B R A Z I L

Embassy of Brazil in Stockholm

Metropolitan Cathedral, Brasília

Metropolitan Cathedral, Brasília

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GENERAL INFORMATION ABOUT BRAZIL

LENGTH OF BRAZILIAN FRONTIERS WITH ADJACENT COUNTRIES:

On the north with:French Guiana: 730 kmSurinam: 593 kmGuyana: 1 606 kmVenezuela: 2 199 km

On the west with:Colombia: 1 644 kmPeru: 2 995 kmBolivia: 3 423 km

On the south with:Paraguay: 1 366 kmArgentina: 1 261 kmUruguay: 1 069 km

TOTAL POPULATION:190 755 799 inhabitants (22.4 inhabitants per km2)Source: IBGE, Census 2010.(Global ranking: fi fth most populous country)

POLITICAL SYSTEM:Federal Presidential Democratic Republic(Constitution adopted on October 5, 1988)

BASIC DATA

OFFICIAL NAME:Federative Republic of Brazil

NATIONAL DAY:7th September (Independence)

OFFICIAL LANGUAGE:Portuguese

SEAT OF THE FEDERAL GOVERNMENT:Brasília, DF(Brasília is the country’s capital founded April

21, 1960 as a Federal District)

CHIEF OF STATE AND HEAD OF GOVERNMENT:President and Head of Government:Dilma Vana Rousseff(Born on December 14, 1947 in Belo Horizonte, state of Minas Gerais: elected on October 31,

2010)

AREA: 8 514 876 km2 (3,287,597 sq. mi) Source: IBGE, September 2011

(Global ranking: fi fth largest country)

BOUNDARIES:16 886 kmSource: Brazilian Ministry of External Relations

Brazil shares borders with every country of South America except Ecuador and Chile. Its eastern border is the coastline with the Atlantic Ocean with approximately 7 367 km in length.

President Dilma Rousseff

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Brazil has a federative system in which the Executive Power is exercised by an administration headed by the President, who is also the Head of State. He is elected for a four-year term of offi ce, with one re-election permitted. The Legislative power is vested in a bicameral National Congress (Congresso Nacional), with a Senate (upper house, with 81 senators, 3 per federated unit, elected for a eight-year term) and a Chamber of Deputies (lower house, with 513 representatives elected for a four-year term, with each federated unit assigned a number of representatives in proportion to its population). The Judiciary Power is independent of both the executive and legislative, but members of the Supreme Federal Court are nominated by the President of the Republic.

The government of each state and of the Federal District is divided into executive, legislative and judicial branches, with the executive branch headed by a Governor. In contrast, municipal authorities only have executive (local authority) and legislative (council assemblies) government units.

STATE SYMBOLS

STATE COAT OF ARMS

The sword represents justice. The blue circle in the middle contains a stylized representation of the constellation of the Southern Cross. Twenty-seven silver stars, each of them corresponding to an individual federated unit of Brazil, are positioned around the circle. The circle is positioned on a large star in the state colours – green and gold. This star symbolizes the federative character of the state system.

Two plants: coffee (on the left) and tobacco (on the right), representing two of the most important Brazilian products in the 19th century.

The gold line-shaded background symbolizes the origin of the Republic

and forms a large twenty-pointed star. On the scroll at the bottom the date of declaration of the Republic is inscribed – November 15, 1889.

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STATE FLAG

The fl ag consists of a green fi eld with a yellow oblique-angle equilateral parallelogram centred on it. A blue globe - which is similar to the circle in the original fl ag of the Brazilian Honorary Principality created in 1645 – is positioned within a lozenge. Inside this sphere there are placed 27 silver stars. A white stripe bears the inscription ORDEM E PROGRESSO in green and capital letters. Each of the 26 stars below this band represents an individual federate state, the sole star above corresponds to the Federal District. The size of the stars varies and they are not positioned randomly. They represent a section of Brazil´s night sky, dominated by the Cruzeiro do Sul (the Southern Cross).

