockmusic around this time. At the end ofthe 1950s appeared the very bluesy Tulsa Sound mergingrock'n'roll, jazz and country influences. This particularmusic style started to be broadly popularized within the1970s by J.J. Cale and the cover versions performed byEric Clapton of "After Midnight" and "Cocaine".In the early 1970s, The Texas rock-blues style emerged,which used guitars in both solo and rhythm roles. In con-trast with the West Side blues, the Texas style is strongly

10 3 INFLUENCE

influenced by the British rock-blues movement. Ma-jor artists of the Texas style are Johnny Winter, StevieRay Vaughan, The Fabulous Thunderbirds, and ZZ Top.These artists all began their musical journey in the 1970s,but they did not achieve major international success untilthe next decade.[110]

2.5 1980s to the 2000s

Denise LaSalle

Since at least the 1980s, there has been a resurgence ofinterest in the blues among a certain part of the African-American population, particularly around Jackson, Mis-sissippi and other deep South regions. Often termed "soulblues" or "Southern soul", the music at the heart of thismovement was given new life by the unexpected suc-cess of two particular recordings on the Jackson-basedMalaco label:[111] Z. Z. Hill's Down Home Blues (1982)and Little Milton's The Blues is Alright (1984). Con-temporary African-American performers who work thisvein of the blues include Bobby Rush, Denise LaSalle,Sir Charles Jones, Bettye LaVette, Marvin Sease, PeggyScott-Adams, Mel Waiters, Clarence Carter, Dr. “Feel-good” Potts, O.B. Buchana, Ms. Jody, Shirley Brown,and dozens of others.During the 1980s, blues also continued in both tradi-tional and new forms. In 1986, the album Strong Per-suader revealed Robert Cray as a major blues artist. Thefirst Stevie Ray Vaughan recording, Texas Flood, was re-

leased in 1983, and the Texas-based guitarist explodedonto the international stage. 1989 saw a revival of JohnLee Hooker's popularity with the album The Healer. EricClapton, known for his performances with the BluesBreakers and Cream, made a comeback in the 1990swith his albumUnplugged, in which he played some stan-dard blues numbers on acoustic guitar. However, begin-ning in the 1990s, digital multitrack recording and othertechnological advances and new marketing strategies thatinclude video clip production have increased costs, andchallenge the spontaneity and improvisation that are animportant component of blues music.[112]

In the 1980s and 1990s, blues publications such as LivingBlues and Blues Revue began to be distributed, majorcities began forming blues societies, outdoor blues festi-vals became more common, and[113] more nightclubs andvenues for blues emerged.[114]

In the 1990s, largely ignored hill country blues gainedminor recognition in both blues and alternative rock mu-sic circles with North Mississippi artists R. L. Burnsideand Junior Kimbrough.[102] Blues performers exploreda range of musical genres, as can be seen, for exam-ple, from the broad array of nominees of the yearlyBlues Music Awards, previously named W. C. HandyAwards[115] or of the Grammy Awards for Best Contem-porary and Traditional Blues Album. The Bilboard BluesAlbum chart monitors and therefore provides an overviewover the current blues production. Contemporary bluesmusic is nurtured by several blues labels such as:Alligator Records, Ruf Records, Severn Records, ChessRecords (MCA), Delmark Records, NorthernBlues Mu-sic, Fat Possum Records and Vanguard Records (ArtemisRecords). Some labels are famous for their rediscover-ing and remastering of blues rarities such as ArhoolieRecords, Smithsonian Folkways Recordings (heir ofFolkways Records) and Yazoo Records (ShanachieRecords).[116]

In the 2000s to the 2010s blues rock gained a cultural fol-lowing especially as popularity of the internet increasedand artists started creating YouTube channels, forums,and Facebook pages. Many notable blues rock musiciansin this time period are Beth Hart, Warren Haynes, GaryClark Jr., Derek Trucks, Jason Ricci, Eric Gales, SusanTedeschi, Joe Bonamassa, Shemekia Copeland, and therecent collaborations between Charlie Musselwhite andBen Harper as well as Orianthi. Alternative rock artistsstill combine strong elements of blues in their music es-pecially Awolnation, ZZ Ward, Cage the Elephant, JackWhite and The Black Keys.

