Strides in Soil Research :Soil Health Management and Fodder Production

Strides in Soil Research :Soil Health Management and Fodder Production

Srinivasan R S B Tripathi

A K RaiS K Das

D V K N RaoP K Ghosh

ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research InstituteJhansi-284 003 (U.P.) India

Strides in Soil Research :Soil Health Management and Fodder Production

Strides in Soil Research :Soil Health Management and Fodder Production

ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute,Jhansi - 284 003

© 2016, ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi. All rights reserved. No part of the book to be reproduced in any form without permission in writing from the publishers.

Citation: Srinivasan R., Tripathi, S.B., Rai, A.K., Das, S.K., Rao, D.V.K.N. and Ghosh, P.K. 2016. Strides in Soil Research : Soil Health Management and Fodder Production. ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi - 284 003 India. Pp 1-91

Published by: Director, ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute,Jhansi - 284 003 India. Phone : 0510-2730666

Cover Credits: K.P. Rao and Srinivasan R., ICAR-Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi - 284 003 India.

Printed at :Darpan Printers & LaminationAgra

Good health begins some years before conception. When a well-nourished ovum of good inheritance meets a healthy sperm we have the beginning of a healthy new being. It is obvious that plants must depend upon the available supply of minerals in the soil in which they are growing for the elements essential to their lives; that man and his domestic animals in turn must depend upon the plants for these nutrients. Success of the livestock sector depends upon the availability of the quality forages. ICAR-IGFRI was established in the

mid sixties of the 20th century for developing suitable fodder technologies suitable for different farming situations with an emphasis on efficient use and management of resources as one of the important mandates. Since inception of the institute, this important mandate was shouldered by the multidisciplinary team of scientists. Over the past five decades, soil team had provided several leads, which led to the efficient utilization of natural resources, forage resource development and transformation of the livestock sector.

Bundelkhand soils are classified in to three groups namely Rakar, Parwa, Kabar and Mar; they vary in both physical as well as chemical properties. These soils are low particularly in terms of organic carbon, available N, P and S and various micronutrients. The soil productivity is low due to excessive drainage, low soil depth, very low water retention capacity and low content of organic matter, crust formation on the soil surface (Rakar soil). Rakar, Parwa, Kabar soils are suitable for both kharif and rabi crops whereas Mar soils were suitable for growing only rabi crops with good management practices. Various technologies have been developed to address the problems associated with these soils, some of them are introduction of the legumes, intercropping, mixed / intercropping in grasslands, cultivation of crop / grass species suitable for saline and saline-sodic soils, acid soils, application of soil amelioration methods, soil micronutrient deficiency management, use of industrial waste as soil amendments, green leaf manure, integrated plant nutrient supply (IPNS) systems, integrated nutrient management (INM), long-term nutrient management strategies, exploitation of nitrogen fixers - legume association, PGPR in grasslands, fodder specific microbial cultures, Azospirillum and Azotobacter, microbial consortia, mycorrhizal association with grasses and various wasteland development technologies.

I am happy that authors have made tremendous effort in bringing out this document entitled "Strides in Soil Research : Soil Health Management and Fodder Production" and summarizing the work of past five decades. I appreciate this effort and congratulate them for this accomplishment. I am sure this information will be useful to our present as well as future generations of the scientists, extension workers and farming community.

Dr. O.P. ChaturvediFNAAS

Director

Foreword

(O.P. Chaturvedi)

“We know more about the movement of celestial bodies than about the soil underfoot”

- Leonardo Da Vinci

Availability of quality feeds and forages has been considered as the major bottleneck in harnessing the potential of the livestock productivity. Fodder and feeds are known to constitute about 60% of the total cost of milk production. Bundelkhand soils are low particularly in terms of organic carbon, available N, P and S and various micronutrients. The soil productivity is low due to excessive drainage, low soil depth, very low water retention capacity and low content of organic matter. This document discusses about technologies developed to address the problems associated with these soils. ICAR-IGFRI has addressed these challenges in mission mode since its inception. Over the period of five decades several basic and applied research were under taken to solve the issues being faced by the farming community of the country. Technologies were developed to address the issues related to forage resource development in different agro-ecological niches, soil conservation and natural resource management.

This compilation is written primarily to provide an up to date account of the soil research and significant findings. Attempt has been made to present all the significant research contributions in the field of the soil science and related disciplines in a systematic and classified manner. All the research accomplishments are grouped in seven subheads viz. progressive research, plant nutrition management, fodder production research in problem soils, scientific management of nutrition, soil biology and biochemistry,

. No efforts have been spared in presenting all the information available in a clear and concise manner. Any omission, if observed, may be due to chance only. Authors will appreciate comments and suggestions for further improvement of the compilation. We take this opportunity to acknowledge and thank all the former Directors, Heads of the Crop Production Division, Scientists, Technical Officers who have contributed towards the soil research of the institute and Dr. Sunil Kumar, Head, Crop Production Division for his support.

Authors

fodder production through organic farming, soils under silvipasture and agroforestry systems

Preface

“The nation that destroys its soil destroys itself” - Franklin D. Roosevelt

Sl. No Topics Page No.

1. Introduction 1

2. Knowledge of Soil Resources 2

3. Research Accomplishments 12

3.1 Progressive Research 12

3.2 Plant Nutrition Management 26

3.3 Fodder Production Research in Problem Soils 31

3.4 Scientific Management of Nutrition 39

3.5 Soil Biology and Biochemistry 46

3.6 Fodder Production through Organic Farming 66

3.7 Soils under Silvipasture and Agroforestry Systems 70

4. Critical Gaps and Researchable Issues 77

5. Future Line of Work 79

6. References 80

Contents

“Whoever could make two ears of corn or two blades of grass to grow upon a spot of ground where only one grew before, would deserve better of mankind, and do more essential service to his country”

- Jonathan Swift

Management is based on the facts and the manager can deliver goods when he knows more about the resources to be handled. The mandate of any agricultural research institute that prioritizes crop production aims at the realization of the uniform best from the positive soil-crop interactions as regulated by the climate. Even a single factor, the topography results in different soils when all the other soil forming factors are kept constant even in small bit of land, leave alone the permutations and combinations of all five factors of soil formation at any scale. Hence the major focus of a soil scientist is to understand the soil-plant/crop relations in realizing the uniform best agronomic performance of the cultivated fodder crops at any scale that constitutes part of the mandate of the Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute, Jhansi.Characterization of soil, the basic growth medium, which is a non-renewable natural resource, gets the impetus in the scientific crop production. It helps in understanding the supply potential of different soils that aids in the decision-making process to achieve the uniform crop production once the uptake pattern of the crops is known. Experimentation to assess the crop performance in quantitative terms in different and commonly available soil resources gives the impetus to formulate the capsules of site specific production technology considering the genotype, biotic and non-biotic factors of crop production. Knowledge about the temporal and spatial variability in the supply potential of soils immensely helps in designing the managerial approaches to handle the crop production in an eco-friendly and sustainable fashion. Study of soil-plant interrelationships with special reference to nutritional physiology of the crops is central to the successful crop production in a given specific climatic setup. This information essentially helps in fine-tuning the location and situation specific production technology. Since the inception of the IGFRI in 1962, several need-based research projects were taken up on a mission mode and generated vast datasets, which helped in unraveling the secrets of the production of fodder crops under given conditions. Considerable emphasis was placed to track the SPAR (soil-plant-animal-relationship) to reveal the path of events taking place from the soil to animal via plants, placing the IGFRI in a unique position where crop and animal sciences are dealt with simultaneously in one research establishment. With the advent of technology and the scope for its application, it is necessary to pin point intervention for successful management of crop production with ecologically sound methods. It is obvious that a review of the work done could lead to the identification of gaps so that the line of work can be drawn to bridge the gaps in the research in soil science as demanded by the changing and market driven needs. The following text is conveniently organized to cover the work done so far with suggestions of future line of work in soil science.

1. Introduction

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“Essentially, all life depends upon the soil.... There can be no life without soil and no soil without life; they have evolved together.” - Charles E. Kellogg

Knowledge about the soil, the growth medium, has got an additive effect in the management for a better crop production. Even the origin of species itself is location specific as highlighted in the process of evolution. Although, much work is done on G x E (gene and environment interactions), really not much emphasis is placed on the soil as a component of E leading to difficulty in understanding the reasons for either staticity or decline in the yield. While soil is considered to be a tremendous chemical laboratory, it is obvious to understand the dynamics in the chemistry between soil and plant/crop as regulated by the climate, the driving force. Hence, knowledge about the soil resources is always necessary in the decision-making process even for the selection of species leave alone highly specific cultivars. It is based on this knowledge, farmers have adopted specific crops to specific regions with diverse soil resources for ages, coupling with climatic variables.

To understand soils, they are characterized in two directions namely edaphological and pedological contexts. In edaphological context, the soil characterization is done in relation to plant performance whereas pedology is related to study of soil profiles to understand the soil genesis. However, survey, characterization and mapping of soils are done to serve both the purposes. There were attempts and reports to study the soils of grasslands and cultivated fodders with specific attention to edaphology.

Edapholgical dimension of understanding of soils helps in appreciating soil-plant interrelationships, which can directly help in deciding the management strategies with specific reference to soil nutrients, reaction, salinity etc. It directly helps in interpretation of the soil properties in agronomic context.

The available information hinted that the soils under grazing lands in Madhya Pradesh supporting Dichanthium sps. in Damoh district had highest fertility status of soil with higher organic carbon, available N, P content including moisture holding capacity followed by Heteropogon and Themeda sps. in Sagar district, Digitaria and Iseilema sps. in Chhatarpur and Sehima and Iseilema sps. in Panna district (Tripathi et al. 1987). It was interesting to note that the soil fertility status in hilly areas was found to be higher than plain areas of natural grasslands of Sehima in Panna district followed by soils under cultivated fodder crops. The contribution of Dichanthium and Heteropogon grass covers in improvement of soil fertility in terms of organic carbon, N, P, base exchange and soil moisture retention was significant in both black and red soils as observed in Damoh and Sagar district. Calcium oxide, sesquioxide and Base Exchange capacity were higher in hilly soils as compared to plain and plateau areas of natural grasslands.

2.1 Characterization to study edaphological significance

2.1.1 Grazing lands

2. Knowledge of Soil Resources

Tyagi et al. (1992-1993) reported that the grassland soils varied in texures viz., clay

loam, sandy loam, sandy clay loam, sandy clay and loam. However the majority of the

soils were clay loam. In the sites of Dhirpura (Datia), Tigara (Bhander), Bhujond

(Jhansi) soils are alkaline in reaction (pH 8.6-9.0), while the soils of community land of

Lawan Chhapar was highly alkaline (pH more than 9.0). The soils of Bundelkhand in

general were low particularly in terms of available N and P, varying in the range of 56.4 -

232.0 kg and 1.45- 8.51 kg/ha N and P, respectively. Soils were rich in available K and 65

per cent soils had more than 280 kg K O/ha. The content of organic carbon was very low 2

(0.014) to low (0.568%) in the soil. Soil profile studies of red, black and calcareous soils

indicated that the moisture content and loss on ignition increased with increasing depth

in all the soil types. Mixed black and red soil had higher clay and silt sesquioxide

percentage than red and calcareous soils. In black and red soils the accumulation of lime

was higher in lower horizon whereas in calcareous soil, its distribution was nearly

uniform (Tripathi, 1982).

Even before the use of USDA's Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1975) is well known

to characterize the soil resources, some efforts were made in the earlier instances to

know the soils and their variability as related to crop management. Field observations

coupled with laboratory characterization of some soil profiles studied in Bundelkhand

region exhibited wider spatial variability in both physical as well as chemical properties.

These soils were classified in to three groups namely Bundelkhand Type-1 (Rakar),

Bundelkhand Type-2 (Parwa) and Bundelkhand Type-3 (Kabar & Mar) as reported by

Tripathi et al. (2003). The variability in these soil types were ascribable mainly to

topography coupled to the process of soil formation like weathering and leaching. These

soils were described along with some of the important physical and chemical properties

(Table 2.1).

2.1.2 Cultivated lands

Table 2.1 Physical and chemical properties of Bundelkhand soils

Soil properties Type-1 Type-2 Type - 3

(Rakar) (Parwa) Kabar Mar

Soil depth (cm) <50 50-100 100-120 120-150

Moisture retention characteristics

Field capacity (%) 10.5 14.5 19.0 26.5

Wilting point (%) 4.2 6.2 8.6 14.0

Available soil moisture mm/cm 53 138 175 207

Permeability (mm/hr) 40 20 10 6

Nutrient status ratings

3

Available N VL - L L - M L - M M

Available P VL - L L - M VL - L L

Available K L - M MH MH H

Available S VL - L L - M L - M M

VL – Very low, L – low, M – Medium, MH – Medium to high, H – High source

Bundelkhand Soil Type-1

Bundelkhand Soil Type-2

Bundelkhand Soil Type-3

Locally, these soils are known as Rakar and are Entisols according to Soil Taxonomy (USDA, 1975). They are coarse grained, reddish brown in colour with low thickness of soil material. These soils were found both at elevated as well as the foothill areas. The pH ranged from 6.5 to 7.5 with low soluble salts. Very low to low available N and P, low to medium potash and very low to low sulphur contents were tested in these soils. Field capacity, wilting point, available soil moisture and permeability of the soil were 10.5%, 4.2% and 53 mm/cm soil depth and 40 mm/hr, respectively. The soil productivity was reportedly very low due to excessive drainage, low soil depth, very low water retention capacity and low content of organic matter. Crust formation on the soil surface posed a very serious problem that impaired seed germination when rained just after sowing. Nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur were the most deficient nutrients. These soils are fit for growing sorghum, cowpea, urd, moong, sesamum etc.

This group of soils measured 50-100 cm depth and the most important feature was the presence of calcium carbonate in the form of kankar layer at bottom layers of the soil profile. The soil was locally described as Parwa and taxonomically belonged to Alfisols. The colour of the soils was brown, which is redder in shade. Texture varied from sandy loam to loam with slightly alkaline soil reaction (pH > 7.5). These soils are well drained and more fertile than Bundelkhand Type-1, suitable for cultivation of all crops. These are low in organic matter, low to medium in available nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur, and medium to high in potash. The nutrient deficiency was in the order: N > P > S. Other physical properties such as field capacity, wilting point, available soil moisture and permeability were 14.5%, 6.2%, 138 mm/cm and 20 mm/hr, respectively.

These soils were blackish in colour and heavy textured. No sharp colour distinction between the horizons was found. The soils, locally named as Kabar and Mar, were grouped in Inceptisol and Vertisol orders, respectively. Generally they were present in low lying areas. The soils were deep with parent rock lying below 120-150 cm depth. The clay was of swell and shrink type with higher moisture retention capacity compared to other types of soils in this region. Kabar soils were free from lime, clayey, coarse grained and develop cracks under dry conditions. On the other hand, Mar soils were very fine textured clays, dark blackish in colour, deep (150 cm & above) with very high moisture retention capacity. The most important characteristic of Mar soils was the presence of calcium carbonate particularly in lower horizons with large and occasionally deep cracks on drying. They posed problems in the workability due to the shrink and swell characteristics of clay. Impeded drainage was an important feature, which was due to poor permeability. Kabar soils were low to

4

medium in N, very low to low in P, medium to high in potash and low to medium in sulphur. The field capacity, wilting point, available soil moisture and permeability of Kabar soils were 19%, 8.6%, 175 mm/cm profile depth and 10 mm/hr, respectively. The nutrient deficiency found was in the order of: N > P > S. Mar soils were medium in nitrogen and sulphur, low in phosphorus and high in potash. The field capacity, wilting point, available soil moisture and permeability were 26.5%, 14%, 207 mm/cm and 6 mm/hr, respectively. Phosphorus was the most deficient nutrient. Kabar soils are suitable for both kharif and rabi crops whereas Mar soils were suitable for growing only rabi crops with good management practices.

Patra (2000) further reported that legumes Stylosanthes hamata, Cajanus cajan and Leucaena leucocephala incorporation in fodder based farming system improved total C, N and potential nitrogen mineralization (PNM) of the soil. L. leucocephala tree was more effective.

The analysis of soil samples revealed that the fertility status of the soils in the area has improved considerably with the imposition of wasteland development technologies. In 1991-92, about 96% samples were in low, 4% in medium with nil samples having high content of organic carbon. After two years, the percentage of samples in medium range markedly improved from 4 to 10 while there was a decrease in the number of low category indicating a positive change. Similar was the case with respect to available nutrients also. Initially, all the soil samples were in low range of nitrogen while after two years about 4 percent samples recorded medium level of available nitrogen.

Spatial differences

A whopping collection of 4253 soil samples from various tehsils of Jhansi district in Uttar Pradesh and subsequent chemical analysis, indicated that 51% of soils (2188 samples) were low in available sulphur while 40% (1692 samples) and 9% (373 samples) contained medium and high levels, respectively (Fig 2.1). The critical levels of available S used for the classification of low, medium and high content was <10, 10-20 and >20 ppm, respectively (Tripathi and Hazra, 2000).

2.1.3 Soil fertility of wastelands

2.1.4 Sulphur survey

Jhansi

Dis

trib

utio

n of

soi

l sa

mpl

es (

%)

Mauranipur

Low

Moth Garautha Tehrauli % Total soil samples0

10

20

30

40

50

60

Medium High

5

Fig 2.1 Sulphar level in Jhansi district soils

Forms of S as associated with cropping systems

Vertical distribution in Ustochrepts under sorghum grown for 4-5 years with application of 0 and 40 kg S/ha/yr and natural grass cover (Fig. 2.2) showed that the total S decreased with increased soil depth. It ranged from 155 to 370 (mean of 246), 107 to 284 (mean of 194) and 91 to 190 ppm (mean of 134) at 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45 cm soil depth. Soils supporting natural grassy vegetation had higher total S than the soils cropped but without fertilization while it was less in S than cropped and fertilized soils. Contents of total S of soils were 225, 201 and 149 ppm in cropped + fertilized, natural grassy vegetation and cropped (with no fertilizer S), respectively (Tripathi et al., 2000).

Fig 2.2 Distribution of different forms of S in various situations

ba

c

Further, Tripathi et al. (2000) observed that the total S content was in good correlation with its constituent forms and organic carbon content. Quantitatively, organic S varied from 145 to 341, 94 to 264 and 80 to 151 ppm with mean values of 237, 176 and 118 ppm at 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45 cm, respectively. It constituted 96, 91 and 88% of total S at 0-15, 15-30 and 30-45 cm, respectively. Profiles of cultivated and S fertilized soils possessed the highest content of organic S (207 ppm) that contributed to total S by 92%. In soils cropped without S fertilizer, the organic S (133 ppm) contributed about 89% to the total S. The contents of organic S in the soil profiles supporting grassy vegetation were intermediate with 191 ppm, which was 95% of total S.

A detailed study was conducted on the soils of the IGFRI's Central Research (CR) Farm

2.1.5 Soil fertility evaluation studies

2.1.5.1 Organic matter and macroelements

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and soil samples from 0-15 and 15-30 cm depths were collected from all the blocks/fields and analyzed for different physico-chemical parameters (Yadava & Tyagi, 1990-91). Most of the soils of the CR farm were sandy loam to sandy clay loam in texture and neutral to slightly alkaline in reaction. Organic carbon ranged from 0.12 to 0.84%, and most of the soils (57%) tested low in organic matter followed by 36 and 7.3% of samples tested medium and high, respectively. The available nitrogen was very low to medium

-1 -1(49 to 270 kg ha ) while available phosphorus ranged from 2 to 38 kg P ha . Majority of the samples (65%) were low, about 26% samples were medium and 9% were in high range of available phosphorus. With regards to potassium, about 50% samples showed medium level while rest of the 50% was almost equally distributed under low and high levels of potassium. In general, black soils had higher potassium level than the red soils.

Micronutrient status of soils of forage growing areas at CR Farm, IGFRI, showed that in red soils the available Zn was 1125 and 1250 ppm by 0.1 N HCl and ammonium acetate dithizone buffer, respectively. The highest available Mn content of 80 ppm was in the surface soil and it declined with depth. The available Fe was 3.28 ppm in surface soil. In black soils the available Zn was 1208 and 2259 ppm by 0.1 N HCl and ammonium acetate dithiozone buffer, respectively. Mn content was equally distributed throughout the profile and available Fe varied from 2.85 to 1.8 ppm. In mixed red and black soil profile Mn was lowest (20 ppm) in surface layer and continued to increase with depth and the available Fe was equally distributed (Mannikar and Saxena, 1976).

The observations were recorded on site characteristics, vegetation and forage production by Tyagi (1992-93). The terrain of these sites varied from plain to undulating with gentle to steep slope in the northern parts of Bundelkhand i.e. Jalaun, Hamirpur, Banda, Jhansi, Datia (Lahar & Bhander tehsils) and more undulating and hilly in the southern part of the region i.e. Chhatarpur, Panna, Damoh, Sagar, Tikamgarh and Lalitpur districts. The soils of grasslands were of varied textures viz., clay loam, sandy loam, sandy clay loam, sandy clay, clay and loam. However, about 50 per cent sites in the northern part of the region were clay loam soils. Soil pH in most of the cases was normal to slightly alkaline (pH 6.0-8.5). At three sites viz., Dhirpura (IDRC site Datia), village Tigara (Bhander tehsil) and village Bhujond (Jhansi district) the soils was alkaline in reaction (pH 8.6-9.0), while the soil of village community grazing land of Lawan Chhapar was highly alkaline (pH > 9).

Soil physical and chemical properties of pastoral lands of Bundelkhand districts of MP state viz., Damoh, Panna, Sagar and Chhatarpur were studied by Tripathi et al. (1987). The results showed that the grazing lands under Dichanthium spp. in Damoh district had highest soil fertility status with higher organic carbon, available nitrogen and phosphorus content including moisture holding capacity followed by Heteropogon and Themeda spp. in Sagar, Digitaria and Iseilema spp. in Chhatarpur and Sehima and Iseilema spp. in Panna district. Amongst grass covers of Sehima in Panna district, the soil fertility status

2.1.5.2 Micronutrients

2.1.6.1 Survey and mapping soils of grasslands and forage growing areas

2.1.6. Large area inventory

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in hilly areas was higher than plain areas of natural grasslands during rainy season followed by crop cultivation during winter. Dichanthium and Heteropogon grass covers in Damoh and Sagar districts helped in building up higher soil fertility status with increased organic carbon, available nitrogen and phosphorus, base exchange capacity and soil moisture content in black soil was more as compared to red soil in respective grass covers.

The nutritional quality of herbage samples collected from Chhatarpur, Sagar, Damoh and Panna districts revealed higher CP content (9.3%) in grass communities of Dichanthium and Digitaria in Damoh district while the lowest (5.3%) in the grass communities of Heteropogon and Themeda in Sagar district. ADF ranged from 40.3 to 51.4% with average figure of 45.5. Lignin content ranged from 5.5 to 9.7%. Cellulose content ranged from 33% to 43%. The Cu content varied from 5 to 38 ppm. It is adequate in the grasses of Chhatarpur and Damoh districts but lower than the normal accepted level of 10 ppm in the districts of Sagar and Panna, The zinc content of these grasses varied from 12 to 22 ppm. These are much below the zinc requirement of animals (45 ppm). There is considerable variation in iron content. It ranged from 134 to 278 ppm indicating that iron requirement can adequately be met from grazing alone (Ramchandra, 1988).

