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8/14/2019 Borderland Lives in Northern South Asia edited by David N. Gellner
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DAVID N. GELLNER,EDITORWith an afterword byWillem van Schendel
BORDERLAND
LIVESIN NORTHERN SOUTH ASIA
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B O R D E R L A N D L I V E S I N N O R T H E R N S O U T H A S I A
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BORDERLANDLIVES
I N N O R T H E R N S O U T H A S I A
Edited by David N. Gellner
With an aferword by Willem van Schendel
Duke University Press | Durham and London |
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Duke University Press
All rights reservedPrinted in the United States o America on acid-ree paper
Typeset in Minion and Franklin Gothic by Copperline Book Services
Library o Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
Borderland lives in northern South Asia / edited by David N. Gellner ;
with an aferword by Willem van Schendel.
pages cm
Includes bibliographical reerences and index.
---- (cloth : alk. paper) ---- (pbk. : a lk. paper)
. South Asia Boundaries History. . South Asia Politics
and government. . South Asia Relations. . South Asia
Social conditions. . Gellner, David N. . Schendel, Willem van
.
. dc
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C O N T E N T S
Preace vii
| .
Northern South Asias Diverse Borders,
rom Kachchh to Mizoram
|
Borders without Borderlands:
On the Social Reproduction o
State Demarcation in Rajasthan
| Allegiance and Alienation:
Border Dynamics in Kargil
|
Naturalizing the Himalaya-as-Border
in Uttarakhand
| . | .
On the Way to India:
Nepali Rituals o Border Crossing
|
The Perils o Being a Borderland People:
On the Lhotshampas o Bhutan
| .
Developing the Border:
The State and the Political Economy o
Development in Arunachal Pradesh
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|
The Micropolitics o Borders:
The Issue o Greater Nagaland (or Nagalim)
|
Nodes o Control in a South(east)
Asian Borderland
|
Histories o Belonging(s):
Narrating Territory, Possession, and Dispossession
at the India-Bangladesh Border
|
Geographies and Identities:
Subaltern Partition Stories along Bengals
Southern Frontier
|
Making the Most o Sensitive Borders
Contributors
Bibliography
Index
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P R E F A C E
The papers collected in this volume were first presented at the British Asso-
ciation o South Asian Studies () annual conerence in Edinburgh on March . This could not have happened without the support o the Brit-
ish Academy through a grant rom its Area Panel or South Asia; I am grateul
or its support and encouragement o young peridoctoral scholars. I would
also like to thank or helping us to invite Willem van Schendel to come
as the panel discussant and the British Embassy Kathmandu, which enabled
the journalist Prashant Jhas participation. Their comments and presentations
greatly enriched our discussions.
Chapters and have appeared previously and are republished with permis-
sion (rom Contemporary South Asia,Taylor and Francis, and Modern AsianStudies, Cambridge University Press, respectively). The maps were drawn (ex-
cept where otherwise attributed) by Bill Nelson.
In this volume double quotation marks are used to indicate a citation rom
an identifiable source, whether written or oral (even when pseudonyms have
been used). Single quotation marks are used or everything else (talking about
words, scare quotes, etc.). We have also adopted the convention that when
discussing the state as an idea or a nation-state the word state remains uncap-
italized, but when mentioning the various States o the Indian Union (Uttar
Pradesh, Arunachal Pradesh, etc.), it is capitalized.
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I N T R O D U C T I O N | D A V I D N . G E L L N E R
Northern South Asias Diverse Borders,rom Kachchh to Mizoram
The human being is the connecting creature who must always separate
and cannot connect without separating. . . . And the human being is
likewise the bordering creature who has no border.
Simmel, Bridge and Door ([] : )
This book proposes a new subregion: Northern South Asia. The locations othe books detailed case studies are strung out along Indias mainly mountain-
ous northern borders that enclose this subregion. The authors address three
bodies o literature that have rarely been brought into conjunction beore:
() new writings, largely (but not only) by anthropologists, that ocus on how
ordinary people interact with, engage with, and experience the state in South
Asia (e.g., Fuller and Bn ); () recent work invigorated by a renewed
awareness o the dynamic relationship between upland and lowland peoples
or, as James C. Scott () would have it, between people o the state and
people fleeing the state; and () work on borderlands, a topic that is old enough
to have spawned a whole subdiscipline in North America and to a lesser extent
in Europe, but which, as a ocus o sustained academic investigation, is new
or South Asianists. Thus we are ortunate to have Willem van Schendel as the
author o the aferword to this volume, as he has done more than anyone to
demonstrate the ruitulness o the academic study o borders in South Asia.
His publications are used and debated at numerous places in the pages that
ollow.
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| DA V ID N . GELLN ER
The conjunction o these three themes puts both the state and its borders
under the spotlight and undermines the unthinking methodological nation-
alism (so common in academia and policy circles) that takes the nation-state
as the natural context and container or all social and political processes. In
this volume neither the existence o borders nor their exact positioning nor
what they imply or the movement o people, animals, or goods is taken or
granted. As will be seen, these matters are also very ar rom being taken or
granted by the people whose lives they affect, as we attempt to describe here.
In interaction with the representatives o the states concerned and with other
people they encounter on either side, Northern South Asians both produce
and suffer rom that most paradoxical o human creations: borders.
Studying the State, Studying Its Borders:
Radcliffe-Brown, Scott, Anderson, and Beyond
In a very different era A. R. Radcliffe-Brown, one o the ounding
figures o British social anthropology, denounced the idea o the state as a
fiction o the philosophers. Anthropologists should have nothing to do
with it, he wrote, and should restrict themselves to studying government and
politics. In an influential article, ofen cited as initiating a new turn in theanthropological study o the state, the historical sociologist Philip Abrams
suggested that students o the modern state should ollow Radcliffe-Browns
lead and dispense entirely with the state as a category o analysis. Rather
they should study the idea o the state. Abrams argued that students o pol-
itics should no more be obliged to believe in the state and accept its reality
than sociologists o religion are called on to believe in the system o gods
or spiritual beings whose existence they are studying and about which they
are attempting to give a coherent account (Abrams : ). There was
some irony in Abramss invocation o Radcliffe-Brown, since his theoretical
standpoint, general aims, and style o argument were all very different rom
Radcliffe-Browns starchy high-colonial positivism. Radcliffe-Brown wished
to banish all talk o the state rom serious empirical study; Abrams wished to
put talk o the state at the heart o his analysis. Despite this, Radcliffe-Browns
insistence on the unreality o the state has gone on to be endorsed by anthro-
pologists (e.g., Gupta : n) who are even urther than Abrams was
rom Radcliffe-Browns theoretical premises: unctionalism comes ull circle
to Foucault, one might say.