3 Influence

3.1 Musical impact 11

3.1 Musical impact

Blues musical styles, forms (12-bar blues), melodies, andthe blues scale have influenced many other genres of mu-sic, such as rock and roll, jazz, and popular music.[117]Prominent jazz, folk or rock performers, such as LouisArmstrong, Duke Ellington, Miles Davis, and Bob Dy-lan have performed significant blues recordings. Theblues scale is often used in popular songs like HaroldArlen's “Blues in the Night”, blues ballads like “Since IFell for You” and “Please Send Me Someone to Love”,and even in orchestral works such as George Gershwin's"Rhapsody in Blue" and “Concerto in F”. Gershwin’s sec-ond “Prelude” for solo piano is an interesting exampleof a classical blues, maintaining the form with academicstrictness. The blues scale is ubiquitous in modern popu-lar music and informs many modal frames, especially theladder of thirds used in rock music (for example, in "AHard Day’s Night"). Blues forms are used in the theme tothe televised Batman, teen idol Fabian Forte's hit, “TurnMe Loose”, country music star Jimmie Rodgers' music,and guitarist/vocalist Tracy Chapman's hit “Give Me OneReason”.Early country bluesmen such as Skip James, Charley Pat-ton, Georgia Tom Dorsey played country and urban bluesand had influences from spiritual singing. Dorsey helpedto popularize Gospel music.[118] Gospel music developedin the 1930s, with the Golden Gate Quartet. In the 1950s,soul music by Sam Cooke, Ray Charles and James Brownused gospel and blues music elements. In the 1960s and1970s, gospel and blues were these merged in soul bluesmusic. Funk music of the 1970s was influenced by soul;funk can be seen as an antecedent of hip-hop and con-temporary R&B.R&B music can be traced back to spirituals and blues.Musically, spirituals were a descendant of New Eng-land choral traditions, and in particular of Isaac Watts'shymns, mixed with African rhythms and call-and-response forms. Spirituals or religious chants in theAfrican-American community are much better docu-mented than the “low-down” blues. Spiritual singing de-veloped because African-American communities couldgather for mass or worship gatherings, which were calledcamp meetings.Edward P. Comentale has noted how the blues was oftenused as a medium for art or self-expression, stating: “Asheard from Delta shacks to Chicago tenements to Harlemcabarets, the blues proved—despite its pained origins—a remarkably flexible medium and a new arena for theshaping of identity and community.”[119]

Before World War II, the boundaries between blues andjazz were less clear. Usually jazz had harmonic structuresstemming from brass bands, whereas blues had bluesforms such as the 12-bar blues. However, the jump bluesof the 1940s mixed both styles. After WWII, blues hada substantial influence on jazz. Bebop classics, such as

Duke Ellington straddled the big band and bebop genres. Elling-ton extensively used the blues form.[120]

Charlie Parker's “Now’s the Time”, used the blues formwith the pentatonic scale and blue notes.Bebop marked a major shift in the role of jazz, from apopular style of music for dancing, to a “high-art,” less-accessible, cerebral “musician’s music”. The audience forboth blues and jazz split, and the border between bluesand jazz became more defined.[120][121]

The blues’ 12-bar structure and the blues scale was a ma-jor influence on rock and roll music. Rock and roll hasbeen called “blues with a backbeat"; Carl Perkins calledrockabilly “blues with a country beat”. Rockabillies werealso said to be 12-bar blues played with a bluegrass beat."Hound Dog", with its unmodified 12-bar structure (inboth harmony and lyrics) and a melody centered on flat-ted third of the tonic (and flatted seventh of the subdom-inant), is a blues song transformed into a rock and rollsong. Jerry Lee Lewis's style of rock and roll was heav-ily influenced by the blues and its derivative boogie woo-gie. His style of music was not exactly rockabilly but ithas been often called real rock and roll (this is a labelhe shares with several African American rock and rollperformers).[122][123]

Many early rock and roll songs are based on blues: "That’sAll Right Mama,” "Johnny B. Goode,” "Blue SuedeShoes,” "Whole Lotta Shakin' Goin On,” "Shake, Rat-tle, and Roll,” and "Long Tall Sally.” The early AfricanAmerican rock musicians retained the sexual themes andinnuendos of blues music: “Got a gal named Sue, knowsjust what to do” ("Tutti Frutti,” Little Richard) or “See thegirl with the red dress on, She can do the Birdland all night

12 4 SEE ALSO

long” ("What'd I Say,” Ray Charles). The 12-bar bluesstructure can be found even in novelty pop songs, such asBob Dylan's "Obviously Five Believers" and Esther andAbi Ofarim's "Cinderella Rockefella.”Early country music was infused with the blues.[124]Jimmie Rodgers, Moon Mullican, Bob Wills, Bill Mon-roe and Hank Williams have all described themselves asblues singers and their music has a blues feel that is dif-ferent from the country pop of Eddy Arnold. A lot of the1970s-era “outlaw” country music by Willie Nelson andWaylon Jennings also borrowed from the blues. WhenJerry Lee Lewis returned to country after the decline of1950s style rock and roll, he sang his country with a bluesfeel and often included blues standards on his albums.

3.2 In popular culture

The music of Taj Mahal for the 1972 movie Sounder marked arevival of interest in acoustic blues.

Like jazz, rock and roll, heavy metal music, hip hop mu-sic, reggae, rap, country music, and pop music, blues hasbeen accused of being the "devil's music” and of incitingviolence and other poor behavior.[125] In the early 20thcentury, the blues was considered disreputable, especiallyas white audiences began listening to the blues during the1920s.[67] In the early twentieth century,W.C. Handywasthe first to popularize blues-influenced music among non-black Americans.