Tyagi et al. (1987) reported that the herbage samples collected from Lalitpur and Tikamgarh districts had crude protein in the range of 3.15-3.96%, which is very low from the desired level of crude protein i.e. 10-12%. The copper content varied from 4.99 to 11.24 ppm and it is below the normal requirement (10 ppm). Zn content ranged from 8.98 to 15.74 ppm and below the required level. The iron content varied from 26.22 to 124.91ppm.They explained the supplementation of deficient micronutrients (Zn & Cu) is essential for grazing animals of the region.

Realizing the importance of soil resource mapping needed for an efficient management, a systematic study was conducted to document the spatial variability in the soils of the Central Research Farm of IGFRI. A detailed soil resource mapping was accomplished by the NBSS&LUP in the early 90s in 1: 4000 scale and the soils were classified according to the Soil Taxonomy (Soil Survey Staff, 1975). There were 13 different typifying pedons identified in the 518 ha area of the CR Farm. The soils varied from very shallow gravelly sandy loam Entisols to deep and clay loam Inceptosils with permutations and combinations of other properties qualifying for different classification at lower level in the hierarchy (Fig 2.3.). The spatial distribution showed that different soils of CR Farm varied between 1.45 to 15.02% in the extent. Rock outcrops are also present to the extent of 1.24% amounting to 6.45 ha in the 518 ha farm. The figure clearly documented the spatial variability in the nature of soils highlighting the necessity to consider this information for effective management of soil resources to realize the uniform best from various crops cultivated

2.1.6.2 Nutritional quality

2.2 Pedological context of characterization

2.2.1 Available soil resources at CR Farm, IGFRI

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in the CR farm or any where for that matter, since the soil variability is to be adjusted prior to the realization from the added inputs.

2.2.2 Land Capability Classification

Land is evaluated according to the potentiality and limitation for sustained production of crops. The interpretative grouping is based on various characteristics that influence the use and management of the soils. There are eight land capability classes and the risk of soil damage or limitation in use become progressively greater from class I to VIII. Soils grouped in classes I to IV are capable of producing commonly cultivated crops under proper and specific management (Fig 2.4). Soils grouped in classes V to VII are not suitable for agricultural crops but suitable for permanent vegetation, forestry etc. and class VIII land is suited only for wild life, recreation and protection of water supplies. Accordingly, three main LCCs (Land Capability Classes) namely III, IV and VI were identified in the CR Farm of IGFRI with of course various sub-classes depending upon the classifying feature like erosion and run off, excess of water, root zone limitation (shallow depth), low water holding capacity etc and climatic limitation. The spatial distribution of various LCCs varied from 1.11 to 11.33% among sub-classes within the III class, 3.6 to 11.7% in IV class and 2.2 to 6.1% within VI class. The spatial distribution

Fig 2.3 Soil resource map of Central Research farm, IGFRI

9

of the LCCs was shown in Figure 2.4 that clearly gave indications that this needs to be

considered for proper land use management.

Fig. 2.4 Land Capability Classification of Central Research Farm, IGFRI

2.2.3 Land Irrigability Classification

The interpretation of soil and land conditions for irrigation is concerned primarily with predicting the behavior of the soil under the greatly altered water regime brought about by introduction of irrigation. The criteria are the same as for rainfed lands except that the climatic limitation is removed by irrigation. The soils are first grouped into soil irrigability classes viz. A, B, C, D and E, according to their limitations for sustained use under irrigation. Then, the land irrigability classes are determined taking into consideration various factors like slope, available drainage outlet, seasonal fluctuation of water table, salinity etc. besides soils irrigability class and social-economic factors. The most limiting parameter determines irrigability class. The classes were subdivided into sub-classes according to the limitations of soil (s), topography (t) and drainage (d). The irrigability classes included 2t (4.7% area), 3t (9.5% area), 3st (40.7% area), 3dst (9.5% area), 4t (3.8%), 4st (16.3%) and 6st (8.22%) with miscellaneous group occupying 7.4% in the CR Farm of IGFRI. Figure 2.5 depicts the spatial distribution of these irrigability classes recognized in the farm.

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This kind of database on the soils of a given large land mass certainly helps in planning appropriate cropping pattern considering all the factors of agricultural crop production. Such kind of databases helps in monitoring the crop production that renders fine-tuning of production plans on a regional scale.

Another dimension was added to the available data to describe the soils of the CR Farm of IGFRI in terms of effective soil volume (ESV), occupied by the fine earth and pore space because of spatial variability in the landscape attributes, which control the ESV. Application of Factor Analysis extracted two factors, which described 83 per cent variability. First factor that had higher loadings of sand (-0.825), silt (0.830) and clay (0.825), respectively was named as 'Surface Area Factor' that described 51% of variability in the data. The second factor had higher loading of ESV (0.946) and was named as 'Exploitable Soil Volume Factor', which described remaining 32% variability in the data.

Topography of the CR Farm, IGFRI was visualized and the digital elevation model (DEM) draped with the soil map showed the terrain in three dimensions and the distribution of different soils in the study area. The relationship between soils and landscape attributes like slope was appreciable from three dimensional visualization of

2.3 Effective soil volume (ESV) and visualization of landscape

Fig 2.5 Land irrigability classes of Central Research Farm, IGFRI

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the elevation model, which the 2D soil map could not reveal (Fig 2.6 and 2.7). This exercise helped in understanding the latent structure of the data with the help of multivariate statistics like factor analysis, which univariate statistics could not divulge. It was imperative that visualization of a terrain using the DEM helps in decision making process as far as farm management is concerned regarding selection of crops based on the soils and measures to conserve moisture and nutrients etc (Rao and Tripathi, 2008).

Fig 2.6 3D Visualization of study area in high resolution satellite image

Fig 2.7 3D Visualisation of soil map of study area

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A progression took place in the research in unraveling the biological secrets, as governed by

biotic and abiotic factors of production and consequent production technologies, from time to

time since the inception of the Indian Grassland and Fodder Research Institute. The progression

was sensed in all the spheres of required and relevant research as dictated by the needs and

market. In such a developmental sequence, a lot of work was done in the field of soil science too

being the very basis of crop production. Subsequent to or simultaneous to understanding the

growth medium, the soil, obvious attention was paid to study the response functions of forage

crops to various inputs that influence the nature and rate of reactions. A systematic sequential

study was taken up to look into the responses of cultivated forage crops to applied inputs that

culminated into the capsules of site-specific crop production technology. The following text

describes the stepwise progress in the research covering all the relevant features.

Considerable efforts were put forth in nitrogen research in terms of fodder crop response in different permutations and combinations of contents as well as other factors of production as detailed below.

-1In the soils of medium nitrogen availability application of 50 kg N ha for oat and 25 kg -1

N ha for Japan rape was found economical (Gopichandra et al., 1973). There was an obvious positive reaction by bajra when nitrogen was supplied externally @ 90 –120 in a soil of poor nitrogen availability. The trials conducted at IGFRI, Jhansi have shown that the responses of oat and MP chari as pure and mixed with senji and cowpea, respectively,

-1 -1were maximum at 120 kg N ha in low N soils (available N 156-175 kg ha ), whereas, at -1 -1

80 kg N ha in medium N soils (available N 198-225 kg ha ) as reported by Tripathi (1994) and Tripathi and Hazra (1995).

The studies on various nitrogen sources revealed that the application of urea either given alone or in combination with phosphate was advantageous in increasing forage yield and nutrient uptake (N & P) of oats when compared to FYM and neem cake (Tripathi et al., 1984). However, the increase was highest with combined application of urea and FYM on 50% nitrogen basis along with phosphate application. The fertilizers, which have

+ -both forms of NH -N and NO -N, were comparatively more efficient than either forms 4 3

of N. Calcium ammonium nitrate (CAN) was found superior for oats than urea and ammonium sulphate in calcareous soil (Gopichandra et al., 1973) and for maize and oat crops CAN was better than urea and FYM in acid soils (Tripathi and Mannikar, 1984; Tripathi et al., 1988). Urea blended with mahua cake applied on 50% + 50% basis at 240

-1kg N ha was superior in bringing out higher fodder yield of hybrid napier (Table 3.1) as well as nutrients (N, P & K) uptake. The efficacy of different cakes when applied with urea on 50% + 50% was in the order of mahua> castor cake > neem cake.

3.1.1 Nitrogen

3.1.1.1 Influence of nitrogen

3.1.1.2 Impact of source of nitrogen: Inorganic or organic or both?

3. Research Accomplishments3.1 Progressive Research

13

Table 3.1 Effect of nitrogen sources on forage yield of hybrid napier and soil fertility

Av. = Available, OC = organic carbon *Figure in parenthesis are per cent increase over control

Source: Tripathi and Hazra, 1999

Treatment Dry fodder Soil fertility-1

(t ha ) Av. N Av. P O Av. K OC2 5-1 -1 -1 (kg ha ) (kg ha ) (kg ha ) (%)

Control 28 155 5.5 136 0.35

Urea 41 (51)* 185 5.9 145 0.40

Urea+Mahuwa cake 50 (92) 205 7.8 190 0.55

Urea + Caster cake 43 (61) 192 8.0 207 0.50

Urea + Neem cake 45 (70) 217 8.2 240 0.57

Urea + FYM 42 (56) 230 8.9 250 0.60

C. D. 5% 3.8 - - - -

It was construed that more of available N always helped in reducing the quantity of N fertilizer required by the crops. This was possible when the application of N was based on soil test values.

From the field trials conducted in a napier bajra hybrid + berseem intercrop system with various N and P levels (Tripathi and Hazra, 1986) indicated that the application of N and P increased forage yield of both napier and berseem. The highest total biomass

-1 -1production was recorded with combined application of 180 kg N ha and 80 kg P O ha . 2 5

The forage yield response was maximum being 23-29% with nitrogen and 25-27% with phosphate in the intercropping system as compared to sole napier. The corresponding increase in terms of dry matter production was 20-21% and 21-24%, respectively.

The combined application of N and P yielded significant results in comparison to application of N alone in oat with improvement in available N, P and organic carbon in calcareous red soil (Tripathi et al., 1989) and black soil (Tripathi et al., 1991).

Menhilal and Tripathi (1987) observed that the fine textured clay loam soils yielded -1

higher green and dry fodder from sorghum (3.7-8.6 t ha ) than coarse textured sandy -1loam soils (1.9-5.5 t ha ) (Fig. 3.1). Higher green (626 kg/kg N) and dry forage (132

kg/kg N) of oats was obtained in loam soils as compared to red gravelly sand loam soils (397 kg/kg N green and 84 kg/kg N dry matter) as reported by Hukkeri et al. (1977). This was because of the established facts about the influential traits associated with fine texture like cation exchange capacity, aggregation and water holding capacity etc.

3.1.1.3 Synergy between nitrogen and other factors and methods

3.1.1.3.1. Behaviour of nitrogen in presence of phosphorus

3.1.1.3.2 Soil texture

14

(a) Sandy loam soil b. Clay loam soil

Fig 3.1 Effect of soil texture and N application on the yield and CP content of sorghum

3.1.1.3.3 Soil moisture

Soil solution is the circulatory fluid of the soil body and the seat of all chemical reactions in the soils. It is the medium through which plant root obtain the cations and anions for their nourishment. Hence, the effect of the nutrient elements in different soil moisture regimes that determines the dilution was studied in situ. It was documented that the

-1 highest fodder yield was realized from oat when 90 kg N ha was applied at 75% available soil moisture (ASM) regime when tested in two kinds of soils namely red gravelly sandy loam and clay loam (Hukkeri et al., 1977) (Fig. 3.2). Oats gave optimum

-1forage yield with irrigation at IW/CPE ratio of 1: 1 in combination with 120 kg N ha when the water table was low and moisture did not play any major role when the water table was high (Shukla et al., 1988).

Burman et al. (2002) reported that in arable land use system the application of Leucaena foliage as green manure and mulch in various food and fodder crops gave significant yield advantage. The fodder yield of maize and cowpea was highest with green manure followed by mulch and control (Table 3.2). But the grain yield of chickpea and barley when grown as succeeding crop was highest with foliage mulch followed by green manuring.

They also reported that soil moisture at the end of kharif season was more under cowpea than under maize. Moisture content under both the crops decreased with distance from hedgerow. During rabi season, the higher profile soil moisture (0-45 cm) was recorded in foliage mulch followed by green manure with distance from hedgerow moisture content increased in fallow whereas it was decreased under both the cropping of barley and chickpea. The available N was found higher in green manure followed by mulch.

15

Table 3.2 Effect of foliage mulch and green manure on the yield of various crop sequences

Source: Burman et al. (2002)

Crop sequence Green Fodder (q/ha)

Control Foliage mulch Green manure Mean

Maize-follow 205.0 253.3 258.3 238.9

Maize -chickpea 218.3 286.7 280.0 261.7

Cowpea -follow 193.3 218.3 216.7 209.4

Cowpea-barley 195.9 225.0 230.0 216.7

Mean 202.9 245.8 246.3

CD at 5% Crop sequence -8.02 (C), Forage- 6.95 (F), C×F- 13.90

-1Fig 3.2 Effect of levels of soil moisture and N on green fodder yield of oats (t ha )

3.1.1.3.4 Supply procedure

Split application was superior in coarse textured soil while single basal application

proved better in fine textured soil. Menhilal and Tripathi (1987) reported the superiority -1

of split application to multicut sorghum in producing 77 kg dry matter kg N than single -1 basal N application (68 kg dry matter kg N). Conversely, basal application yielded a

better response function over the split application of N in sandy clay loam soil for oat -1production. Supply of 80 kg N ha at knee high stage (60 days) as a top dressing and 50

-1kg N ha as basal at sowing time realized higher fodder yield of sorghum and crude

protein. The research work carried out on the relationship between moisture

conservation practices and nitrogen application under restricted irrigation in oat by

Shukla and Menhilal (1989) indicated that plastic mulch produced significantly highest -1herbage yield (327.6 q green and 78.9 q dry matter ha ) followed by Jalshakti @ 5.0 kg

-1 -1ha (299.0 green and 72.5 q dry matter ha ) and Agrolite-400. These chemicals exhibited

lower soil water stress measured in terms of Tc-Ta (Table 3.3). The chemicals had

properties to absorb, retain and release moisture in tune with crop water requirement.

Similar results were also reported by Shukla and Menhilal (1994) on fodder crops with

nitrogen application and moisture conservation techniques.

16

3.1.1.3.5 Introduction of nitrogen fixers, the legumes

Considering the benefit of symbiotic nitrogen fixers in crop production, several studies were taken up to understand the effect on fodder crops. The studies indicated that forage yields of barley after legume crops in rainfed condition were always higher than the fallow under all comparable levels of N application. The green and dry matter yields of

-1barley were recorded to be 74.4 & 18.6 q ha , respectively, after sunhemp, 62.0 & 16.8 q

-1 -1ha after cowpea and 44.5 & 12.4 q ha after guar (Tripathi and Hazra, 1986). The beneficial effect of legume crops (sunhemp and cowpea) on barley was equivalent to 40

-1kg N ha ; crude protein yield also followed the same trend. They reported that the content of organic carbon & available N in soil increased with N-levels and it was maximum under sunhemp followed by cowpea and guar.

-1Fodder yield and nitrogen uptake of oat increased with N application of 80 kg ha and such responses were the maximum under sunhemp as a preceding crop. Fodder and

-1nitrogen uptake of oats was significantly more at 60 kg N ha after sunhemp as compared

-1to the fodder yield and nitrogen uptake of oats at 80 kg N ha with fallow (Figure 3.3). The mean data of three years show that the green fodder of oats increased to 30, 13 & 22 per cent with preceded sunhemp, guar and cowpea respectively over fallow land. The residual status of available N, P & organic carbon improved more after oat harvest in soil under legume cover than with fallow. Sunhemp had highest residual impact on soil fertility. The study thus indicated that the preceding forage legumes not only increased

-1forage yield of oats but also saved about 20 kg N ha in addition to maintenance of residual soil fertility status (Tripathi and Hazra, 1993 and 1994).

Table 3.3 Response of oat to nitrogen in relation to moisture conservation practice

Source: Shukla et al. (1989)

Treatment GFY DFY WUE Plant moisture stress (Tc-Ta)

Moisture Conservation Practices

Control 244.3 60.0 28.6 -4.7

Grass mulch 271.2 67.1 31.9 -4.3

Plastic mulch 327.6 78.9 37.6 -3.6-1

Jalshakti (5 kg ha ) 299.0 72.5 34.5 -5.0-1

Agrolite 400 (5 kg ha ) 276.7 72.1 34.3 -5.5

CD 5% 17.4 60.7 - --1Nitrogen level (kg ha )

25 264.3 65.7 31.3 -4.8

50 285.4 70.0 33.3 -4.5

75 301.5 74.7 35.6 -4.5

CD 5% 13.5 4.7 - -

17

The green and dry fodder yield of maize -1increased significantly with N up to 90 kg ha

with cowpea green manuring and after preceded fodder cowpea followed by 120 kg N

-1ha under kharif fallow over their respective controls (Hazra and Tripathi, 1999). The response of maize forage to added N was the highest under green manuring of cowpea. The improvement in available N, P and K obtained

-1at 120 kg N ha was higher by 16, 21 and 23 per cent in cowpea green manuring; 9, 11 and 13 percent in fodder cowpea and 5, 5 and 6 percent in kharif fallow over initial content of N, P and K (Fig 3.4).

Patra and Pahwa (1993-94) studied the effect of leaf manuring on nutrient dynamics. Sesbania leaf contained highest amount of N (4.72%), P (0.135%) and K (2.95%) followed by Neem (3.37% N, 0.09% P and 1.01% K). Parthenium showed lowest N (2.27%) but P & K was almost at par with that of Sesbania. Leucaena leaf contained lowest P (0.12%) and K (0.69%). The C: N ratio in leaves of Parthenium, Sesbania, Leucaena and neem was 22.2, 10.6, 17.0 and 14.6, respectively.

Fig. 3.3 Effect of cover crop on yield of fodder oats with nitrogen fertilization

(i) Available N (ii) Available P

(iii) Available K

Fig. 3.4 Effect of cropping and N application on the soil fertility

18

3.1.1.3.6 Intercropping

3.1.2.3.1 Effect of P on NO accumulation3

Considerable importance was given to the practice of intercropping to realize the best possible economic gains from a unit area. Several aspects influenced by the process of intercropping were systematically studied and documented. The intercropping of hybrid Napier with berseem, pea & senji during rabi and sunhemp & cowpea during zaid as well as kharif season saved 25% nitrogen requirement than other cropping systems. However, the forage productivity of intercropping was maximum when berseem in rabi, sunhemp in zaid and cowpea in kharif was intercropped with hybrid

-1 -1Napier with application of N @ 240 kg ha year . The status of soil organic carbon, available N and P was improved while that of available K decreased after 3 years of intercropping (Tripathi and Hazra, 1998).

Being a part of the power cheque, the ATP and cellular components a due importance was placed on phosphorus and data were generated in relation to the response of fodder crops to native and/or applied P with probing into the quality aspects.

The fodder yields of sole hybrid Napier and intercropped with cowpea were increased -1significantly with the application of P @ 80 kg P O ha over no P (Tripathi and Hazra, 2 5

1986). The residual effect of P on oat was observed to be significant with highest level -1

of P application (120 kg P O ha ) to hybrid napier. However, oat preceded by hybrid 2 5

Napier + cowpea recorded highest green and dry fodder than oat preceded by hybrid Napier pure.

Since various sources of P are chemically different in the form as well as reactivity, the effects on the performance are also obviously variable. Because of this reason, it would be effective if soil specific recommendations emanated from the research findings. Hence the efforts were made to assess the effects of various sources of P on the crop performance of different fodder crops.

Among the various phosphate sources, Singh et al. (1976) noted, the order of efficiency of Laccadive rock phosphate (67%) >Mussoorie rock phosphate (66%) >Udaipur rock phosphate (57%) considering super phosphates 100% in berseem-guar-cowpea rotation under low phosphate soil having pH 7.0. The availability coefficient ratio (ACR) for lucerne on soil of pH 6.8 was 0.6, 0.75 & 0.21 for Udaipur,

-1Mussoorie and Laccadive rock phosphate at 60 kg P O ha . For increasing the P 2 5

efficiency, super phosphate, rock phosphate mixture of 3:1 was significantly superior to that of rock phosphate alone.

-In extreme drought, the accumulation of NO reached to a toxic level i.e. 0.43% and 3

above due to slowing down of nitrate reductase activity. The increasing levels of

3.1.2 Phosphorus

3.1.2.1 Crop response

3.1.2.2 Source dependent effect of phosphorus

3.1.2.3 Additive effects of P and cofactors

19

phosphate application were found beneficial in reduction of nitrate accumulation as phosphate is considered to be involved in translocation of absorbed nitrate to protein synthesis (Menhilal and Tripathi, 1987). Similarly, young sorghum crop (30-40 days) developed HCN toxicity to animals (250 ppm) in moisture stress condition. The

-1application of P @ 50 kg P O ha and soil moisture between 50% ASM to field 2 5

capacity brought down the HCN content to safer limit.

Some amount of documentation was done with regards to the additive effect of P in the presence of other production factors or practices. The combined application of FYM and P sources was found to have synergistic effect on the forage yield, P content and per cent utilization of added P particularly to the second crop of guar following lucerne when grown on residual P in lucerne – guar crop sequence (Singh et al. 1976). In Vertisols, the combined form of organic (FYM) and inorganic P source (SSP) in 1:1 ratio to sweet clover showed better response by giving higher dry fodder yield of 103.5 kg/kg P and net profit/rupee invested (Rs. 2.46) than either form of P source (Tripathi and Hazra, 1987).

The combined effect of intercropping and P application was assessed. Forage yield of Napier-bajra hybrid, berseem and cowpea intercropping indicated that the forage yield

-1was recorded highest with P application of 180 kg P O ha when applied in three equal 2 5 -1splits of 60 kg P O ha in each of the season. The overall productivity of the crop 2 5

-1showed highest forage yield with P application of 180 kg P O ha followed by 120 kg 2 5

-1 -1P O ha during winter and rainy season than 120 kg P O ha during summer & rainy 2 5 2 5

-1 -1and 120 kg P O ha during winter and summer seasons @ 60 kg ha per season 2 5

(Tripathi and Hazra, 1996).

