BOUCHAT v BALTIMORE RAVENS

8/22/2019 BOUCHAT v BALTIMORE RAVENS

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PUBLISHED

UNI TED STATES COURT OF APPEALSFOR THE FOURTH CI RCUI T

No. 12-2543

FREDERI CK E. BOUCHAT,

Pl ai nt i f f - Appel l ant ,

v.

BALTI MORE RAVENS LI MI TED PARTNERSHI P,

Def endant - Appel l ee.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -

I NTERNATI ONAL DOCUMENTARY ASSOCI ATI ON; FI LM I NDEPENDENT;MOTI ON PI CTURE ASSOCI ATI ON OF AMERI CA, I NCORPORATED,

Ami ci Suppor t i ng Appel l ee.

No. 12-2548

FREDERI CK E. BOUCHAT,

Pl ai nt i f f - Appel l ant ,

v.

NFL ENTERPRI SES LLC; NFL NETWORK SERVI CES, I NC. ; NFLPRODUCTI ONS LLC, d/ b/ a NFL Fi l ms, a subsi di ary of NFL

Vent ur es L. P. ,

Def endant s - Appel l ees.

- - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - -


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I NTERNATI ONAL DOCUMENTARY ASSOCI ATI ON; FI LM I NDEPENDENT;MOTI ON PI CTURE ASSOCI ATI ON OF AMERI CA, I NCORPORATED,

Ami ci Suppor t i ng Appel l ees.

Appeal s f r om t he Uni t ed St at es Di st r i ct Cour t f or t he Di st r i ctof Mar yl and, at Bal t i mor e. Mar vi n J . Gar bi s, Seni or Di st r i ctJ udge. ( 1: 12- cv- 01905- MJ G; 1: 12- cv- 01495- MJ G)

Ar gued: Oct ober 31, 2013 Deci ded: December 17, 2013

Bef ore WI LKI NSON, DUNCAN, and DI AZ, Ci r cui t J udges.

Af f i r med by publ i shed opi ni on. J udge Wi l ki nson wr ot e t heopi ni on, i n whi ch J udge Duncan and J udge Di az j oi ned.

ARGUED: Howar d J . Schul man, SCHULMAN & KAUFMAN, LLC, Bal t i mor e,Maryl and, f or Appel l ant . Robert Ll oyd Raskopf , QUI NN EMANUELURQUHART & SULLI VAN, LLP, New York, New York, f or Appel l ees. ONBRIEF: Mar i e J . I gnozzi , SCHULMAN & KAUFMAN, LLC, Bal t i more,Maryl and, f or Appel l ant . Mark D. Gatel y, HOGAN LOVELLS US LLP,Bal t i mor e, Mar yl and; Sanf or d I . Wei sbur st , Todd Ant en, Rachel E.

Epst ei n, QUI NN EMANUEL URQUHART & SULLI VAN, LLP, New Yor k, NewYork, f or Appel l ees. J ul i e A. Ahrens, Ti mot hy Gr eene, STANFORDLAW SCHOOL CENTER FOR I NTERNET & SOCI ETY, St anf ord, Cal i f orni a,f or I nt er nat i onal Document ar y Associ at i on, Mot i on Pi ct ur eAssoci at i on of Amer i ca, I nc. , and Fi l m I ndependent , Ami ciSuppor t i ng Appel l ees.


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WI LKI NSON, Ci r cui t J udge:

Thi s case present s t he l at est chapter i n ext ensi ve

l i t i gat i on over t he Bal t i mor e Ravens Fl yi ng B l ogo. Freder i ck

Bouchat chal l enges t he Nat i onal Foot bal l League s use of t he

l ogo i n t hr ee vi deos f eat ur ed on i t s t el evi si on net wor k and

var i ous websi t es, as wel l as t he Bal t i mor e Ravens di spl ay of

i mages t hat i ncl ude t he l ogo as par t of exhi bi t s i n i t s st adi um

Cl ub Level seat i ng ar ea. The di st r i ct cour t f ound t hat t he

def endant s use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n bot h set t i ngs was f ai r

and t her ef or e di d not i nf r i nge Bouchat s copyr i ght . We af f i r m.

Any ot her r esul t woul d vi si t adver se consequences not onl y upon

f i l mmaki ng but upon vi sual depi ct i ons of al l sor t s.

I .

I n J une 1996, mont hs bef or e t he begi nni ng of t he Bal t i mor e

Ravens i naugur al season, t he or gani zat i on unvei l ed t he Fl yi ng B

l ogo as i t s symbol . The l ogo f eat ur ed a gol d shi el d wi t h a

pur pl e B at i t s cent er and pur pl e wi ngs ext endi ng f r om ei t her

si de. Freder i ck Bouchat , t he pl ai nt i f f and appel l ant her e,

not i ced t hat t he l ogo bore a st r ong resembl ance t o one he had

cr eat ed and pr ovi ded t o the chai r man of t he Maryl and St adi um

Aut hor i t y mont hs ear l i er , t o be passed on t o the Ravens

f r anchi se. Bouchat al so r equest ed compensat i on, asser t edl y of a

nomi nal nat ur e, i n exchange f or t he Ravens use of t he l ogo.


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Upon r ecogni zi ng t he l ogo, Bouchat obt ai ned a copyr i ght

r egi st r at i on on hi s dr awi ngs but di d not cont act t he Ravens at

t hat t i me.

I n May of 1997, af t er t he Ravens had pl ayed t hei r f i r st

season, Bouchat f i l ed hi s f i r st l awsui t agai nst t he Ravens and a

subsi di ar y of t he Nat i onal Foot bal l League ( NFL) , al l egi ng

t hat t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i nf r i nged t he copyr i ght i n t hr ee of hi s

dr awi ngs. Ul t i mat el y, t hi s cour t r ef used t o set asi de a j ur y s

ver di ct t hat t he def endant s wer e l i abl e as t o one of t he

dr awi ngs. SeeBouchat v. Bal t i mor e Ravens, I nc. , 241 F. 3d 350,

353 & n. 1, 357 ( 4t h Ci r . 2000) ( Bouchat I ) .

Af t er t he 1998 season, t he Bal t i more Ravens adopt ed a new

l ogo ( t he Raven Prof i l e Logo) and no l onger f eat ur ed t he

Fl yi ng B on t hei r uni f orms and merchandi se. We have subsequent l y

i ssued t hr ee more deci si ons i n l awsui t s brought by Bouchat

r egar di ng t he Fl yi ng B l ogo. See Bouchat v. Bal t i mor e Ravens

Foot bal l Cl ub, I nc. , 346 F. 3d 514 ( 4t h Ci r . 2003) ( Bouchat I I )

( af f i r mi ng a j ur y awar d of zer o dol l ar s f or t he or i gi nal

i nf r i ngement ) ; Bouchat v. Bon- Ton Dep' t St or es, I nc. , 506 F. 3d

315, 328 ( 4t h Ci r . 2007) ( Bouchat I I I ) ( af f i r mi ng a number of

j udgments i n f avor of NFL l i censees t hat had used t he Fl yi ng B

l ogo because Bouchat was precl uded f r om obt ai ni ng act ual

damages agai nst t hem) ; Bouchat v. Bal t i mor e Ravens Lt d. P' shi p,

619 F. 3d 301 ( 4t h Ci r . 2010) ( Bouchat I V) ( f i ndi ng t hat


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f oot age of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n season hi ghl i ght f i l ms and i n a

shor t vi deo shown on t he l arge scr een dur i ng Ravens home games

was not f ai r use, but t hat t he Ravens di spl ay of t he l ogo i n

i mages i n i t s cor por at e l obby was) .

Bouchat commenced t he sui t s curr ent l y bef or e thi s cour t i n

May and J une of 2012. He seeks t o, i nt er al i a, enj oi n def endant s

f r om usi ng t he Fl yi ng B Logo i nci dent al l y i n vi deos and

photogr aphs t hat were not at i ssue i n Bouchat I V. Bouchat has

al l eged i nf r i ngement i n t hr ee vi deos t hat appear ed on t he NFL

Net wor k, as wel l as on t he NFL. com or ot her websi t es. These

vi deos f eat ur e f l eet i ng and i nf r equent f oot age of t he Fl yi ng B

l ogo. He has al so chal l enged t he Ravens use of pi ct ur es wi t h

t he Fl yi ng B Logo i n hi st or i cal exhi bi t s i n t he Cl ub Level ar ea

of M&T Bank St adi um.

The di st r i ct cour t f ound, on summar y j udgment , t hat t he

def endant s l i mi t ed use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo qual i f i ed as f ai r

use. For bot h t he vi deos and t he phot ogr aph di spl ays, i t appl i ed

each of t he f our f ai r use f actor s l ai d out i n t he copyr i ght

st at ut e: ( 1) t he pur pose and char act er of t he use; ( 2) t he

natur e of t he copyr i ght ed work; ( 3) t he amount and

subst ant i al i t y of t he por t i on used; and ( 4) t he ef f ect of t he

use upon t he pot ent i al mar ket f or t he copyr i ght ed wor k. 17U. S. C. 107. For bot h t he vi deos and t he phot os, t he di st r i ct

cour t f ound t hat t he f i r st f act or counsel ed i n f avor of f ai r


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use. I n par t i cul ar , t he di st r i ct cour t emphasi zed t hat t he use

of t he l ogo was t r ansf ormat i ve, whi ch t he Supr eme Cour t has

descr i bed as a use t hat adds somethi ng new, wi t h a f ur t her

pur pose or di f f er ent char act er , al t er i ng t he f i r st wi t h new

expr ess i on, meani ng, or message. Campbel l v. Acuf f - Rose Musi c,

I nc. , 510 U. S. 569, 579 ( 1994) . Because of t he subst ant i al l y

t r ansf or mat i ve nat ur e of t he uses, t he second and t hi r d f act or s

di d not wei gh agai nst f ai r use. Di scussi ng t he f our t h f act or ,

t he di st r i ct cour t f ound t hat t he use of t he l ogo i n t he vi deos

and di spl ays was mi ni mal l y commerci al , and t hat t he

subst ant i al l y t r ansf or mat i ve nat ur e of t he use of f set any

negat i ve ef f ect on t he pot ent i al mar ket f or t he Fl yi ng B l ogo.