During the blues revival of the 1960s and '70s, acous-tic blues artist Taj Mahal and legendary Texas blues-man Lightnin' Hopkins wrote and performed music thatfigured prominently in the popularly and critically ac-claimed film Sounder (1972). The film earned Mahal aGrammy nomination for Best Original Score Written fora Motion Picture and a BAFTA nomination.[126] Almost30 years later, Mahal wrote blues for, and performeda banjo composition, claw-hammer style, in the 2001movie release Songcatcher, which focused on the story ofthe preservation of the roots music of Appalachia.Perhaps the most visible example of the blues style ofmusic in the late 20th century came in 1980, when DanAykroyd and John Belushi released the film The BluesBrothers. The film drew many of the biggest living in-fluencers of the Rhythm and blues genre together, suchas Ray Charles, James Brown, Cab Calloway, ArethaFranklin, and John Lee Hooker. The band formed alsobegan a successful tour under the Blues Brothers mar-quee. 1998 brought a sequel, Blues Brothers 2000 that,while not holding as great a critical and financial success,featured a much larger number of blues artists, such asB.B. King, BoDiddley, Erykah Badu, Eric Clapton, SteveWinwood, Charlie Musselwhite, Blues Traveler, JimmieVaughan, Jeff Baxter.In 2003, Martin Scorsese made significant efforts to pro-mote the blues to a larger audience. He asked severalfamous directors such as Clint Eastwood and Wim Wen-ders to participate in a series of documentary films forPBS called The Blues.[127] He also participated in the ren-dition of compilations of major blues artists in a series ofhigh-quality CDs. Blues guitarist and vocalist Keb' Mo'performed his blues rendition of "America, the Beauti-ful" in 2006 to close out the final season of the televisionseries The West Wing.

4 See also• Blues dance

• Blues Hall of Fame

• Mississippi Blues Trail

• Blues – Wikipedia book

Lists:

• List of blues festivals

• List of blues musicians

• List of blues standards

• List of British blues musicians

• List of films based on blues music

• List of train songs

13

General:

• African American culture

• 20th-century music

5 Notes[1] http://www.bbc.co.uk/schools/gcsebitesize/music/

popular_music/blues2.shtml

[2] Kunzler’s dictionary of Jazz provides two separate entries:blues, an originally African-American genre (p.128), andthe blues form, a widespread musical form (p.131).

[3] “The Evolution of Differing Blues Styles”. How To PlayBlues Guitar. Archived from the original on January 18,2010. Retrieved August 11, 2008.

[4] The “Trésor de la Langue Française informatisé" providesthis etymology to the word blues and George Colman’sfarce as the first appearance of this term in the Englishlanguage, see “Blues” (in French). Centre Nationale deRessources Textuelles et Lixicales. Archived from theoriginal on January 18, 2010. Retrieved October 15,2010.

[5] Davis, Francis. The History of the Blues. New York: Hy-perion, 1995.

[6] Eric Partridge, A Dictionary of Slang and UnconventionalEnglish, 2002, Routledge (UK), ISBN 978-0-415-29189-7

[7] Tony Bolden, Afro-Blue: Improvisations in African Amer-ican Poetry and Culture, 2004, University of Illinois Press,ISBN 978-0-252-02874-8

[8] Ferris, pg. 230

[9] Father of the Blues: An Autobiography. by W.C. Handy,edited by Arna Bontemps: foreword by Abbe Niles.Macmillan Company, New York; (1941) page 143. noISBN in this first printing

[10] Ewen, pgs. 142–143

[11] Blesh, Rudi; Janis, Harriet Grossman (1958). They allplayed ragtime, the true story of an American music. Sidg-wick & Jackson. p. 186. ISBN 978-1-4437-3152-2.

[12] Thomas (Jr.), James G. (2007). The New Encyclopedia ofSouthern Culture: Ethnicity. University of North CarolinaPress. p. 166. ISBN 978-0-8078-5823-3.

[13] Komara, pg. 476

[14] Allan F. Moore (2002). The Cambridge companion toblues and gospel music. Cambridge University Press. p.32. ISBN 978-0-521-00107-6.

[15] Oliver, pg. 281

[16] Morales, pg. 277

[17] Mark A. Humphrey, in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 107–149

[18] Calt, Stephen; Perls, Nick; Stewart, Michael. Ten yearsof black country religion 1926–1936 (vinyl back cover).New York: Yazoo Records. L-1022. Archived from theoriginal on January 18, 2010.

[19] “Reverend Gary Davis”. Reverend Gary Davis. 2009.Retrieved February 3, 2009.

[20] Michael Corcoran. “The Soul of Blind Willie Johnson”.Austin American-Statesman. Archived from the originalon January 18, 2010. Retrieved February 3, 2009.

[21] Bob Brozman (2002). “The evolution of the 12-bar bluesprogression,”. Retrieved May 2, 2009.

[22] Samuel Charters in Nothing But The Blues, pg. 20.

[23] “Ellen Fullman, “The Long String Instrument”, Music-Works, Issue #37 Fall 1987” (PDF).

[24] “A Jazz Improvisation Almanac, Outside Shore MusicOnline School”.