The availability of phosphorus to the crop plant in the soil was improved considerably at proper soil moisture regime. The study conducted on berseem in low P soil have

-1shown that the irrigation at 75% ASM in active root zone alongwith 80–120 kg P O ha 2 5

resulted in higher fodder yield and available P content at harvest (Hukkeri et al., 1976). Soil management techniques for efficient water use also ensure better nutrients utilization. The loss of irrigation water occurs in the conveyance / distribution systems and percolates below root zone in some crop and requires sound irrigation methods. The irrigation ditches also served the purpose of drainage channels during rainy season providing congenial rhizospheric environment for root growth, stand maintenance and crop persistence (Shukla et al., 1981). Production efficiency of applied water was highest (19.1 kg DM/ha/mm) when berseem was broadcast in puddled beds. Water use efficiency decreased with an increase in the quantity of water. However, application of 60 mm water at each cut was found to be quite adequate (Shukla and Menhilal, 1986). Transplanting on ridges instead of seeding on flat beds ensures better crop growth and forage yield of dinanath grass (Shukla et al., 1988).

3.1.2.3.2 Synergy between FYM and P

3.1.2.4 Intercropping

3.1.2.5 Soil moisture, the conduit of P supply

20

3.1.2.6 Soil management induced availability of P

P fixation hinders the availability of soluble P to the plant roots. It can be overcome by

applying more of P to saturate the fixing surfaces such that the P availability is

rendered. Hence, certain studies were conducted in this regard in the soils where

fixation capacity was high. In the mixed red and black soils with high P fixation the -1

highest level of P application (120 kg P O ha ), greatly improved forage yield of 2 5 -1

lucerne as compared to no & low level of P application (40 kg P O ha ) (Tripathi and 2 5

Hazra, 1986). They further reported that the puddling of soil at sowing with phosphate

application had the highest effect on yield, P and Ca content than seeding on dry and

flooded beds. The soil fertility in the form of available P was increased with applied -1

levels of P and the maximum availability was noted at120 kg P O ha under flooding 2 5

treatment.

The third macro-element, potassium, which influences the plant performance

significantly was given due weightage and considerable work was done on the

chemistry of K availability and the resultant economic product of interest. Lucerne -1responded to lower level of K i.e. 40 kg K O ha in loamy sand soil (Mannikar, 1980). 2

-1Application of 40 kg K O ha was recommended for maintaining persistence and 2

productivity of lucerne on medium black soil with proper drainage and weed free

environment (Hazra, 1992). Menhilal and Tripathi (1987) elucidated the beneficial

effect of K in holding higher concentration of nonstructural carbohydrates (soluble

carbohydrates) in root, which is essential for regeneration of lucerne crop following

cuttings. The critical limit of plant K worked out to be 3% below which production and

persistence was found restricted. Tripathi and Rai (2008) showed that low K soils -1(available K below 100 kg K O ha ) led to response by MP chari and MP chari + 2

cowpea mixture with respect to forage yield and nutrients uptake when applied with K -1at 60 kg ha . However, the forage productivity in high K soils was maximum (461.6

q/ha green fodder) alongwith highest K removal.

Perennial grass like Napier – bajra hybrid and guinea grass in association with

Leucaena leucocephala under agroforestry system depleted available K content of the

soil considerably and the K fertilization was recommended (Rawat and Hazra, 1990).

The beneficial role of L. leucocephala leaf manuring in solubilizing and mobilizing

soil K to dry land crops viz. cowpea, sorghum and setaria grass was observed. The -1 -1 -1application of dry leaves @ 6 t ha equivalent to 30 kg N ha or 60 kg K O ha was 2

recommended useful for better crop yields (Tripathi, 1994). According to Tripathi et -1al. (2004) the combined application of 40 kg N ha half as urea and the rest half a FYM

-1slurry alongwith 80 kg K O ha produced significantly higher (Table 3.4) forage yield 2-1of C. ciliaris + S. hamata (11.40 t ha ) with highest K (116%) and N use efficiency

(260%).

3.1.3 Potassium

21

Table 3.4 Combined applications of N & K on C. ciliaris + S. hamata and NUE

Source: Tripathi et al. (2004)

Treatment DFY (t/ha) Nutrient use efficiency

K N

Control 8.06 - -

N40 + K40 10.34 88.5 159

N20 (Urea) + N20 (FYM) 9.68 - 185

N20 (Urea) + N20 (FYM) + K80 11.40 116.0 260

C D 5% 0.6

3.1.4 Sulphur

3.1.4.1 Response to applied sulphur

Sulphur could be essential not only in increasing fodder yields but maintaining desired

levels of protein, sugar, amino acid and mineral salts also. As depicted in table 3.5 the

removal of S by different forage crops are known to vary (Hazra and Tripathi, 1994 and

1998 and Tripath and Tripathi, 1994). A series of experiments conducted on red sandy

loam soils (Table 3.8) indicated higher responses to S application for rabi fodder crops

(15-71 kg dry fodder /kg S) than kharif (14-30 kg dry fodder/kg S) and zaid fodder crops

(14-46 kg dry fodder/kg S). Among fodder crops, the green and dry fodder of 584 and 71

kg/kg S with berseem during rabi season, 134 and 30kg/kg S with maize during kharif

season and 209 and 45 kg/kg S with sorghum during zaid season, respectively, was found

to be highest. The green and dry fodder yields of sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), chinese

cabbage (Brassica pekinennsis), oat (Avena sativa), berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum) -1

and lucerne (Medicago sativa) were significantly increased with 40 kg S ha (Gill et al.,

1986 and 1994, Tripathi et al., 1992 (a and b), Tripathi and Hazra, 1988a; Tripathi and -1

Tripathi, 2001) and cowpea at 60 kg S ha (Tripathi and Tripathi, 1993) over control. The

response at optimum level of S application in terms of green fodder of lucerne, berseem,

chinese cabbage, sorghum, cowpea and oat was 407, 395, 137, 87, 85 and 62 kg/kg S, -1

respectively. Gill et al. (1986) also observed that the application of 50 kg S ha gave

higher green fodder yield of napier bajra hybrid, guinea and setaria grass by 286, 624 and

152 kg/kgs, respectively in sandy loam soil (Table 3.7).

The content of available S in soil improved with S levels upto 50 days of crop growth and

thereafter decreased at maturity. Ammonium sulphate followed by gypsum had maximum

content of S in soil at 25 days of crop, whereas elemental sulphur followed by pyrite at 75 days

crop harvest. Available N and P in soil were also improved with S application and significant at -180 kg S ha through elemental sulphur over control in case of P content only (Tripathi and

Tripathi, 1994).

22

Table 3.6 Effect of sulphur on green fodder yield (t/ha) of cultivated fodder crops with dry forage yield in parantheses

-1Sulphur level (kg ha ) Percent increase Response 0 40 in yield in (kg/kg S)

Rabi fodders

Lucerne 51.7 (7.7) 68.9 (10.2) 35 (32) 444 (63)

Berseem 73.3 (9.5) 96.7 (12.4) 32 (30) 584 (71)

Sweet clover 12.2 (2.0 ) 22.2 (3.6) 82 (76) 250 (38)

Persian clover 60.0 (7.5 ) 76.7 (9.4) 28 (26) 417 (49)

Oat 29.4 (6.5 ) 33.9 (7.6) 15 (17) 111 (28)

Barley 21.5 (5.0 ) 24.2 (5.6) 13 (12) 69 (15)

Chinese cabbage 20.9 (3.3) 25.2 (3.9) 21 (20) 109 (16)

Maize 36.7 (6.4 ) 45.0 (7.6) 23 (19) 208 (30)

Pea 28.3 (5.0 ) 40.6 (6.8) 43 (36) 306 (45)

Kharif fodders

Maize 21.5 (7.5) 36.9 (8.7) 17 (16) 134 (30)

Sorghum 36.8 (8.4) 41.9 (9.5) 14 (13) 127 (27)

23

Table 3.5 Forage yields and sulphur removal by some important cultivated and range legumes

Source: Hazra and Tripathi, 1994

-1 -1Forage crops Dry forage (t ha ) Sulphur content (%) Sulphur removal (kg ha )

Berseem 11.5 0.06 6.9

Lucerne 11.2 0.07 7.8

Sweet clover 5.7 0.08 4.6

Peas 5.9 0.08 4.7

Cowpea 6.8 0.07 4.8

Lablab beans 6.2 0.10 6.2

Cluster bean 6.7 0.08 5.4

S. hamata 12.1 0.14 16.9

Siratro 5.4 0.12 6.5

Butterfly pea 8.3 0.12 10.0

Hedge lucerne 9.5 0.11 10.5

Centrosema 7.2 0.16 11.5

Green leaf Desmodium 8.8 0.12 10.6

Silver leaf Desmodium 7.0 0.14 9.8

Teosinte 30.2 (7.0) 33.6 (8.0) 11(13) 84 (23)

Pearl millet 28.9 (7.0) 31.6 (7.5) 9 (08) 69 (14)

Cowpea 27.2 (6.2) 32.6 (7.3) 20 (17) 133 (27)

Cluster bean 20.2 (4.7) 23.6 (5.3) 16 (13) 82 (15)

Lablab bean 19.8 (4.0) 24.2 (5.9) 22 (21) 109 (26)

Zaid fodders

Maize 29.0 (7.0) 33.2 (8.0) 15 (15) 105 (26)

Sorghum 51.7 (11.6) 60.0 (13.5) 16 (16) 209 (46)

Pearl millet 18.8 (4.6) 21.2 (5.2) 13 (12) 60 (14)Source: Hazra and Tripathi, 1994

3.1.4.2 Sources of sulphur

Knowledge about the sources and levels of sulphur certainly helps in decision making as far as sulphur nutrition is concerned. Tripathi and Tripathi (2007) observed that the seasonal application of S in various forms resulted in significant increase to an extent of 9.5–21% in green and 14–37% in dry fodder of napier bajra hybrid grass (NBH) + seasonal legumes (cowpea/berseem). It also resulted in an increase of 20-54% of crude

-1 -1protein yield with S application (80-120 kg ha ) over no sulphur application (139 t ha -1 -1green, 23 t ha dry fodder and 18.5 t ha crude protein yield/annum). However, the forage

-1 -1productivity was the highest with 80 kg S ha in two splits (40 kg ha in kharif and 40 kg

-1 -1ha in rabi season). The one time basal application of 80 & 120 kg S ha gave lower yield as compared to split application. Single super phosphate followed by gypsum as S sources were superior for producing higher yield (10% green and 14% dry fodder) protein yield (183%) and nutrients removal (50% S and 18% N) over elemental sulphur.

-1 -1The removal of S (68 kg ha ) and N (456 kg ha ) was also found significantly higher with

-180 kg S ha applied half in kharif and the rest half in rabi season over control indicating better forage quality. Application of S through single super phosphate was also most effective for cultivated fodder crops than gypsum and elemental sulphur in red sandy loam soil as reported by Hazra (1992).

Field study carried out by Tripathi et al. (1992 {a}) on the effect of S levels (20, 40, 60 -1and 80 kg S ha ) and sources (ammonium sulphate, pyrite, gypsum and elemental

24

Table 3.7 Green fodder yield of perennial fodders and annual cereal as influenced by sulphur fertilization

Source: Gill et al., 1986

-1Forage crops Sulphur application (kg ha ) Response in kg/kg S

Control 50 kg S

Hybrid napier 1547 1690 286

Guinea grass 1761 2073 624

Setaria 1290 1366 152

sulphur) including control (no sulphur) showed that the forage yield, nutrient content and their -1uptake (N, P, S, Ca, Zn, Fe and Cu) by sorghum increased upto 40 kg S ha . Ammonium

sulphate was the best source and gave highest forage yield and uptake of nutrients. -1

Ammonium sulphate application even at 40 kg S ha was significantly superior to -1elemental sulphur and pyrite at 60 kg S ha with respect to forage yield and P and S

content in crop plants.

There was a progressive increase in sugar and methionine content of sorghum fodder -1

with graded levels of S (20-80 kg ha ) although significant increase was noticed between -1

20 and 40 kg S ha (Table 3.8). No much difference was observed among the sources of S in terms of its effect on sugar content while ammonium sulphate was significantly superior to pyrite and elemental sulphur in methionine content (Tripathi et al., 1992b). The superiority of ammonium sulphate was due to complete solubility rendering higher

2- availability of SO to crop plants that in turn brought in changes in the amino acid 4

composition of forage crops. Elemental sulphur treated plants had the lowest methionine and sugar contents among all S sources.

The content of NDF and ADF of fodder sorghum (Table 3.8) decreased and cellulose content increased with S addition, in general. But reduction in NDF and ADF was not

-1 -1significant upto the highest level of S application (80 kg ha ) but upto 40 kg S ha over no S (Tripathi et al., 1992b). They further reported that N to S ratio of 18.4 : 1 in control was

-1lowered to extent of 12.2-10.9 : 1 with addition of S from 20-80 kg ha .

3.1.4.2 S and its role in quality aspects of forage

Table 3.8 Effect of levels and sources of S on quality constituents of fodder sorghum cv. M.P. chari

Soruce: Tripathi et al., 1992b

Treatment Protein Sugar NDF ADF Cellulose Methionine(%) (%) (%) (%) content (mg/g)

-1S (kg ha )

20 8.93 6.49 67.02 47.55 32.98 0.052

40 9.81 7.13 66.68 46.91 33.32 0.064

60 10.09 7.40 66.22 46.05 33.78 0.071

80 10.02 7.45 65.27 44.95 34.63 0.076

CD (5%) 0.48 0.58 NS NS NS 0.010

S sources

Ammonium Sulphate 9.93 7.30 65.98 45.83 34.02 0.073

Pyrite 9.55 7.05 66.43 46.54 33.57 0.062

Gypsum 9.87 7.23 66.16 46.12 33.84 0.067

Elemental Sulphur 9.51 6.88 66.72 46.95 33.28 0.059

CD (5%) NS NS NS NS NS 0.010

25

-1A significant reduction in N : S ratio at 40 kg S ha was indicative of adequate S supply. Elemental sulphur had higher N : S ratio (11.7:1), which was lowered significantly with ammonium sulphate followed by gypsum. Pyrite and elemental sulphur were comparable to each other. On the other hand S : P ratios widened as the levels of S were

-1raised. The doses of 40 and 60 kg S ha were equally effective and none of these two -1 -1caused substantial improvement over 20 kg S ha . Application of S at 80 kg ha ,

-1however, superseded 20 kg S ha showing highest S : P ratio (2.2:1). Application of S

-1upto 60 kg ha did not show any significant change in Zn : S ratio as compared to lower

-1doses. However, S : Zn ratio was adversely affected at higher S level, i.e., 80 kg ha . All S sources tried had almost equal S : Zn ratios.

Majority of soluble S moves down to lower strata of soil through leaching process due to heavy rains and frequent irrigations and S available in deeper layers can be of importance for the succeeding crops. The trials conducted on sorghum-cowpea rotation showed that

-1the fodder sorghum fertilized with 80 kg S ha gave significantly higher yield of fodder cowpea over control (Tripathi and Tripathi, 1994). Elemental sulphur proved superior.

-1Similarly, the application of 45 kg S ha to fodder sorghum showed residual effect on wheat grain being maximum in Vertisol than in Alfisol, under on-farm research trials in S deficient soils (Tripathi and Hazra, 2001).

-1In an on farm trial Tripathi and Hazra (2000 & 2001) reported that S at 30 kg ha was the optimum for fodder sorghum in producing significantly higher green and dry fodder of 126 & 36 kg/kg S in red soil and green and dry fodder of 89 & 26 kg/kg S in black soil,

-1respectively. However, the highest level of S application i.e. 45 kg ha gave maximum yield in both the soils although insignificantly in statistical terms. The responses of S removal, fertilizer S recovery and agronomical efficiency (AE) were also higher at 30 kg

-1S ha and the maximum S removal (83 g/kg S), fertilizer recovery (9%) and AE (36 kg yield increase/kg applied S) were observed in red soil than black soil.

The residual effect of S application on wheat yield (grain + straw) and S uptake was -1observed at 45 kg ha , which was significantly higher than control. However, such

responses were maximum being 15 kg/kg S for yield in Vertisol and 27 g/kg S for S uptake in Alfisol (Tripathi and Hazra, 2000).

According to Tripathi and Tripathi (2001) the green fodder of oat increased significantly -1 -1upto 40 kg S ha in low and 20 kg ha in medium to high S soils, over their respective

-1 -controls (Fig 3.5). Further addition of S i.e. 60 over 40 kg ha in low and 40 over 20 kg ha1 in medium and high S soils did not show significant increase. Rather the higher dose of

-1S (60 kg ha ) to oat in medium to high S soils decreased fodder yield. Similarly, the

-1fodder yield of oat + Indian clover was found significantly higher at 60, 40 & 20 kg S ha

3.1.4.3 Role of residual S

3.1.4.4 On farm experience in fodder sorghum-wheat cropping system

3.1.4.4.1 Direct effect on forage sorghum

3.1.4.4.2Residual effect on wheat crop

3.1.4.5 Benefits of soil test based S application

26

-1in low, medium and high S soils over their respective controls. The highest level of 60 kg S ha -1could not produce significantly higher yield of oat + Indian clover over 40 kg S ha in

medium and high S soils.

3.1.5 Micronutrient research

According to Ramachandra (1988) the content of Cu was adequate in Digitaria - Iseilema (38 ppm), Dichanthium - Sehima (12 ppm) grasslands, whereas, Themada -Heteropogon (5 ppm), Sehima - Iseilema (6 ppm) and Sehima - Bothriochloa - Digitaria grasslands (7 ppm) was below the critical level of 10 ppm. The Zn content of herbages in all grass covers was lower and much below the optimum level i.e. 21 ppm, Fe content of all grasslands was ranged from 67 to 278 ppm that was adequate (Table 3.12) and suggested the need of Zn application in grassland for increased quality herbage.

Tripathi et al. (1983-84) observed that the content of Mn (133-156 ppm) was higher under leguminous fodder, whereas higher Al content was documented in cereal fodder crops (108-305 ppm) and showed Al toxicity in leguminous crops (194-305 ppm) in acid soils. A typical brownish symptom on plant parts of teosinte (Zea mexicana) at 305 ppm Al and 123 ppm Mn was observed which caused maximum reduction in yield.

Fig. 3.5 Effect of sulphur on green fodder yield (q/ha) of oat and oat+Indian clover in various levels of soil S

Table 3.12 Micronutrient composition of herbages of some predominant grasses of Bundelkhand

Source: Ramachandra, 1988

Grass community Micronutrients (ppm)

Cu Fe Zn

Digitaria-Iseilema 38 22 140

Themada-Heteropogon 5 16 146

Sehima-Iseilema 6 12 155

Dicanthium-Digitaria 31 18 278

Dicanthium-Sehima 12 14 117

Sehima-Borthroichloa-Digitaria 7 11 67

27

Crop production technology attaches much emphasis to crop nutrient management for all practical and economical reasons. It aims at realizing the best yield from optimum inputs that cause no pollution of soils and ground water. Nutrient management essentially considers aspects like addition, deletion, amelioration and transformation etc., which is possible when the supply potential of soils and plant response reaction to the native and/or applied nutrient elements are known. Hence, different aspects were tried in the nutrient management research as far as fodder crops are concerned. Various experiments were conducted in different situations and results of which are documented under appropriate heads.

The nutrient management in low fertile grassland soils through various agronomic practices and choice of crop/trees according to land capability classes have greater role. The study conducted by Tripathi et al. (2006) on soil fertility improvement and dry matter production under different pastures in relation to fertilization showed the maximum grass productivity in mixed pasture of C. ciliaris + S. hamata + L. leucocephala and it was 2.65 times more compared to natural pasture (2.98 t/ha). Application of fertilizer in both natural and sown pastures showed an improvement in nutrients' removal (N, P & K) over no fertilizer application. The mean removal of nutrients (four years study) showed that natural pasture, C. ciliaris pasture, legume pasture, mixed grass + legume pasture, mixed grass + legume + shrub pasture and mixed grass + legume

-1+ shrub + tree pasture appropriated 31, 74, 134, 100, 118 and 124 kg ha N; 3, 8, 9, 9, 12

-1 -1and 15 kg ha P and 16, 66, 43, 68, 69 and 71 kg ha K uptake, respectively. As a whole, the magnitude of increase in nutrient uptake due to fertilizer application in pastures was 33, 41 and 33% for N, P and K respectively as compared to no fertilizer.

The application of fertilizer plays important role in improving herbage productivity of grasses. Nitrogen application in Sehima, Heteropogon and Iseilema grasslands significantly increased herbage production. The economically optimum dose was found to be in the

-1range of 40 to 60 kg N ha ; the lower dose during periods of subnormal rainfall and the higher dose when more soil moisture is available. Response to applied phosphorus was of lower order while potassium did not play any role in increasing forage production.

-1Application of 60 kg N ha in three equal splits at 25 days intervals during the monsoon was encouraging in producing higher quality herbage as compared to two splits or a

-1single dose. Although application of 20 to 30 kg P O ha also led to increase forage 2 5

yield, it was of lower order as compared to that of nitrogen application. Increasing the -1

levels of phosphorus from 30 to 60 kg P O ha , the increase in forage yield ranged 2 5

between 30-40%. Application of fertilizers (N and P) in the above said grasses and legumes also improved the crude protein contents in all the grasses (Kanodia and Parihar, 1988, Kanodia et al., 1986, Kanodia and Rai, 1990, Dabadghao et al., 1965, Kanodia, 1995, Rai et al., 1990, Rai et al., 1994, and Hazra, 1992).

3.2.1 Grasslands

3.2.1.1 Significance of fertilizer application

3.2 Plant Nutrition Management

28

3.2.1.2 Mixed / intercropping in grassland

3.2.2.1 Intercropping

3.2.1.2.1 Cause and effect relationship

3.2.1.2.2Gains due to conservation

Mixed cropping of graminaceous and leguminous fodder crops is of paramount importance to increase the quantity and quality of the herbage as well as soil fertility through nitrogen fixation. Legumes enriched herbage in terms of quality aspects like mineral balance, higher amounts of protein, calcium and phosphorus. The introduction of legumes like Macroptilium lathyroides and Lablab purpureus and others led to higher forage yield than control under Sehima - Heteropogon as well as Eremopogon foveolatus grasslands (Kanodia and Parihar, 1988 and Kanodia et al. 1986)

-1 -1Three years study with N (0, 40 kg ha through urea and 20 kg ha through urea plus 20 -1 -1

kg ha through FYM slurry) and K levels (0, 40, 80 & 120 kg K O ha ) revealed that the 2-1

higher herbage yield 14-20% with N application (40 kg ha ) and 7-21%t with K (40-120 -1kg K O ha ) over control in a mixed pasture of C. ciliaris + S. hamata was recorded 2

(Tripathi et al., 2004). The microbial biomass (474.4 mg/kg soil), respiration (213.5mg 4

CO -C/kg soil) and fungi counts (15.5 x 10 ) were maximum with N application of 20 2-1 -1kgha each through urea and FYM slurry along with 120 kg K O ha . But the highest 2

6 5 -1bacteria (14.2 x 10 ) and actinomycetes (18.1 x 10 ) was noted when 40 kg N ha through -1

urea and 120 kg K O ha were applied together. 2

The nature and growing habit of grasses and legumes together with management imposed on them greatly influence in controlling run-off and soil loss. Grasses like Cenchrus ciliaris and Pennisetum pedicellatum also provided good cover and reduced

-1 -1 -1soil loss to the level of 0.52 t ha and 0.80 t ha , respectively, as compared to 12.7 t ha from degraded grasslands (Hazra, 1995a, b and c, Hazra and Singh, 1994). Dichanthium annulatum was also good soil binder and helped in protection of mechanical conservation structures. The combined seeding of grass and legume (for instance, C. ciliaris + S. hamata) and that of two grass species like C. ciliaris + P. pedicellatum and Panicum maximum + P. pedicellatum were found better than single species in containing soil and water loss. Soil and water conservation measures like contour trenches and contour ridging helped in increased soil moisture and improved the establishment of newly seeded grassland vegetation and increased herbage yield and the overall improvement of soil physico-chemical properties (Hazra, 1991 and Hazra and Singh, 1992).