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Introduction |
Today ethnographers everywhere are increasingly orced to think about the
state because it intrudes, ar more orcibly than it did seventy years ago, on the
lives o the people they study (Trouillot ). People themselves are no longer
content to view the state as a necessary evil. Increasingly they make demands
o it and expect it to act positively to improve their lives. In the study o South
Asia this has led to what might appear, at first glance, to be two contrasting
trends: on the one hand, the study o the everyday state, how people actually
interact with the state and what they expect rom it (e.g., Gupta ; Fuller
and Bn ; Tarlo ; Corbridge et al. ), and, on the other, ollowing
Abramss call, studies o the idea o the state, the state effect, as it has been
called (e.g., Khilnani ; Spencer ; c. Hansen and Stepputat ). Inact, o course, the two kinds o study necessarily overlap: ordinary people
must have ideas about the state in order to interact with it, and any worth-
while ethnographic investigation must engage with both practices and ideas.
When peoples expectations o what their state can and should do or them are
rustrated, there is uel or all kinds o movement and protest. Under certain
circumstances this is transormed into the aspiration to acquire a state (or
ederal unit, i.e., State) o ones own (as with the Nagas described in chapter ).
Alongside peoples understandable desires to influence the state or control
it, there is also a long tradition to which Scott () has recently resensi-tized us in The Art of Not Being Governed o evading the state and adopting
ways o living that enable survival beyond its reach. Scott ocused on high-
land areas as zones o resistance to state domination, particularly in Southeast
Asia. Following Van Schendel (a), Scott reers to the whole upland area o
Southeast Asia, stretching up to Tibet and including the eastern Himalayas,
as Zomia, a historical and cultural region that is either rendered invisible or
carved up artificially by the usual area studies geographical divisions into East
Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. (On Zomia and area studies, see urther
Farrelly in chapter , this volume.)
Scott has a (perhaps unrecognized) distinguished orerunner in his name-
sake, the novelist Sir Walter Scott. Walter Scott was ascinated by the his-
torical sociology o highland-lowland relationships in Scotland. He was very
ar rom being the early nineteenth-century combination o Braveheart with
Mills and Boon o popular stereotype; he was in act a nuanced and sophis-
ticated observer o Scottish history and society (Kidd : ), capable
o seeing both sides and multiple points o view as indeed should strike any
reader o Rob Roy. One o the epigrams chosen as a chapter heading in Rob
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| DA V ID N. GELLNE R
Roy is taken rom the poet Thomas Grays The Alliance o Education and
Government: A Fragment ():
An iron race the mountain cliffs maintain,
Foes to the gentler genius o the plain . . .
Who, while their rocky ramparts round they see,
The rough abode o want and liberty,
As lawless orce rom confidence will grow,
Insult the plenty o the vales below.
The rough abode o want and liberty: James Scott could have taken that as
the motto o his Zomian highlands.James Scott explicitly excludes most o the Himalayas rom his discussion
(perhaps because the Himalayas were home to small states themselves). But
there are good arguments or extending his mode o argument westward,
since these mountainous areas have also provided a home to plenty o reu-
gees rom the state. Much o the behavior o Himalayan peoples in Nepal can
be interpreted within Scotts state-evading paradigm. As Shneiderman ()
points out, such state-evading strategies are still a deep part o the habitus o
many people in the Himalayas, even today. In that sense Zomia thinking,
contrary to what Scott himsel sometimes seems to suggest, is, as argued byFarrelly in chapter , ar rom wholly superseded. Though this collection
does not venture that ar west, there would surely be mileage in extending the
argument into Pakistan and Aghanistan as well. Furthermore, as Piliavsky
points out in chapter , such state-evading behavior was ormerly as salient
withinthe borders o the state, associated with its internal borders (in the In-
dian case, marking police jurisdictions); today the inheritors o these evasive
strategies have become so embroiled with the state that its borderlines deter-
mine the main outlines o their social organization.
There is a much longer tradition o thinking about borders within human
geography than within anthropology, but both disciplines have converged
on approaches that see borders as constructed through the action o states
and individuals, a process that some have named territorialization. Border-
land studies have tended to be dominated by North American and European
examples. Since the international (and indeed current internal) borders o
South Asia are so new, much can be learned o a general and comparative
nature by ocusing on them. For a start, as Van Schendel has pointed out, a
critical ocus on borderlands is a highly effective way to escape rom the ofen
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Introduction |
stultiying methodological nationalism o much conventional historical and
social scientific work on South Asia. This methodological nationalism takes
or granted national units that have in many cases existed only or a very short
time, leading to considerable distortions o the historical record and great
lacunae in what is studied. Instead borders, states, and the people who inhabit
all need to be taken as processes, not givens, and the manner in which they
are produced and made to appear as given needs to be studied critically and,
so ar as humanly possible, dispassionately.
In order to understand this process o territorialization, it is necessary to
look at the history o neighboring peoples and states side by side and in inter-
action with each other (all the interactions, namely, o people and state, peopleand people, and state and state, on both sides o the dividing line). The cre-
ation o the new nations o South Asia has had ar-reaching effects on ordinary
peoples lives. This includes enormous suffering, not usually acknowledged in
dominant narratives, o people who have ound themselves near to these mil-
itarily enorced and unaccustomed lines on the map (see, especially, chapters
, , , , and ). Evans shows in chapter how listening to the narratives o
the ordinary borderland people caught up in the tragedy o expulsions rom
southern Bhutan allows one to comprehend the seemingly completely incom-
patible accounts o the Bhutanese state and the reugee leaders in Nepal.Following Scott, it is worth stressing that one key variable in determin-
ing how people experience and create borders is whether the terrain is in the
highlands (meaning that the population is generally sparse) or the lowlands
(where the population is usually dense and requently culturally and linguis-
tically continuous across rontiers). A second key variable is the way people
imagine the border: whether as hard (modern) or sof (premodern). With all
due caution about the distinction and in ull recognition that these are ideal
types models, i you will that will necessarily not correspond in every par-
ticular to the complexities o actual contemporary or historical cases, with
due allowance or all this, there is a key difference in the conceptualization o
borders between the premodern and the modern periods. Many have quoted
Curzons () orthright statement: The idea o a demarcated rontier is
in itsel an essentially modern conception, and finds little or no place in the
ancient world.