The cour t t hen wei ghed t he f our f act or s t oget her f or bot h

t he vi deos and t he di spl ays, and det er mi ned t hat t he f i r st

f act or counsel ed st r ongl y i n f avor of f ai r use, whi l e t he

r emai ni ng f act or s wer e ei t her neut r al or mi l i t at ed onl y sl i ght l y

agai nst f ai r use. Consequent l y, i t f ound t he uses i n bot h

set t i ngs f ai r . Thi s appeal f ol l owed.

I I .

The power over patent and copyr i ght grant ed t o Congress i n

Ar t i cl e I , Sect i on 8 of t he Const i t ut i on i s i nt ended t o

mot i vat e t he cr eat i ve act i vi t y of aut hor s and i nvent or s by t he

pr ovi si on of a speci al r ewar d, and t o al l ow t he publ i c access t o


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t he pr oduct s of t hei r geni us af t er t he l i mi t ed per i od of

excl usi ve cont r ol has expi r ed. Sony Cor p. of Am. v. Uni ver sal

Ci t y St udi os, I nc. , 464 U. S. 417, 429 ( 1984) . To ef f ect uat e t hi s

publ i c benef i t , 106 of t he Copyr i ght Act gr ant s a bundl e of

excl usi ve r i ght s t o t he owner of t he copyr i ght , i ncl udi ng t he

r i ght s t o publ i sh, copy, and di st r i but e t he aut hor s wor k.

Har per & Row Publ i sher s, I nc. v. Nat i on Ent er s. , 471 U. S. 539,

546- 47 ( 1985) ; see al so 17 U. S. C. 106. I n or der t o vi ndi cat e

t he same const i t ut i onal pol i cy of pr omot i ng t he pr ogr ess of

sci ence and t he usef ul ar t s t hat under l i es t he Pat ent and

Copyr i ght Cl ause, cour t s devel oped t he doct r i ne of f ai r use,

whi ch f ost er s new cr eat i on and i nnovat i on by l i mi t i ng t he

abi l i t y of wr i t er s and aut hor s t o cont r ol t he use of t hei r

works. Harper & Row, 471 U. S. at 549 ( i nt ernal quotat i on marks

omi t t ed) .

The Copyr i ght Act of 1976 codi f i ed t he f ai r use doct r i ne

f or t he f i r st t i me, creat i ng 107 as a stat ut or y except i on t o

t he t ypi cal pr ot ect i ons pr ovi ded t o copyr i ght hol der s i n 106.

Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 307 ( ci t i ng Campbel l v. Acuf f - Rose

Musi c, I nc. , 510 U. S. 569, 576 ( 1994) ) . Congr ess meant 107 t o

r est at e t he pr esent j udi ci al doct r i ne of f ai r use, not t o

change, nar r ow, or enl ar ge i t i n any way and i nt ended that

cour t s cont i nue t he common- l aw t r adi t i on of f ai r use

adj udi cat i on. Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 577 ( i nt er nal quot at i on


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mar ks omi t t ed) . As a r esul t , t he f ai r use doct r i ne cont i nues t o

serve as an equi t abl e r ul e of r eason, f or whi ch no gener al l y

appl i cabl e def i ni t i on i s possi bl e. Sundeman v. Seaj ay Soc' y,

I nc. , 142 F. 3d 194, 202 ( 4t h Ci r . 1998) ( i nt er nal quot at i on

mar ks omi t t ed) .

Nonet hel ess, Congr ess di d pr ovi de a l i st of f our f act or s

t hat gui de t he det er mi nat i on of whet her a par t i cul ar use i s a

f ai r use. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 308 ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks

omi t t ed) . Those f act or s are:

( 1) t he pur pose and char act er of t he use, i ncl udi ngwhet her such use i s of a commer ci al nat ur e or i s f ornonpr of i t educat i onal pur poses;

( 2) t he nat ur e of t he copyr i ght ed wor k;

( 3) t he amount and subst ant i al i t y of t he por t i on usedi n r el at i on t o the copyr i ght ed wor k as a whol e; and

( 4) t he ef f ect of t he use upon t he pot ent i al mar ket

f or or val ue of t he copyr i ght ed wor k.

17 U. S. C. 107. These f act or s cannot be t r eat ed i n i sol at i on

f r om one anot her , but i nst ead must be wei ghed t oget her , i n

l i ght of t he pur poses of copyr i ght . Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 578.

Thi s bal anci ng necessi t at es a case- by- case anal ysi s i n any

f ai r use i nqui r y. I d. at 577. Our pr ecedent s have pl aced pr i mar y

f ocus on t he f i r st f act or . See Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 308- 11,

313- 14; Bond v. Bl um, 317 F. 3d 385, 394- 95 (4t h Ci r . 2003) ;

Sundeman, 142 F. 3d at 202- 04. A f i ndi ng of f ai r use i s a


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compl et e def ense t o an i nf r i ngement cl ai m: t he f ai r use of a

copyr i ght ed wor k . . . i s not an i nf r i ngement of copyr i ght . 17

U. S. C. 107.

A f ai r use def ense present s a mi xed quest i on of l aw and

f act . Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d 307. We r evi ew t he di st r i ct cour t s

l egal concl usi ons de novo and i t s f act ual f i ndi ngs f or cl ear

err or . Sundeman, 142 F. 3d at 201.

I I I .

Bouchat f i r st chal l enges t he NFL s f l eet i ng uses of t he

Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t hr ee vi deos f eat ur ed on t he NFL Network and

var i ous websi t es. Bouchat cl ai ms t hat t hese uses, descr i bed

bel ow, ar e not f ai r use and consequent l y i nf r i nge hi s copyr i ght .

For t he r easons t hat f ol l ow, we hol d t hat t he NFL s i nci dent al

di spl ays of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t he vi deos ar e i ndeed f ai r use.

A.

The t hree vi deos Bouchat chal l enges wer e produced by t he

NFL f or di spl ay on t he NFL network, and were al so f eat ur ed on

websi t es i ncl udi ng NFL. com and Hul u. com. Two of t he vi deos wer e

par t of t he f i l m ser i es Top Ten, each epi sode of whi ch f eat ur es

a count down of t en memorabl e pl ayers, coaches, or event s i n NFL

hi st or y. The t hi r d vi deo i s par t of t he Sound FX ser i es, whi ch

pr ovi des vi ewer s wi t h an i nsi de l ook at t he si ght s and sounds of

t he NFL t hr ough pl ayers who wear mi cr ophones. Consi st ent wi t h


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our r esponsi bi l i t y t o exami ne each use on a case- by- case

basi s, Campbel l v. Acuf f - Rose Musi c, I nc. , 510 U. S. 569, 577

( 1994) , we exami ne t he var i ous vi deos i n det ai l i n or der t o

det er mi ne the nat ur e of t he use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n each.

Top Ten: Dr af t Cl asses r ecount s and anal yzes i n shor t

segment s t he t en best NFL dr af t cl asses of al l t i me. I t begi ns

by expl ai ni ng t hat t he pur pose of t he vi deo i s t o decl ar e whi ch

dr af t cl asses ar e most i mpr essi ve. The vi deo f eat ur es a f our -

mi nut e segment on t he Bal t i more Ravens 1996 dr af t cl ass, r ated

number si x by t he show. I t cont ai ns i nt er vi ews wi t h pl ayer s,

j our nal i st s, and Ravens f r ont of f i ce personnel r egar di ng t he

t eam s move t o Bal t i more and t he qual i t y of t he 1996 dr af t

cl ass. I t al so shows hi st or i cal f oot age f r om t he day of t he

dr af t . These i nt er vi ews and voi ceover s make up t he vast maj or i t y

of t he vi deo. I n t wo spot s, however , t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s

vi si bl e f or l ess t han one second: once on a banner and a hel met

at t he openi ng of t he segment , and agai n on t he si de of a hel met

dur i ng game f oot age t oward the end of t he segment . The f our

mi nut e vi deo uses i t s i nt er vi ews and hi st or i cal f oot age,

i ncl udi ng t he except i onal l y br i ef appear ances of t he Fl yi ng B

l ogo, t o t el l t he st or y of t he Ravens 1996 dr af t cl ass and i t s

i mpact on t he new organi zat i on.

The second vi deo, Top Ten: Dr af t Bust s, al so begi ns wi t h

nar r at i on t hat expl ai ns t hat t he epi sode wi l l showcase t he l east


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successf ul dr af t pi cks. I t t hen f eat ur es shor t segment s on each

unsuccessf ul pi ck or set of pi cks, i ncl udi ng t he number ei ght

bust Lawr ence Phi l l i ps, who was sel ect ed by t he St . Loui s Rams

i n 1996. The vi deo f eat ur es di scussi on of Phi l l i ps s col l ege

car eer , i nt er vi ews wi t h t hose pr esent at t he t i me, news r epor t s

det ai l i ng hi s t r oubl e wi t h t he l aw, and f oot age f r om pr act i ces

and games. The segment r ecount s Phi l l i ps s promi se as a f ootbal l

pl ayer and t he pr obl ems t hat pr event ed hi m f r om f ul f i l l i ng i t .