Phosphorus-1

The experiment conducted with phosphate application of 40 kg P O ha to cereals 2 5 -1

(maize, sorghum and pearl millet) and 80 kg P O ha to legumes (cowpea) under various 2 5

crop geometry i.e. (i) uniform rows with alternate planting of one row of cereal + one row of legume at 30 cm spacing (50% + 50%) and (ii) the other set in paired rows i.e. two rows of main crop at 20 cm with one row of legume in 40 cm interspace between two

3.2.2 Cropping systems

29

pairs (100% + 50%) showed that the paired row with 150% plant population had an yield -1

advantage of about 3.7 q ha of dry forage over uniform rows (100% population). All the intercropping systems had higher LER (1.19-1.35) than pure cropping. The highest LER

-1value was associated with maize (2:1) in paired row planting with 80 kg P O ha . 2 5

Sulphur

The field experiments conducted on sorghum and sorghum + cowpea during kharif and -1on oat and oat + senji during rabi season with four levels of S (0, 20, 40 & 60 kg ha ) and

in three soil fertility gradients in S (low, medium and high in available S). Results presented in Table 3.2.1, indicated that the forage yield of oat/oat + senji and sorghum/sorghum + cowpea were significantly higher with S application (20 to 60 kg S

-1ha ) over no sulphur (Tripathi and Tripathi, 1997-98 & 1999-2000).

-1Table 3.2.1 Green fodder yield (q ha ) influenced by sulphur application

-1

Sources: Tripathi and Tripathi, 1997-98 & 1999- 2000

Treatment Oat and oat+senji cropping Sorghum and sorghum+cowpea cropping

S level in soils

Low 394 375

Medium 435 395

High 450 411

S levels (kg ha )

0 397 370

20 426 391

40 440 405

60 443 408

Crops

Oat pure 383 Sorghum 348

Oat + Senji 470 Sorghum + Cowpea 439

3.2.2.2 Sequential cropping

Phosphorus

A field experiment was conducted with different crop rotations involving perennial and annual crops to find out the residual effect of P fertilization. The study indicated that P application had greater influence in producing higher yield of oat over control. The highest residual effect was noticed in bajra-oat followed by bajra + cowpea - oat in terms of forage yield, crude protein and P content. The content of organic carbon, available N, P in soil was improved with P application in all crop sequences. However, the maximum P content was recorded under bajra-oat rotation. The soil under bajra + cowpea-oat was higher in organic carbon and available N (Tripathi and Hazra, 1985 & 1986).

30

Sulphur

Sulphur application to cowpea increased total fodder yields of cowpea and sorghum significantly than fertilized sorghum in sorghum-cowpea crop sequences. Among the different S sources, ammonium sulphate was superior to other S sources viz. pyrite, gypsum and elemental sulphur. The reduction in available S was maximum particularly in non-fertilized sorghum after cowpea over initial S status of the soil (Tripathi et al., 1995).

S levels and sources-1Tripathi et al. (1995) showed that the increasing levels of S from 20 to 80 kg ha

-1increased S content of soil and such increases were significant at 40 kg S ha over 20 kg S

-1ha at 25 and 50 days of crop growth. But all S levels tried were not significant among themselves at crop harvest. The content of S in soil was increased with increase in S levels upto 50 days of crop and thereafter decreased at crop maturity (75 days). On the contrary, less content of S under elemental sulphur at early stage of crop (25 days) might be reason in taking time for its oxidation, being slow release sulphur source and insoluble in water. It was interesting to note at 25 days of crop the S application @ 40 kg

-1ha through ammonium sulphate and gypsum gave significantly higher available S in -1soil over the S application @ 60 kg S ha with elemental sulphur (Fig 3.2.1).

Fig 3.2.1 Effect of levels and sources of sulphur on the soil fertility

A B

C D

E F

31

3.2.2.3 Continuous cycle of fodder production

In round the year fodder production the availability of soil nutrients (N&P) was maximum after rabi legume followed by kharif legume system. Efficacy of P-application during rabi + summer season was higher than summer + kharif and kharif + rabi season (Tripathi and Tripathi, 2001).

-1The benefit of utilizable N by oat was 2.5-10 kg N ha under sunhemp, guar and cowpea, respectively over the fallow. Inorganic N was superior to FYM with respect to increase in forage yield and uptake of N & P. However, their combined application (1:1) proved better (Tripathi et al., 1988 & 1989). Similarly, the inorganic P and organic P in combined form (1:1 ratio) to sweet

-1clover production improved status of available P in the soil with highest forage yield (58.7q ha ) and net profit of Rs. 2.45 per rupee investment (Tripathi and Hazra, 1987).

32

Soil forming factors control the permutations and combinations of different resultant soils based on the relative dominance. Certain soils possess some soil chemical and physical parameters in excess that pose problem in the root zone environment restricting the successful agriculture. Obviously a special set of practices is to be devised to realize the economic gains from such soils. The research work on different kinds of problem soils was carried out in relation to fodder production. The following text explains the research work carried out at IGFRI with relation to problem soils.

It is necessary to assess the soil resources available at hand to help decision-making. In this regard, some work was done considering the priority, nature and degree of the problem. Exploration work was taken up to characterize the nature and extent of problem from time to time.

The salt affected soil of Daleepnagar in Kanpur district was characterized for various properties. pH (1 : 2 soil water ratio) of surface soil ranged from 9.3 to 10.5 while the same in subsurface soils varied from 10.2 to 10.6. The electrical conductivity (1 : 2 soil :

-1water ratio) of surface and subsurface soil ranged between 0.7 to 7 and 3.3 to 13.6 dSm , respectively. Sodium was the dominant cation occupying 22 to 91% exchange sites in the soil complex. Carbonates and bicarbonates were the predominant anions. Hard kankar pan was present at variable depth ranging from 45 to 90 cm. The soils were poor

-1in organic carbon (0.03 to 0.2%) and available nitrogen (31 to 82 kg ha ). However, these were rich in available phosphorus and potassium (Yadav, 1992-93).

Ground water quality

The analysis of ground water quality (Yadav, 1992-93) showed that water was alkaline -1(pH 8.6) in nature. EC and SAR of the samples ranged from 0.54 to 1.42 dS m and 1.89

to 6.03 respectively. On the basis of EC and SAR, the water could be grouped under S C 2

and S C classes of irrigation water quality.1 3

The chemical properties viz., extractable acidity due to aluminium, organic carbon, sesquioxides, P-fixing capacity and lime requirement of three acid soils were estimated and observed in the order of Mannavanore (pH 5.1) followed by Jorhat (pH 5.8) and Palampur (pH 6.1). The exchangeable acidity due to Al (0.78 meq/100g) and organic carbon (0.76%)

-1in strongly acid soil of Mannavanore (pH 5.1) and available N (366.0 kg ha ), available P -1

(8.2 kg ha ) and total bases (24 meq/100 g) in slightly acid soil of Palampur (pH 6.1) were found to be maximum. The lime requirements of slightly and strongly acid soils were 6.30

-1and 8.20 t ha by Shoemaker's method. Soil fertility after 45 days of lime addition improved pH of the soil considerably (Tripathi et al., 1983, 1984, 1985 & 1988a).

3.3.1 Salt affected soils

3.3.1.1 Understanding the soils

3.3.1.1.1 Saline and saline-sodic soils

3.3.1.1.2 Acid soils

3.3 Fodder Production in Problem Soils

33

3.3.1.2 Screening of crop / grass species

3.3.1.2.1 Saline and saline-sodic soils

3.3.1.2.2 Acid soils

The study carried out by Banwari Lal et al. (1993-94) on development of suitable agro--1

silvipasture systems for salt affected soil having pH 10.3, ESP 81 and EC 7.0 dsm indicated that kallar grass performed well and recorded higher yield in inter-row spaces of shisham (Dalbergia sisoo) plantation. The yield was maximum with pyrite application @ 5.0 t/ha. The other grasses were found in the order: paragrass > rhodes grass > nandi grass. Among tree species, Prosopis juliflora performed well with survival rate of 89% followed by Dalbergia sisoo (85%), Albizzia amara (80%) and Leucaena leucocephala (70%).

One of the cost effective and feasible solutions to problem posed by soils is to identify the crops and grasses, which can be successfully grown along with simulateneous programmes to breed tolerant varieties of these crops/grasses. In such a process considerable work was undertaken by IGFRI from time to time. The study on salt tolerant fodder crops / grasses at germination stage (Singh et al., 1979-81, Singh et al., 1998 and Tripathi et al., 2004) indicated that the Dichanthium annulatum at low salt

-1concentration (EC of 4 mmhos cm ), guar, dhaman grass, setaria, dhavalu grass and blue

-1panic at medium salt concentration (EC of 6 mmhos cm ) and sorghum, senji, oat, berseem, teosinte, Cenchrus ciliaris, dinanath grass and thin napier at high salt

-1concentration (EC of 8 mmhos cm ) were tolerant at germination stage. In another study

-1on seed germination at various salt concentrations (0-16 dSm ) indicated that amongst cultivated fodders, teosinte, berseem, lucerne, chinese cabbage were tolerant to soil salinity. Sorghum (M.P. chari and Rio) and oat not only produced satisfactory forage yields but also reduced the soil salinity. Similarly, IG 2688 (oat), Ratna and Jyoti (barley), IG-99-1 (berseem), NDRI selection no.1 (lucerne) were found fairly tolerant to soil salinity.

Singh and Yadav (1987) studied on sodicity tolerance in three cultivated grass species viz., hybrid napeir, guinea grass and nandi grass under five levels of soil sodicity (0, 20, 40, 60 & 80 ESP) and observed that nandi grass was most toleratnt, surviving upto 80 ESP followed by hybrid napier (60 ESP) and guinea grass (20 ESP). For optimum biomass production of these grasses, the optimum pH and ESP was worked out to 8.6 and 20.0, respectively. In another study on evaluation of five range grasses (Cenchrus ci-liaris, Dichanthium annulatum. Chrysopogon fulvus, Sehima nervosum and Bothriochloa intermedia under five sodicity levels (control, 20, 40, 60 and 80 ESP) having pH 7.9, 9.0, 9.5, 9.8 and 10.0, respectively showed that except Chrysopogon fulvus, none of these grasses could grow beyond pH 9.8 (60 ESP). The growth of all grasses was adversely affected by increasing sodicity levels. The maximum reduction in the growth and green fodder yield was recorded in Sehima nervosum (79.8%). On the basis of survival and per cent reduction in biomass yield, the order of sodicity tolerance was: Chrysopogon fulvus > Dichanthium annulatum > Bothriochloa intermedia > Cenchrus ciliaris > Sehima nervosum (Singh and Yadava, 1987).

The study carried out by Tripathi and Yadava (2002) on screening of forages in acid soil

34

(pH 5.1) showed that the absorption of Ca in cereal fodder crops was ranged from 0.38 –0.47% and leguminous fodder crops from 1.14 to 1.17%, whereas Mg content in both the types of forages was of similar magnitude (0.33-0.41%). The stylo and siratro pasture range legumes contained 2.05 to 2.48 percent Ca and 0.60 to 0.85% Mg than grasses (setaria and guinea) i.e. 0.65 to 0.72% Ca and 0.26 to 0.35% Mg content in acid soils having pH ranged from 5.1 to 6.0 (Tripathi et al., 1983,1984,1985 and 1988 a).

An experiment conducted to find out the effect of different levels of soil sodicity -1

(control, 15, 30 and 45 ESP) and P application (10, 20, 40 and 60 Kg P O ha ) on growth 2 5

and nutrient uptake of lucerne revealed that with increasing ESP levels, biomass yield and nutrient uptake of N, P, K and Ca were drastically reduced. However, with the application of phosphorus the adverse effects of sodicity were minimized. (Singh et al., 1980-82)

The studies on three grass species viz. Leptochloa fusca (Karnal grass), Brachiaria mutica (para grass) and Setaria sphacelata (nandi grass) grown at 0 and 1/3 dose of FYM

-1 -1(5.0 t ha ) and pyrite (1.6 t ha ) under sodic conditions at Daleepnagar farm, Kanpur (Yadav, 1993-94) revealed that after three years of grass cultivation, there was considerable reduction in soil pH, EC and ESP. The drop in soil pH over the initial value ranged from 0.30 units under nandi grass and drop could be higher with any amendment

-1to 1.50 units under Karnal grass receiving pyrite @ 1.6 t ha .

Salt affected soil having three salinity level (4, 8 and 12 dS/m), soil having initial pH of 10.92, 10.83 and 10.88 were amended with gypsum to bring the soil pH at 8.05, 8.23 and 8.34, respectively (Rai, 2013). Subsequent amendment with FYM, pressmud and poultry manure showed significant improvement in the biomass production of oat over the unamended control. Amongst the amendments the poultry manure (72.9 g/pot) was significantly better than the FYM (55.3 g/pot) and pressmud (66.1 g/pot). After ameliorating the soil pH in the range of 8.8-9.3 through application of gypsum and manures, pots were planted with guinea grass (cv. Bundel Guinea -2), Napier grass (cv. IGFRI-6) and para grass. Green and dry matter production was highest in poultry manure followed by pressmud, FYM and control in para grass (Table 3.3.2).

3.3.1.3 Ameliorative management

3.3.1.3.1 Saline and saline-sodic soils

Table 3.3.2. Effect of different soil amendments on green (GFY) and dry (DFY) forage yield (g/pot) in saline-sodic soils

(Source: Rai, 2013)

Treatment Guinea Napier Para Oatgrass Bajra Hybrid grass

GFY DFY GFY DFY GFY DFY GFY DFY

Control 87.5a 19.1a 76.6a 19.5a 98.2a 20.8a 174a 48.9a

FYM 131.3 b 29.4b 99.7b 25.4b 133b 27.3b 244.5b 68.4b

Pressmud 188.4d 42.6d 148.1d 37.7d 144b 30.9b 417.4c 113.4c

Poultry manure 159.3c 35.7c 120.7c 30.7c 178.5c 37.1c 512.9d 138.3d

35

3.3.1.3.2 Calcareous soils

3.3.1.3.3 Acid soils

In calcareous soil, Hazra (1988a) reported that the total N and organic carbon increased in the soil due to intercropping of various legumes. However, these were maximum in total N (0.056%) and organic carbon (0.677%) with intercropping of siratro followed by phasey bean (Macroptilium lathyroides). The intercropping of siratro, the total N and organic carbon increased by 16.7 and 12.4 percent higher, respectively, over grass alone followed by phasey bean (14.6% total N and 12.3% organic carbon).

Water logged soil

The performance of grasses under seasonal water logged conditions found significantly higher green (31.3 t/ha) and dry fodder (6.13 t/ha) from Almen grass (Echinochloa polystanchy) as compared to para grass (24.75 t/ha green and 5.02 t/ha dry fodder) (Arya et al., 1990-91). In flush flood conditions, Brachiaria mutica was found high yielding as compared to Leptochloa fusca particularly in presence of 150 kg N/ha half through organic manure and the rest half through inorganic fertilizer (Arya et al., 1994-95).

3.3.1.3.3.1Crop response to ameliorative management

Excess soluble cations like Al, Mn and Fe in acid soils were found toxic to plant growth and -1

lime application @ 5-10 t ha CaCO alleviated the toxicity by reducing their solubilities. 3

Lime application increased calcium and magnesium removal and ultimately fodder yields (Figure 3.3.1). Berseem responded to lime application on all the acid soils (Tripathi et al., 1983). They further reported that the berseem and lucerne grown in acid soils, responded well to lime application with increased forage yield with increase in Ca and Mg content and

-1decrease in the Al and Mn with lime applied at levels from 5-10 t ha CaCO . The lowest 3

soil pH depressed the forage yield and Ca and Mg content and increased Al and Mn content in the plant (Fig 3.3.2). Liming depressed the toxicity of Fe, Al and Mn and improved the availability of Ca, Mg and Mo in acid soil (pH 5.1).

The lime application influenced to increase forage yields of grasses (setaria & guinea), range legumes (stylo & siratro) and the grass-range legume mixtures, in general

-1(Tripathi and Yadav, 2002). The highest lime rate was 8.2 t ha in strongly acid soil (pH

-15.1) and 6.3 t ha in slightly acid soil (pH 6.1) resulted in maximum yields of all grasses and range legume species grown as pure stand and grass-legume mixtures.

A three-year temporal study indicated that soil pH of unlimed soil decreased by 2-4% where as it increased by 6-10% under limed soils over the initial pH values. During this temporal study, there was a decrease in available N, P, K in both limed and unlimed soils but an increase in Ca was seen consequence to lime application when compared with the initial values. Another finding was that there was a decrease in N and K in soils under grasses while P and Ca decreased in soils supporting legumes (Tripathi and Yadav, 2002).

The productivity of soils is directly related to soil pH. The yield of maize in neutral soil of Jhansi was the highest. The yield in mild to strongly acid soils was found in decreasing order of Palampur > Jorhat > Mannavanore. Palampur soil exhibited the highest available N and P and this was followed by Jorhat and Mannavanore soil (Tripathi and Hazra, 1985 & 1986).

36

A B

C D

E

Fig 3.3.1 Effect of lime on yield of legumes and chemical composition of fodder

3.3.1.3.3.2 Behaviour of applied nutrients

In general, the availability of P to crop plants was low in acid soils and source of P has a -1greater role. The highest dose of P (160 kg P O ha ) resulted in highest forage 2 5

production and P-uptake. The effect of triple super phosphate (TSP) was superior to Mussorie rock phosphate (MRP) and bonemeal on forage yield of maize, berseem and oats (Tripathi and Hazra, 1988; Tripathi and Hazra, 1996; Tripathi and Mannikar, 1985). The order of acid soils in terms of forage production and fertility was Palampur > Jorhat > Mannavanore (Fig 3.3.3).

The effect of CAN as an N-source was significantly higher to urea and FYM in influencing forage yield, N-uptake and protein yield of oat (Tripathi and Mannikar, 1984) FYM had the least effect on forage yield and N-uptake. The effect of CAN was

37

conspicuously better in Palampur soil than in other acid soils. The soil fertility improved with the increasing availability of N and P in soil after crop harvest in treatments with highest N-level through all N sources (Fig 3.3.4).

The effect of molybdenum, particularly in leguminous fodder crops with phosphate application indicated that Mo application was found equally effective to P application in acid soil of Mannavanore (pH 5.1). The highest yield response and nutrient uptake (N, P and Mo) of

-1 -1berseem were noted when Mo and P application (1.0 kg MoO ha along with 100 kg P O ha ) 4 2 5

were given together (Tripathi and Mannikar,1989).

A B

C D

E

Fig 3.3.2 Effect of lime on yield of legumes and chemical composition of fodder in different acid soils

38

A

Fig 3.3.3 Yield responses of berseem to acidity, levels and sources of P in acid soils

C

According to Hazra and Tripathi (1986), the effect of molybdenum and phosphate on berseem and residual effect on fodder maize in acid soil was observed in terms of increased dry fodder yield of berseem with increasing levels of Mo application (Table 3.3.3). Application of P had similar positive effect and yield was significantly higher at 17.5 ppm P over control (no P). The residual effect of Mo and P on succeeding fodder maize was observed where yield progressively enhanced up to the highest level of Mo application (0.75 ppm).

Exploitation of phosphate solubilisers for stress tolerance

Soil samples from Himachal, Haryana, Kerala, Karnataka and west Bengal and were collected and characterized. They were saline, alkaline, saline-alkaline, acidic and neutral in nature. About 95 stress tolerant PSMs (PSB=40 isolates, PSF=55 isolates) were isolated. Characterization of P solubilization in tricalcium phosphate and Udaipur rock phosphate was done quantitatively by using Pikovskaya's broth medium and modified Pikovskaya's broth medium. Screening for salt, acid and drought tolerance was done in in vitro. Maximum growth was observed up to 4% NaCl salt concentration. About 28 isolates had grown at 4%, 24 isolates at 6%, 15 isolates at 8 and 10% salt concentration. Similarly, screening for acid tolerance was done in pH 4, 5, 6, 7. About 21 isolates could grow under pH 4. However maximum growth was found under neutral pH.

B

39

Table 3.3.3 Effect of P and Mo application on dry forage yield of berseem (direct effect) and maize (residual effect) and soil fertility after harvest of maize

Source: Tripathi et al., 1988b

Treatment Forage yield Mo uptake P uptake Available -1 -1 -1

(g pot ) (µg pot ) (mg pot ) nutrients -1(mg pot )

Berseem Maize Berseem Maize Berseem Maize P Mo

Mo application (ppm MoO )5

0.00 23.1 14.9 11.3 3.5 47.7 16.0 21.0 0.2

0.25 33.1 17.2 22.0 6.0 66.7 21.1 24.4 0.4

0.50 34.9 18.9 30.7 8.5 80.9 27.6 24.5 0.4

0.75 36.3 19.2 38.6 9.4 91.3 29.1 25.9 0.5

CD 5% 5.3 3.9 8.6 5.0 21.0 12.6 _ _

P application (ppm P)

0 23.7 16.4 13.4 5.8 44.3 17.1 19.6 0.3

17.5 40.1 18.7 38.0 8.0 96.1 29.9 27.6 0.4

CD 5% 3.7 1.9 5.1 NS 15.0 12.6 _ _

Fig 3.3.4 Response of oat and maize to different levels of acidity

40

Scientific management of nutrition depends on the facts about the nature and potential of

supply, plant uptake characteristics, influence of environment (biotic and abiotic) and

management practices to realize the best optimum economic returns. Hence knowledge of the

above aspects strengthens the crop management as it expands the horizon of crop production,

an essential response reaction to the soil-plant–atmospheric continuum (SPAC). It deals

essentially with soil – plant - water relations so far but it is necessary to consider soil water as

soil solution, the seat of chemical reactions in the root zone. In the present day

stagnated/declining productivity, study on dynamics of soil solution forms an essential part to

understand the chemistry between soil-water-plant. A quantum of literature is available in

terms of all aspects except soil solution chemistry, which adds more to understanding the

science in nutrition management.