[25] Ewen, pg. 143

[26] Grace notes were common in the Baroque and Classicalperiods, but they acted as ornamentation rather than aspart of the harmonic structure. For example, WolfgangAmadeus Mozart's Piano Concerto No. 21 has a flattedfifth in the dominant. In these periods, this was a tech-nique for building tension for resolution into the perfectfifth; in contrast, a blues melody uses the flatted fifth aspart of the scale.

[27] Kunzler, pg. 1065

[28] Barry Pearson, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 316

[29] David Hamburger, Acoustic Guitar Slide Basics, 2001,ISBN 978-1-890490-38-6.

[30] “Lesson 72: Basic Blues Shuffle by Jim Burger”. Re-trieved November 25, 2005.

[31] Wilbur M. Savidge, Randy L. Vradenburg, EverythingAbout Playing the Blues, 2002, Music Sales Distributed,ISBN 978-1-884848-09-4, pg. 35

[32] David Evans, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 33

[33] Kunzler, pg. 130

[34] Bruce Bastin, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 206

[35] David Evans, in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 33-35

[36] John H. Cowley, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 265

[37] John H. Cowley, in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 268-269

[38] “Lead Belly foundation”. Retrieved September 26, 2008.

[39] Dave Oliphant. “Henry Thomas”. The Handbook ofTexas online. Retrieved September 26, 2008.

[40] Garofalo, pgs. 46–47

[41] Oliver, pg. 3

14 5 NOTES

[42] Philip V. Bohlman, “Immigrant, folk, and regional mu-sic in the twentieth century”, in The Cambridge History ofAmerican Music, ed. David Nicholls, 1999, CambridgeUniversity Press, ISBN 978-0-521-45429-2, pg. 285

[43] Oliver, Paul (1984). Blues Off the Record:Thirty Years ofBlues Commentary. New York: Da Capo Press. pp. 45–47. ISBN 978-0-306-80321-5.

[44] Lawrence W. Levine, Black Culture and Black Conscious-ness: Afro-American Folk Thought from Slavery to Free-dom, Oxford University Press, 1977, ISBN 978-0-19-502374-9, pg. 223

[45] Southern, pg. 333

[46] Garofalo, pg. 44

[47] Ferris, pg. 229

[48] Morales, pg. 276 Morales attributes this claim to JohnStorm Roberts in Black Music of Two Worlds, beginninghis discussion with a quote from Roberts: “There does notseem to be the sameAfrican quality in blues forms as thereclearly is in much Caribbean music.”

[49] “Call and Response in Blues”. How To Play Blues Guitar.Retrieved August 11, 2008.

[50] Samuel Charters, in Nothing But the Blues, page 25

[51] Oliver, pg. 4

[52] “MUSIC: Exploring Native American influence on theblues”.

[53] Barbara Vierwo, Andy Trudeau. The Curious Listener’sGuide to the Blues. Stone Press. p. 15. ISBN 978-0-399-53072-2.

[54] From the Erotic to the Demonic: On Critical Musicology.Oxford University Press. 2003. p. 182. A blues idiom ishinted at in “A Negro Love-Song”, a pentatonic melodywith blue third and seventh in Colridge-Taylor’s AfricanSuit of 1898, many years before the first blues publica-tions.

[55] Bill Steper (1999). “African-American Music from theMississippi Hill Country: “They Say Drums was a-Calling"". The APF Reporter. Retrieved October 27,2008.

[56] Chambers, Douglas B. (2009). Murder at Montpelier:Igbo Africans in Virginia. Univ. Press of Mississippi. p.180. ISBN 978-1-60473-246-7.

[57] Samuel Charters, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 14–15

[58] Samuel Charters, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 16

[59] Garofalo, pg. 44 Gradually, instrumental and harmonicaccompaniment were added, reflecting increasing cross-cultural contact. Garofalo cites other authors that alsomention the “Ethiopian airs” and “Negro spirituals”.

[60] Schuller, cited in Garofalo, pg. 27

[61] Garofalo, pgs. 44–47 “As marketing categories, designa-tions like race and hillbilly intentionally separated artistsalong racial lines and conveyed the impression that theirmusic came from mutually exclusive sources. Nothingcould have been further from the truth... In cultural terms,blues and country were more equal than they were sepa-rate.” Garofalo claims that “artists were sometimes listedin the wrong racial category in record company cata-logues.”

[62] Charles Wolfe in Nothing but the Blues, pgs. 233–263

[63] Golding, Barrett. “The Rise of the Country Blues”. NPR.Retrieved December 27, 2008.

[64] Mark A. Humphrey in Nothing but the blues, pg. 110

[65] Mark A. Humphrey in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 107-149

[66] Garofalo, pg. 27; Garofalo cites Barlow in “Handy’s sud-den success demonstrated [the] commercial potential of[the blues], which in turn made the genre attractive to theTin Pan Alley hacks, who wasted little time in turning outa deluge of imitations.” (parentheticals in Garofalo)

[67] Garofalo, pg. 27

[68] “Kentuckiana Blues Society”. Retrieved September 26,2008.