At t he end of t he segment , a def ensi ve pl ayer t ackl es Phi l l i ps,

and i t i s possi bl e t o cat ch a gl i mpse of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo on

t he pl ayer s hel met i f one chances t o l ook at i t f or t he

f r act i on of a second i t i s vi s i bl e.

The f i nal vi deo, Sound FX: Ray Lewi s, f eatures a col l ect i on

of f oot age and audi o of Ray Lewi s t hr oughout hi s career . The 24-

mi nut e vi deo i s spl i t i nt o ei ght sect i ons, each of whi ch t el l s

t he st or y of a di f f er ent aspect of Lewi s s car eer t hough vi deo

f oot age and recor ded st at ement s by Lewi s and those ar ound hi m.

One of t he segment s f ocuses on Ray Lewi s at t r ai ni ng camp and

l ast s f or r oughl y two mi nut es. Dur i ng an ei ght - second per i od of

t he t r ai ni ng camp segment , t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s vi si bl e on some

of t he Ravens pl ayer s hel met s. And t wi ce i n ot her segment s of

t he show, as Lewi s makes a t ackl e, t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s

par t i al l y vi si bl e f or l ess t han one second. Ot her wi se, t he Raven


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Pr of i l e l ogo i s t he onl y l ogo vi si bl e t hr oughout Sound FX: Ray

Lewi s.

Bouchat ar gues t hat t he use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t hese

t hr ee vi deos does not qual i f y as f ai r use. Fi r st , Bouchat ar gues

t hat t hi s cour t s deci si on i n Bouchat I V bar s t he NFL s f ai r use

cl ai m because t he hi ghl i ght vi deos at i ssue i n t hat case ar e

mat er i al l y i ndi st i ngui shabl e f r om t he vi deos i n t hi s case.

Appel l ant s Br . at 29. He f ur t her cont ends t hat an i ndependent

assessment of t he f ai r use f act or s r equi r es a f i ndi ng of

i nf r i ngement . Focusi ng l ar gel y on t he f i r st f ai r use f actor - -

t he pur pose and char act er of t he use - - Bouchat cont ends t hat

t he use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo was not t r ansf or mat i ve. I t i s, he

cl ai ms, bei ng used i n t he same way i n t hese vi deos as i t was i n

t he i nf r i ngi ng vi deos i n Bouchat I V: t o i dent i f y Ravens pl ayer s.

And even i f t he use wer e t r ansf or mat i ve, t he di st r i ct cour t

er r ed by not wei ghi ng t he t r ansf or mat i on agai nst t he

commer ci al i t y of t he use under t he f i r st f act or , as wel l as

agai nst t he remai ni ng 107 f act or s. Fi nal l y, Bouchat di sput es

t he di st r i ct cour t s f i ndi ng t hat t he def endant s act ed i n good

f ai t h, ar gui ng t hat t hey wer e ser i al i nf r i nger s whose bad f ai t h

was al l t oo evi dent .

B.

The f i r st f ai r use f act or f ocuses on t he pur pose and

char act er of t he use, i ncl udi ng whet her such use i s of a


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commer ci al nat ur e or i s f or nonpr of i t educat i onal pur poses. 17

U. S. C. 107( 1) . The pr eambl e t o 107 l i st s exampl es of uses

t hat ar e f ai r : cri t i ci sm, comment , news r epor t i ng, t eachi ng . .

. schol ar shi p, or r esear ch. I d. 107. These exampl es serve as

a gui de[ ] f or anal ysi s under t he f i r st f act or . Campbel l , 510

U. S. at 578. The essent i al i nqui r y under t he f i r st f act or can be

separated i nt o t wo part s: whether t he new work i s

t r ansf or mat i ve, see i d. at 579, and t he extent t o whi ch t he use

ser ves a commerci al pur pose. See Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 310- 11.

We di scuss each i n t ur n.

1.

A t r ansf or mat i ve use i s one t hat empl oy[s] t he quot ed

mat t er i n a di f f er ent manner or f or a di f f er ent pur pose f r om t he

or i gi nal , t hus t r ansf or mi ng i t . A. V. ex r el . Vander hye v.

i Par adi gms, LLC, 562 F. 3d 630, 638 ( 4t h Ci r . 2009) ( quot i ng

Pi err e N. Leval , Comment ary, Toward a Fai r Use St andard, 103

Har v. L. Rev. 1105, 1111 ( 1990) ) . Tr ansf or mat i ve wor ks r ar el y

vi ol at e copyr i ght pr ot ect i ons because t he goal of copyr i ght , t o

pr omot e sci ence and t he ar t s, i s gener al l y f ur t her ed by the

cr eat i on of t r ansf or mat i ve wor ks. Such wor ks t hus l i e at t he

hear t of t he f ai r use doct r i ne' s guar ant ee of br eat hi ng space

wi t hi n t he conf i nes of copyr i ght . Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 579.

I mpor t ant l y, a t r ansf or mat i ve use i s one t hat adds somet hi ng


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new t o the or i gi nal pur pose of t he copyr i ght ed wor k. I d. ;

Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 314.

Each of t he vi deos i n t hi s case i s i nt ended t o pr esent a

narr at i ve about some aspect of Ravens or NFL hi st ory. Top Ten:

Dr af t Cl asses r ecount s t he Ravens 1996 dr af t , document i ngf oot bal l s r et ur n t o Bal t i mor e, t he t eam s st r at egy f or t he 1996

dr af t , and t he i mpr essi ve r esul t of i t s ef f or t s. Dur i ng t he

f our - mi nut e segment s i nt er vi ews, ar chi val f oot age, and

voi ceover , t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s vi si bl e t wo di f f er ent t i mes, f or

l ess t han one second each t i me. Top Ten: Dr af t Bust s r ecount s

t he di sappoi nt i ng pat h of Lawr ence Phi l l i ps s once pr omi si ng

car eer , compl et e wi t h i nt er vi ews, game tape, and news f oot age.

Towar d t he end of t he f our - mi nut e segment , t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s

par t i al l y vi si bl e on t he hel met of a Raven t ackl i ng Phi l l i ps f or

a f r act i on of a second. Fi nal l y, Sound FX: Ray Lewi s pr ovi des an

i nsi de l ook at t he car eer of Ray Lewi s t hr ough t he si ght s and

sounds t hat accompani ed hi s pl ay. The Fl yi ng B i s vi si bl e f or a

l onger st r et ch dur i ng t hi s vi deo, t hough t he Raven Pr of i l e l ogo,

whi ch has i dent i f i ed t he Ravens s i nce t he 1999 season, i s,

comparat i vel y, f eat ur ed much more pr omi nent l y.

The use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n each of t hese vi deos

di f f er s f r om i t s or i gi nal pur pose. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 314.

See al so Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 579. I t i ni t i al l y ser ved as t he

br and symbol f or t he t eam, i t s on- f i el d i dent i f i er , and t he


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pr i nci pal t hr ust of i t s pr omot i onal ef f or t s. None of t he vi deos

use the l ogo t o ser ve t he same pur pose i t once di d. I nst ead,

l i ke t he hi st or i cal di spl ays f eat ur i ng t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t he

l obby of t he Ravens headquar t ers i n Bouchat I V, t hese vi deos

used t he Fl yi ng B as par t of t he hi st or i cal r ecor d t o t el l

st or i es of past dr af t s, maj or event s i n Ravens hi st or y, and

pl ayer car eer s. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 314; see al so Bi l l

Gr aham Ar chi ves v. Dor l i ng Ki nder sl ey Lt d. , 448 F. 3d 605, 609- 10

( 2d. Ci r . 2006) ( f i ndi ng t hat Gr at ef ul Dead post er s r epr oduced

i n a bi ogr aphi cal t ext ser ved as hi st or i cal ar t i f act s t hat

hel ped r eader s t o under st and t he t ext ) . The l ogo, t hen, i s bei ng

used not f or i t s expr essi ve cont ent , but r at her f or i t s . . .

f act ual cont ent , Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 314 ( quot i ng Bond v.

Bl um, 317 F. 3d 385, 396 (4t h Ci r . 2003) ) , and i n such a manner

t hat no doubt adds somethi ng new. I d. And cont r ary t o

Bouchat s cl ai ms, i t does not mat t er t hat t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s

unchanged i n t he vi deos, f or [ t ] he use of a copyr i ght ed wor k

need not al t er or augment t he work t o be t r ansf ormat i ve i n

natur e. Vanderhye, 562 F. 3d at 639.

Thi s f i ndi ng of t r ansf or mat i ve use i s r ei nf or ced by t he

except i onal l y i nsubst ant i al pr esence of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n

t hese vi deos. I n t he vast maj or i t y of i t s appear ances, i t i s

pr esent f or f r act i ons of a second, and can be per cei ved onl y by

someone who i s l ooki ng f or i t . The extent t o whi ch unl i censed


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mat er i al i s used i n t he chal l enged wor k can be a f act or i n

det er mi ni ng whet her a . . . use of or i gi nal mat er i al s has been

suf f i ci ent l y t r ansf or mat i ve t o const i t ut e f ai r use. Bi l l Gr aham

Ar chi ves, 448 F. 3d at 611. The Fl yi ng B l ogo cannot be sai d t o

ser ve i t s or i gi nal f unct i on of i dent i f yi ng t he Ravens pl ayer s

and or gani zat i on i f i t i s al l but i mper cept i bl e t o t hose vi ewi ng

t he vi deos. I t ser ves no expr essi ve f unct i on at al l , but i nst ead

act s si mpl y as a hi st or i cal gui depost - - t o t hose who even

det ect i t - wi t hi n vi deos t hat const r uct new nar r at i ves about

t he hi st ory of t he Ravens and t he NFL. See Bond, 317 F. 3d at

396; El vi s Pr esl ey Ent er s. , I nc. v. Passpor t Vi deo, 349 F. 3d

622, 629 ( 9t h Ci r . 2003) ( not i ng t he t r ansf or mat i ve nat ur e of

usi ng copyr i ght ed wor ks as hi st or i cal cont ext ) , over r ul ed on

ot her gr ounds by Fl exi bl e Li f el i ne Sys. , I nc. v. Pr eci si on Li f t ,

I nc. , 654 F. 3d 989, 995 ( 9t h Ci r . 2011) ( per cur i am) .