Benedict Anderson (: chapter ) has amously analyzed the emergence
o the modern notion o territory in terms o the census and the map, and
Mathur (chapter , this volume) applies these ideas to the India-China (Tibet)
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| DA V ID N. GELLNE R
border. Thongchai Winichakuls work () on the history o maps and na-
tionalism in Thailand, earlier versions o which were heavily used by Ander-
son, also posits a radical difference in the ways borders and the nation came
to be understood once King Rama V established a mapping school in Bangkok
in and modern ideas o mapping were adopted. A telling example o the
clash between modernizing ideas o borders and those subject to them hold-
ing very different ideas is given by Peter Robb (: ). In a British
colonial official in Assam led a punitive expedition against a village beyond
the border because one o its members had committed a murder o someone
living on the British side; the villagers all fled, so the soldiers burned the vil-
lage; neighboring villagers, impressed, came orward and offered tribute tothe British, but the official reused to accept it, on the grounds that the villag-
ers were not British subjects, being on the other side o the border. What the
villagers made o this strange reusal is apparently not recorded.
Boundaries in a broader sense whether cultural, religious, linguistic, so-
cial, political, or various combinations have always been there in South Asia;
the barriers they place between different categories o people and the ways
they are transgressed or ignored have long been the stuff o South Asian his-
tory and anthropology. The challenge, then, is to be as critical and construc-
tivist about national and internal borders as anthropologists have learned tobe about ethnic and other social boundaries, at least since the time o Barths
() seminal intervention on ethnicity in Pakistan. Mitchell () recom-
mends that studies o the state should problematize the state-society bound-
ary; this is even more necessary or the understanding o border regions,
where it may appear that there is a sharp distinction between state personnel
and everyone else (see Joshi, chapter , and Farrelly, chapter , this volume).
These state personnel, and their view o their world, must also be a part o
any understanding o the situation on the ground, as stressed in several o the
contributions to this volume (chapters , , , , and ).
Northern South Asia and Its Margins
Nepal, Sri Lanka, Bhutan, and Bangladesh ace many challenges, and they
are not all the same. However, all our countries must conront one big prob-
lem that can be summed up in a single word: India. Indias size, power, mili-
tary strength, and latterly global economic success, all combine to make the
smaller countries in the region eel that it has simply inherited the mantle o
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Introduction |
the ormer colonial power and adopts a paternalistic, not to say patronizing
and sometimes overbearing, attitude to its neighbors. What is incontestable is
that India inherited a colonial and indeed premodern set o borders along its
northwestern, northern, and northeastern rontiers. They are premodern in
the sense that in practice whatever the spurious precision o the lines drawn
or claimed in treaties and maps they are uzzy and contested, and also be-
cause in many places along the borders the local populations have strong ties
across them and ofen carry on daily lie in disregard or even (in the past) in
ignorance o them.
I we ocus on the region rather than the borders, the area that concerns us
here may be called Northern South Asia. This regional expression was in-vented by Hiroshi Ishii, Katsuo Nawa, and mysel, when we were editing two
volumes at the Tokyo University o Foreign Studies in (Ishii et al. a,
b); there were contributions that ranged rom Gujarat and Rajasthan in
the west to Bengal and Orissa in the east, taking in many parts o Nepal. We
argued that there were interesting cultural commonalities across the region
so named, despite its division into different nation-states.
Northern South Asia is in act a region crisscrossed by international bor-
ders, as the maps in this book demonstrate. Apart rom the Nepal-China
(Tibet) and Bhutan-China (Tibet) borders, they are all borders with India.It is Indias international borders that present the most interesting and chal-
lenging variety challenging both to the state and the scholar. Van Schendel
() has useully distinguished three categories o border issues that today
plague India and its northern neighbors: McMahonian (i.e., those between
India and China, resulting rom the McMahon line o ), Radcliffean (dat-
ing rom Partition in , i.e., those between India and Pakistan and India
and Bangladesh), and Kashmirian (i.e., disputes thrown up by the merging o
the approximately five hundred princely states into India, o which Kashmir
was simply the largest and most intractable). All three types o dispute have
led to violence that politicians have struggled to control.
Premodern states, such as China in the nineteenth century, requently re-
sisted attempts by colonial powers to establish unambiguous borders. Stiller
(: ) has described how the Gorkhali state in the early nineteenth
century initially resisted the British East India Companys attempt to fix the
borders, and how Prime Minister Bhimsen Thapa eventually came to under-
stand and use the British notion o an unambiguous dividing line to Nepals
advantage. China, although it now accepts the idea o clearly demarcated
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| DA V ID N . GELLN ER
borders, reuses to accept the McMahon line, both in the west and the east.
For this reason, and because o intractable problems in Kashmir, in most o
the west and northwest Indias rontiers are heavily militarized and move-
ment across the border is highly restricted or impossible. Notoriously am-
ilies have been split in two and have not met or decades, with travel difficult
and only occasionally permitted. In chapter Radhika Gupta describes the
situation in Kargil, where a strong Shia Muslim identity, looking to Iran or
religious leadership, is combined with Indian patriotism, strong identification
with the Indian state, and deep hurt at suspicions o their loyalty. A simi-
larly militarized situation exists in the northeast, where China claims parts
o Arunachal Pradesh. The Indian border with Burma, though equally mil-itarily sensitive, is not closed in the same way; access or nonlocals is strictly
controlled, but locals can move across it at will. The Indian army is supposed
to control movement, but the ability o insurgents to move reely to and ro
across the border is a actor the army on the ground has to deal with on a
daily basis.
Where Indias border with Nepal is concerned, there is a completely differ-
ent situation: an open border, a border that or many purposes is not what we
think o as a border at all. People move reely across it, and it corresponds to
no geographical, linguistic, religious, or cultural dividing line (Gaige []; Hausner a). Indian rupees and Indian mobile phones work just
fine on the Nepalese side o the border. In April , at a time when the
border was declared sealed or the Nepalese Constituent Assembly elections,
I saw children walk rom the Indian district o West Champaran into the
Nepalese district o Parsa and then back into India on their way to school. A
single large-bellied Indian policeman manned the border, and the crossing
was closed to vehicular traffic, including bicycles. But he permitted people on
oot to wander over to the other side at will.