[69] Clarke, pg. 138

[70] Clarke, pg. 141

[71] Clarke, pg. 139

[72] Calt, Stephen; Perls, Nick; Stewart, Michael. The GeorgiaBlues 1927–1933 (vinyl back cover). New York: YazooRecords. L-1012.

[73] Kent, Don (1968). 10 Years In Memphis 1927–1937(vinyl back cover). New York: Yazoo Records. L-1002.

[74] Calt, Stephen; Perls, Nick; Stewart, Michael (1970).Memphis Jamboree 1927–1936 (vinyl back cover). NewYork: Yazoo Records. L-1021.

[75] Garofalo, pg. 47

[76] Hawkeye Herman. “Blues Foundation homepage”. BluesFoundation. Retrieved October 15, 2010.

[77] Clarke, pg. 137

[78] Oliver, Paul. Boogie Woogie Trio (vinyl back cover).Copenhagen: Storyville. SLP 184.

[79] Garofalo, pg. 76

[80] Komara, pg. 120

[81] Mark A. Humphrey, in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 175-177

[82] Barry Pearson in Nothing but the blues, pgs. 313-314

[83] Dicaire (1999), p. 79

[84] Komara, pg. 118

15

[85] Mark A. Humphry, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 179

[86] Herzhaft, pg. 53

[87] Pierson, Leroy (1976). Detroit Ghetto Blues 1948 to 1954(vinyl back cover). St. Louis: Nighthawk Records. 104.

[88] Mark A. Humphrey, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 180

[89] Howlin' Wolf & Jimmy Reed interviewed on the PopChronicles (1969)

[90] Mark A. Humphrey, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 187

[91] Barry Pearson, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 342

[92] Herzhaft, pg. 11

[93] Herzhaft, pg. 236

[94] Herzhaft, pg. 35

[95] Palmer (1981), pgs. 257–259

[96] Koroma, pg. 49

[97] “Blues”. Encyclopedia of Chicago. Retrieved August 13,2008.

[98] C.Michael Bailey (October 4, 2003). “West Side ChicagoBlues”. All about Jazz. Retrieved August 13, 2008.

[99] Lars Bjorn, Before Motown, 2001, University of MichiganPress, ISBN 978-0-472-06765-7, pg. 175

[100] Herzhaft, pg 116

[101] Herzhaft, pg. 188

[102] “Hill Country Blues”. Msbluestrail.org. RetrievedSeptember 13, 2011.

[103] Jim O'Neal in Nothing but the blues, pgs 347–387

[104] Koroma, pg. 122

[105] Koroma, pg. 388

[106] Jim O'Neal, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 380

[107] “A Short Blues History”. History of Rock. Retrieved Au-gust 14, 2008.

[108] Garofalo, pgs. 224–225

[109] “History of heavy metal: Origins and early popularity(1960s and early 1970s)". September 18, 2006. RetrievedAugust 13, 2008.

[110] Koroma, pg. 50

[111] Stephen Martin (April 3, 2008). “Malaco Records to behonored with blues trail marker” (PDF). Mississippi de-velopment authority. Retrieved August 28, 2008.

[112] Mary Katherine Aldin, in Nothing but the blues, pg. 130

[113] A directory of the most significant blues festivals can befound at “Blues - By Category”. About.com. RetrievedOctober 15, 2010.

[114] A list of important blues venues in the U.S. can be foundat “About.com”. Retrieved October 15, 2010.

[115] “Blues Music Awards information”. Retrieved November25, 2005.

[116] A complete directory of contemporary blues labels can befound at “About.com”. Retrieved October 15, 2010./

[117] Jennifer Nicole (August 15, 2005). “The Blues: The Rev-olution of Music”. Retrieved August 17, 2008.

[118] Phil Petrie. “History of gospel music”. Retrieved Septem-ber 8, 2008.

[119] comentale, Edward (2013). Sweet Air. Chicago, Illinois:University of Illinois Press. p. 31. ISBN 978-0-252-07892-7.

[120] “The Influence of the Blues on Jazz” (PDF). TheloniousMonk Institute of Jazz. Retrieved August 17, 2008.

[121] Peter van der Merwe (2004). Roots of the Classical: ThePopular Origins of Western Music. Oxford UniversityPress. p. 461. ISBN 978-0-19-816647-4.

[122] “The Blues Influence On Rock & Roll”. Retrieved August17, 2008.

[123] “History of Rock and Roll”. Zip-Country Homepage. Re-trieved September 2, 2008.

[124] “Country music”. Columbia College Chicago. 2007–2008. Archived from the original on June 2, 2008. Re-trieved September 2, 2008.

[125] SFGate

[126] “Sounder”The Internet Movie Database. RetrievedFebruary 11, 2007.

[127] “The Blues” (2003) (mini) at the Internet Movie Database

6 References

• Barlow, William (1993). “Cashing In”. Split File:African Americans in the Mass Media: 31.

• Bransford, Steve. “Blues in the Lower Chatta-hoochee Valley” Southern Spaces 2004

• Clarke, Donald (1995). The Rise and Fall of Pop-ular Music. St. Martin’s Press. ISBN 978-0-312-11573-9.