The sol e vi deo t hat f eatures t he Fl yi ng B f or l ong enough

t hat i t coul d ser ve as an i dent i f i er i s Sound FX: Ray Lewi s. The

epi sode runs f or near l y 24 mi nut es, and f eat ur es j ust one

st r et ch of l ess t han t en seconds i n whi ch t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s

vi si bl e mor e t han f l eet i ngl y. The 24- mi nut e vi deo i s r epl et e

wi t h count l ess i mages of t he Raven Prof i l e l ogo, bot h i n game

and pr act i ce f oot age, whi ch cur r ent l y ser ves t o i dent i f y t he

Ravens and ador ns t hei r mer chandi se. I t i s t he Raven Prof i l e

l ogo, and not t he Fl yi ng B, t hat now serves an expr essi ve


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f unct i on. See Bi l l Gr aham Ar chi ves, 448 F. 3d at 611 ( post er s

r epr oduced i n a bi ogr aphi cal work were i nadequat e t o of f er more

t han a gl i mpse of t hei r expr essi ve val ue) . The Fl yi ng B l ogo,

used onl y i nci dent al l y, no l onger ser ves t he same i nt r i nsi c

pur pose as t he or i gi nal , Am. Geophysi cal Uni on v. Texaco I nc. ,

60 F. 3d 913, 923 ( 2d Ci r . 1994) . I t s use t her ef or e qual i f i es as

t r ansf or mat i ve.

Bouchat ar gues t hat t he uses of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t he

vi deos i n t hi s case ar e i ndi st i ngui shabl e f r om t hose adj udi cat ed

i n Bouchat I V. Appel l ant s Br . at 28- 31. Bot h, he says, act t o

i dent i f y the t eam. I n r eal i t y, however , t he uses ar e st r i ki ngl y

di f f er ent . I n t he season hi ghl i ght f i l ms f r om Bouchat I V, t he

l ogo was shown agai n and agai n, al ways as a br and i dent i f i er f or

t he Ravens organi zat i on and i t s pl ayer s. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at

306- 07. As we f ound, t he l ogo si mpl y r epl i cat ed i t s or i gi nal

f unct i on when f ootage of t he seasons was shot , condensed, and

r epr oduced i n a summar y f i l m. I d. at 309. But t he cur r ent use,

as not ed above, di f f er s i n t wo i mpor t ant r espect s f r om t he

Bouchat I V vi deos. We f ound i n t hat case that t he season

hi ghl i ght vi deos di d not change the way i n whi ch vi ewer s

exper i enced t he l ogo, maki ng t he use non- t r ansf or mat i ve. I d.

Her e, however , because t he vi deos used t he hi st or i cal f oot age t o

t el l new st or i es and not si mpl y rehash t he seasons, i t used t he

Fl yi ng B l ogo f or i t s f act ual cont ent and was t r ansf or mat i ve.


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See i d. at 314. Equal l y i mpor t ant i s t he f act t hat , whi l e t he

l ogo was f eat ur ed subst ant i al l y, agai n and agai n, i n t he season

hi ghl i ght f i l ms, i t was used onl y f l eet i ngl y and i nsi gni f i cant l y

her e. I t s f uncti on as an i dent i f i er was si gni f i cant l y

di mi ni shed, l i mi t i ng i t s expr essi ve val ue.

Thi s cour t s t wo hypot het i cal s i n Bouchat I V provi de a

par t i cul ar l y usef ul cont r ast bet ween t he vi deos i n t hat case and

t hose pr esent l y bef or e t he cour t . I n f i ndi ng t hat t he season

hi ghl i ght vi deos wer e not f ai r use, we l ai d out t wo di f f er ent

vi ewer exper i ences:

I n t he f i r st , an i ndi vi dual at home i n her l i vi ng r oomi n 1996 wat ches a Ravens f oot bal l game on t el evi si on.The Fl yi ng B l ogo on t he hel met s of one t eam hel ps heri dent i f y t he t eam as t he Ravens. I n t he second, ani ndi vi dual at home t oday ( 2010) i n hi s l i vi ng r oomwatches t he 1996 Ravens season hi ghl i ght f i l m. TheFl yi ng B l ogo on t he hel met s of one t eam hel ps hi mi dent i f y t he t eam as t he Ravens. The l ogo pl ays t he

same r ol e i n each exampl e. I t s pur pose i s nott r ansf or med i n t he hi ghl i ght f i l m, vi ewed somef our t een year s l at er .

I d. at 309. I n t he season hi ghl i ght vi deos, t he Fl yi ng B st i l l

served t he pur pose of i dent i f yi ng t he t eam as t he Ravens as t hey

pl ay opponent s - - i t s cor e and cr uci al f unct i on. But i n t he Top

Ten and Sound FX vi deos, wher e i t i s r ar el y vi si bl e f or mor et han a second, i t cannot possi bl y ser ve as a meani ngf ul

i dent i f i er of t he f r anchi se. I nst ead, l i ke t he Fl yi ng B i n t he

cor por at e l obby, i t i s used f or i t s f act ual cont ent t o t el l new

hi st or i cal nar r at i ves about t he pl ayer s and f r anchi se. See i d.


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at 314. The use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s t hus subst ant i al l y

t r ansf or mat i ve.

2.

The f i r st f act or al so r equi r es an i nqui r y i nto t he

commerci al natur e of t he use at i ssue. Whi l e a commerci al

pur pose may wei gh agai nst a f i ndi ng of f ai r use, Campbel l , 510

U. S. at 579, t he Supr eme Cour t has warned us not t o over -

emphasi ze i t s i mpact : I f , i ndeed, commer ci al i t y car r i ed

pr esumpt i ve f or ce agai nst a f i ndi ng of f ai r ness, t he pr esumpt i on

woul d swal l ow near l y al l of t he i l l ust r at i ve uses l i st ed i n t he

pr eambl e paragr aph of 107, i ncl udi ng news r eport i ng, comment ,

cr i t i ci sm, t eachi ng, schol ar shi p, and r esear ch, si nce t hese

act i vi t i es ar e gener al l y conducted f or pr of i t i n t hi s count r y.

I d. at 584 ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . Vast number s of

f ai r uses occur i n t he cour se of commer ci al vent ur es. An

overbr oad readi ng of t he commerci al sub- pr ong woul d t hus

evi scer at e t he concept of f ai r use. See Vander hye, 562 F. 3d at

639. I nst ead, t he commer ci al i t y i nqui r y i s most si gni f i cant when

t he al l egedl y i nf r i ngi ng use act s as a di r ect subst i t ut e f or t he

copyr i ght ed wor k. Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 591. Meanwhi l e, t he

mor e t r ansf or mat i ve t he new wor k, t he l ess wi l l be t he

si gni f i cance of ot her f act or s, l i ke commer ci al i sm, t hat may

wei gh agai nst a f i ndi ng of f ai r use. Vander hye, 562 F. 3d at 639


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( quot i ng Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 579) ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks

omi t t ed) .

I n t hi s case, t her e i s no doubt , as t he di st r i ct cour t

f ound, t hat t he NFL has produced and di st r i but ed t hese vi deos

f or commer ci al gai n. But as t he di st r i ct cour t al so not ed, t he

subst ant i al l y t r ansf or mat i ve nat ur e of t he use render s i t s

commer ci al nat ur e l ar gel y i nsi gni f i cant . J . A. 200. I ndeed, i n

Bouchat I V, when eval uat i ng t he commerci al i t y of t he season

hi ghl i ght f i l ms, we not ed t hat because we had f ound t he use of

t he l ogo non- t r ansf or mat i ve, we have no hesi t at i on i n

concl udi ng t hat t he commer ci al nat ur e of t he use wei ghs agai nst

a f i ndi ng of f ai r use. 619 F. 3d at 311. Her e, however , wher e we

have f ound t he use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo t o be subst ant i al l y

t r ansf or mat i ve, t he NFL s pr of i t - seeki ng wei ghs much l ess

st r ongl y agai nst a f i ndi ng of f ai r use.

Fi nal l y, t he l i mi t ed nat ur e of t he uses counsel s agai nst

pl aci ng si gni f i cant wei ght on t hei r commer ci al nat ur e. The key

i nqui r y i s t he ext ent t o whi ch t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i t sel f - - and

not t he vi deos as a whol e - - pr ovi des commer ci al gai n t o the

NFL. [ T]he degr ee t o whi ch t he new user expl oi t s t he copyr i ght

f or commer ci al gai n - - as opposed t o i nci dent al use as par t of a

commer ci al ent er pr i se - - af f ect s t he wei ght due t o t he

commer ci al char act er of a par t i cul ar use. El vi s Pr esl ey Ent er s. ,

I nc. , 349 F. 3d at 627. The uses of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t hese


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t hr ee vi deos can onl y pr oper l y be descr i bed as i nci dent al t o t he

l ar ger commer ci al ent er pr i se of creat i ng hi st or i cal vi deos f or

pr of i t . Al t hough t he l ogo was par t of a pr oduct cr eat ed f or

commer ci al gai n, i t s r ol e i n f aci l i t at i ng t hat gai n was

unquest i onabl y mi ni mal .