That India regards the Nepal-India and Bhutan-India borders as qual-
itatively different rom its borders with Pakistan and Bangladesh is shown
by the act that the ormer two are policed by its (Sashastra Seema Bal),
whereas the latter are guarded by the (Border Security Force, or Seema
Suraksa Bal in Hindi). Despite the act that the names are easy to conuse,
they are two independent organizations. The was ounded in to win
the hearts and minds o people in the northeast and Himalayas ollowing
the India-China war o and was entrusted with the guarding o borders
in and . The was set up in specifically in order to guard
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Introduction |
Indias borders with Pakistan, subsequently also being used or antiterrorist
operations in Kashmir.
Though it was once as open as the Nepal-India border, the situation on the
India-Bhutan border would seem to be evolving toward a hard border o
the kind aimed at or contemporary Pakistan and Bangladesh. Access today
is strictly controlled by the Bhutanese army. Reugees sometimes cross the
border surreptitiously to visit their relatives in Bhutan, but it is an exchange
raught with danger on both sides (see Evans, chapter ).
The India-Bangladesh Borderlands:
The Anomalous Chhitmahals
Between these two extremes highly militarized exclusion zones and borders
that are not borders lies the India-Bangladesh border. In parts it is effectively
like the India-Nepal border, porous and ignored or many everyday purposes.
Yet in other places the Indian and Bangladeshi states are an ever greater pres-
ence, with India having built a ence to keep Bangladeshis out on over hal o
the total ,-kilometer length (the longest border India has with any other
country; see figure Intr.).
The Bangladesh-India border also presents us with the intriguing and or those who live in them highly problematic phenomenon o chhitmahals.
These are islands o territory belonging to one country surrounded by the ter-
ritory o the other. There are in act Indian enclaves inside Bangladesh and
seventy-our Bangladeshi enclaves inside India (Van Schendel b). They
are a lefover o the indirectly ruled princely state o Cooch Behar (which
had pockets inside Mughal territory) and, vice versa, o Mughal territory that
lay inside Cooch Behar (now Bangladeshi enclaves in India). There is also a
popular myth (repeated in Sunday supplements in the Indian press) that these
enclaves were created by the two rulers o the respective territories, who used
to gamble villages with each other over ootball matches. There do not seem
to be historical grounds or this story, but it is clearly still in circulation as it
was repeated to me in January in Kathmandu.
Van Schendel has argued cogently that i we are to study the state effect,
i we wish to understand Partition and what ollowed rom it, we need to
take seriously the experiences and history o the people whose lives were
turned upside down by the creation o new international borders where none
had existed beore. Without moving, without being consulted, many ound
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| DA V ID N . GELLN ER
themselves, rom one day to the next, being turned into citizens o new states
and separated rom relatives and neighbors in completely unexpected and
unprecedented ways. Where the border runs along a river, the same thing can
still happen overnight during the monsoon: people wake up to find that the
river the border has changed its course.
As a Bangladesh specialist, Van Schendel had to conront the act that al-
most all the districts o Bangladesh, bar a couple o central districts, were and
are border districts. The entire rontier o what is Bangladesh today and was
East Pakistan in was created ex nihilo rom areas that had never beore
been international or even major regional rontiers. Van Schendel demolishes
the myth that the border demarcated Hindu (on the Indian side) rom Muslim
(on the Bangladeshi) side; this was true or just percent o its length. For
the rest o it there were either Muslims on both sides, Hindus on both sides,
non-Hindus on one or other or both sides, and so on (Van Schendel a:
ch. ). This sheer complexity means that one could write as many as a dozen
histories and anthropologies o the Bangladesh-India border (just two are in-
cluded here, chapters and ).
.. Looking north along the India-Bangladesh border in South Tripura
district, Tripura, with Bangladesh on the lef, behind the barbed-wire ence, .
Photograph courtesy o W. van Schendel.
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Introduction |
Jason Cons (chapter ) has studied in one o the larger chhitmahals, Da-
hagram, home to sixteen thousand Bangladeshis, where the contrast is the
expected one, that is, it is largely between Muslims inside the Dahagram en-
clave and Hindus outside it. There the local experience has indeed been o ha-
rassment by Indians both by locals who rustle their goats and by the Indian
Border Security Force and attachment to Bangladesh. For years the people
o Dahagram have ought or a regularized crossing point so that they can
enter Bangladesh reely. At night they are effectively locked in their enclave.
In a ormal sense, their situation is better than that o most other enclaves,
since at least they know (since ) that during the daylight hours they may
cross the -meter corridor to mainland Bangladesh (Van Schendel b:). In Dahagram Bangladeshi identity is strongly asserted, unlike in other
enclaves where statelessness has become a kind o positively asserted identity
or some (). However, in the smaller enclaves people also ofen manage to
hold citizenship o the surrounding country, so in that sense their situation
may be more livable than that o the Dahagram residents.
Summing up, Van Schendel (b: ) concludes, Although they appear
as oreign bodies within the nations territory, each nation is able by means
o its own enclaves to penetrate the others territory. This interpenetration has
led the two nations to dance to the same tune, locked in a slow tango romwhich they have been unable to extricate themselves. The India-Bangladesh
border was produced in a hurry by people with no knowledge o the condi-
tions on the ground. Attempts to make it behave like a modern hard border
are undermined not only by the existence o chhitmahals but by siltation,
shifing o rivers, and adverse possession (see Cons, chapter ). As Jalais shows
in chapter , people on the ground have taken it into their own hands to tidy
up the process o nation building, harassing Muslims on the Indian side and
Hindus on the East Pakistan/Bangladesh side, until they are induced to leave.
A Sketch o the Premodern State
In order to understand this seemingly anomalous situation o the chhitmahals
we need to step back and put a little more substance into the contrast between
premodern and modern states. Anthropologists such as Geertz (), with
his sketch o the theater state, and Tambiah ([] ), with his theory o
the galactic polity, have built on classic accounts (e.g., Heine-Geldern ) in
writing about the monarchical states o South and Southeast Asia. The key
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| DA V ID N . GELLN ER
points about such polities were that () people were in scarce supply and land
was generally plentiul (land without people was useless), and () power radi-
ated out rom the center; there was no conception that the rulers command
could or should be equally authoritative at all points o his realm. A third
point ollowed rom these: boundaries were fluid and messy. Sovereignties
overlapped. It seems to have been in the interests o both rulers and ruled to
encourage a situation in which the map was pockmarked with alternating and
ofen multiple lines o allegiance.