• Lawrence Cohn, ed. (1993). Nothing But the Blues:The Music and the Musicians. Abbeville PublishingGroup (Abbeville Press, Inc.). ISBN 978-1-55859-271-1.

• Dicaire, David (1999). Blues Singers: Biographiesof 50 Legendary Artists of the Early 20th Century.McFarland. ISBN 978-0-7864-0606-7.

16 8 EXTERNAL LINKS

• Ewen, David (1957). Panorama of American Popu-lar Music. Prentice Hall. ISBN 978-0-13-648360-1.

• Ferris, Jean (1993). America’s Musical Landscape.Brown & Benchmark. ISBN 978-0-697-12516-3.

• Garofalo, Reebee (1997). Rockin' Out: Popular Mu-sic in the USA. Allyn & Bacon. ISBN 978-0-205-13703-9.

• Herzhaft, Gérard, Paul Harris and, Brigitte Debord(1997). Encyclopedia of the Blues. University ofArkansas Press. ISBN 978-1-55728-452-5.

• Komara, Edward M. (2006). Encyclopedia of theblues. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-415-92699-7.

• Kunzler, Martin (1988). Jazz Lexikon (in German).Rohwolt Taschenbuch Verlag. ISBN 978-3-499-16316-6.

• Morales, Ed (2003). The Latin Beat. Da CapoPress. ISBN 978-0-306-81018-3.

• Oliver, Paul and Richard Wright (1990). Blues fellthis morning: Meaning in the blues. Cambridge Uni-versity Press. ISBN 978-0-521-37793-5.

• Palmer, Robert (1981). Deep Blues. Viking. pp.310 pages. ISBN 978-0-670-49511-5.

• Schuller, Gunther (1968). Early Jazz: Its Rootsand Musical Development. Oxford University Press.ISBN 978-0-19-504043-2.

• Southern, Eileen (1997). The Music of Black Amer-icans. W. W. Norton & Company. ISBN 978-0-393-03843-9.

• Curiel, Jonathan (August 15, 2004). “Muslim Rootsof the Blues”. SFGate. Retrieved August 24, 2005.

7 Further reading• Brown, Luther. “Inside Poor Monkey’s”, SouthernSpaces, June 22, 2006.

• Dixon, Robert M.W., and John Godrich (1970).Recording the Blues. London: Studio Vista. 85 p.,amply ill. SBN 289-79829-9

• Oakley, Giles (1976). The Devil’s Music: a Historyof the Blues. London: BBC. p. 287. ISBN 978-0-563-16012-0.

• Keil, Charles (1991) [1966]. Urban Blues. Chicago,IL: University of Chicago Press. pp. 255 + ix + 8ppof plates. ISBN 978-0-226-42960-1.

• Oliver, Paul (1998). The Story Of The Blues (newed.). Northeastern University Press. p. 212. ISBN978-1-55553-355-7.

• Oliver, Paul (1965). Conversation with the Blues,Volume 1. New York: Horizon Press. p. 217. ISBN978-0-8180-1223-5.

• Rowe, Mike (1973). Chicago Breakdown. EddisonPress. pp. 226 pages. ISBN 978-0-85649-015-6.

• Titon, Jeff Todd (1994). Early Downhome Blues: aMusical and Cultural Analysis (2nd ed.). Universityof North Carolina Press. pp. 318 pages. ISBN 978-0-8078-4482-3.

• Welding, Peter, and Toby Brown, jt. eds. (1991).Bluesland: Portraits of Twelve Major AmericanBlues Masters, in series, Dutton Book[s]. New York:Penguin Group. 253, [2] p., ill., chiefly with b&wphotos. ISBN 0-525-93375-1

8 External links• Blues at DMOZ

• The American Folklife Center’s Online Collectionsand Presentations

• American Music: An almost comprehensive collec-tion of historical blues recordings.

• The Blues Radio Series

• The Blue Shoe Project - Nationwide (U.S.) BluesEducation Programming

• “The Blues”, documentary series by Martin Scors-ese, aired on PBS

• The Blues Foundation

• The Delta Blues Museum

• The Music in Poetry – Smithsonian Institution les-son plan on the blues, for teachers