3.

Bouchat has al so ur ged t hi s cour t t o make a f i ndi ng of bad

f ai t h on t he par t of t he NFL and t he Ravens, l ar gel y due t o past

f i ndi ngs of i nf r i ngement by bot h ent i t i es. Appel l ant s Br . at

40- 41, 50. As an i ni t i al mat t er , good f ai t h i s not l i st ed as a

f ai r use f act or i n 107 of t he Copyr i ght Act and i t i s

quest i onabl e whet her al l egat i ons of subj ect i ve bad f ai t h coul d

under cut a use t hat obj ect i vel y was f ai r . See Campbel l , 510 U. S.

at 585 n. 18. Even assumi ng t hat t hey coul d, however , t he

di st r i ct cour t r ef used t o f i nd t hat t he NFL and t he Ravens act ed

i n bad f ai t h her e, not i ng: t her e i s not hi ng t o put i nt o doubt

t he NFL s good f ai t h i n bel i evi ng t hat t he uses of t he Fl yi ng B

Logo i n Document ar i es wer e non- i nf r i ngi ng f ai r uses. J . A. 201.

See al so J . A. 195 ( maki ng t he same f i ndi ng wi t h r egar d t o the

Ravens) . Bouchat di r ect s us t o pr evi ous exampl es of i nf r i ngement

by the Ravens and t he NFL, and asks t hat we i nf er bad f ai t h.

Absent any evi dence to suppor t t hi s concl usi on, we decl i ne t o

di st ur b t he r ul i ng of t he di st r i ct cour t . The t r ansf or mat i ve

nat ur e of t he def endant s uses of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo pr ovi ded


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t hem wi t h ever y r eason t o bel i eve t hat t hei r use was f ai r . I n

Bouchat I V, we addr essed the past act i ons of t he def endant s, and

not ed that t hey wer e rel evant i n par t because t he pur pose of

t he use [ was] not t r ansf ormed. 619 F. 3d at 311. Here, because

t he use i s t r ansf or mat i ve, any past i nf r i ngement i s si mpl y

i napposi t e.

C.

The f l eet i ng and t r ansf or mat i ve use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n

t he vi deos means t hat t he f i r st f act or i n 107 counsel s

st r ongl y i n f avor of f ai r use. The r emai ni ng cr i t er i a do not hi ng

t o under mi ne t hi s concl usi on. The second f act or concer ns t he

nat ur e of t he copyr i ght ed wor k. 17 U. S. C. 107( 2) . The l ogo i s

a cr eat i ve wor k, and t her ef or e cl oser t o t he cor e of wor ks

pr ot ect ed by t he Copyr i ght Act . Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 311

( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . Nonet hel ess, i f t he

di sput ed use of t he copyr i ght ed wor k i s not r el at ed t o i t s mode

of expr essi on but r at her t o i t s hi st or i cal f act s, t hen t he

cr eat i ve nat ur e of t he wor k mat t er s much l ess t han i t ot her wi se

woul d. Vander hye, 562 F. 3d at 640 ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks

omi t t ed) . I ndeed, as we not ed i n Bouchat I V, t he second f act or

may be of l i mi t ed usef ul ness wher e t he cr eat i ve wor k of ar t i s

bei ng used f or a t r ansf or mat i ve pur pose. 619 F. 3d at 315

( quot i ng Bi l l Gr aham Ar chi ves, 448 F. 3d at 612) ( i nt er nal

quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . Thus, whi l e Bouchat s or i gi nal dr awi ng


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i s a creat i ve wor k, t he NFL s t r ansf or mat i ve use l essens t he

i mpor t ance of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo s cr eat i vi t y. Consequent l y, t hi s

f act or i s l ar gel y neut r al .

The t hi r d f act or i s t he amount and subst ant i al i t y of t he

por t i on used i n r el at i on t o the copyr i ght ed wor k as a whol e. 17

U. S. C. 107( 3) . The Fl yi ng B i s r epr oduced i n f ul l i n at l east

some of i t s appear ances i n t he vi deos, whi ch mi l i t at [ es]

agai nst a f i ndi ng of f ai r use, but does not pr ecl ude i t .

Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 315 ( quot i ng Sony Cor p. of Am. v.

Uni ver sal Ci t y St udi os, I nc. , 464 U. S. 417, 449- 50 ( 1984) ;

Sundeman v. Seaj ay Soc' y, I nc. , 142 F. 3d 194, 205 ( 4t h Ci r .

1998) ) ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . Ul t i mat el y, t he

extent of per mi ssi bl e copyi ng var i es wi t h t he pur pose and

charact er of t he use. Sundeman, 142 F. 3d at 205- 06 ( quot i ng

Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 586- 87) ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks

omi t t ed) . Her e, t he NFL had no choi ce but t o f i l m t he whol e l ogo

i n or der t o f ul f i l l i t s l egi t i mat e t r ansf or mat i ve pur pose of

creat i ng t he hi st or i cal vi deos at i ssue. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at

315. Though t he NFL has used Bouchat s wor k i n i t s ent i r et y, t he

t r ansf ormat i veness of t he use and t he char act er of Bouchat s

wor k l ead us t o gi ve ver y l i t t l e wei ght t o t hi s f actor . I t woul d

be sensel ess t o per mi t t he NFL t o use the Fl yi ng B l ogo f or

f actual , hi st or i cal pur poses, but per mi t i t t o show onl y a hal f ,

or t wo- t hi rds of i t .


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The f our t h f act or i s t he ef f ect of t he use upon t he

pot ent i al mar ket f or or val ue of t he copyr i ght ed wor k. 17

U. S. C. 107( 4) . We ar e requi r ed to deter mi ne whet her t he

def endant s [ use of t he l ogo] woul d mat er i al l y i mpai r t he

mar ket abi l i t y of t he wor k and whether i t woul d act as a mar ket

subst i t ut e f or i t . Bond, 317 F. 3d at 396. A t r ansf or mat i ve use

r ender s mar ket subst i t ut i on l ess l i kel y and mar ket har m mor e

di f f i cul t t o i nf er . Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 591. The t r ansi ent and

f l eet i ng use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo, as wel l as i t s use f or i t s

f act ual , and not i t s expr essi ve, cont ent , l eads us t o concl ude

t hat i t ser ves a di f f er ent pur pose i n t he vi deos t han i t does

st andi ng al one. As a resul t , t he new, t r ansf or mat i ve use i s

unl i kel y t o suppl ant any market f or t he or i gi nal . See Sundeman,

142 F. 3d at 207.

D.

The f our 107 f act or s i ndi cat e t hat t he NFL s f l eet i ng and

i nsubst ant i al use of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t hese vi deos qual i f i es

as f ai r use. The f i r st f act or , r i ght f ul l y t he pr i nci pal f ocus of

t he par t i es di scussi on, counsel s st r ongl y i n f avor of f ai r use.

The r emai ni ng f ai r use f act or s ar e l ar gel y neut r al , provi di ng

compel l i ng ar gument s nei t her f or nor agai nst f ai r use.

Consequent l y, i n t he aggr egat e, t he f our f act or s poi nt i n f avor

of a f ai r use f i ndi ng.


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Our anal ysi s under 107 i s conf i r med by t he Supr eme

Cour t s expl i cat i on of t he under l yi ng i nt er est s t hat i nf or m

copyr i ght l aw and i t s r el at i onshi p t o t he Fi r st Amendment . Whi l e

copyr i ght l aw r ewar ds t he owner , [ t ] he sol e i nt er est of t he

Uni t ed St at es and t he pr i mary obj ect i n conf er r i ng t he monopol y

l i e i n t he gener al benef i t s der i ved by t he publ i c f r om t he

l abor s of aut hor s. Sony Cor p. , 464 U. S. at 429 ( i nt er nal

quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . As a r esul t , Congr ess has at t empt ed

over t he years t o bal ance t he i mport ance of encour agi ng aut hors

and i nvent or s by gr ant i ng t hem cont r ol over t hei r wor k wi t h

soci et y s compet i ng i nt er est i n t he f r ee f l ow of i deas,

i nf or mat i on and commer ce. I d. at 429. Absent any pr ot ect i on f or

f ai r use, subsequent wr i t er s and ar t i st s woul d be unabl e t o

bui l d and expand upon or i gi nal wor ks, f r ust r at i ng t he ver y ai ms

of copyr i ght pol i cy. Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 575- 76. For cr eat i on

i t sel f i s a cumul at i ve pr ocess; t hose who come af t er wi l l

i nevi t abl y make some modest use of t he good l abors of t hose who

came bef or e. See Br . f or I nt l Document ar y Ass n, Mot i on Pi ct ur e

Ass n of Am. , I nc. & Fi l m I ndep. as Ami ci Cur i ae ( I DA Br i ef )

at 9. Af t er al l , i t shoul d not be f or got t en t hat t he Framer s

i nt ended copyr i ght i t sel f t o be t he engi ne of f r ee expr essi on.

Har per & Row, Publ i sher s, I nc. v. Nat i on Ent er s. , 471 U. S. 539,

558 ( 1985) .