It is true that sometimes the state produced straight lines and even walls;
one thinks o the Great Wall o China and Hadrians wall. But the extent to
which these were hard boundaries should not be exaggerated; ofen theyunctioned more like glorified lookout posts. Chinas Great Wall did not stop
the Mongols. In general, lines drawn on the ground were oreign to the pre-
modern polity. Even where nature appeared to draw a clear boundary, with
a sea, a broad river, or the oothills o a mountain range, people requently
moved across it with impunity.
The consequence or border areas beore the rise o the modern state is
that they simultaneously have multiple allegiances and none. I people are
mobile (i.e., they are pastoralists, swidden agriculturalists, or oragers), they
simply run away rom rulers and are impossible to pin down. They may in-teract with the state, they may imitate the state, they may have deep-rooted
and long-standing economic ties to the state, they may even raid or seek to
dominate nearby settled agricultural areas (Wouters ), but they cannot,
taken as a whole, be controlled or enslaved by it. As Scott () has empha-
sized, where the terrain avors it, there are large areas that remain beyond the
effective control o the state.
The essential contrast is between (relatively) mobile uplanders and the rice
cultivators o the more densely populated lowlands. The latter leave their fields
only to escape the most severe tyranny. Because rice ripens at the same time
(unlike the staples o upland peoples), the representatives o the state need
only turn up at harvest time to collect tribute. Those who grow the crop have
no alternative but to accept the legitimacy o the demand and pay up. As a
strategy o resistance to the state, rice agriculturalists do not have the option
o flight and must instead cultivate social and cultural impenetrability, ofen
thickly camouflaged as deerence. Geertz () has described this well in
his description o the highly ritualized nineteenth-century Balinese state. The
Balinese peasants cross-cutting social ties were so complex that the rulers
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Introduction |
had little chance o controlling village society effectively and had to try to
persuade them through sheer ritual and symbolic impressiveness to hand over
tribute and participate in state rituals. In such a society people had rights, but
there was absolutely no idea that everyone had the same rights; rights, owned
by specified groups, were handed down and validated by tradition.
Thus throughout Asia there was a contrast between urban civilization and
the wild people beyond. In South Asia the wild areas and people were known
as jangali(o the jungle or wilderness) and could be ound wherever there
were hills and orests. The British called them tribes, a terminology inher-
ited, deepened, and turned into the basis o political classification and ac-
tion by the postcolonial Indian state. The most heavily tribal parts o Indiaare now the heartland o Maoist/Naxalite action, the so-called red belt rom
Nepal in the north to Andhra in the south (Pashupati to Tirupati) an inter-
nal Other par excellence. Piliavsky in chapter reminds us o modern antasy
novels that associate borderlands with ghouls, witchcraf, and danger; these
same associations are made with borderlands in South and Southeast Asia
today, building on old stereotypes.
Historically most o the Himalayan oothills o Nepal fit the mobile uplands
pattern, even where people were rice cultivators in part. People moved all
the time. There have been continual waves o migration into and along theHimalayas, and we can assume this must have been so even in prehistoric
times. Within historic times the dominant trend has been or migration to
be in a northwest to southeast direction along the Himalayan oothills. Thus
the Khas people, who are mentioned in textual sources (the Mahabharata,
among others) as inhabiting Kashmir, are to be ound as the indigenous and
majority group in western Nepal today. The predominant eastward direction
can be explained by the greater rainall and greater ertility o the land the
arther east one goes (Whelpton : ). As the Khas moved southeast along
the Himalayan oothills they encountered peoples speaking Tibeto-Burman
languages who were already settled in the area we now call the Nepalese mid-
dle hills (having arrived centuries earlier either rom the north or the east). In
addition to the overall macro west-to-east migratory trend, there have been
plenty o local eddies and countercurrents, as the mapping work by Doluss et
al. () on orms o plows demonstrates. Furthermore, as mentioned in note
, many Tharus, used to shifing agriculture in the Tarai plains, have moved
long distances east to west along the Tarai over the past fify to one hundred
years in search o new land to settle. The end result o all these movements is
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a pattern o ethnic settlement that is thoroughly mixed, not to say Balkanized
(P. Sharma ).
It is worth noting at this point that, in this tribal pattern based on shifing
agriculture, repeated movement is taken or granted. Rootedness to a place
since time immemorial is not particularly valued. This puts traditional tribal
values completely at odds with the modern ideology o indigenism and in-
digenous rights, which shares with modern nation-states what Malkki (:
) calls sedentarist metaphysics, that is, the assumption that there is and
must be an inalienable and primordial link between a people/culture and a
particular place.
In general the ideals o the modern state invert those o the theater state. Inmost modern cases people are plentiul, and it is land that has become scarce.
Power is supposed to be exercised equally and impartially at every point in
the states sovereign domain without exception. (One recalls Prime Minister
Margaret Thatcher stating in that Ulster was as British as Finchley, her
suburban constituency in outer London though the very act that she needed
to say it out loud demonstrated the highly contested nature o the claim.) O-
ficially all citizens are equal and should be treated equally. The state takes
on duties toward all its citizens. Ideally boundaries should be clear, straight,
unambiguous, and certainly not contain all kinds o enclaves, which by theirnature are anomalous. In this nationalist conception, movement o people
across these clear lines should be controlled by the state. People should have
unambiguous affiliations and loyalties, with associated citizenship rights, to
one or other o the two states, but not both. Borders are then essential to the
creation and maintenance o the nation and the state, as Donnan and Wilson
(: ) point out. Many o the cases discussed in this book demonstrate ethno-
graphically how it is that, paradoxically, borders those areas ofen thought o
as most peripheral are central to the nation.
The British in India believed in the straight lines and unambiguous alle-
giances o the modern model, as we have seen already. Winichakul (: ch.
) documents the misunderstandings that resulted when they tried to estab-
lished what they thought o as commonsense and straightorward bound-
aries between their territory in Burma and that o the Kingdom o Siam in
the mid-nineteenth century. However, both there and on the northern land
rontiers o their subcontinental colony they were orced, as Robb (: )
points out, to accept many ambiguous edges. . . . There were layers o un-
certainty here not only because o British policy-disagreements, but rom
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Introduction |
political volatilities in regions where there were ew proto-states to be con-
quered, and little sense o fixed property. Internally, as Robb also notes, the
British allowed a panoply o exceptions to the notion o a single state ruled
by a single uniorm law, o which one example would be the India-Bangladesh
enclaves discussed earlier. The extraordinary thing is that at no stage were
these enclaves ever tidied up by the obvious solution o simply exchanging
them. Immediately ollowing independence, while the two states dithered, the
inhabitants o the surrounding areas ofen took it upon themselves to do the
tidying up and indulged in what is now called, using the macabre euphemism
that the ormer Yugoslavia has given the world, ethnic cleansing, driving
out Muslim inhabitants o Pakistani enclaves within India, while leaving theHindu inhabitants in place (Van Schendel b: ; Jalais, chapter , this
volume).