Experiments on soil test crop responses (STCR) were conducted in major food crops in

India since long time in order to develop fertilizer prescriptions for major crops/

cropping sequences of the corresponding agro-climatic zones of India. The very

objectives of STCR includes establishment of significant relationship between soil test

values and crop response to fertilizers, to provide a calibration for fertilizer

recommendation based on soil testing (from the results thus obtained), to derive a basis

for fertilizer recommendation for desired yield targets of crops, to evaluate the various

soil test methods for their suitability under field conditions, to evaluate the extent to

which fertilizer needs of crops can be reduced in relation to conjoint use of organic

manures and bio-fertilizers and to evaluate a basis for fertilizer recommendation for a

whole cropping sequence based on initial soil test values. Studies were carried out in

fodder crops under the STCR are documented in the text to follow.

Soil test fertilizer response studies in forage crop rotations showed that sorghum (M.P.

chari), cowpea, berseem and oat utilized 7.3- 9.2% of soil nutrients. For sudan grass, a -1

critical soil test of 100 kg N ha was obtained by calcium hydrolysable nitrogen method

(Singh et al., 1977-80).

The study carried out by Tripathi (1993 & 1994) on soil test crop response showed that

the fodder yields of M.P. chari as sole and as a mixture with cowpea crop increased -1

significantly with increased N levels upto 120 kg ha . The additive effect of native soil

fertility and N levels showed that green and dry fodder yield of M.P. chari was -1significantly higher with 40 kg N ha when the native soil fertility was higher than the

-1yield obtained at 80 kg N ha under low to medium level of fertility. Similarly, the trend

in utilization of nutrients (N, P, S & Ca) by plants closely followed the same for yield.

3.4.1 Soil Test Crop Response (STCR) studies

3.4.1.1 Nitrogen

3.4 Scientific Management of Nutrition

41

On the basis of regression equations, the optimum dose of N was worked out to 106, 103 & 100 -1kg for M.P. chari and 106, 102 & 96 kg ha for M.P. chari + cowpea in low, medium &

-1high fertility soil, respectively. The critical limits of available N were 235 and 227 kg ha -1

by using alkaline KMnO method and 113 and 113 kg ha by using Ca(OH) method for 4 2

green fodder of M.P. chari and M.P. chari + cowpea, respectively.

Similarly, Tripathi (1994) & Tripathi and Hazra (1994) reported that the fodder yield

of oat and oat + sweet clover increased significantly with increased levels of soil

fertility and obviously maximum responses were recorded in highest soil fertility. The

combined effects of native soil fertility and added N showed that applications of 40 kg -1

N ha on medium to high soil fertility gradients gave significantly higher forage yield -1than the application of N @ 80 kg N ha in low fertility soils. The nutrient content was

higher at highly fertile soils and N application.

P application in STCR studies in intercropped production systems led to significant

increase in green and dry fodder yield of sorghum and oat grown as pure and mixed crop

with cowpea and senji, respectively, over control. However, such responses were -1 -1significant at 120 kg P O ha in low soil P situation and at 80 kg P O ha in soils of 2 5 2 5

medium to high P status. Response equations for dry fodder showed the optimum dose -1 -1

of 115, 92 & 86 kg P O ha for sorghum, 118, 93 & 91 kg P O ha for sorghum + 2 5 2 5 -1 -1cowpea; 108, 93 & 92 kg P O ha for oat and 109, 105 & 97 kg P O ha for oat + senji in 2 5 2 5

low, medium and high P soils, respectively (Tripathi, 1996, 1999; Tripathi and Hazra

1996). The yield responses to P were maximum in low P soils, which decreased sharply

in medium to high P soils. The mixed stand of sorghum + cowpea and oat + senji had

highest response to added P as compared to sorghum & oat grown as pure crops. The -1application of 40-120 kg P O ha in low, medium & high P soils improved P uptake by 2 5

26-40, 10-17 & 9-14% for sorghum; 18-46, 9-16 and 8-12% for sorghum + cowpea; 16-

26, 8-17 and 7-12% for oat and 17-31, 12-15 & 7-8% for oat + senji, respectively. The

content of other nutrients viz., K, S & Mg in crop plants increased with increasing P upto -1

120 kg P O ha except S uptake in medium to high P soils, where it was reduced by 10-2 5 -1

15% over lower level of P, i.e., 40-80 kg P O ha . The response to added P in clay loam 2 5

red soil was the highest followed by clayey soils. The critical limit of available P -1

extracted by Olsen's, Bray's and Dyer's method were 12.5, 8.5 & 7.0 kg P ha for -1sorghum, 10.0, 7.5 & 7.0 kg P ha for sorghum + cowpea for obtaining maximum

economic response to applied fertilizer P. Tripathi (2003) observed that the P application -1 -1 -1

was beneficial at 60 kg P O ha to low, 40 kg P O ha to medium and 20 kg P O ha to 2 5 2 5 2 5-1high P soils for intercropping of oat+senji, whereas P application of 40 kg P O ha in 2 5

-1low, 20 kg P O ha in medium and no need of P in high P soils as worked out for oat 2 5

monocropping (Table 3.4.1).

3.4.1.2 Phosphorus

42

Table 3.4.2 Green fodder yield of fodder sorghum and sorghum + cowpea with K application in soils having different fertility levels

-1K-level (kg K O ha ) Fertility levels 2

Low Medium High Mean

Fodder sorghum

0 296.1 315.1 337.9 316.37

30 329.1 340.3 350.2 339.87

-1 -1Table 3.4.1 Nutrient dose (kg ha ) and Green Forage Yield (t ha ) for various cropping systems based on soil test values

-1

-1 -1 -1 -1

“*” = Available Form; “**” = Fixed Form

Source: Tripathi, 1999

Soil nutrients (kg ha ) Monocropping - Oat Intercropping - Oat+Senji

Yield Fertilizer Yield Fertilizer

(t ha ) Dose (kg ha ) (t ha ) Dose (kg ha )

Phosphorus*

< 12 38.06 40 47.00 60

12 - 20 42.72 25 52.54 40

> 20 43.68 20 54.05 20

Potash**

< 800 37.08 40 45.95 45

800 - 1500 42.05 25 52.41 30

> 1500 43.06 No Need 55.46 No Need

Sulfur*

< 20 35.20 40 44.30 40

20 - 40 42.39 20 49.31 20

> 40 42.79 No Need 53.26 No Need

3.4.1.3 Potassium

Tripathi (1999) and Tripathi and Rai (2008) indicated that the green and dry fodder yield of sorghum + cowpea and oat + senji increased significantly with the application of 60

-1 -1kg K O ha in low & medium-K soils and at 30 kg K O ha in high-K soils in soil K-test 2 2

crop response studies (Table 3.4.2). There was a general improvement in the plant -1content of P, K, Mg and S in all levels of K fertility except high K level (i.e. at 90 kg ha ),

which actually reduced Mg and S contents considerably. The response of oat + senji to added K was 42-73%, 33-54% and 25-38% higher in low, medium & high K soils over control in terms of dry fodder. The response of sorghum + cowpea in low, medium & high K soils was higher in terms of dry fodder by 32-56%, 22-35% and 14-19% with

-1added K (30-90 kg K O ha ) over control. 2

43

60 345.2 348.0 362.1 351.77

90 351.9 345.0 356.1 351.0

Mean 326.1 349.0 350.0 341.7

Fodder sorghum + cowpea

0 357.6 397.5 427.0 394.03

30 396.1 422.0 446.0 421.36

60 423.5 430.0 461.0 438.16

90 432.4 436.6 461.6 443.53

Mean 402.4 423.2 448.9 424.83Source: Tripathi and Rai, 2008

3.4.1.4 Sulphur

3.4.1.5 Major and micronutrients interaction

Soil test based on-farm trials on balanced fertilization correcting sulphur deficiency study in fodder sorghum carried out by Tripathi and Hazra (2001). The results indicated

-1maximum response at 30 kg S ha for higher green and dry fodder (126 & 36 kg/kg S in Alfisol and 89 & 26 kg/kg S in Vertisol, respectively). Sulphur recovery was higher at 30

-1 -1kg S ha in Alfisol and at 45 kg S ha in Vertisol. Regards to soil fertility after two years in fodder sorghum-wheat crop rotation, the available S in an unfertilized soil (without S) was exhausted by 12-13% over initial S level (7.5 ppm in Alfisol and 9.5 ppm in Vertisol). On the contrary, there was 29% improvement in available S with sulphur

-1fertilization @ 45 kg S ha (Tripathi and Hazra, 2000).

The green house experiment conducted for a period of 2 years in rabi season (Panwar, 1999) to investigate the effect, as well as interaction effects of Zn, P on berseem in two soils that were deficient in Zn & P revealed a consistent increase in fodder yield with increments of P fertilization (30 to 60 ppm). Response to Zn was noticed upto 20 ppm, which was almost at par with Zn at 0 ppm level. However, the highest forage production was obtained with 20 ppm Zn + 60 ppm P levels. Application of P also increased the contents of N, P and K in plants. Zn fertilization also improved plant N & K contents with no specific trend in plant P contents.

A pot culture experiment was carried out with twelve treatment combinations viz. T1 - control-NPK , T2 - 100% recommended dose (20 kg Zn, 10 kg Mn and 5 kg Cu) of micronutrient (RDM), T3 - 10t FYM/ha, T4 - 50% RDM + 5t FYM/ha, T5 - 50% RDM + seed coating, T6 - 50% RDM + seed priming, T7 - 50% RDM + VAM, T8 - 50% RDM + VAM + seed priming, T9 - 50% RDM + VAM + seed coating, T10 - 50% RDM + VAM + 5t FYM, T11 - 50% RDM + 5t FYM + VAM + seed priming, T12 - 50% RDM + 5t FYM + VAM + seed coating were evaluated in sorghum + cowpea - oat cropping system for enhancing the productivity and micronutrient enrichment of the forages (Rai, 2013).

3.4.1.5.1 Soil micronutrient deficiency management

44

Table 3.4.3 Effect of micronutrient application on green and dry forage yield (q/ha)

Treatments Oat Sorghum +cowpea

GFY DFY GFY DFY

Without micronutrient application 486.7 131.4 204.1 63.2

50% RDM + VAM + seed priming in 517.5 150.1 252.2 770.05% ZnSO solution for 12 hrs4

Level of significance P=0.05 P=0.05 P=0.05 P=0.05

Treatments with seed priming and VAM application were at par with 100% RDM, resulting in 50% saving of the micronutrient fertilizer recommended for these crops. Oat and sorghum+ cowpea grown in one hectare area in rabi and kharif season respectively, with and without micronutrient application also confirmed the findings of the field experiment. Seed priming + VAM + 50% RDM (Zn : Cu : Mn :: 10 : 5 : 1 kg/ha) produced significantly higher green forage yield (517.5 q/ha) of the oat in comparison to without micronutrient application (486.7 q/ha). Similarly, the green and dry forage yield of sorghum + cowpea in seed priming + VAM + 50% RDM treated plots were significantly higher than the practices of without micronutrient application (Table 3.4.3).

3.4.2 Introduction of intercropping

The intercropping system of cereals and legumes is considered to optimize fertilizer usages. The research work compiled by Menhilal and Tripathi (1987) indicated that

-1intercropping of jowar, maize and bajra with cowpea supplement 50 kg N ha merely by -1

increasing 5 kg P O ha (Table 3.4.4). The association of cereal and legume forages not 2 5

only maintained the similar level of herbage yield but also doubled the crude protein production. Similarly, intercropping of cowpea with jowar resulted in economy in

-1fertilizer nitrogen equivalent to 30 kg N ha .

Table 3.4.4 Fertilizer nutrient management through introduction of legume in intercropping system on forage yield and crude protein

Crop /Crop Combination Nutrient level Forage Yield Crude (kg/ha) (q/ha) Protein

(kg/ha)

N P O GF DF2 5

Jowar pure (cv. Pioneer-988) 120 50 490493 101.8 680

Jowar + cowpea 70 55 384 101.0 1024

M.P. chari pure 120 50 391 82.0 490

M.P. chari + cowpea 70 55 448 81.0 886

Maize pure (cv. African Tall) 120 50 454 93.8 772

Maize + cowpea 70 55 372 93.0 1049

Bajra pure (cv. Rajko) 120 50 430 82.7 632

45

Bajra + cowpea 70 55 430 89.2 971

Dinanath grass pure 90 30 463 77.2 658

Dinanath + cowpea 55 45 435 76.2 942Source: Menhilal and Tripathi, 1987

3.4.3 Identification and evaluation of alternate sources

It is necessary to identify and evaluate the alternate sources of plant nutrients, which are cost effective and locally available to render the crop production enterprise an efficient utilization system with the available resources as a byproduct of one enterprise forms the basis for another production process. Considering the importance of this phenomenon, considerable work was done at IGFRI in these lines as listed below.

The forage productivity was significantly improved with the addition of neem leaves as organic manure and 50% fertilizer N. The increase in forage productivity with the substitution of fertilizer N by neem leaves was observed to be around 24%, whereas the addition of subabool leaves had an advantage of 10% when compared to full supply of N through urea. There was a gain in crude protein yield to an extent of 37% with neem leaves in comparison with urea alone while subabool leaves indicated gain by 14%. Incorporation of organic manure also led to higher uptake and concentration of P in herbage (Patra and Pahwa, 1993-94).

-1According to Das et al. (2007) the application of fly ash @ 50 t ha increased the forage yield of sorghum + cowpea by 15 & 18% in red and black soil over control (no fly ash:

-126.9 and 27.2 t ha ) respectively. The increase in green fodder yield was recorded 40% in

-1berseem and 25% in oat crop when fly ash was applied @ 100 t ha (control yield : -1 -1 -1

berseem 54.4 t ha , oat 26.2 t ha ). Bulk density of black soil reduced (1.23 g cc ) and rd

WHC increased (5.63% at 15 bar, 17.64 % at 1/3 bar pressure with fly ash application -1 -1 rd@ 50 t ha over control (1.28 g cc BD, WHC: 5.42 and 16.8 at 15 & 1/3 bar pressure,

respectively).

The quality assessment of leafy materials of Sesbania sesban, Leucaena leucocephala, Azadirachta and Parthenium hysterophorus showed that Sesbania was the best with 4.7% N, 0.4% P, 3% K %, C: N ratio of 10.6, 4% lignin and 0.5% polyphenol in relation to others (Patra and Pahwa, 1993-94). The effect of green leaf manures in terms of carbon dioxide evolution also was evaluated, which highlighted the merit of Leucaena leaf in red soils with the highest evolution of CO (64 mg). This trend in CO evolution 2 2

thcontinued in both red (46 mg) and black (29 mg) soils even on the 10 day of the study. Application of both inorganic-N and organic-N through Parthenium markedly

+ -decreased CO release in the later period. Release of NH and NO in Vertisols with urea 2 4 3

alone or with substitution by leafy materials (25-100%) was high throughout the period of investigation (75 days) as reported by Patra and Pahwa (1995-96).

3.4.3.1 Multipurpose trees / shrubs as organic manures

3.4.3.2 Industrial waste and soil amendment

3.4.3.3 Green leaf manure

46

The polyphenolic compounds to N ratio in the leafy materials showed a negative + correlation with NH release. The benefit of adding leafy materials in improving the 4

bacterial population was realized with all kinds of leafy material in both red and black soils. However, it was also seen that the use of inorganic-N with leafy materials decreased Azotobacter population in both the soils. High population counts of fungi were observed in enriched leaf compost amended soil (Patra and Pahwa, 1996).

-1The highest mean green forage yield of 38 t ha from sorghum + cowpea system was obtained with 1:1 ratio of urea and FYM as well as with 100% N provided through FYM, in a study conducted for 4 years. During rabi season, the higher mean green forage yield

-1(82 t ha ) of berseem was recorded with 100% FYM-N. It was evident from the data that integration of 25% urea-N + 50% FYM-N + biofertilizers produced equivalent yields to 100% urea-N. Soil analysis indicated the highest organic carbon content (0.56%),

-1available N (245 kg ha ), ammonical N (26 ppm) and microbial biomass carbon (560 mg -1kg ) when 100% FYM-N was applied while the highest NO -N (9.5 ppm) was recorded 3

when N was supplied through urea (Yadav et al., 2001-04).

In an Integrated Nutrient Management (INM) system, application of 50% recommended dose of fertilizer (RDF) + 25% vermicompost (vc) + biofertilizer consortium (bc) produced 42.3 and 29.0% higher green and dry fodder yield of cowpea under BN hybrid + cowpea cropping system over control (AR 2015-16).

Forage yield of oat was the highest at 75% available soil moisture (ASM) in combination -1with 90 kg N ha . Production efficiency of water decreased with increasing levels of soil

moisture in the loam soil but was not much altered on the red gravelly sandy loam soil, rdalthough water use efficiency was only 2/3 in the later (Hukkeri et al., 1977). Similarly

fodder yield of berseem was the highest with 75% available soil moisture and 120 kg -1

P O ha (Hukkeri et al., 1976). 2 5

Introduction of the perennial guinea grass in the cropping system had positive impact on total organic carbon (TOC) restoration. The TOC content was in the order of: guinea grass + (cowpea - Egyptian clover) (8.3-10.3 g/kg) > sorghum - lucerne - cowpea - Egyptian clover (7.7 g/kg) > sorghum - Egyptian clover (7.3 g/kg). The TOC content in the surface soil of the guinea grass + (cowpea - Egyptian clover) cropping system without fertilizer or manure application over the years showed 23.2%, increase in comparison to the reference soil under cowpea – oat cropping system (Rai, 2014). Different nutrient management practices greatly influenced the soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) contributing about 3.6-6.2% of the TOC in 0-0.15 m depth. FYM significantly increased the active carbon pool as compared to control and maintained the

3.4.4 Integrated plant nutrient supply (IPNS) systems

3.4.5 Irrigation - nutrient interaction

3.4.6 Long term effect of nutrient management in perennial forage based cropping system

3.4.4.1 INM in BN hybrid based cropping system

47

relative proportion of active to passive carbon pool more than one throughout the profile in all treatments. The significant linear regression observed between sustainable yield index (SYI) and parameters like TOC, CMI, SMBC, DOC and PMC indicate that maintenance of TOC and other carbon pools through regular organic or mineral inputs determines the sustainability of the guinea grass based cropping systems (Table 3.4.5).

Table 3.4.5 Relationships of SOC parameters with sustainable yield index in a long term experiment

Predictor variable Constant Coefficient R2 P model

Total organic carbon (TOC) (g/kg) 0.462**± 0.031 0.008**±0.002 0.74 0.006

Very labile carbon (g/kg) 0.488**±0.031 0.016*±0.005 0.63 0.018

Recalcitrant carbon (g/kgl) 0.462**±0.031 0.033**±0.008 0.74 0.006

Active carbon pool (g/kg) 0.483**±0.035 0.011*±0.004 0.60 0.023

Passive carbon pool (g/kg) 0.460**±0.028 0.022**±0.005 0.78 0.004

Carbon management index (CMI) 0.475**±0.033 0.0002*±0.00006 0.67 0.012

Carbon management index (CMI) 0.450**±0.022 0.0003**±0.00005 0.87 0.001subsurface layer

SMBC (mg/kg) 0.329**±0.072 0.0004*±0.0001 0.68 0.011

Dissolved organic carbon (DOC) (mg/kg) 0.446**±0.045 0.0009* 0.62 0.020

Potentially mineralizable C (PMC)(mg/kg) 0.418**±0.042 0.001±0.0002 0.74 0.020

*P<0.05; **P <0.01;

Values are fitted in equation y=a+bx. Y=sustainable yield index (SYI); x is the predictor variable; b is the coefficient; a is the constant.

48

Soil biology is of great significance in both pedological as well as edaphological context as it is associated with plant as well as soil formation. Similarly, soil biochemistry is one of the relevant branches in soil science that deals with the chemistry of the organisms associated with soil in turn with plant. These two aspects contribute much to the soil health / quality, which is given tremendous importance of late due to degradation processes on the rise. Besides, soil is a complex and multicomponent system, thus study of all the components is of utmost important when sustainable agricultural growth is the concern. Microorganisms are the basis of the

31biosphere; a staggering 5 x 10 cells exist, weighing 50 quadrillion metric tonnes, constituting about 60% of the total biomass. It is difficult to overstate their importance; the soil-microbe complex is vital because of the services it provides for agriculture, waste management and the water industry, and the natural and semi-natural environments. They breakdown most of the 45,000 or so chemical compounds that humans use in daily life. These principles are applicable to fodder crops too thus a sequential study approach was adopted to unravel the role of soil biology and biochemistry in fodder crop production.

The phenomenon of biological nitrogen fixation paved a way to extensive research as far as the process and effect on the nitrogen economy in several agro-ecological situations are concerned. It rather revolutionized the agriculture in terms of production and practices and it is rampant to include the biologically nitrogen fixing species in agriculture as well as agroforestry. A good amount of work had been undertaken on BNF (biological nitrogen fixation) in relation to fodder production with equal emphasis on quantity and quality with an ultimate aim of sustainability in the economy.

Pahwa (1995) summarized the work on biofertilizers for nutrient economy and forage production indicated that berseem, lucerne and Indian clover (senji) had better natural nodulation (30, 10 and 23/plant, respectively) and yield potential in medium black soil. However, in guar and cowpea it was better in red soil. Inoculums load containing 2.5 ×

610 rhizobia/ml proved optimum in respect of nodulation, yield and nitrogen content of lucerne and berseem. P and Zn application further improved the efficacy of association.

-1Phosphate upto 100 kg P O ha was observed to be optimum in improving the nitrogen 2 5 -1fixation of berseem, pea and cowpea. Application of 20 kg ZnSO ha positively 4

influenced the efficacy of the inoculants in these legumes under red soil (pH-8.2). Indigenous strains of Rhizobium BJ-9 and LJ-13 for berseem and lucerne gave better performance than that introduced from IARI, which may be due to their better adaptability to the soil environment. Significant increase in green fodder yields of different legumes ranging from 15-46% was recorded with Rhizobium cultures, the maximum effect being with lucerne (Table 3.5.1).

3.5.1 Biological nitrogen fixation

3.5.1.1 Cultivated fodder crops

3.5.1.1.1 Rhizobium – fodder legumes symbiotic association

3.5 Soil Biology and Biochemistry

49

Table 3.5.1 Response of fodder legumes to Rhizobium under field condition

UI: Uninoculated I: Inoculated

Source: Pahwa and Yadav, 2002

-1Crop Green yield (q ha ) Per cent increase in

UI I yield with 'I'

Lucerne (3 cuts) 284 416 46

Berseem (3 cuts) 570 698 23

Cowpea 312 357 15

Pea 200 240 20

Guar 130 152 17

3.5.1.1.2 Bradyrhizobium application

3.5.1.1.3 Azospirillum and Azotobacter association

In a study on Bradyrhizobium strains (native-JSR-3, JSR-4 and JSB-4, exotic TAL-309 and ISI-2) with Stylo santhes pure and mixed pasture with Cenchrus ciliaris, the native strain (JSR-4) was found superior in producing higher green (95.2 t/ha) and dry biomass (28.0 t/ha). The increase in green biomass with imported strains over uninoculated control ranged from 17.5 to 19.7 per cent. Significantly higher yield of grass component was recorded when it was grown with Stylo santhes inoculated with native strains. Occupancy of native strains in root nodules was found to be 90-100% as against 40-60% with exotic strains (Pahwa et al., 1996-2001).