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Fai r use, t hen, i s cr uci al t o t he exchange of opi ni ons and

i deas. I t pr ot ect s f i l mmaker s and document ar i ans f r om t he

i nevi t abl e chi l l i ng ef f ect s of al l owi ng an ar t i st t oo much

cont r ol over t he di ssemi nat i on of hi s or her wor k f or hi st or i cal

pur poses. Copyr i ght l aw has t he pot ent i al t o const r i ct speech,

and f ai r use serves as a necessar y Fi r st Amendment saf eguard[ ]

agai nst t hi s danger . El dr ed v. Ashcr of t , 537 U. S. 186, 219

( 2003) . The case- by- case nat ur e of t he i nqui r y of f er s t he

advant age of f l exi bi l i t y, but i t al so l acks pr edi ctabi l i t y and

cl ar i t y, whi ch i s of t en an i mpedi ment t o f r ee expr essi on. As a

r esul t , f ai r use must gi ve speaker s some reasonabl e l eeway at

t he margi ns. As t he Supr eme Cour t has noted, t he consi derabl e

l at i t ude f or schol ar shi p and comment secur ed by t he f ai r use

doct r i ne pr ot ect s t he cor e val ue of f r ee expr essi on f r om

excessi ve l i t i gat i on and undue r est r i ct i on. I d. at 220 ( i nt er nal

quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) ; see al so i d. at 219.

Top Ten: Dr af t Cl asses, Top Ten: Dr af t Bust s, and Sound FX:

Ray Lewi s shar e t he qual i t i es of ot her hi st or i cal document ar i es.

They f eature t hree key component s: ar chi val f oot age, comment ar y,

and i nt er vi ews. These i ngr edi ent s ar e cr uci al t o t he cr eat i on of

any hi st or i cal l y accur at e f i l m. They al so al i gn t he vi deos wi t h

t he exampl es i n 107 s pr eambl e: cr i t i ci sm, comment , news

r epor t i ng, t eachi ng . . . schol ar shi p, or r esear ch. 17 U. S. C.

107. Were we t o requi r e t hose wi shi ng t o pr oduce f i l ms and


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document ar i es t o r ecei ve per mi ssi on f r om copyr i ght hol der s f or

f l eet i ng f act ual uses of t hei r wor ks, we woul d al l ow t hose

copyr i ght hol der s t o exer t enor mous i nf l uence over new

depi ct i ons of hi st or i cal subj ect s and event s. Such a r ul e woul d

encour age bar gai ni ng over t he depi ct i on of hi st or y by gr ant i ng

copyr i ght hol der s subst ant i al l ever age over sel ect hi st or i cal

f act s. I t woul d f or ce t hose wi shi ng t o cr eat e vi deos and

document ar i es t o r ecei ve appr oval and endor sement f r om t hei r

subj ect s, who coul d si mpl y choose t o pr ohi bi t unf l at t er i ng or

di sf avor ed depi ct i ons. See I DA Br i ef at 5. Soci al comment ar y as

wel l as hi st or i cal nar r at i ve coul d be af f ected i f , f or exampl e,

compani es f aci ng unwel come i nqui r i es coul d ban al l depi ct i on of

t hei r l ogos. Thi s woul d al i gn i ncent i ves i n exact l y t he wr ong

manner , di mi ni shi ng accur acy and i ncr easi ng t r ansact i on cost s,

al l t he whi l e di scour agi ng t he cr eat i on of new expr essi ve wor ks.

Thi s r egi me, t he l ogi cal outgrowt h of Bouchat s f ai r use

posi t i on, woul d chi l l t he ver y ar t i st i c creat i on t hat copyr i ght

l aw at t empt s t o nur t ur e. See Sony Cor p. , 464 U. S. at 429.

The NFL wi shes t o cr eate nar r at i ves about var i ous aspect s

of i t s hi st or y, i ncl udi ng some t hat t r anspi r ed bet ween 1996 and

1998, when t he Fl yi ng B l ogo r epr esent ed t he Ravens. These

vi deos have t ol d new st or i es and f eat ur e al l of t he hal l mar ks of

document ar y f i l ms. They al so, of cour se, cont ai n f l eet i ng,

i nsubst ant i al i mages of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo. But j ust as i t woul d


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have been a t er r i bl e shame to pr event Edward Hopper f r om

pai nt i ng t he Esso si gn i n hi s mast er f ul Por t r ai t of Or l eans,

so t oo woul d i t be a mi st ake t o pr event t he NFL f r om usi ng t he

Fl yi ng B l ogo t o creat e new pr ot ect ed wor ks. See E. S. S. Ent m' t

2000, I nc. v. Rock St ar Vi deos, I nc. , 547 F. 3d 1095, 1100 ( 9t h

Ci r . 2008) ( not i ng that under t r ademar k l aw, t he Fi r st Amendment

pr ot ect s t hose uses t hat have ar t i st i c r el evance) . The NFL may

not ar ouse sympathi es i n t he way that a r ever ed ar t i st does, but

t he consequences of t hi s case reach f ar beyond i t s f act s.

Soci et y s i nt er est i n ensur i ng t he creat i on of t r ansf or mat i ve

wor ks i nci dent al l y ut i l i zi ng copyr i ght ed mat er i al i s l egi t i mat e

no mat t er who the def endant may be.

I V.

Bouchat next chal l enges t he i nci dent al use of t he Fl yi ng B

l ogo i n cer t ai n hi st or i cal di spl ays l ocat ed on t he Cl ub Level

of t he Bal t i mor e Ravens st adi um. The f act s of t hi s par t i cul ar

cl ai m ar e det ai l ed bel ow. For t he r easons t hat f ol l ow, we

concl ude t hat t hi s par t i cul ar i nst ance of di spl ay al so qual i f i es

as a f ai r use.

A.

The cl ub sect i on of t he Ravens st adi um occupi es t he 200-

l evel concour se. The Cl ub Level pr ovi des a host of ameni t i es,

i ncl udi ng, among ot her t hi ngs, spaci ous seat i ng, car pet ed


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f l oor s, r ef uge f r om t he el ement s, at t r acti ve dcor , speci al t y

concessi ons, and enhanced cust omer ser vi ce. The Cl ub Level

accommodates over 8, 000 peopl e and i s access i bl e onl y t o t hose

who pur chase Cl ub Level t i cket s. These t i cket s are pr i ced

bet ween $175 and $355 per game.

The t hree di spl ays chal l enged by Bouchat - - a t i mel i ne, a

hi ghl i ght r eel , and a si gni f i cant pl ays exhi bi t - - ar e al l

l ocat ed on t he Cl ub Level . Each addr esses a di scr et e subj ect

mat t er . Consi der ed t oget her , t hey cover an i mpr essi ve span of

Bal t i mor e f oot bal l hi st or y. The Fl yi ng B l ogo pl ays an

i nci dent al r ol e i n onl y a f r acti on of t he hi st or i cal depi cti ons

f eat ur ed i n t he di spl ays. Over al l , t he exhi bi t s document mor e

t han one hundr ed years of hi st ory pr ecedi ng t he advent of t he

Fl yi ng B l ogo and many si gni f i cant hi st or i cal event s post - dat i ng

i t .

The t i mel i ne, whi ch begi ns wi t h t he year 1881, cover s t hose

i ndi vi dual year s t hat i l l ust r at e i mpor t ant event s i n t he

Bal t i mor e f oot bal l st or y. For i nst ance, t he por t i on of t he

exhi bi t devot ed t o the year 1959, whi ch sur r ounds t he exi t f r om

t he women s r est r oom, st ates i n bol d l et t ers TWO I N A ROW and

i ncl udes as a capt i on Bal t i more r epeat s as NFL Champi ons i n

Bal t i mor e Agai n Agai nst Gi ant s. Hi st or i cal phot ogr aphs,

post er s, and f ur t her descr i pt i ve t ext r ound out t hi s component


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of t he exhi bi t , whi ch i s gener al l y repr esent at i ve of ot her year s

i ncl uded i n t he di spl ay.

Wi t h r espect t o Bouchat s chal l enge, t he segment f or a

si ngl e year - - 1996 - - f eat ur es t he headi ng TOUCHDOWN

BALTI MORE and t he capt i on NFL Retur ns t o Bal t i more. To

i l l ust r at e t hi s si gni f i cant event i n Bal t i mor e spor t s hi st or y,

t he di spl ay i ncl udes, among ot her t hi ngs, bl own- up r epr oduct i ons

of t he i naugur al 1996 game- day pr ogr am and t i cket , each of whi ch

necessar i l y bear s t he Fl yi ng B l ogo. No ot her year i n t he

ext ensi ve t i mel i ne di spl ay - - whi ch cover s t he t ai l - end of t he

19t h cent ur y, t he success of t he Bal t i mor e Col t s, t he t enur e of

t he Canadi an Footbal l League s Bal t i mor e St al l i ons, and t he mor e

r ecent hi st or y associ at ed wi t h t he Ravens - - i ncl udes even an

i nci dent al depi ct i on of t he l ogo.

The hi ghl i ght r eel si mi l ar l y i ncl udes i l l ust r at i ons of

si gni f i cant moment s i n Ravens hi st or y. The r eel f eat ur es a

ser i es of l ar gel y i nt er connect ed depi ct i ons, l ocat ed near

concess i on areas, compr i sed of photogr aphs accompani ed by dates

and descr i pt i ve t ext . The Fl yi ng B l ogo appear s i nci dent al l y i n

sever al i mages. For i nst ance, one exhi bi t i ncl udes a pi ct ur e of

a f ormer Ravens pl ayer , suppl ement ed by t he date Apr i l 19,

1997 and a textual not at i on whi ch r eads, i n par t , The Ravens

sel ect Pet er Boul war e wi t h t hei r 1st pi ck i n t he 1997 dr af t ( 4t h

over al l ) . I n t he phot o, t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s par t i al l y vi si bl e


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on t he si de of Boul war e s hel met . As wi t h t he t i mel i ne, bot h t he

hi ghl i ght r eel and t he i mpor t ant pl ays exhi bi t - - di scussed

bel ow - - f eat ur e many si gni f i cant hi st or i cal depi ct i ons wher e

t he l ogo does not appear at al l .