The Nepal-India Border Today: A Lefover o History?
In contrast to the India-Bangladesh border, with its increasing militarization
and anomalous enclaves, the Indian border with the Nepalese Tarai is ar
more relaxed, though here too alleged Indian land grabs, water diversions,
and border police incursions are the occasion or outraged newspaper com-ment and political protests in Kathmandu. For many ordinary purposes,
however, or the people who live there, the border hardly appears to exist at
all. People move to and ro on a daily basis to work and regularly shop or go to
school on the other side. They are used to handling two different currencies.
The language is the same on both sides. People read the same newspapers
and listen to the same radio stations on both sides o the border. Some dis-
tricts have Muslims as the largest single group on the Nepalese side, as on
the Indian side (Rautahat, Parsa, Kapilvastu, Banke); another five Nepalese
districts bordering Bihar (Saptari, Siraha, Dhanusha, Mahottari, and Sarlahi)
orm a contiguous bloc where Yadavs are the single biggest group, just as they
are over the border. At the same time, in large parts o many Tarai districts
there are local majorities o hill people (Pahadi), encouraged to settle by the
Nepalese state afer the eradication o malaria in the s, and some Tarai
districts, such as Morang (at least in its northern part) and Jhapa in the east
and Chitwan in the center, have an overall majority o hill people, with signi-
icant consequences or local politics.
Such invisibility o the border does not apply to most long-distance travelers,
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however. Most Nepali hill people traveling to India do not have the choice o
taking an alternative route. Thus the movement o nonlocal people, unlike
that o those who live in the border region and possess local knowledge and
connections, is subject to control and intimidation, though ofen as much by
reelance gatekeepers as by the official agents o the state (though the two cate-
gories may work together, o course). This is vividly described by Hausner and
Sharma in chapter on the rituals o border crossing. Hill people making the
journey or work to India (and it is usually or work, more rarely or pilgrimage
or other leisure purposes) must travel through the main checkpoints. There
they are subject to routine harassment and orced to take buses and rickshaws
on the other side by bullying touts. Women are subject to special surveillance:they may be stopped by s, like Maiti Nepal, who try to test whether they
are being trafficked or not by inquiring about the identity o the men they are
traveling with.
Whereas people at least local people may go to and ro without let or
hindrance, the movement o goods, at least goods in any quantity, is supposed
to be subject to strict state control. There is thereore enormous scope or smug-
gling and corruption (see Mathur, chapter , this volume). Subsidized petrol,
kerosene, and ertilizer rom Nepal are smuggled in vast quantities over the
border to India, costing the Nepalese state enormous sums. Vehicles go in bothdirections and are given new number plates on arrival in the other country.
In spite o this large-scale subversion o the state, state controls on the
movement o goods are highly significant. It is tempting to say that the border
between India and Nepal is not a border, but in act the existence o two di-
erent states does make multiple differences to everyday lie. It is worthwhile
or Nepalis to cross to India to buy manuactured goods and oodstuffs, which
are cheaper there. Likewise or many years Indians traveled to Nepal to buy
Chinese goods that used to be unavailable in India. When the two states clash,
there are severe consequences or the movement o goods. This happened in
, during what Nepal called an Indian blockade and India saw as a hiatus
in negotiations o the Trade and Transit Treaty caused by Nepali intransi-
gence. India closed all but two o the permitted border-crossing points (see
map .), and supplies o petrol and kerosene in Kathmandu quickly ran out.
The consequent protests in Kathmandu were part o what led to the revolution
or peoples movement o there.
The existence o two separate states also has serious consequences or pol-
itics. It was clear at the time o the election in Nepal in April that those
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Introduction |
on the Nepalese side were ully engaged; they queued or hours in the sun to
cast their vote. People just over the border on the Indian side were indifferent;
they had their own member o the legislative assembly in Patna and member
o Parliament in Delhi. They were simply waiting or the election to be over so
that business would pick up again. There are, moreover, increasing numbers
o armed police rom both states positioned at regular intervals along the bor-
der to check on the illegal movement o goods or terrorists (Shrestha ).
Physically the Tarai region looks like India, and indeed it is culturally and
linguistically continuous with neighboring areas on the Indian side o the
border. The violent demonstrations and clashes in the Nepalese Tarai in Jan-
uary and January were viewed in Kathmandu as instigated by Indiaand as threatening national unity. What the riots in act indicated was that
the Madheshis (people o Indian descent and culture in the Tarai) wished to
be a part o Nepals process o state restructuring and would no longer accept
being lef out. The center (Kathmandu) was no longer viewed with ear, and
Madheshis were determined to seize the moment to overthrow a state system
that in their eyes was no better than a orm o colonial domination. For their
part hill Nepalis can never be persuaded to see the Tarai as the Madheshis do,
much as the Sinhalese in Sri Lanka will never sympathize with the situation
o Tamils. Both hill Nepalis and Sinhalese can be described by that hackneyedphrase a majority with a minority complex, that is, a majority in their own
country liable to behave with all the insensitivity and indignant aggression o
an oppressed minority toward their own minority that is identified with the
majority in the next-door big neighbor.
A Four-Part Model o State-People Relations at the Border
The arguments I have been making can be summarized in a our-part model
o state-people relations at the border, as shown in table Intr.. This attempts
to capture some o the key differences between different types o borders and
different responses to power in modern and premodern situations in North-
ern South Asia. What is proposed is a rough-and-ready typology, put orward
in ull awareness o the limits o such typologizing. The case studies in this
volume support the conventional wisdom (ound equally in contemporary
anthropology and in human geography) that borders need to be understood
as social and historical processes (Paasi ); any attempt to orge a bor-
der theory without simultaneously theorizing the state and society is neither
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attainable nor desirable (Paasi ; c. Piliavskys skeptical stance toward
borderland theory in chapter , this volume). Thus the model is not advancedas a total explanation, nor does it aspire to be such, but it is put orward in the
belie that it has heuristic value as a point o depar ture or detailed investiga-
tions o particular places and interactions. All descriptions are, explicitly or
implicitly, comparative. To describe a border as sof is to contrast it to borders
that are hard. It is surely better thereore to reflect on the concepts we use and
to attempt some degree o conceptual clarity.