• American Music: Archive of artist and record labeldiscographies

17

9 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

9.1 Text• Blues Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blues?oldid=671666990 Contributors: Koyaanis Qatsi, Gareth Owen, Arvindn, Christian List,Ortolan88, SimonP, DavidLevinson, Ben-Zin~enwiki, Merphant, Infrogmation, Michael Hardy, Erik Zachte, Lexor, Fuzzie, Liftarn, Ram-bot, Bushpilot, Tango, Gbleem, Poitypoity, Ellywa, Ahoerstemeier, DavidWBrooks, TUF-KAT, TUF-KAT, Angela, Kingturtle, Darkwind,Andrewa, Glenn, Scott, Mxn, BRG, Jengod, JonMoore, Pladask, WhisperToMe, Timc, Furrykef, Hyacinth, Nv8200pa, Bevo, Banno,UninvitedCompany, Dimadick, Phil Boswell, Chuunen Baka, Robbot, Chris 73, Jmabel, Goethean, Altenmann, Nurg, Bryan Larsen,Mayooranathan, Ashdurbat, Rholton, Blainster, Andrew Levine, Sunray, Tranquileye, Hadal, Mandel, Cordell, Dina, DocWatson42, Ja-coplane, Kbahey, Doovinator, Lupin, Ferkelparade, Everyking, Capitalistroadster, Curps, Michael Devore, Quamaretto, Mboverload, Dje-gan, Jackol, Bobblewik, ALargeElk, OldakQuill, Stevietheman, Chowbok, Gadfium, Antandrus, Andux, Jossi, HistoryBA, MacGyver-Magic, Ary29, Sayeth, Kmweber, Jeremy Casey, Deeceevoice, EagleOne, Mike Rosoft, Alkivar, Ta bu shi da yu, Freakofnurture, Jiy,Shipmaster, Rohan nog, Bpage, RossPatterson, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, Andros 1337, John FitzGerald, Rspeer, Flo-rian Blaschke, YUL89YYZ, Dave souza, Notinasnaid, Mani1, Martpol, Paul August, Crevaner, ESkog, Goplat, Brian0918, Rajneeshhegde,Purplefeltangel, MBisanz, Hayabusa future, Art LaPella, Dennis Brown, Triona, Bookofjude, Bobo192, Liffey, Circeus, Smalljim, Adraeus,Orbst, Urthogie, Nk, Slambo, Moogle, B0at, John Fader, Haham hanuka, Jakew, Poweroid, Alansohn, Gary, Qwe, Keenan Pepper, Riana,Fraslet, MarkGallagher, Pippu d'Angelo, B3virq3b, Fawcett5, Mrholybrain, Bart133, Snowolf, Wtmitchell, Velella, SteinbDJ, Drbreznjev,Dennis Bratland, Fdewaele, Megan1967, Velho, Mel Etitis, OwenX, Schroeder74, Anilocra, LOL, Wdyoung, Jpers36, John Cardinal, Poly-paradigm, Commander Keane, Midwestbluesfan, Al E., Wikiklrsc, TreveX, Bobgould, Wayward, Fxer, Eluchil, Mekong Bluesman, Dysep-sion, Volatile, LimoWreck, Graham87, Deltabeignet, Magister Mathematicae, Taestell, A Train, BD2412, Ted Wilkes, Gandalftheblue,Rjwilmsi, Koavf, Rogerd, Hgkamath, Missmarple, WCFrancis, Vary, Tawker, FutureNJGov, Ligulem, Durin, Brighterorange, YamamotoIchiro, Titoxd, FlaBot, Jellomania, RobertG, Capsela, Luneraako, Paul foord, Flowerparty, RexNL, Gurch, Entropyhunter, Physchim62,Narvalo, Jared Preston, DVdm, AllyD, Mentat37, Abycjyvey, Will Lakeman, Cactus.man, Digitalme, Gwernol, ,,n, Ben Tibbetts, Monicas-dude, YurikBot, Wavelength, RobotE, Extraordinary Machine, Kafziel, Phantomsteve, RussBot, RobHutten, Red Slash, Splash, Pigman,Fabricationary, Stephenb, Manop, C777, Gaius Cornelius, Kimchi.sg, Absolutadam802, NawlinWiki, EWS23, SEWilcoBot, Wiki alf,Badagnani, Jaxl, Johann Wolfgang, Ec23456, Jndrline, Darker Dreams, BlackAndy, Dureo, Thiseye, Anetode, Brian Crawford, Dethomas,Vb, Moe Epsilon, Aaron charles, RL0919, Misza13, Cvanhasselt, Cheeser1, DeadEyeArrow, Haraald, Acetic Acid, Flyingtreemonkey,Nick123, Adam Holland, Calaschysm, Orioane, Theodolite, Zzuuzz, Ali K, Wilzo, Theda, Closedmouth, Jwissick, Arthur Rubin, Merishi,Pb30, Josh3580, Janto, Bondegezou, Esprit15d, Dspradau, GraemeL, JoanneB, Shyam, Ghetteaux, Garion96, RunOrDie, Katieh5584,Kungfuadam, Dws90, Meegs, Austinbirdman, NeilN, Kingboyk, GrinBot~enwiki, Masonbarge, DVD R W, CIreland, Tom Morris, Wes-leyDodds, Yvwv, Sardanaphalus, Veinor, SmackBot, Moeron, Zazaban, Honza Záruba, Reedy, KnowledgeOfSelf, TestPilot, DCGeist,Deon Steyn, Unyoyega, Iopq, Blue520, Jagged 85, Pennywisdom2099, Stifle, KVDP, Delldot, Tbyrne, PJM, Mr Pyles, Timotheus Canens,Plaidfury, Bruce1958, Gaff, Commander Keane bot, Yamaguchi , Gilliam, Ohnoitsjamie, Hmains, Betacommand, Skizzik, Andy M.Wang, Rmosler2100, Hraefen, Squiddy, Hamedog, Chris the speller, Kurt Wagner, Keegan, Jeanalee, Jprg1966, BirdsOfFire, Guyper-sonson, Fluri, Jermantowicz, DHN-bot~enwiki, ACupOfCoffee, Zincruf, A. 