The i mpor t ant pl ays exhi bi t i s st r uct ural l y anal ogous t o

t he hi ghl i ght r eel : i t compr i ses phot ogr aphs, dat es, and t ext ual

descr i pt i ons commemor at i ng si gni f i cant on- f i el d achi evement s of

Ravens pl ayers. The photogr aphs are exhi bi t ed i ndependent l y

t hr oughout t he Cl ub Level . Bouchat chal l enges onl y t wo

i ndi vi dual exhi bi t s, i ncl udi ng one t hat por t r ays a Ravens pl ayer

r et ur ni ng a punt . The t ext accompanyi ng the photogr aph st at es,

i n par t : Wi de Recei ver J er mai ne Lewi s t i es an NFL Si ngl e- Game

Recor d wi t h t wo punt r etur n Touchdowns ( 89 yar ds and 66 yards) .

Gi ven t he angl e of t he phot o, t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i s onl y

i ncompl et el y vi si bl e on t he si de of Lewi s hel met . The second

exhi bi t , f eat ur i ng a si mi l ar l ayout , depi ct s a Ravens

quar t er back cel ebr at i ng a t ouchdown; t he Fl yi ng B l ogo al so

appear s on hi s hel met .

B.

The di st r i ct cour t r ej ect ed Bouchat s chal l enge t o t he Cl ub

Level di spl ays, f i ndi ng each di spl ay of t he Fl yi ng B j ust i f i ed

under t he f ai r use doct r i ne. I t s anal ysi s rest ed i n si gni f i cant

par t on t hi s cour t s deci si on i n Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d 301, whi ch

r ej ect ed an i nf r i ngement chal l enge t o a hi st or i cal di spl ay


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l ocat ed i n t he l obby of t he Ravens cor por at e headquar t er s. That

di spl ay, l i ke t he one at i ssue her e, cont ai ned i nci dent al

r epr oduct i ons of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo.

1.

As not ed above, t he f i r st f ai r use f act or - - t he pur pose

and char act er of t he use, 17 U. S. C. 107( 1) - - can be r educed

t o t wo sub- i nqui r i es: whet her t he new use i s t r ansf or mat i ve, and

t o what degr ee i t ser ves a commerci al pur pose. See Bouchat I V,

619 F. 3d at 314. Each of t hese component s i s di scussed bel ow. As

wi l l become appar ent , much of our anal ysi s r egar di ng t he cont ent

of t he document ar i es di scussed ear l i er i s al so appl i cabl e t o

Bouchat s di spl ay chal l enge.

The par t i es, i n r el i ance upon Bouchat I V, exer t si gni f i cant

ef f or t debat i ng whet her t he chal l enged hi st or i cal di spl ays ar e

i nst al l ed i n a museum- l i ke set t i ng. 619 F. 3d at 314. We need

not r esol ve t hi s speci f i c di sput e, however , i n or der t o concl ude

t hat t he t hr ee t ypes of exhi bi t s at i ssue her e ar e

t r ansf or mat i ve. Campbel l v. Acuf f - Rose Musi c, I nc. , 510 U. S.

569, 579 ( 1994) . As not ed, [ t ] he use of a copyr i ght ed wor k need

not al t er or augment t he wor k to be t r ansf or mat i ve i n nat ur e.

Rat her , i t can be t r ansf or mat i ve i n f unct i on or pur pose wi t hout

act ual l y addi ng t o t he or i gi nal wor k. A. V. ex r el . Vander hye v.

i Par adi gms, LLC, 562 F. 3d 630, 639 ( 4t h Ci r . 2009) .


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Each of t he t hr ee chal l enged Cl ub Level di spl ays i s

i nt ended t o chr oni cl e a si gni f i cant aspect of Ravens hi st or y,

i ncl udi ng i mpor t ant pl ays, speci f i c pl ayer achi evement s, and

gener al hi st or i cal event s. Col l ect i vel y, t he di spl ays pr ovi de a

mul t i - f acet ed por t r ai t of t he evol ut i on of pr of essi onal f oot bal l

i n Bal t i mor e. The Fl yi ng B l ogo i s i ncl uded mer el y as an

i nci dent al component of t hi s br oader hi st or i cal nar r at i ve. See

SOFA Ent m t , I nc. v. Dodger Prods. , 709 F. 3d 1273, 1278 (9t h

Ci r . 2013) . I t s cur r ent f unct i on as a hi stor i cal ar t i f act

di f f er s si gni f i cant l y f r om i t s or i gi nal f unct i on as the t eam s

l ogo, wher eby i t r epr esent ed t he Ravens br and, di f f er ent i at ed

Ravens pl ayers f r om members of opposi ng t eams, and general l y

ser ved as t he f ocal poi nt of pr omot i onal ef f or t s.

The l ogo as i t i s used i n t he Cl ub Level di spl ays no l onger

ser ves t hese or i gi nal pur poses. I nst ead, i t s pr esence i n t he

var i ous exhi bi t s - - l i ke i n t he document ar i es - - i s pur el y

descr i pt i ve and desi gned mer el y to pr eserve a speci f i c aspect of

Ravens hi st or y. See Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 314; El vi s Pr esl ey

Ent er s. , I nc. v. Passpor t Vi deo, 349 F. 3d 622, 629 ( 9t h Ci r .

2003) ( not i ng, i n t he cont ext of an El vi s document ar y, t hat

def endant s use of many of t he t el evi si on cl i ps i s

t r ansf or mat i ve because they ar e ci t ed as hi st or i cal r ef er ence

poi nt s) , over r ul ed on ot her gr ounds as st at ed i n Fl exi bl e

Li f el i ne Sys. , I nc. v. Pr eci si on Li f t , I nc. , 654 F. 3d 989, 995


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( 9t h Ci r . 2011) ( per cur i am) . I t i s t he Raven Pr of i l e l ogo - -

not t he Fl yi ng B l ogo - - t hat now serves t he pur pose served by

t he Fl yi ng B l ogo f r om 1996 t o 1998.

Fur t her mor e, t he Fl yi ng B l ogo repr esent s mer el y a

negl i gi bl e el ement of t he over al l exhi bi t i on. For i nst ance, t he

hi st or i cal t i mel i ne chr oni cl es over 100 year s of f oot bal l i n

Bal t i mor e, but t he Fl yi ng B l ogo was used f or onl y t hr ee. The

Fl yi ng B l ogo i s si mpl y absent f r om l ar ge swat hs of Bal t i mor e

f oot bal l , and i ndeed Ravens, hi st or y. The l ogo pl ayed no par t ,

f or i nst ance, i n t he decades t he Bal t i mor e Col t s ( and Hal l - of -

Famer J ohnny Uni t as) pl ayed i n t he ci t y. And t he Ravens Super

Bowl champi onshi ps were won af t er t he t eam abandoned t he Fl yi ng

B.

The i nsi gni f i cance of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo as a f eat ure of t he

di spl ays i s r el evant because [ t ] he ext ent t o whi ch unl i censed

mat er i al i s used i n t he chal l enged wor k can be a f act or i n

det er mi ni ng whet her a [ def endant s] use of or i gi nal mat er i al s

has been suf f i ci ent l y t r ansf or mat i ve t o const i t ut e f ai r use.

Bi l l Gr aham Ar chi ves v. Dor l i ng Ki nder sl ey Ltd. , 448 F. 3d 605,

611 ( 2d Ci r . 2006) ; Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 587. The l ogo s

compar at i ve i nsi gni f i cance as an el ement of t he t hr ee di spl ays

t hus conf i r ms t hei r t r ansf or mat i ve qual i t y, and mi l i t at es i n

f avor of a f i ndi ng of f ai r use.


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2.

The f i r st f act or i nqui r y al so i nvol ves det er mi ni ng whet her

t he al l egedl y f ai r use i s commer ci al i n nat ur e. Thi s

det er mi nat i on does not , however , r equi r e a cl ear - cut choi ce

bet ween t wo pol ar char act er i zat i ons, commer ci al and non-

pr of i t . Maxtone- Gr aham v. Bur t chael l , 803 F. 2d 1253, 1262 ( 2d

Ci r . 1986) . I nst ead, [ t ] he commer ci al nat ur e of a use i s a

mat t er of degr ee, not an absol ut e. I d. As not ed above, i t i s

i mpor t ant not t o over - emphasi ze t hi s aspect of t he i nqui r y when

t he use i s t r ansf or mat i ve. Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 579.