A processual and historical approach presumes that actual social and polit-
ical interactions are made up o complex mixtures o assumptions and expec-
tations. Little is gained and considerable conusion is engendered by pulling
apart social and political practices and sticking labels such as modern, eu-
dal, backward, or orward on the parts. Thus the oppositions that underlie
table Intr. are relative and contextual. What counts as modern in one era
will appear as traditional in another. As discussed earlier, the colonial period
saw the very beginnings o modern ideas about fixed borders; rom todays
perspective, the actual practice o those times was highly traditional, and the
colonial state was ofen content to dramatize power, in practice allowing large
areas o relatively state-ree space to remain on the rontier (which they calleda buffer zone).
. State-people-border configurations in Northern South Asia
Population Premodern Modern
Thin People move or run away,
state cannot extract much;
no real borders, rather: fluid
borderlands (relatively state-
ree spaces)
Army presence ensures
rontiers; people either
(i) display patriotism as a
counterbalance to cultural
affinities across the border,
or (ii) are caught between
insurgents and the state
Dense Cultural and socialcomplexity (high levels o
ritual and tradition) provides
some protection rom
oppressive rule
State rules by day, mafias etc.by night; there is ofen high
penetration o state apparatus
by local interests
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Introduction |
Another target o the processual approach is another avorite trope o mod-
ernism: the requently posited boundary between state and society. How-
ever, at the level o ideas o the state, the state-society distinction remains
powerul. Ethnographic study reveals that many people in South Asia see
themselves as part o groups deserving o special attention rom the state,
while others, even today, show a surprising ability to resist the ideas and pres-
sures o modernist governmentality.
One key variable concerns the differences in both capacity and aspiration
between modern and premodern states. Premodern states, as Scott has em-
phasized, are interested in controlling people in order to maximize revenue.
The people, on the other hand, will either adopt state-fleeing or state-adaptingstrategies (and sometimes a mixture o the two). In the premodern situation
there are only pockets o dense population where, typically, a single premod-
ern state will be based. Power radiates out rom such centers; where exactly it
ends cannot be, and does not need to be, specified precisely. Ambiguity may
be an advantage to all sides. At the center, people adopt strategies o deerence
and humility but above all give a high value to ritual, to cultural complexity,
and to traditions as guarantors o rights. These act as some kind o protection
rom the oppression and arbitrariness o rulers.
In the modern situation, even in areas o relatively low population, there aremuch higher levels o population generally. The state now has the technology
to control people way beyond the dreams o premodern states. Nonetheless
there are strict limits to what the state can ensure. Where the population is
relatively thin, the army can dominate and local people are likely to identiy
with the state (as described by Gupta in chapter , Mathur in chapter , and
Mishra in chapter ; it was also a strategy adopted by some Lhotshampas
o Bhutan, described by Evans in chapter ). Alternatively, where ethnically
based insurgent groups are well entrenched and can easily operate across the
international border, the population may have no option but to identiy with
them and will be caught between these groups and the state. Farrelly describes
a variant o this situation or northern Burma (Myanmar) in chapter , as
does Joshi or Nagaland in chapter ; this is part o the situation described by
Evans in chapter as well. Where the borderland population is dense, on the
other hand, we have a situation like the Nepal-India border, where the state
is present but also in competition with many small armed and illegal groups.
These groups may be politically motivated or driven more simply by greed
(and the precise mix, not to mention perceptions o the mix, may fluctuateover time and by context).
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| DA V ID N . GELLNER
The chapters in this book illustrate, or a variety o Northern South Asian
cases, the two right-hand boxes o table Intr.. Chapters , , , , , and
may be taken to illustrate the dense population options, and chapters , , ,
and the more sparse variant though the interpretation o the Naga and
Bhutanese cases might well be contested. Even though all these cases lie,
grosso modo, within the two modern quadrants, there remain plenty o ea-
tures o contemporary social practice habits o avoiding the state or engag-
ing with it ritualistically that can be understood only with reerence to the
two premodern quadrants. Past state effects live on in the present, despite
the act that the technology o the state has now changed beyond recognition.
The boundary between the state and society more generally, as all the chap-ters here show, is no more clear-cut and easy to discern in everyday lie than
the border between two states. State models have effects, and the idea o the
state is a powerul one; how the state operates at its borders is the outcome o
a complex historical dance and interaction between people(s) and state rep-
resentatives (who are sometimes deeply embedded in local networks them-
selves, sometimes not). The case studies assembled here demonstrate border
situations scattered along the arc o Indias northern borders, but at all o
them, even at the Nepal-India border, there is, as Van Schendel argues in the
aferword, anxiety, contestation, and ractiousness. There is also, I wouldadd, no easy consensus among scholars on how to interpret this anxiety and
contestation, and I have not attempted to impose consensus on the contribu-
tions to this volume.
Nonetheless, placing these diverse case studies and the different state con-
texts side by side is, I hope and believe, instructive. I there are important
methodological lessons to be derived rom ethnographic approaches to these
questions, o the kind attempted in this book, they are () that the interpreta-
tion o lie at borders cannot be deduced rom state classifications or nation-
alist ideologies, () that borderlands are highly variable and need to be studied
rom the bottom up, taking into account multiple points o view, and () that
thereore the study o local politics is too important to be lef to political sci-
entists, legal scholars, or diplomats.
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Introduction |
. The history o the term is examined below. For helpul comments on earlier ver-
sions o this introduction, I would like to thank D. P. Martinez, W. van Schendel,
J. Whelpton, S. Subedi, R. Guha, J. Sharma, A. Piliavsky, R. Gupta, S. L. Hausner,
J. Cons, and two anonymous reviewers or Duke University Press. I would also like to
thank Kanti Bajpai or advice. None o them should be held even remotely responsible
or what I have written.
. The State . . . does not exist in the phenomenal world; it is a fiction o the phi-
losophers. What does exist is an organization, i.e. a collection o individual human
beings connected by a complex system o relations. . . . There is no such thing as the
power o the State; there are only, in reality, powers o individuals kings, prime min-
isters, magistrates, policemen, party bosses, and voters (Radcliffe-Brown : xxiii).. One may compare Shaw and Stewarts () recommendation that anthropolo-
gists should eschew the attempt to find syncretism and restrict themselves to studying
discourses o syncretism (and antisyncretism).