Simple inoculation of Azospirillum showed marked improvement in green forage yield with an average increase of 26.1, 19.5, 28.1, 31.4 and 35.5% in oat, sorghum, pearl millet, barley and maize, respectively, over the uninoculated control. One third or half of the optimum level of N showed maximum efficacy with culture (Pahwa, 1988). In another study on the effect of Azospirillum inoculation with and without urea on cereal fodder crops, seed inoculation with Azospirillum exhibited significant increase in green and dry matter yields of different crops by 19, 32, 31, 41 and 39% in teosinte, maize, bajra, oat and barely, respectively, over uninoculation. The rhizospheric Azospirillum

-1count was highest in inoculated treatment supplied with 40 kg N ha . Seed inoculation

-1gave significant effect on green yields at half of the optimum level of 90/120 kg N ha . Similarly, field experimentation with cereal forages involving Azotobacter and Azospirillum inoculation showed 19-25% higher green yield (Table 3.5.2).

Table 3.5.2 Response on cereal fodder to biofertilizer in terms of nitrogen saving -1 -1Treatment Dry fodder (t ha ) Treatment Dry fodder (t ha )

Oat (cv. Kent)

UI 2.5 UI 5.6

SI 3.0 AI 6.3

50

-1 -140 kg N ha + SI 5.2 40 kg N ha + AI 8.0-1 -160 kg N ha 5.7 60 kg N ha 8.1

Barley (cv. Ratna)

UI 1.9 UI 2.7

SI 2.5 AI 3.1-1 -1

30 kg N ha + SI 4.7 30 kg N ha + AI 3.2-1 -145 kg N ha 4.7 45 kg N ha 3.1

Sorghum (cv. M.P. chari)

UI 5.0 UI 4.0

SI 6.2 AI 4.6-1 -130 kg N ha + SI 7.7 30 kg N ha + AI 5.6-1 -1

45 kg N ha 7.8 45 kg N ha 6.0

Pearl millet (cv. Rajko)

UI 2.7 UI 5.2

SI 3.4 AI 6.2-1 -130 kg N ha + SI 5.7 30 kg N ha + AI 6.7-1 -145 kg N ha 5.6 45 kg N ha 6.5

SI = Azospirillum brasilense; AI = Azotobacter chroococcum; UI = Uninoculated

Source: Pahwa, 1986a

3.5.1.1.4Mineral nutrition affecting biofertilizers efficiency

The influence of plant nutrients, viz., Zn and S was significant in improving N fixation 2-1

of lucerne and pea in respect of nodulation and forage yields. ZnSO @ 20 kg ha was 4-1

found to be optimum whilst 20 kg S ha proved significantly better for fodder pea. Improvement in N fixation in terms of nodulation, growth and yield was observed on 2

-1addition of 60 kg P O ha (Pahwa, 1985a and Pahwa, 1995). In another study carried out 2 5

by Pahwa 1984, the effectiveness of N -fixation of lucerne, markedly improved in red 2

soil due to dual inoculation with R. melilotii + Azospirillum brasilense and addition of 20 kg each of S and ZnSO , 2 kg Mo, 5 t rock pyrite per hectare. Similarly, the yield and 4

-1quality of berseem significantly improved with 10 kg sulphur and 10 t rock-pyrite ha in

presence of combined inoculation of R. trifolii and Azospirillum as well as R. trifolii + Azotobacter chroococcum (Pahwa, 1982 and Pahwa 1995). In another study the

-1application of 20 kg ZnSO ha significantly increased nodulation, root length and 4

fodder yield of lucerne. Growth and green fodder yield and quality of mustard -1

significantly improved with Azotobacter culture coupled with 60 kg N ha . Green fodder yield obtained was 35.9% higher than uninoculated control (Pahwa, 1986b).

The relationship of soil properties with that of population of total and beneficial microorganisms present in the soil was studied. 41 samples from Himachal and 15 from Haryana, 49 from Kerala and 50 from Karnataka and 11 from Sundarbans, West Bengal

51

have been collected. Soil properties like pH, EC, P and organic C content of soil samples were analyzed. All the soil samples collected from HP were acidic and from Haryana were saline / alkaline in nature; maximum samples were acidic from Kerala and Karnataka. The total bacterial, fungal populations of these soils were determined along with phosphate solubilizing bacterial and fungal populations. The interaction of soil physical parameters with the soil microbial population was analyzed. The results as revealed from figure 3.5.1, in Karnal soil samples, maximum total bacterial and PSB population was found between pH 8 - 9.0, and EC values ranging from 0.2 to 0.4. Increase in pH beyond 9.0 and EC beyond 1.0 dS/m has very low microbial population (Srinivasan, 2015).

Fig. 3.5.1 Relationship between soil pH and EC with the total bacterial and PSB population from Karnal soil samples

Relationship between soil pH with the total bacterial population

Relationship between soil EC with the total bacterial population

Relationship between soil pH and EC with the total PSB population

Relationship between soil EC with the total PSB population

52

3.5.1.1.5 Soil physical properties affecting biofertilizers performance

Pahwa et al., (2000) studied the effect of soil compaction, moisture regimes and inoculation on fodder yield of summer cowpea and reported that the dry fodder and N uptake influenced by different levels of bulk density, moisture and inoculation (Table

33.5.3). However, increased level of bulk density (1.72 g/cm ) together with watering at 72 hrs interval significantly reduced dry forage yield and N uptake. They explained that reduction in forage yield with increased bulk density creates an unfavourable micro-environment in the soil matrix for N fixing bacterial population. They also reported that delayed application of water (72 hrs) with and without inoculation showed significant reduction in nodulation as well as forage yield and N uptake. The combined treatment of

31.51 g/cm bulk density plus watering at 24 hours with inoculation was most advantageous for summer cowpea.

Table 3.5.3 Effect of compaction, inoculation and moisture levels on N uptake (mg N/pot) in summer cowpea

Source: Pahwa et al., 2000

3Bulk density (g/cm ) Watering intervals Watering intervals

24 hr 48 hrs 72 hrs 24 hr 48 hrs 72 hrs

Uninoculated Inoculated

1.34 240.6 212.8 147.8 360.2 239.7 223.0

1.51 257.4 238.5 168.0 355.2 258.5 194.0

1.72 264.0 306.6 160.8 248.4 341.8 132.6

CD at 5% 23.1 - - - - -

3.5.1.1.6 Residual legume effects

3.5.1.1.7 Microbial consortia studies

Legumes are known to leave behind some residual nitrogen in the soils. Investigation to measure the residual effect of rhizobial inoculated grain and fodder legumes on the subsequent crop of M.P. chari revealed added benefits in green forage yield when grown under inoculated series. Seed inoculation of lucerne with Rhizobium and VAM fungi (Glomus fasciculatum) together, showed significant effect on nodulation, growth, forage yield and crude protein content (19%) as compared to their individual application. Root extract of non-nodulating Leucaena leucocephala showed inhibitory effect on nodulation of the inoculated lucerne crop upto 10% concentration.

Pahwa (1995) reported the added benefit of combined inoculation of R. trifolii (BJ 9) + Azospirillum brasilense-2 as well as R. trifolii + Azotobacter were observed in berseem (Table 3.5.4). The significant higher nodule number (46.0/plant), green fodder (724.8 q

-1 -1 -1ha ), dry fodder (93.1 q ha ) and crude protein yield (15.5 q ha ) was noticed to be with

-1Rhizobium + Azospirillum inoculation in presence of 20 kg N ha as compared to -1 -1 uninoculated control (nodules-17/plant, green fodder 525.4 q ha , dry fodder-65.1 q ha

-1and crude protein 10.6 q ha ).

53

Table 3.5.4 Combined effect of Rhizobium and Azospirillum with and without N on berseem yield and nodulation

Source: Pahwa, 1995

Treatments No. of Forage yield Crude -1

nodules/Plant (q ha ) proteinin three

Green Dry cuts(q/ha)

Uninoculated 17.0 524.4 65.1 10.6-120 kg N ha 21.2 600.0 76.2 12.1

Rhizobium alone 33.0 671.6 87.3 14.4-120 kg N ha + Rhizobium 40.0 698.7 91.5 15.5

Azospirillum brasilense 18.5 590.3 73.7 11.8-1

A. brasilense + 20 kg N ha 20.0 626.0 79.5 12.7

Rhizobium + A. brasilense 41.3 711.2 91.9 15.7-1

Rhizobium + A. brasilense + 20 kg N ha 46.0 724.8 93.1 15.8

CD at 5% 12.1 30.2 3.9 2.0

Rhizospheric interactions for enhancing nutrient acquisition under acid soils

A consortium of VAM, Azotobacter, Pseudomonas, Aspergillus and Bacillus species were evaluated for increasing the P availability to oat, maize and cowpea (Rai, 2013). Green and dry forage yield of oat obtained in consortia + tricalcium phosphate (119.3 g/pot green and 27.1 g/pot dry) treatment was significantly higher than the control but it was at par with KH PO + lime 2 4

(118.7 g/pot green and 27.2 g/pot dry). Green and dry biomass produced in the consortia + TCP fertilized maize + cowpea (308 q/ha green and 76.7 q/ha dry) in field experiment at Palampur was statistically at par with consortia + 100% of recommended P through KH PO (312.8 q/ha green 2 4

and 77.8 q l ha dry). Green forage yield showed significant (P < 0.0002) correlation with acid phosphatase (r=0.59), alkaline phosphatase (r=0.62), MBN (r=O.61 and SMBC (r=0.80). Similarly, dry forage yield also correlated significantly (P<0.0003) with acid phosphatase (r=0.57), alkaline phosphatase (r=0.64), MBN (r=0.58) and SMBC (r=0.81).

Lab based experiments have been conducted to isolate and characterize forages specific beneficial microorganisms for use in enhanced forage production. A total of 17 Azospirillum isolates have been isolated from roots of NB hybrid, maize, rhizosphere soil of Cenchrus, Sehima, Brachiaria, Dichanthium, Heteropogan, Desmanthus grasses. A total of 18 fluorescent Pseudomonas isolates have been isolated from roots of guinea grass, sorghum, maize, sehima, rhizosphere soils of sorghum, maize, Desmanthus. About 53 Rhizobium isolates have been isolated from rhizosphere soil of

3.5.1.2 Pastures

3.5.1.2.1 Fodder specific microbial cultures

54

maize, bajra, Cenchrus, Sehima, Brachiaria, Dichanthium, Heteropogan, Desmanthus, root of maize, bajra, Sesbania, Cenchrus grass, root nodules of moong, Sesbania, cowpea. A total of 17 PSB and PSF isolates have been isolated from root of bajra, Cenchrus grass, Desmanthus, guinea, rhizosphere soil of moong and cowpea. In addition, 19 Zn solubilizers isolates have been isolated from rhizosphere soil of sorghum, maize, Desmanthus, roots of sorghum, maize, cowpea, Sehima, Cenchrus (Srinivasan, 2015).

The native population of rhizobia associated with S. hamata was higher in medium black 6 6

soil (0.44 x10 cells/g dry soil) than red soil (0.36 x 10 cells/g dry soil). Stylosanthes

hamata proved its superiority over other species except root length which was maximum

in Stylosanthes fructicosa. This indicates that the native rhizobia associate favourably 2with S. hamata. The lowest under Desmodium tortoseum (0.05 x 10 cells/g dry soil)

8 grown in medium black soil. Seed inoculation with 3.5 x 10 cells/ml inoculum was

optimum in respect of nodulation (58/plant), herbage yield and nitrogen content of

pasture legumes such as Siratro, S. hamata and Stylosanthes humilis, Lablab purpureus

and Macroptelium atropurpureum.

Beneficial associations between A. brasilense and three grasses viz. Cenchrus ciliaris,

Cenchrus setigerus and Dichanthium annulatum led to increased biomass yield to the

extent of 22-32%. The highest forage yield of C. setigerus was obtained by the combined -1 -1

treatment of 30 kg N ha + inoculation produced 38% more forage yield over 30 kg N ha +

uninoculation. Panicum antidotale, C. ciliaris and C. setigerus when treated with

Azotobacter at the time of transplanting, there was a significant effect on the forage

yield. Setaria sphacelata registered the highest total forage yield with Azotobacter

inoculation.

Response of some grass species (Napier NB-21, guinea grass, Cenchrus setigerus and

Setaria sphacelata) to Azotobacter inoculation was observed and it was highest in S.

sphacelata (Pahwa,1986a). The numbers of Azotobacter counts were also maximum in 4

the rhizosphere of this grass (9.0 × 10 cells/g dry soil). Field studies on signal grass -1showed nitrogen saving to the tune of 30 kg N ha with Azospirillum inoculation.

The studies on evaluation of efficacy of Azospirillum strains carried out by Pahwa

(1990-91) showed that Azospirillum lipoferum strains (1 & 2) performed better in

producing 34-35.1% higher green fodder yield than other strains which recorded only

12.3 to 17.3% increase in yield of C. ciliaris over uninoculated control (Table 3.5.5). The

crude protein and dry fodder yield also followed the similar trend. The nitrogen gain 8

(28.32 kg/ha), number of Azospirillum in rhizosphere (15×10 cfu/g dry soil and

available N (210 kg/ha) in the soil was highest under A. lipoferum strain-1 inoculated

treatment.

3.5.1.2. Studies on Rhizobium nodulation

3.5.1.2.3Studies on Azospirillum and Azotobacter application

55

Table 3.5.5 Forage yield and N uptake of Cenchrus ciliaris as influenced by various strains of Azospirillum

Source: Pahwa, 1990-91

Treatment Green fodder % increase N uptake N-gain Azospirillum (t/ha) over control (kg/ha) (kg/ha) cfu/g soil

4Uninoculated (control) 21.8 - 6.6 54.5 1.3×10

8A. lipoferum-1 29.5 35.3 7.6 82.8 15×10

8A. lipoferum-2 27.5 26.1 7.4 74.2 8×10

6A. brasilence-1 25.0 14.6 6.9 62.6 0.5×104A. brasilence-2 24.5 12.3 7.0 63.0 10×106A.b.2 ICRCAT 25.6 17.4 7.0 65.3 1.3×10

4A.b.3 24.6 12.8 7.2 64.5 15×106

A.b. ICM-1002 25.6 17.4 7.3 68.6 1.5×10

In a pot culture experiment using red soil, the efficacy of two N -fixers (Azospirillum lipoferum ICM 2

– 1001 and Azotobacter chroococcum ICM-2002 was studied on seven grass species (Cenchrus ci-liaris, Cenchrus setigerus, Dichanthium annulatum, Panicum antidotale, Pennisetum polystachyon, Sehima nervosum, Heteropogon contortus, Chrysopogon fulvus, Panicum maximum and Bothriochloa intermedia under two methods of inoculation (seed and seedling treatment). Significantly highest green forage (35.8 g/plant), dry matter yields (12.2 g/pl) as well as crude protein content (17%) was obtained in D. annulatum due to seedling inoculation with Azospirillum whereas maximum gain by Azotobacter was noticed in case of P. antidotale. The relative efficacy of Azospirillum under seedling inoculation was noticed to give greater stimulatory effects on forage production, crude protein and N-uptake by grass species (Pahwa, 1989-90). Rhizosphere studies also revealed higher population of Azospirillum cells (2.5-5 x 10 6 cfu/g dry soil) as well as greater

-1 availability of soil N ranging from 122.3 to 188 kg Nha in this treatment, maximum being in case of seedling inoculated P. antidotale plants. The organic carbon content of soil was higher with Azotobacter treated seedlings (0.4-0.7%), the highest being with C. setigerus.

Inoculation with specific strain of Rhizobium TAL-655 and A. chroococcum ICM-2001 in combination proved to be effective in respect of nodulation (46/plant) and highest forage yield of green (29.7%) and dry matter (27.1%) as well as N-uptake (174 mg/plant) by Centrosema pubescens over rhizobial inoculation alone (90 mg/plant). Nitrogen fixation capabilities of the Centrosema - Rhizobium symbiotic system in terms of nodulation, root length and green forage yield was greatly improved in presence of phosphate solubilizer (Pseudomonas striata) with or without Mussoorie rock phosphate. Pahwa et al. (2001) reported the beneficial effect of Azospirillum in Cenchrus ciliaris + Stylosanthes hamata mixed pasture inoculated with Rhizobium.

-1Phosphate fertilization @120 kg P O ha was optimum for pasture legumes viz. 2 5

3.5.1.2.4 Microbial consortia studies

3.5.1.2.5 Mineral nutrition and biofertilizers efficacy

56

Stylosanthes hamata, Desmodium tortoseum and Centrosema pubescens, grown under rhizobial-inoculated conditions. Inherent potentialities of the symbiotic N -fixing 2

system of S. hamata and C. pubescens markedly improved due to addition of 20 kg and -110 kg ZnSO ha , respectively. D. tortoseum, S. humilis and C. pubescens required 10-4

-120 kg S ha in red soils for better performance of the inoculum. Seed inoculation of C. pubescens and D. tortoseum with Rhizobium in red soil gave 22.4% and 35% higher

-1green forage yields over uninoculated control. Application of 20 kg ZnSO ha helped 4

in improving the efficacy of N fixation process as reflected in increased forage 2

production (34.3%), crude protein (16.1%) as well as nutrient concentration (Ca-2.24%, P-0.29% and Mg-0.55%) in C. pubescens in comparison to unfertilized treatment (Pahwa, 1986).

Studies carried out by using Bacillus polymyxa H , Pseudomonas striata and 5

Aspergillus awamori on cereal fodder crops, including pasture and tree legumes greatly exhibited their potential as inoculants for improved forage yield and uptake of P by crops. Seed inoculation with phosphate solubilizing microorganisms (Bacillus polymyxa H , P. striata and A. awamori) resulted in higher availability of phosphate 5

from indigenous rock phosphate as well as improved forage yields of oat, sorghum and some pasture legumes (Stylosanthes hamata, Stylosanthes humilis and Desmodium tortoseum) as reported by Pahwa (1988). Increased forage yield of S. humilis, S. hamata and Desmodium tortoseum was recorded under the phosphobacterized rock phosphate treatment. However, the response to phosphate solubilizer varied with type of indigenous rock phosphate. It was also observed that native culture affected higher release of P during second week (17.5 ppm) while exotic inoculants obtained from IARI caused gradual increase in available P upto six weeks.

Studies have been carried out to isolate P solubilizers from different types of normal and problem soils covering different parts of the country with a view of developing suitable P solubilizing biofertilizers for problem soils. Morphological characterization of selected PSF isolates has been done by both colony morphological features and microscopic observation of sporangiophores and mycelia, some of which are shown in the figure 3.5.2 & 3.5.3. The shape of sporangiophores ranging from cylindrical, elliptical and circular and aseptate to septate mycelia.

3.5.2 P solubilizers

Figure 3.5.2 Morphology of some of the phosphate solubilising fungal isolates

57

They were screened for stress tolerance in different acidity level and salt concentrations (Srinivasan, 2015). In screening of the PSF isolates for acid and salt tolerance, the PSF isolates could tolerate up to pH 4.0, though there is a reduction in the growth with increase in acidity. However PSF 29(1) can grow well at pH4.0. PSF 131(1), PSF 23(1) and PSF 48(4) are more tolerant to increasing acidity. Similarly, all the PSF could able to grow up to 4% NaCl concentration. The maximum growth of all PSF was recorded at 2% salt stress except PSF 29(1) which recorded at 4% salt stress. Except PSF 52(3), PSF 23(1) and PSF 48(4) all other PSF isolates could tolerate up to 10% salt concentration.

10 PSF isolates have been selected based on acid and salt tolerance to evaluate their performance in enhancing biomass of fodder oats variety JHO 822 during rabi season using normal soil, acid soil and saline-alkali soil (Fig. 3.5.4). Maximum number of seeds per plant produced and seed weight per pot were recorded in 100% RDF NPK treatment in normal (53.7 and 26.3) and saline-alkali (51.7 and 19.7) soil. However three PSF in normal [PSF 23(1), PSF-47(1) and PSF-48(3)] and three in saline-alkali soil [PSF-48(4), PSF-52(3) and PSF-131(1)] produced number of seeds at par with RDF. In case of seed weight PSF-12(1), PSF-23(1) and PSF-47(1) in normal soil and PSF-29(1), PSF-48(4) and PSF-48(5) were on par with RDF. All these treatments were significantly superior to control. Whereas, in acid soil PSF 47(1) and PSF 48(4) recorded significantly highest seed count (41.4 and 41.2) which was at par with RDF (35). The seed weight in acid soil was non-significant.

Figure 3.5.3 Morphology of some of the phosphate solubilising fungal hyphae and sporangiophores

29(1) 48(1)

27(1) 24(1)

58

Highest dry fodder weight was recorded at RDF treatment in case of normal soil (21g) followed by PSF-48(5), PSF-42(1) and PSF-47(1) which were statistically at par with RDF. In saline-alkali soil, the maximum dry fodder weight (16.6g) was produced by PSF-52(3) followed by PSF-131(1), RDF, PSF-42(1) and PSF-48(5) which were significantly superior over all other treatments. Whereas in acid soil, PSF-48(4) recorded the highest dry matter (22.4g) production, followed by PSF-29(1), PSF-48(3), PSF-47(1) and PSF-48(5).

A total of 17 Azospirillum isolates were isolated from roots of NB hybrid, maize, rhizosphere

soil of Cenchrus, Sehima, Brachiaria, Dichanthium, Heteropogan, Desmanthus grasses. A

total of 25 fluorescent Pseudomonas were isolated from roots of guinea grass, sorghum,

maize, sehima, rhizosphere soils of sorghum, maize, Desmanthus. About 53 Rhizobium

isolates were isolated from rhizosphere soil of maize, bajra, Cenchrus, Sehima, Brachiaria,

Dichanthium, Heteropogan, Desmanthus, roots of maize, bajra, Sesbania, Cenchrus grass,

root nodules of berseem, lucerne, stylo, chickpea, moong, soybean, cowpea. A total of 17 PSB

and PSF isolates were isolated from roots of bajra, Cenchrus, Desmanthus, guinea,

rhizosphere soil of moong, cowpea. In addition, 19 Zn solubilizers were isolated from

rhizosphere soils of sorghum, maize, Desmanthus, roots of sorghum, maize, cowpea, Sehima,

Cenchrus. All Rhizobium isolates were tested with their hosts for nodulation potential by host

inoculation study in sterile sand and found

nodulating successfully. Screening for

biocontrol ability of the PGPR isolates was done

and about 7 PGPR bacterial isolates were found

inhibiting various plant pathogens (Fig. 3.5.5)

such as Alternaria, Rhizoctonia bataticola,

Sclerotium, Fusarium sp. In addition, four PGP

fungi were isolated from rhizosphere soils of

Cenchrus ciliaris, Heteropogon, Dichanthium

and their root infection studies under in vitro

condition shown their promising potential as

PGPF for grasses.