The Bouchat I V cour t r el i ed heavi l y on t he f act t hat t he

l obby housi ng t he al l egedl y i nf r i ngi ng i mages was open t o t he

gener al publ i c f r ee of char ge. 619 F. 3d at 314. Cl ear l y, i n t hat

case, t he di spl ays had at most an at t enuated commerci al pur pose:

t he l obby s dcor was not i nt ended t o i nduce a par t i cul ar

pur chase or t o ef f ect uat e a commer ci al t r ansact i on, but r at her

t o st i mul ate general communi t y support f or t he t eam. Whi l e t he

pat r ons of t he Cl ub Level and t he members of t he publ i c pr esent

i n t he l obby of t eam headquar t er s are obvi ousl y not equi val ent ,

we do not bel i eve t he di f f er ence i s di sposi t i ve. The Cl ub Level

di spl ays, l i ke t hose i n t he l obby, pr oduce what i s essent i al l y

an at mospher i c ef f ect . They ar e a negl i gi bl e, f r i nge benef i t of

cl ub member shi p. The gour met f ood, shel t er f r om t he el ement s,

and vi ew of t he game - - not some mi ni scul e aspect of t he wal l


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decor - - pr ovi de t he pr i mar y mot i vat or s f or pur chasi ng a Cl ub

Level t i cket . See J . A. 194 ( di st r i ct cour t f act - f i ndi ng) ( [T] he

st at i c pi ct ur e di spl ays ar e not any meani ngf ul par t of t he

i ncent i ve f or a pat r on t o buy a game t i cket . ) .

The commer ci al char act er of def endant s use becomes even

mor e at t enuat ed when one consi der s t hat t he l ogo i t sel f - - not

t he exhi bi t s i n gener al - - t echni cal l y r epr esent s t he pr oper

f ocus of anal ysi s. No one i s put t i ng down hundr eds of dol l ar s t o

see t he Fl yi ng B l ogo. The Ravens are not gai ni ng di r ect or

i mmedi ate commerci al advant age f r om any l ogo di spl ay at i ssue

her e - - i . e. , [ t he t eam s] pr of i t s, r evenues, and over al l

commer ci al per f or mance [ ar e] not t i ed t o t he use. Bouchat I V,

619 F. 3d at 314 ( i nt er nal quot at i on mar ks omi t t ed) . Thi s i s

mani f est l y not a case wher e t he copi er di r ect l y and excl usi vel y

acqui r es conspi cuous f i nanci al r ewar ds f r om i t s use of t he

copyr i ght ed mat er i al . Am. Geophysi cal Uni on, 60 F. 3d at 923.

Fur t her mor e, t he use of a l ogo as an i nci dent al el ement i n

a hi st or i cal exhi bi t i s si mpl y not t he t ype of commer ci al use

f r owned upon by 107. I f Bal t i mor e s f oot bal l hi st or y i s t o be

accur at el y depi ct ed, some i nci dent al r epr oduct i on of t he l ogo

woul d seem al most unavoi dabl e. The mere use of a l ogo i n a

pr of i t - maki ng vent ur e, however , i s qui t e di f f er ent f r om i t s

commer ci al expl oi t at i on. Fai r use, as i t s name suggest s, i s a

mat t er of degr ee. And t he degr ee t o whi ch t he new user expl oi t s


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t he copyr i ght f or commer ci al gai n - - as opposed t o i nci dent al

use as par t of a commer ci al ent er pr i se - - i s what i s

si gni f i cant . See El vi s Pr esl ey Ent er s. , I nc. , 349 F. 3d at 627.

Her e, t he di spl ays i ncl ude i nci dent al depi ct i ons of t he Fl yi ng B

l ogo mer el y t o enr i ch t he pr esent at i on of t he cul t ur al hi st or y

of t he [ Ravens] , not t o expl oi t copyr i ght ed ar t wor k f or

commer ci al gai n. Bi l l Gr aham Ar chi ves, 448 F. 3d at 611.

Consequent l y, whet her vi ewed f r om t he st andpoi nt of t he Cl ub

Level di spl ays t r ansf or mat i ve char act er or f r om t he st andpoi nt

of whet her t hey ser ve a commer ci al pur pose, t he f i r st f act or

cut s deci dedl y i n f avor of f ai r use.

3.

The r emai ni ng f ai r use cr i t er i a do not al t er t he

i mpl i cat i ons of t he f i r st . The second f act or concer ns t he

nat ur e of t he copyr i ght ed wor k. 17 U. S. C. 107( 2) . The l aw

gener al l y recogni zes a gr eat er need t o di ssemi nat e f act ual

wor ks t han cr eat i ve ones. Har per & Row, Publ i sher s, I nc. v.

Nat i on Ent er s. , 471 U. S. 539, 563 ( 1985) . Her e, t he l ogo i s

di spl ayed f or i t s hi st or i cal si gni f i cance r at her t han i t s

i nt r i nsi c cr eat i ve wor t h. Bi l l Gr aham Ar chi ves, 448 F. 3d at 612-

13. As i n t he document ar y cont ext , t hi s f act or i s t hus of no

assi st ance t o Bouchat .

The t hi r d f act or cent er s on t he amount and subst ant i al i t y

of t he por t i on used i n r el at i on t o t he copyr i ght ed wor k as a


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38

whol e. 17 U. S. C. 107( 3) . I f t he second user r epr oduces onl y

t he amount necessary t o achi eve a val i d end, t hi s f act or wi l l

f avor nei t her par t y. El vi s Pr esl ey Ent er s. , I nc. , 349 F. 3d at

630. Her e, i n or der t o f ul f i l l t he l egi t i mat e t r ansf or mat i ve

pur pose of depi ct i ng i mpor t ant moment s i n Bal t i mor e f oot bal l

hi st or y, def endant had no choi ce but t o i ncl ude t he Fl yi ng B

l ogo i n i t s ent i r et y as an i nci dent al component of t he

chal l enged exhi bi t s. Bouchat I V, 619 F. 3d at 315. I t i s har d t o

see f r ankl y how t he use of one- t hi r d or t wo- t hi r ds of t he l ogo

i s even pr act i cal or makes any sense. Thus, as i n Bouchat I V, we

f i nd t hi s f act or al so of no hel p t o pl ai nt i f f .

The f our t h f act or r equi r es an assessment of t he ef f ect of

t he use upon t he pot ent i al mar ket f or or val ue of t he

copyr i ght ed work. 17 U. S. C. 107( 4) . As not ed above, we must

det er mi ne whet her t he def endant s [ use of t he l ogo] woul d

mat er i al l y i mpai r t he mar ket abi l i t y of t he wor k and whet her i t

woul d act as a mar ket subst i t ut e f or i t . Bond v. Bl um, 317 F. 3d

385, 396 ( 4t h Ci r . 2003) . When def endant s use i s

t r ansf or mat i ve, mar ket subst i t ut i on ( and t he resul t i ng mar ket

har m t o pl ai nt i f f ) i s l ess l i kel y. Campbel l , 510 U. S. at 591.

Her e, t he i nci dent al r epr oduct i on of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo i n t he

Cl ub Level hi st or i cal di spl ays ser ves a di f f er ent mar ket

f unct i on t han does t he l ogo st andi ng al one. The new use - - whi ch

i s bot h t r ansf or mat i ve and onl y mi ni mal l y commer ci al - - does not


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39

suppl ant or subst i t ut e f or t he or i gi nal . See Vander hye, 562 F. 3d

at 643; J . A. 196. Fi nal l y, we r ei t er at e t hat al t hough t he

di st r i ct cour t made no f i ndi ngs r egar di ng t he exi st ence of a

l i censi ng mar ket f or hi st or i cal l ogos, J . A. 196, f i ndi ngs i n

Bouchat s f avor on t hi s poi nt woul d be i nsuf f i ci ent t o over come

t he subst ant i al wei ght of t he f i r st t hr ee f act or s. Once agai n,

gi ven t he absence of mar ket dat a, we concl ude t hat t hi s f act or

st andi ng al one i s neut r al .

The cr i t er i a enumer at ed i n 107, i n t he aggr egat e, t hus

mi l i t at e i n f avor of a f i ndi ng of f ai r use. Thi s concl usi on i s

r ei nf or ced by br oader expr essi ve consi der at i ons si mi l ar t o t hose

ar t i cul at ed i n our anal ysi s of t he chal l enged document ar i es.

Fai r use, as a cruci al Fi r st Amendment saf eguar d[ ] , i s an

i mpor t ant t ool i n ensur i ng t hat an or i gi nat or s r i ght s ar e not

expanded unj ust i f i abl y at t he subsequent expense of f r ee

expr essi on. El dr ed v. Ashcr of t , 537 U. S. 186, 220 ( 2003) . Our

hol di ng t hat t he di spl ays const i t ut e a f ai r use of t he Fl yi ng B

l ogo pr eserves t hese f undament al Fi r st Amendment i nt er est s.

V.

Our r ej ect i on of Bouchat s chal l enge t o t he i nci dent al uses

of t he Fl yi ng B l ogo pr ovi des no suppor t f or a f ai r use def ense

wher e the al l eged i nf r i nger expl oi t s a pr ot ect ed wor k f or pr of i t

based on i t s i nt r i nsi c expr essi ve val ue. That scenar i o, however ,


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i s si mpl y not pr esent ed on t he f act s bef or e us. The uses her e

wer e not onl y t r ansf or mat i ve, but al so - - t ake your pi ck - -

f l eet i ng, i nci dent al , de mi ni mi s, i nnocuous. I f t hese uses

f ai l ed t o qual i f y as f ai r , a host of per f ect l y beni gn and

val uabl e expr essi ve wor ks woul d be subj ect t o l awsui t s. That i n

t ur n woul d di scour age t he maker s of al l sor t s of hi st or i cal

document ar i es and di spl ays, and woul d depl et e soci et y s f und of

i nf or mat i ve speech. The di st r i ct cour t s f i ndi ng of f ai r use

wi t h r espect t o t he document ar y vi deos and t he hi st or i cal

di spl ays on t he Cl ub Level was a cor r ect one. I t s j udgment i s i n

al l r espects af f i r med.

AFFI RMED

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BOUCHAT v BALTIMORE RAVENS