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Ripley,CharlotteWebb, Matthew Proctor, Big Bird, BladerSkater88, Futurebird, Mentifisto, AntiVandalBot, Majorly, Luna Santin, Seaphoto,Red157, Astrokid, RDT2, Jj137, Poshzombie, Myanw, Ghmyrtle, Elibsmith, Sluzzelin, JAnDbot, Steve Pastor, Xnux, Leuko, Husond,Timmillwood, MER-C, MarritzN, Epeefleche, Matthew Fennell, Urbaneddie, PhilKnight, MegX, Octeron, SiobhanHansa, Cdg1072,Moni3, Meeples, Danjwilson, Magioladitis, KudzuRunner, Bongwarrior, VoABot II, Stoton, J osley, Zonerocks, Bubba hotep, NotA-Cow, Indon, Animum, Cgingold, Kameejl, Mtd2006, MetsBot, Theaten, TheLetterM, Wlashley, Thibbs, DerHexer, JaGa, Damon.stone,Lelkesa, Seba5618, Jonomacdrones, MartinBot, Alex LaPointe, VickieP, Orangerock, Arjun01, El Krem, Eshafto, Kap42, Rettetast, Anax-ial, InnocuousPseudonym, HoraceJr, Jmabulldog, Pbroks13, Blueshoeproject, Lilac Soul, LedgendGamer, J.delanoy, Zapatista comeau,Eliz81, Uva1996, Neon white, Ikeshut, Gzkn, Mark Froelich, Rvaznyvfgxrvazny, Lordprice, Allreet, NewEnglandYankee, Urzadek, Trilo-bitealive, SJP, Titusching, Chrisbuzzard, Malerin, Flatterworld, Entropy, Fellini2006, Remember the dot, U.S.A.U.S.A.U.S.A., Kben-roth, Bonadea, Sssoul, Useight, Squids and Chips, Idioma-bot, Funandtrvl, Spellcast, Mcstcisco, Speciate, Mountaindave, ACSE, Pea-ceNT, Malik Shabazz, Deor, VolkovBot, ABF, Rucha58, Yellowdogrecords, Jeff G., TheMindsEye, Wiki235, OWiseWun, Jschub, PhilipTrueman, PNG crusade bot, Drunkenmonkey, Bms4880, TXiKiBoT, Nnalyd, Mercurywoodrose, GimmeBot, Josh scan, Technopat,A4bot, Sparkzy, Bahhh, Anonymous Dissident, Sumori, Crohnie, Keesw, Anna Lincoln, Sbsrecords, Corvus cornix, JhsBot, Sanfran-man59, LeaveSleaves, Themcman1, Cremepuff222, Edref, Mark651, IL7Soulhunter, Enviroboy, Tahmid182, Fenderpick, Loz456971284,Hello329, Spitfire8520, Pjoef, AlleborgoBot, Funeral, Munci, Closenplay, EmxBot, Billybowden, Homesquid, Barrympls, Cosprings,Floydclaptonblues, Newbyguesses, Peter Fleet, Copana2002, SieBot, Drewhamilton, Coffee, Calliopejen1, Nubiatech, Tresiden, TiddlyTom, Moonriddengirl, Scarian, Euryalus, Miettarox, Winchelsea, Gerakibot, Tclawson, Dawn Bard, Caltas, Missscience101, Bob McLure,Yintan, Mrg7863800866, Keilana, Nite-Sirk, Flyer22, Tiptoety, Oda Mari, Versificator, Yerpo, JSpung, Oxymoron83, Ptolemy Caesar-ion, Wysinger, Lightmouse, ELNUMERO1, Techman224, Alex.muller, Fratrep, Nancy, Kumioko (renamed), Imgoingtodeletethispage,Spartan-James, Videmus Omnia, Dabbdc, Mygerardromance, Mr. Stradivarius, Pinkadelica, Verdadero, Efe, Denisarona, Orshick, Joe-beckerfans, Pinxit~enwiki, Smashville, Dancingwombatsrule, Cybermonsters, Beeblebrox, Leahtwosaints, ClueBot, Snigbrook, Kotniski,The Thing That ShouldNot Be, Ramblinmindblues, Gaia Octavia Agrippa, Pairadox, Ukabia, Drmies, Bmusic20, Mild Bill Hiccup, Piriczki,CounterVandalismBot, Blanchardb, CptCutLess, Parkwells, Liempt, Secret (renamed), Bardin, Ybtcphk, DragonBot, Excirial, Alexbot,Jusdafax, Andy pyro, Erebus Morgaine, Feline Hymnic, Willgomes, Wiki libs, Newsboss, Arjayay, Ember of Light, K1zza1, Morel, Kfergi,

18 9 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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