3.5.3 Exploitation of PGPR of grasses and fodder crops

Fig. 3.5.4 Influence of PSF on the growth of Oat plants in normal, saline-alkali and acid soil

Fig.3.5.5 Inhibition of growth of Alternaria sp. by PGPR

59

3.5.4 Dynamics of biomass and activity

3.5.5 Trees and shrubs

Based on four years results (Pahwa and Yadav, 2002-06) the maximum soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) and activity measured by soil respiration rate (SRR) was recorded under subabul + TSH + sorghum + pigeon pea cropping sequence fertilized with integrated input of FYM-N and urea-N in 1:1 ratio. There was seasonal variation in the SMBC and SRR. In rainy and winter seasons the average SMBC and SRR recorded were 426.6, 304.4 mg C/kg and 191.9, 137.0 mg CO /kg soil/day, respectively. They 2

suggested that higher biomass in plots receiving both FYM + inorganic-N in equal ratio reflects the effect of FYM, which serves as a source of carbon and nutrients.

-1 Tripathi et al. (2008) indicated that the treatment comprising 50 t ha FYM to guinea and

-1 22.5 t ha to berseem recorded higher SMBC (826.57 mg C/kg) during rabi season while the higher SMBC (586.6 mg/ kg soil) and SRR (26.4 mg CO /kg/day) was recorded in 2

kharif season under sole organic manuring.

Studies on microbial parameters in Cenchrus ciliaris + Stylosanthes based pasture system, Tripathi et al. (2004) reported highest SMBC (474.0 mg/kg soil) and SRR (213.5 mg CO /kg soil/day under combined application of 40 kg N (half as urea and rest half as 2

FYM slurry) and 120 kg K O/ha followed by 40 kg N + 80 kg K O/ha (SMBC 441.0 mg 2 2

C/kg soil) and SRR (198.4 mg CO /kg soil). The lowest SMBC (215.5 mg C/kg soil) and 2

respiration (96.8 mg CO /kg soil) was recorded in control (without N&K). 2

Tripathi et al. (2006-07) reported that in berseem the recommended dose of FYM @ 50 t -1 -1

ha to guinea grass + 30 t ha FYM to berseem resulted in higher build up of soil microbial biomass (310.9 mg C/kg soil) and respiration rate (139.9 mg CO /kg soil/day) 2

in comparison to control (219.9 mg C /kg soil and 98.7 mg CO /kg soil/day). 2

3The native rhizobial population for subabul was extremely low (10 cells/g soil). Leucaena leucocephala needed specific Rhizobium for stimulatory yield as cowpea – Rhizobium failed to produce the desired gains (Pahwa, 1988a and Pahwa, 1989). Natural nodulation (33/plant) and herbage yield was maximum with Sesbania grandiflora, followed by S. aegyptica, Albizzia lebbeck and Dichrostachys cineria recorded less than one nodule/plant whilst Acacia tortilis and Desmanthus virgatus failed to nodulate in red soil (Pahwa, 1985 & 1987). Associative effects of three microbial inoculants (VAM fungi Glomus fasciculata, Rhozobium loti TAL-582, and phosphate solubilizing bacterium-Pseudomonas striata) were found more pronounced for higher nodulation (15/plant), root length (35.5 cm/plant), herbage yield, crude protein (28.2%) as well as uptake of N of L. leucocephala var K-8 (Pahwa, 1995a).

Effect of different SWC on microbial population below ground of Guava based HPS was studied. Among the various soil and water conservation treatments in guava based horti-

7pastoral system, staggered trenches (12.1x10 ) followed by vegetative barrier, sole guava favoured the higher total bacterial population whereas it was lowest at control

7 4 4(1.6x10 ). Similarly, sole guava (42.2x10 ) and staggered trenches (38.3x10 ) had significantly higher total fungal population. Among the functional microbial population,

60

both phosphate solubilizing bacteria and fungi were found at par and significantly higher at vegetative barrier and staggered trenches than all other treatments.

Studies carried out by Pahwa (1993-94) to investigate the contribution of legume N to associate grass yield and soil fertility (available N and organic-C) in the rhizosphere and bulk soils in presence of nitrogen fixing bacteria under grass planting regimes (Cenchrus ciliaris alone, Stylosanthes hamata alone and 1:1 mixture of two species) and three types of seed inoculation (uninoculated control, C. ciliaris inoculated with Azospirillum lipoferum strain - 1 (IARI), and S. hamata inoculated with cowpea – Rhizobium) indicated highest increase in forage production in mixed pasture when Stylosanthes was inoculated with Rhizobium. Available N in soil, though improved yet did not differ significantly in case of both inoculated Cenchrus ciliaris + Stylosanthes. The inoculation of S. hamata in both the pastures i.e. pure Stylosanthes and mixed stand of Stylosanthes and Cenchrus recorded significantly higher nodulation and root length being maximum when both the pasture crops were inoculated (Pahwa 1993-95).

According to Pahwa (1998b) among the nine species of Stylosanthes (S. hamata, S. scabra, S. viscosa, S. hamata verano, S. fructicosa, S. sympodialea, S. capitata, S. subsericea and S. guianensis) the natural nodulation observed in case of S. hamata (95/plant) in red and black soil. This suggests that native population of rhizobia for these pasture legume is greater in this soil. S. hamata was followed by S. humilis.

The contribution of legume N to the associated pasture grass under uninoculated and inoculated conditions under three different systems of growing pastures (C. ciliaris alone, S. hamata alone and mixture of C. ciliaris and S. hamata indicated highest increase in forage production in mixed pasture when Stylosanthes was inoculated (C. ciliaris (UI) + Stylo (I) - 62.3 g/plant and Dry Matter 23.0 g/plant) and improved dry matter production to the tune of 22.7% was obtained with this treatment over uninoculated combination (52.5 g/plant, green and 19.4 g/plant dry matter).

A number of fodder crops were tested with mycorrhizal (VAM) inoculation and observed an increase in fodder yield of 5-22% in annual cultivated legumes, 3-5% in annual cultivated cereal fodder, 13-33% in perennial range legumes and 18-13% in perennial grasses, over the non-mycorrhizal plants. Different Stylosanthes spp inoculated with endomycorrhizal fungi (Glomus fasciculatum) showed 14-36% in increase in green forage yield over uninoculated control. The maximum beneficial effect was estimated with S. guanensis (Hazra, 1994).

The studies carried out with VAM (AICPFC-1990) indicated that VAM inoculation had distinct influence on the green forage yield of guinea grass than that of Azotobacter and Azospirillum (Pahwa, 1995). The increase in green (13%) and dry fodder (24%) was recorded due to VAM inoculation compared to non symbiotic bacteria 5-7 and 15-17% for corresponding yield over control (uninoculated). In another study at IGFRI, VAM

-1inoculation in presence of 40 kg N ha to forage sorghum gave similar yield to that -1 -1obtained with 80 kg N ha and about 17% yield increase over 40 kg N ha (Pahwa, 1988).

3.5.6 Grass-legumes mixed pasture systems

3.5.7 Mycorrhizal association

61

Glomalin was extracted from soils of different cropping systems to isolate AM fungi capable of producing more glomalin (Fig.3.5.5). It was observed in hortipastoral system, 167.5 µg/ml glomalin in aonla, followed by 155 µg/ml in aonla + Cenchrus, 150 µg/ml aonla + stylo and 132.5 µg/ml in Aonla + Stylo + Cenchrus system. Under silvipastoral system, bauhinia + Chrysopogan recorded 212.5 µg/ml, followed by bauhinia + stylo (150 µg/ml), bauhinia + Cenchrus (127.5 µg/ml) and the least in bauhinia alone (102.5 µg/ml) (Srinivasan, 2015).

Three major types of soil from the Central Research Farm of the Institute, e.g. rakar (entisol), parwa (alfisol) and kabar (inceptisol) were incubated separately with

-1 -1recommended dose of Alachlor (2 kg a.i. ha ) and Atrazine (0.75 kg a.i. ha ). The results revealed that there was a rise in dehydrogenase activity initially at 6 days interval and thereafter a fall in activity was observed at 15 days in rakar soil for both the herbicides. But in case of parwa and kabar soils, the enzyme activity did not change much or decreased slowly in the first phase and sharp decrease was observed in the second phase. In all cases except for kabar soil, the enzyme activity was measured higher in the herbicide treated soils than the untreated control. The results are graphically presented in Fig. 3.5.6. When the same incubation experiment was continued in the subsequent year at 30ºC, the results revealed that there was a depression in soil dehydrogenase activity at 7 days interval and thereafter it increased upto 15 days in most of the cases. Again at 30 days interval another depression in activity was found. In general, the effect of herbicides over control was less, except in case of alachlor application in kabar soil. The treated soil samples showed lower activities at 7, 15 and 30 days as compared to control in general. The pattern of variation in dehydrogenase activity was different at 30ºC from that found when samples were incubated at 37°C (Das et al., 2002).

A pot experiment was carried out with cowpea (IGFRI-95-1) in pre-weighed (20 kg/pot) medium textured soil and pre-emergence treatments of two herbicides (alachlor @ 2.0

-1 -1and 2.5 kg a.i. ha ; fluchloralin 1.0 and 1.5 kg a.i. ha ) were applied. Analyses of periodical soil samples revealed that dehydrogenase activity was apparently not much

-1affected by the application of herbicides (DHA 85.4 and 106.2 g TPF µg soil after 8

-1weeks of application of alachlor @ 2.5 kg and fluchloralin @ 1.5 kg a.i. ha respectively -1over control (91.7 g TPF µg soil). The results of the experiment indicated that alachlor

and fluchloralin, when used in fodder cowpea, did not have any harmful effect on soil health parameters and root symbiotic system and therefore, these can be safely recommended for use in fodder cowpea at their respective recommended doses (Das et al., 2002b; Das et al., 2005a)

3.5.8 Studies on soil enzymes

3.5.8.1 Herbicides and soil enzymes

Fig. 3.5.5 Glomalin extraction and quantification from soils of different cropping systems

62

A field experiment was conducted to assess the influence of herbicides application on soil biota, dehydrogenase activity of berseem. Berseem variety Bundel lobia-2 was sown in last week of October as a test crop and the herbicides were applied three days after sowing (PRE) and twenty days after sowing (POE). Results showed 6% decrease in total fungi population, 50% reduction of root nodulation, lowest shannon-wiener index, (H<1) whereas, 3% increase in total bacteria, 16% increase in phosphate solubilising microorganisms was recorded with the application of herbicides during the year 2013-14. The decrease in total chlorophyll content was observed in Imazethapyr

1(2.96 mg g ) as compared to other treatments whereas, increase in total chlorophyll content was experienced in

1alachlor (3.66 mg g ). Study on interaction of herbicides and microbes revealed that the total microbial population was reduced to 12.5, 6.96 and 5.2 log CFU g of soil (14.49, 6.31 and 12.88 log CFU g of soil at zero days) at seven days after application of pendimethalin, imazethapyr and alachlor on soil respectively, whereas, after seven days increase in soil microbial population was observed from initial population (Prabhu, 2015).

Impact of herbicides on dehydrogenase activity was studied in field condition. Highest -1 -1

dehydrogenase activities of 222.60 µg TPF g 24 h was observed in weed free check -1 -1followed by 214.94 µg TPF g 24 h in alachlor fb quizalofop-ethyl and least 89.87 µg

-1 -1TPF g 24 h in alachlor. A maximum decrease of 61% was observed with alachlor

Fig. 3.5.6 Effect of herbicides on soil dehydrogenase activity

63

followed by imazethapyr (48%), pendimethalin (44%), Imazethapyr + Imazamox (37%) and a minimum decrease of 10% was observed with Quizalofop-ethyl fb oxyfluorfen. The soil dehydrogenase activity in soils provides correlative information on the biological activity and microbial populations in soil.

The urease activity in the rainfed system has been increased from the initial values though there was no significant difference observed amongst the nutrient applications. The highest alkaline monophosphatase activity in the soil was observed in the cropping

-1systems of cowpea - gram + linseed in association of TSH (0.377 mg PNP g soil), but

-1the urease activity was maximum (18.9 mg NH g soil) in maize + cowpea system in 4

association with guinea grass under 75% inorganic + 25% organic source of nutrients. The dehydrogenase activity at the flowering stages of the crops was maximum in sorghum + pigeonpea cropping system in association with TSH grass with 75%

-1 -1inorganic + 25% organic nutrient application (304.6 µg TPF g soil 24 hr at 37°C). At the end of the second growth cycle, though the same system showed very good

-1 -1dehydrogenase activity (490.41 µg TPF formed g soil hr at 37°C) but the maximum activity was observed in maize + cowpea cropping system in association with TSH grass with 25% inorganic + 75% organic nutrient application (Das et al., 2002a).

Seed treatment with 50 ppm nCuO recorded the highest nodule number in both fodder cowpea and berseem, though recommended dose of CuSO recorded almost equal 4

nodulation in berseem. The influence of nanoparticles on the soil microbiological properties studied, and no significant difference between control and nCuO treatments up to 100ppm in both dehydrogenase activity and total bacterial count, however, decline in dehydrogenase activity and total bacterial count was observed at 200 ppm. The soil microbial biomass carbon (SMBC) was maximum at 50 ppm nCuO treatment (Fig. 3.5.7). In nZnO treatments, all microbiological parameters viz., dehydrogenase activity, total bacterial count and SMBC had shown increase over control (Fig. 3.5.8).

3.5.8.2 Soil enzyme activity in different cropping system under rainfed condition

3.5.8.3 Effect of nanoparticles on soil enzyme and microbiological properties

Fig. 3.5.7. Influence of nCuO on soil microbiological properties

Fig. 3.5.8. Influence of nZnO on soil microbiological properties

64

Table 3.5.6 Soil dehydrogenase activity in relation to fly ash use

Source: Das et al., 2005

Treatments Dehydrogenase activity

(µg TPF/g soil/24 hr. at 37ºC)

Red soil Black soil

No fly ash + 100% inorganic fertilizers 211.7 126.1

No fly ash + 50% inorganic + 50% organic 278.8 157.1

No fly ash + 25% inorganic + 50% organic + biofertilizers 395.3 187.3

50 t/ha fly ash + 100% inorganic fertilizers 221.2 105.5

50 t/ha fly ash + 50% inorganic + 50% organic 222.7 137.2

50 t/ha fly ash + 25% inorganic + 50% organic + biofertilizers 255.9 176.3

100 t/ha fly ash + 100% inorganic fertilizers 203.5 64.9

100 t/ha fly ash + 50% inorganic + 50% organic 213.9 104.7

100 t/ha fly ash + 25% inorganic + 50% organic + biofertilizers 245.6 111.4

3.5.8.4 Effect of fly ash on soil enzyme

The field experiments were undertaken to see the effects of two levels of fly ash (50 and -1100 t ha ) on various physical, chemical and biological properties of two types of soils of

Bundelkhand area besides crop productivity, physiological activity, forage quality and economics, viz., red gravelly and medium black soils. The data on soil dehydrogenase enzyme activity presented in table 3.5.6 indicate that application of fly ash had a suppressive effect on the activity of dehydrogenase enzyme in both red and black soils.

-1This effect was more pronounced at higher dose (100 t ha ) of fly ash. The use of FYM and biofertilizers reduced the suppressive effect of fly ash on dehydrogenase activity (Das et al., 2005).

65

Table 3.6.1 Long-term use of organic nutrients on micronutrients content in soil

Zn content (ppm)

Treatment GCB SW MCB GW Mean

Control 0.35 0.50 0.40 0.52 0.44 (-26)

100% Inorganic 0.44 0.52 0.45 0.55 0.48 (-20)

100% Organic 0.70 0.80 0.74 0.90 0.78 (+31)

50% Inorganic+50% organic 0.57 0.70 0.65 0.75 0.67 (+11)

Mean 0.50 (-16) 0.63 (+5) 0.56 (-7) 0.68 (+13)

Initial 0.60

Although organic farming or eco-agriculture is emphatically discussed in the present times, enough of emphasis was placed on this aspect in relation to fodder production research long ago because of the extensive and irreversible soil degradation processes influencing the agriculture to a drastic extent. Considerable research work was done in this line and the results are discussed here.

Long-term use of fertilizers of organic and inorganic origin was evaluated in terms of soil fertility and crop productivity. Treatments comprised of four crop sequences viz. guinea grass + cowpea - berseem, fodder sorghum- berseem, maize + cowpea - wheat and groundnut - wheat and four sources of nutrients (100 % through inorganic fertilizers, 100% through FYM, 50 % through inorganic + 50 % through FYM and unfertilized control) showed significantly

-1highest berseem equivalent yield (121 t ha ) under guinea grass + cowpea - berseem followed by fodder sorghum - berseem sequence

-1(112 t ha ). Among different crops berseem registered the highest yield (91 t

-1ha ) in sorghum-berseem sequence

-1followed by guinea grass (66 t ha ) and

-1wheat (54 t ha ) in maize + cowpea - wheat sequence (Tripathi and Tripathi, 2003-04). Based on mean yield of a five year study clearly showed that guinea grass + cowpea - berseem sequence fertilized with sole organic source recorded significantly highest yields over all other treatments (Figure 3.6.1).

Besides differential responses in yield there were similar effects on the soil fertility parameters too. There was a maximum improvement in soil fertility (after third cycle) was observed under organic source, which recorded 0.52 % organic C and 224.8, 242.0 and 17.0 kg available N, K and S respectively while the initial values of these nutrients

-1were 0.22% organic C and 175, 152 and 13 kgha available N, K and S, respectively.

3.6.1 Input and output relations

3.6 Fodder Production through Organic Farming

66

Fig. 3.6.1 Response of different fodder crops to nutrient sources

Mn content (ppm)

Cu content (ppm)

Fe content (ppm)

Figures in parenthesis are per cent increase/decrease over the initial contents

GCB - guinea + cowpea - berseem, SW - Fodder sorghum - wheat, MCB - maize + cowpea - berseem, GW - groundnut - wheat

Source: Tripathi et al., 2006-07

Treatment GCB SW MCB GW Mean

Control 12 16 14 16 14 (-21)

100% Inorganic 14 15 15 16 16 (-10)

100% Organic 21 25 22 28 24 (+35)

50% Inorganic+50% organic 18 22 19 25 21 (+17)

Mean 16 (-10) 20 (+13) 17.5 (-3) 22(+14)

Initial 18

Treatment GCB SW MCB GW Mean

Control 1.4 1.6 1.5 1.6 1.5 (-15)

100% Inorganic 1.6 1.8 1.6 1.7 1.7 (-8)

100% Organic 2.2 2.7 2.4 2.8 2.5 (+40)

50% Inorganic+50% organic 1.9 2.2 2.4 2.4 2.1 (+18)

Mean 1.78 (-2) 2.1 (+15) 1.9 (+4) 2.1 (+16)

Initial 1.8

Treatment GCB SW MCB GW Mean

Control 65 90 71 85 78 (-29)

100% Inorganic 90 105 96 108 100 (-9)

100% Organic 138 175 156 180 162 (+48)

50% Inorganic+50% organic 127 142 135 146 138 (+25)

Mean 105 (-5) 128 (+16) 115 (+4) 130 (+18)

Initial 110

67

Micronutrients status after 7 years cropping (Table 3.6.1) the content of Zn, Mn, Cu and Fe was

considerably reduced in control as well as in continuous application of 100% inorganic source of

nutrient from the initial level of these nutrients at the time of start of field experimentation (Zn,

Mn, Cu and Fe 0.60, 18, 1.8 and 110 ppm, respectively). However, these micronutrients reduced

maximum in guinea grass + cowpea - berseem followed by maize + cowpea - berseem crop

sequence. The extent of reduction in content of Zn, Mn, Cu and Fe was highest 42, 33, 21 and

40% in control and 33, 22, 11 and 18% in 100% inorganic source of nutrient application,

respectively under guinea grass + cowpea - berseem crop sequence. On the contrary, there was

improvement in the status of micronutrients with application of 100% organic as well as

combined dose of 50% organic and 50% inorganic source of nutrient and the highest in 100%

organic source, in general.

Long term fertility management in guinea grass + (cowpea - berseem) cropping system showed that guinea + cowpea without nutrient application recorded lowest green fodder yield (51.4 t/ha) whereas, application 100% dose of nutrient through organic manure (50 t FYM/ha) gave highest green fodder yield (97.5 t/ha). Application of 100% nutrient through inorganic fertilizers recorded 71.4 t/ha green fodder yield which was statistically at par with the green fodder yield (68.4 t/ha) observed with application of 25% dose of nutrient through organic manure (12.5 t/ha) (Dixit, 2015). The system productivity was highest with the application of 100% nutrients through organic manure. Application of only 25% of nutrients through organic manure recorded green biomass yield at par with the application of 100% of nutrients through inorganic fertilizers. Organic carbon content improved over the initial status and the highest organic carbon (OC) status was recorded in the plots receiving 100% of nutrients through organic manures (AR, 2016).

In case of fungal population dynamics in relation to organic and inorganic nutrient management, in general, all organic amended treatment had higher fungal population in the rhizospheric soil than inorganic nutrient management treatment. Fungal population in different treatments was higher during kharif season than rabi season. It was observed that treatment application of 100% NPK through organic

3manure (T3) had higher fungal population (6.33 x 10 cfu /g soil in kharif of 2014 and

36.24 x 10 cfu /g soil in rabi of 2014-15) while lowest fungal population (2.12 x 3 3

10 cfu /g soil in kharif of 2014 and 2.06 x 10 cfu /g soil in rabi of 2014-15) was recorded with control (T1).

Study on the effect of soil amendments like angara, amritpani and angara + amritpani including control with foliar spray of panchgavya and no panchgavya at vegetative stage indicated that the per cent increase in fodder sorghum yield was higher by 12-17 for green and 12-20 for dry fodder with panchgavya spray over control (Fig 3.6.2). The

-1green and dry fodder yields were 31 and 8 t ha , respectively in control plot without panchgavya spray. However, the angara + amritpani performed better in producing highest forage yield (17% green and 20% dry fodder) under foliar spray of panchgavya

2 2(Tripathi et al., 2005 a). This treatment also recorded maximum leaf area (333.4 cm /m ) (Tripathi et al., 2006-07). After harvest of sorghum, use of angara and amritpani alone or in combination with panchgavya spray resulted in highest build up of microbial

4 5 6population (fungi 6-9×10 , actinomycetes 11-27×10 and bacteria 10-23×10 cfu/g soil) and microbial biomass (266.4 to 319.9 mg C/kg soil) under Angara+amritpani with

4 5 6panchgavya spray. Soil from control plot recorded 3×10 , 6×10 and 5×10 cfu/g soil of fungi, actinomycetes and bacteria with microbial biomass of 213.3 mg C/kg soil (Tripathi et al., 2006-07).

3.6.1.1 Long term nutrient management in guinea grass based cropping system

3.6.2 Soil amendments

68

The yield of barley grain was also enhanced due to the addition of the organic amendments. The efficacy of angara + amritpani, angara & amritpani was 30, 24 & 21% under sowing of seed primed with panchgavya and 23, 21 & 13% under sowing of seed primed with water over their controls. The yield of barley in control in the sowing of panchgavya and water primed seed

-1sowing was recorded 1.45, and 1.31 q ha , respectively (Tripathi et al., 2007). Similarly, the positive effect of panchgavya spray on the seed yield of wheat and berseem crop was also observed by the Tripathi and Sharma (2005).