. For Grays poem, see Thomas Gray Archive, www.thomasgray.org.uk; or Walter
Scotts use o it, Scott (: ). I have ollowed Scotts slight misreading (Who,
while or And while). For a critique o simplistic views o the highland-lowland di-
vide in Scotland, see Pittock (: ).
. See Campbell () on the way in which the Tamangs, who live both north o and
all around the Kathmandu Valley, view themselves as people in between, outside state
schemes on either side (Tibetan Buddhist to the north, Indianizing and Hindu to thesouth). See Krauskopff () on the Tharus attempts to evade the state by migrating
to the ar west o Nepal.
. For example, Martnez ; Wilson and Donnan a. See the website o the
Association o Borderland Studies (absborderlands.org) and their newsletter, La Fron-
tera. There are also various regional associations or the study o borders, most re-
cently the Asian Borderlands Research Network (asianborderlands.net). For useul
overviews o the literature, see Baud and Van Schendel ; Newman a, b;
Donnan and Wilson ; Wilson and Donnan a. Wastl-Walter () and Wilson
and Donnan (b) are two useul collections that survey the emerging global field
o borderland studies. Heyman () is a critique o the woolly and ethnographically
unocused way borders and boundary crossing are ofen invoked in some influential
anthropological theorizing.
. Van Schendel a: ; aferword, this volume. On methodological nationalism
more generally, see Ammelina et al. (), and on methodological nationalism within
anthropology, Gellner ().
. That there may be a particularly gendered aspect to this suffering is suggested by
Banerjee () and Banerjee and Basu Ray Chaudhury ().
. Heyman () argues exactly this point or the U.S.-Mexico border.
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| DA V ID N. GELLNE R
. As ar as I know, we invented the term, but o course it is possible that we were
unconsciously recycling a nomenclature that one o us had encountered elsewhere.
Afer drafing these lines, I ound that Kanak Dixit and others used the term North
Southasia in to cover the area rom Uttar Pradesh to Aghanistan (Himal ).
. See Maxwell () on the history o Indias northern rontiers. The British
wished to use the Chinese to limit Russian expansion southward, but the Chinese
shied away rom most British attempts to settle common boundaries with them ().
. This did not prevent there being plenty o ambiguities and rontier disputes
between the Company and Nepal in practice. Michael (, ) records the rus-
trations o late eighteenth- and early nineteenth-century officials o the East India
Company. On the ground, tenurial relationships could be multiplex, land moved in
and out o cultivation, and cultivators moved around according to the political situ-
ation, with the result that the officials could never be sure where the rontier between
Company territory and the Gorkhas land was.
. Jayal (: ch. ) describes the difficulties o those who do manage to get across to
India as reugees rom Pakistan and their struggles to achieve Indian citizenship and
the benefits that brings with it (access to Below Poverty Line ration card, etc.).
. See Baruah ; chapters , this volume.
. For an incident at the Hungary-Romania border illustrating how permeable it is
or local people, even when officials o the state maintain that it is sealed, see Donnan
and Wilson (: ).
. Yet a third orce, the Indo-Tibet Border Police Force, guards the India-Tibet/China border rom Ladakh in the west to Arunachal in the east (see itbpolice.nic.in).
The border with Myanmar is guarded by the Assam Rifles, who come under the army;
replacing them with the , who come under the Home Ministry, has been mooted,
and resisted, in recent times.
. See Government o India, Ministry o Home Affairs, accessed August ,
www.ssb.nic.in, under about us and history, accessed August .
. See the website, accessed August , bs.nic.in.
. Berti and Tarabout () is a collection that seeks to establish that the notion
o territory was, contrary to conventional stereotype, important in South Asia and
that sometimes boundaries were precisely demarcated. The editors concede, however,that ar rom a lack o territory in pre-colonial India, it could be said that there was
an excess o them. But these territories were multiple, sometimes discontinuous, and
overlapping, as very different rights applied to the same tract o land ().
. No doubt rice-growing peasants usually also, and where sae to do so, adopt
the oot-dragging and dissimulation described in Scotts Weapons of the Weak ().
. Van Beek () describes how Ladakhis decided to claim Scheduled Tribe sta-
tus in the s, a sel-ascription o backwardness that evidently would have been
unthinkable in Ladakh twenty years earlier but had already begun in other parts o
India. I have explored the tribe-caste contrast in the context o the Kathmandu Valley
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Introduction |
in Gellner (). See Shneiderman and Turin (), Kapila (), and Shah ()
on the politics o tribal status in India.
. For more on the paradoxical ways in which Nepali ethnic activists indigenist
discourses invert traditional values, see Lecomte-Tilouine ().
. See Shrestha () or an overview o the border issues at stake between Nepal
and India. The open border is not guaranteed by any treaty; it was simply, until re-
cently, taken or granted. The Nepal-India Peace and Friendship Treaty o guar-
antees the citizens o one country the same privileges as granted the citizens o the
other, that is, reciprocal equal treatment o each others citizens, without speciying
that the border will be open.
. An (Other Backward Classes) movement has developed in these parts o the
Nepalese Tarai, which is in effect a movement against Yadav dominance. This is doubly
ironic because the language o has no official standing in Nepal at all, and because
normally, in India, the Yadavs would themselves be considered paradigmatic s.
. On ethnic geography, see P. Sharma (); or caste and ethnic breakdowns by
district according to the census, see ().
. The open border was blamed or the uprisings in Kathmandu, but, in view o
the advantages (easy access to India and its employment opportunities), Jha ()
concludes, The border is the best thing to have happened or millions o Nepalis.
. Although there is a long way to go beore Madheshis are ully incorporated into
Nepals state structures, the act that in the new republican setup ollowing the aboli-
tion o the monarchy in both the president and the vice president are Madheshisis symbolic o a very real shif.
. South and Southeast Asia do not seem to have developed the republican city
states, rejecting monarchical rule, that emerged in Europe, though kings ofen had to
contend with powerul aristocracies, as in Malla-period Lalitpur, Nepal.
. See Mann (: ch. ) or a theorization o the ever-increasing powers o the
modern state.
. As he has put it elsewhere, The states partially obscured view o borderland
activities, the gap between peoples understandings o what they are doing versus the
states, inconsistent notions o illegality, and the presence o other legalities across the
border, all make, or the state, the borderland an area where by definition criminalityis rie and sovereignty under constant threat (Abraham and Van Schendel : ).
. A cogent, book-length argument or the anthropological study o borderlands is
made by Donnan and Wilson ().