Impact of vedic amendments on soil fertility after harvest of barley crop was also assessed and it was noted that the content of the available N, P and K as well as organic carbon improved to the extent of 8.6-10.4, 15.8-18.4, 45-78 and 3.0-12.5% with use of organic amendments in comparison to no amendment. Microbial population, biomass carbon and respiration rate under combined use of amritpani + angara along with panchgavya was the highest (actinomycetes -

6 6 6 12×10 cfu/g, fungi - 9×10 cfu/g, bacteria -10×10 cfu/g, microbial biomass - 313 mg C/kg soil 6

and respiration rate -141 mg CO /kg soil). The lowest population of actinomycetes (7.5×1026 6

cfu/g), fungi (5.5×10 cfu/g), bacteria (5.5×10 cfu/g), microbial biomass (227 mg C/kg soil) and respiration rate 102 mg CO /kg soil) was found in control (Tripathi et al., 2007).2

69

Fig 3.6.2 Vedic amendments and sorghum green fodder yield

Any successful production systems aiming at satisfying multifaceted needs and sustainable use of soil resources, calls for integration of suitable components depending upon the kind of function expected to be performed by the production system. Agroforestry production systems encompass an entire spectrum of land use systems in which woody perennials are deliberately combined with agricultural crops and/or animals in some spatial or temporal arrangement. Soil conservation is one of its primary benefits. The presence of woody perennials in agroforestry systems may affect several bio-physical and bio-chemical processes that determine the health of the soil substrate (Hazra, 1988 and Rawat and Hazra, 1990). The less disputed of the effects of trees on soil include: amelioration of erosion, primarily through surface litter cover and under storey vegetation; maintenance or increase of organic matter and diversity, through continuous degeneration of roots and decomposition of litter; nitrogen fixation; enhancement of physical properties such as soil structure, porosity, and moisture retention due to the extensive root system and the canopy cover and enhanced efficiency of nutrient use because tree-root system can intercept, absorb and recycle nutrients in the soil that would otherwise be lost through leaching.

Examples of agroforestry practices that are focused on meeting the environmental, social and economic needs of people on private lands include alley cropping, forest farming, riparian forest buffers, silvopasture and windbreaks. IGFRI had conducted experiments on agroforestry and silvipasture systems using certain fodder crops as agricultural component grown along with the tree species based on needs of farmers. This chapter is related to the aspects of soils under agroforestry and silvipasture systems engaging fodder crops.

Tripathi et al. (2006) studied the nutrient dynamics in Leucaena and Albizzia based silvipasture system. Soil under different pastures for four years indicated that organic carbon, available N, P and K increased by 19, 16, 53 and 37%, respectively due to fertilizer application, over no fertilizer in S. hamata pure pasture. The lowest improvement in organic carbon, available N, P and K was 6, 7, 43 & 22% in fertilized natural pasture over unfertilized. The study on organic carbon distribution pattern at various soil depths, the maximum organic carbon was obtained in fertilized (0.63%) condition at 0-5 cm soil depth. Further, increasing soil depth lowered organic carbon and the lowest value was at 11-15 cm depth. An improvement in organic carbon was highest (9.8%) at 11-15 cm soil depth with fertilizer over no fertilizer addition. The per cent improvement in organic carbon at 0-5 cm and 6-11 cm soil depth was 6.7 and 7.2 with fertilizer application as compared to no fertilizer. Similarly, there was a drastic reduction in available K under unfertilized (36-38%) and fertilized (8-18%) condition. Maximum reduction of 38% in K was shown in pure Stylosanthes pasture. There was no change in soil pH from initial value (pH 7.1). The soluble salts (EC) increased in all pastures and the maximum value was recorded in fertilized pure Stylosanthes pasture.

3.7.1 Silvipastures

3.7.1.1 Nutrient dynamics

70

3.7 Soils under Silvipasture and Agroforestry Systems

3.7.1.2 Soil enzyme activity

3.7.2.1 Nutrition research in relation to light infiltration

Tripathi et al. (2006) reported that the phosphatase activity of soil was higher in all the sown pastures as compared to natural pasture whether fertilized or unfertilized. But, it was the highest in soil grown with fertilized Stylosanthes pasture followed by Cenchrus + Stylosanthes + Leucaena + Albizzia based mixed pasture at 0-15 cm soil depth. Unfertilized natural pasture registered the lowest soil phosphatase activity with mean

-1 -1values of 9.62 & 10.29 µg pnpp 100g soil in acidic and 7.26 and 7.41 µg pnpp 100g soil in alkaline condition at 0-15 cm and 16-30 cm. Similarly, the dehydrogenase activity in

-1bulk soil samples was also improved where the highest being 1.056 µg g soil at 0-15 cm

-1and 0.771 µg g soil at 16-30 cm soil depth in fertilized stylo pure pasture.

Nitrogen

The response to N application varied with radiation curtailment and the application of nitrogen compensated such reduction upto some extent. The effect of N levels on safflower (Carthamus tinctorius) and Chinese cabbage (Brassica pekinensis) grown in association with and without tree indicated that on an average, safflower and Chinese

-1 cabbage responded up to 40 and 60 kg N ha respectively in both the cases (Hazra and Tripathi, 1986b). The average photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) infiltration through the tree canopy cover was about 68 and 60% that was received by safflower and Chinese cabbage, respectively. Nitrogen uptake by crops increased with its application but at a diminishing rate of removal.

Field experiment conducted under Leucaena tree and no tree situation indicated that the green and dry fodder yields of oat as well as the nitrogen uptake increased with the applied N levels. The Leucaena canopy reduced the forage yield of oat due to diffused light condition which was maintained at around 58% of PAR regime of open condition. The reduction in forage yield was of approximately 50-60%. Organic carbon, available N & P, field capacity and porosity of the soil increased whereas pH and bulk density decreased with N application under Leucaena than under open canopy (Table 3.7.1) as reported by Hazra and Tripathi (1986a).

3.7.2 Agroforestry system

71

Table 3.7.1 Soil properties and fodder yield of oats under Leucaena leucocephala tree plantation

Soil properties / Fodder Without leucaena With leucaena CD at 5%

Bulk density (g/cc) 1.57 1.40 0.13

Porosity (%) 41.0 45.50 3.70

Field capacity (%) 13.50 15.90 1.20

pH 7.70 7.30 NS-1

EC (dSm ) 0.38 0.20 0.03

Organic carbon (%) 0.40 0.64 00.5

Available - N (kg/ha) 208.0 269 20.5

Available - P (kg/ha) 13.3 22.0 1.6

Dry fodder (t/ha) 10.46 6.67 0.61

Relative light intensity (%) 100 58

Source : Hazra and Tripathi, 1986(a)

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Table 3.7.2 Nitrogen application on Cenchrus ciliaris under silvipasture system

Source : Hazra and Tripathi, 1994

Silvipasture system 0 20 40 Mean

Cenchrus ciliaris alone 4.02 4.90 5.62 4.85

C. ciliaris + Siratro 6.29 7.14 7.65 7.03

C. ciliaris + Stylo 6.99 7.48 7.85 7.44

C. ciliaris + Clitoria 6.90 8.00 8.38 7.77

-1In another trial on Cenchrus based silvipasture system with N - levels (0, 20, 40 & 60 kg ha ) under Hardwickia tree (Hazra and Tripathi, 1994) showed that the dry matter yield of grass grown as pure and mixed range legumes increased by 19-29% in open and 15-23% in silvipasture

-1with N application over no N. However, such increases were maximum at 40 kg N ha (Table 3.7.2). The responses of dry matter yield of grass and grass + legume mixture were higher at 20

-1kg N ha and decreased at highest N level. Grass + legume mixture had higher dry matter yield per kg N than grass alone.

Phosphorus

Hazra and Tripathi (1989) reported that the forage production of sweet clover (Melilotus parviflora Desf.) was greatly influenced by tree association. Under trees of Albizzia lebbeck the green and dry forage yield varied from 78-86% from the open canopy (without tree). The relative PAR density was observed to 47-52% underneath trees. Phosphorus application improved the yield of sweet clover with or without tree association. Highest yield and P-uptake was noted at 90

-1kg P O ha . Phosphorus utilization efficiency was also higher under open than under trees. 2 5

Application of P progressively decreased the bulk density of the soil with the increased levels. -1Lowest bulk density values were associated with highest P application (90 kg P O ha ) under 2 5

3 3open (1.48-1.50 g cm ) and under tree canopy 1.30-1.33 g cm . Conversely the pore space content was always higher under trees than in open situation. Like pore space, field capacity values were greatly increased from 13.9 to 14.8% with no P application under open condition, whereas the values varied from 14.5 to 15.8% under tree canopy from no P application. The field capacity values under trees (14.9-15.2%) were always significantly higher than under open (14.5%). Soil pH was not much influenced by P application and tree associations. The organic carbon content

-1of soil treated with 60-90 kg P ha was about 20% higher than no P. The organic carbon content was registered 0.5% in control plot and 0.6% in P treated plots. The available N in soil was greatly improved with P application and such increases were noted in order of 12.5, 27.5 and 31.0

-1 -1kg N ha under open and 2.5, 19.0 and 22.0 kg N ha under tree canopy with P application of 30, -1

60 and 90 kg P O ha , respectively. 2 5

Table 3.7.3 Effect of P-fertilization on berseem DM (q/ha) under different canopies

Source: Hazra and Tripathi, 1986

P-Levels (kg/ha) Without tree With tree

Acacia Leucaena Hardwickia

0 28.40 13.40 8.80 24.40

21.5 36.80 22.10 13.50 32.20

43.0 47.60 27.40 18.30 41.90

64.5 51.00 32.70 20.70 44.90

Mean 40.95 23.90 15.33 35.85

CD 5% 3.9 2.90 2.50 3.10

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A field study with berseem (Trifolium alexandrinum L.) in association with trees under varied P levels showed that the forage production was the highest under Hardwickia binata allowing 80% PAR of open as compared to Acacia tortilis and Leucaena leucocephala with 65 & 48% PAR, respectively (Hazra & Tripathi, 1986c). The forage yield of berseem was 87, 58 & 37% under Hardwickia, Acacia and Leucaena, respectively, of that was realized from yield obtained under open canopy (Table 3.7.3). The phosphorus application improved the forage yield and P uptake and its utilization under both the canopy systems.

Field experiment with various P levels on pea and lucerne crops under open and tree canopy of Albizzia labbeck spaced 5 x 5 m of 8 years age with 7-9 m in height. The results showed that lucerne produced highest forage yield followed by pea with P

-1application. Both the leguminous fodder crops responded up to 39 kg P ha under both the canopy situations. The tree allowed about 81% of open PAR to its under storey crop surface. P uptake by crops increased with phosphate nutrition but the removal did not commensurate with the increase P levels. The content of organic carbon and available P in soil improved with P application. The improvement in soil properties was more under tree canopy than in open (Hazra and Tripathi, 1986-87 and Hazra and Tripathi, 1998).

The study under different tree canopies and open land with oat varieties (Hazra and Tripathi, 1989a) showed that the highest forage yield was obtained with OL-189 followed by OL-125. Amongst the tree canopies, the average forage yield was of the order of 95% under Albizzia lebbeck, 90% under Hardwickia binata, 88% under Acacia nilotica, 74% under Melia azadirachta as compared to the open plot yield (100%). PAR received were 90, 87, 80 & 63% under A. lebbeck, H. binata, M. azadirachta, A. nilotica as against full PAR (100%) under open plots (Table 3.7.4)

Five different winter maize varieties (Gene pool, Manjuri, Manjuri composite, Tinpakia and Jaunpuri) were evaluated for their herbage yield under three tree species viz. Leucaena leucocephala, Acacia nilotica and Hardwickia binata (Hazra and Tripathi, 1996). The relative PAR was 25, 36 & 80% under L. leucocephala, A. nilotica and H. binata, respectively as compared to control (100). The relative yields of maize varieties

3.7.2.2 Differential infiltration and fodder response

Table 3.7.4 Performance of oat genotypes under different silvipasture systems (t/ha)

Source : Hazra and Tripathi, 1989a

Oat genotypes Open Tree species

Albizzia Hardwickia Acacia Melia

OL 189 34.65 33.50 33.30 30.22 21.70

OL-125 33.15 30.00 29.00 28.08 26.25

Kent 30.02 29.15 25.72 26.90 20.25

OL-9 28.19 29.54 27.22 27.25 26.38

Average 28.64 30.54 28.81 28.11 23.66

CD at 5% Trees (T) Oat genotype OG) T X OG

- 1.28 (-10.4, -25.6

Available light intensity 100 90 87 63 80

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under H. binata were 94% for green and 99% for dry matter, whereas corresponding yields were 44 & 45% under A. nilotica and 31 & 34% under L. leucocephala. The gene pool variety was least affected by the shade as it gave highest relative yield of green and dry fodder. Tree based cropping was advantageous in building up soil fertility and improving the soil physical properties (Table 3.7.5).

Table 3.7.5 Soil fertility changes after three years under agroforestry system

(Figures in parentheses indicate % changes) Source: Hazra and Tripathi, 1996

Soil properties Leucaena Acacia Hardwickia

pH 7.5 (-5) 7.6 (+1) 7.7 (-1)

Back density (g/cc) 1.38 (+11) 1.45 (-8) 1.50 (-8)

Water holding (%) 15.0 (+9) 14.8 (+6) 14.6 (+4)

Organic Carbon (%) 0.65 (+25) 0.58 (14) 0.55 (+8)

Available nutrients (kg/ha)

Nitrogen 232 (+13) 195 (+8) 204 (-3)

Phosphorus 9.40 (-6) 8.6 (-9) 7.4 (-13)

Potash 185 (-4) 180 (-8) 162 (-8)

Sulphur 26 (-10) 18 (-28) 14 (-39)

Relative light intensity (%) 25 36 80

3.7.2.3 Soils under plantations

Changes in soil fertility

Soil samples from various profile depth were collected under Acacia, Albizzia and Leucaena tree plantation. The data indicated that EC, organic carbon, total N & P

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decreased with increasing depth, whereas Ca, sesquioxides and total bases increased with increasing depth. Organic S was found to be higher in surface layer except under Leucaena tree plantation. The contents of organic carbon, total N, P, K and Ca were higher under Leucaena at all the depth followed by Albizzia. The C:N:S ratio was found to be wider (88:8:1) in open land as compared to tree plantation (82:7.3:1). The C:N:S ratio widened with increasing depth except under Leucaena (Tripathi, 1990).

The effect of type of grassland vegetation on run off and soil loss as well as on some important soil properties were studied by Hazra (1995a). It was observed that simply protection of natural grassland not only changed the soil properties like organic carbon, and water stable aggregates but ultimately reflected in the reduced run off and soil loss and increased forage production (Table 3.7.6). The improved practices in grassland like soil water conservation measures and silvipasture greatly improved soil organic carbon and water aggregates stability with reduced run off and soil loss in hillocks and other degraded grasslands.

Table 3.7.6 Soil water conservation practices (SWCP) and land use systems on soil fertility and herbage productivity

Source: Hazra, 1995a

Land use systems Run Soil Dry Organic Wateroff loss fodder Carbon aggregates

(%) (t/ha) (t/ha) (%) mm (%)

Natural grassland 35 16.0 0.90 0.16 13

Natural grassland (Protected) 18 3.2 2.20 0.38 18

Degraded lands 48 20.5 0.76 0.28 16

Silvipasture on degraded 16 0.9 8.05 0.83 33land with SWCP

Hills and Hillocks 70 41 0.1 0.18 9

(barren-untreated)

Silvipasture on hills and 22 1.9 4.86 0.80 29Hillocks with SWCP

Soil nutrient balance studies

In soil under food-fodder-alley cropping systems in rainfed situations indicated that the nutrients net balance showed a positive trend in case of N and P and negative in case of

-1 -1K. However, the magnitude of improvement in net N (36.0 kg ha ) and P (62.0 kg ha ) was recorded maximum with combined dose of 50% NPK through inorganic source and 50% NPK through organic source (FYM). The net K balance in soil showed a prominenet negative trend under 100% NPK applied inorganic source alone. In various cropping systems sorghum (grain) + cowpea (fodder) for N and sorghum (grain) + grass (Cenchrus setigerus) for P net balance was found to be superior. Sorghum + grass had highest negative K balance. The soil under Leucaena tree alleys was found to be maximum in positive N and P and negative in K balance. When compared the calculated

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NPK balance (soil + inorganic/organic fertilizer nutrient – crop removal) from the actual balance in soil after crop harvest the calculated net balance was negative for total N and P and positive for total K. However, the highest calculated N and P loss was noted with 100% inorganic source alone, particularly in sorghum + grass stand and no tree association. The combined application of NPK, half through inorganic source and rest half through

-1organic source (Leucaena tree leaves) gave highest calculated K gains (252 kg ha ) in the soil. The calculated net K gain was maximum under sorghum + grass crop mixture and Leuceana alleys inspite of higher K removal by crop plants than other crop mixture i.e. sorghum + cowpea and sorghum + pigeon pea (Tripathi et al., 1999).

It has been well established that an efficient use of water and fertilizer is highly critical to sustained agricultural production and will continue to occupy place in future to meet the projected demand for food, fodder and fuel under fast degrading natural resources like land, water and increasing cost of the input involved in the crop production. But, many times the huge potential of the sustainable production systems could not be sustained due to soil health deterioration by nutrient mining and other antagonistic interactions. In rainfed situations constrained by late onset and early withdrawal of the monsoon or prolonged dry spells and other drought events, there is need to develop suitable strategies for judicious fertilizer use to harness full advantage of the limited available moisture.

Some of the major issues and important strategies for managing soil health for sustained productivity are:

Imbalanced uses of fertilizers (N, P, K only) showed deficiency of other nutrients like S and Zn causing harmful to decline / stagnate crop yields. The balanced use of nutrients including S and Zn is helpful to sustained crop productivity.

Crop productivity is also linked with efficient use of fertilizers. The loss of nutrients during crop growth period is to be minimized to enhance the efficiency. The integrated nutrient management through combined use of organic source of plant nutrients, biofertilizers alongwith chemical fertilizers has significant role.

In tree based cropping system, the competition between crop and tree create the problem of more nutrients mining. The fertilization for sustaining soil health should be followed based on soil test recommendation. However, limited scientific data are available relating to soil types, management practices and climatic conditions.

The soils under silvipasture system are generally poor in plant nutrients and efficient strains of selective microorganisms like bacteria, fungi, and actinomycetes. The studies on identification and development of efficient strains of biofertilizers are needed for the use as solublizers and mobilizers of plant nutrients.

The selection of suitable crop / tree species according to soil types and topography has greater role in sustained crop productivity and soil health as well. The more comprehensive research work are required to develop system based production technology by selecting suitable crop/ tree genotypes for increased use efficiency of input like water and fertilizers.

Slopy lands are often poor in soil moisture and nutrients. The need of efficient management of both rainwater and fertilizer nutrients through the use of suitable soil water conservation practices and mode of fertilization is required to stabilize crop productivity and soil health.

Restoration / maintenance of the functional diversity of the soil through amelioration of the degraded poor soils.

Proper water management depending upon the soil capability for irrigation.

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4. Critical Gaps and Researchable Issues

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Proper selection of tree-crop combination to downplay the anticipated competition.

Development of suitable indicator of soil health and an efficient soil health monitoring system under different agro-ecological situation. Sensitization of the users about the importance of soil health and hazard associated with soil sickness.

More specifically, adoption of holistic approach by integration of efficient genotypes, improved rhizosphercic interaction and best management practices offers a sustainable option for improved (qualitative and quantitative) fodder production in the nutrient stressed environment. Germplasm with substantial genetic variation in the major fodder crops can be explored for identification and development of the cultivars efficient in utilization of relatively unavailable pool of the nutrients.

To achieve desired goal in improving productivity and forage quality following needs to be addressed:

Optimum fertilization schedule should be developed considering the quality of the forage/crop residues as well. Because in many situations, fertilizer dose optimum for grain yield may be sub-optimal for crop residue quality.

Quick diagnostic techniques should be developed to assist in the management of crop nutrition to get the nutrient rich forages.

The available genetic variation needs to be evaluated for the traits responsible for increased acquisition and use efficiency of applied and native nutrients, such as

·branched and vigorous root system with many growing points

·greater root mass

·presence of longer root hairs

·symbiosis of plant root with mycorrhizae

·selective and adaptive exudation of organic acids and phenolics

Critical gaps like lack of reliable screening techniques, understanding of the processes involved in the acquisition, uptake, transport, utilization and internal mobilization in a specific production system needs to be addressed on priority.

Evaluation of the overall performance of these materials in the cropping system and long term effect of the improved plant trait on soil fertility and productivity

Developing novel biofertilizers and microbial culture inoculants better suited to survive and mobilize/solubilize nutrients in given soil condition through development of better screening procedure, understanding the mechanism of nutrients mobilization and improvement in rhizospheric competence.

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“Only balanced soil fertility grows balanced rations”

- Albrecht

"All flesh is grass," were the words by which a prophetic pre-Christian scholar revealed his vision of how the soil, by growing the crops, can serve in creating animals and man. Voisin begins his book Soil, Grass and Cancer (1959) by noting that human cells are composed of mineral elements that originate in the soil, and that humans are a “biochemical photograph” of the soils in the environment in which we grow our food. He emphasized mainly on nutrient content in soils, including both nutrient deficiencies and imbalances, and how they influence nutrient status in plants and animals that are in turn consumed by humans. The Green Revolution in India is marked with expansion of agricultural land, use of hybrid seeds, chemical fertilizers and pesticides drove our country to again become an exporter of food grains during 90s. Our country needs to meet the expected food demand of 300 million tons of cereals by 2050 from continuously shrinking land resources. In due course of time however, the lands started losing fertility and demanding larger fertilizers use. There is rapid degradation of water and land resources leading to reduction of use efficiency of fertilizer, irrigation, etc, along with rising emission of pollutants and green house gases which is one of the major cause for climate change. Realizing such problems Government of India has launched lot of programmes to sustain soil fertility and productivity and also encouraging multidisciplinary research and management approaches. In line with the Government's vision, the future line of work will include:

Preparing soil health cards and supplying to the target farmers with suitable recommendations

Advocating adoption of Integrated Plant Nutrient Supply system for all crops at holistic level

Development of balanced nutrients recommendations based on local availability of nutrient resources

Defining nutrient requirement and use efficiency of different systems for maximising nutrient use efficiency and sustaining soil fertility and productivity

Identification and development of efficient strains of microbial inoculants, biofertilizers for enhanced production and sustaining soil fertility

Development of system based production technologies

Development of suitable indicator of soil health and an efficient soil health monitoring system under different agro-ecological situation

Developing novel biofertilizers - better suited to survive and fix, mobilize / solubilize nutrients in given soil condition, and improvement in rhizospheric competence by rhizosphere engineering

Exploring the extent of microbial impacts on climate change and the effects of climate change on microbes

Understanding and managing soil microbial ecology will have major benefits for stressed agricultural ecosystems

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5. Future Line of Work

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