Adopted by Decree No. 4; Nov. 19, 1889, the Brazilian State Flag closely resembles the traditional ensign of the empire. The same colours were used by the dynasty which liberated the country from Portugal: green, representing the Royal House of Braganza, of the fi rst Emperor Pedro I (1798–1834), who rebelled against his father, King João VI of Portugal

and proclaimed Brazil’s independence. And yellow, of the Imperial House of Habsburg, to which belonged the Archiduchess Maria Leopoldina Josepha Caroline of Austria, the fi rst Empress consort and later also briefl y Queen of Portugal. The president of the newly established republican government and supreme military commander, Marshal Deodoro da Fonseca (1827–1892), who inspite of his strong royalist sympathies related with preserving the unity of the country, had deposed the aging Emperor Pedro II (1825–1891), rejected the proposal from the civilian leader Ruy Barbosa (1849–1923) for a new design inspired by the fl ag of the United States. The project presented by the philosopher and mathematician Raimundo Teixeira Mendes (1855–1927) was accepted.

Nowadays, the green is interpreted as the symbol of the natural biological diversity and richness of the country (especially in the Amazon Rainforest, the Atlantic Jungle and the Pantanal). The yellow rhombus is considered to depict the gold and other very rich mineral reserves of its territory.

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NATIONAL ANTHEM

The melody of Brazil´s National Anthem is a metrical composition for band and chorus. Its text is a decasyllable poem evoking confi dently the sovereignty of the nation, eulogizing the Brazilian people’s courage and devotion to justice, as well as glorifying the magnifi cent natural beauty of the country. In style, its music resembles early Romantic Italian opera arias. The melody was composed by the versatile music professor and cello player, Francisco Manuel da Silva (1795–1865), to celebrate the Declaration of Independence from Portugal on September 7, 1822. However, Silva’s composition became increasingly popular as a patriotic song during the Imperial Period (1822–1889). After the abrogation of the monarchy on November 15, 1889 and the Proclamation of the Brazilian Republic, the provisional revolutionary government confi rmed Silva’s march as the national anthem by Decree No. 171; Jan. 20, 1890.

The music remained with no defi nitive lyrics and was sung with different texts in each Brazilian state. A nationwide contest for choosing an offi cial version was opened in 1906. The winner was Joaquim Osório Duque Estrada (1820–1927), his poem written in 1909 was formally adopted by President Epitácio Pessoa’s Decree No. 15 671; Sept. 6, 1922, the centennial year of Brazilian Independence. Two verses of the text were extracted from a poem of Gonçalves Dias entitled “Exile Song” (Canção do Exílio). The syntax of lyrics adopted by Duque Estrada has a convoluted word order. The offi cial Brazil´s National Anthem thus contains archaic constructions and phrases which nowadays are diffi cult to understand for a majority of the Brazilian population.

The Law No. 5 700; Sept. 1, 1971 stipulates that the National Anthem must be performed in two choruses, only one of them has to be played in purely instrumental renditions, but both must be sung in vocal performances.

Proclamation of the Brazilian Republic - Benedito Calixto

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FIRST CHORUS

Ouviram do Ipiranga as margens plácidas

De um povo heróico o brado retumbante,

E o sol da Liberdade, em raios fúlgidos,

Brilhou no céu da Pátria nesse instante.

Se o penhor dessa igualdade

Conseguimos conquistar com braço forte

Em teu seio, ó Liberdade,

Desafi a o nosso peito a própria morte!

Ó Pátria amada,

Idolatrada,

Salve! Salve!

Brasil, um sonho intenso, um raio vívido,

De amor e de esperança à terra desce,

Se em teu formoso céu, risonho e límpido,

A imagem do Cruzeiro resplandece.

Gigante pela própria natureza,

És belo, és forte, impávido colosso,

E o teu futuro espelha essa grandeza.

Terra adorada

Entre outras mil

És tu, Brasil,

Ó Pátria amada!

Dos fi lhos deste solo

És mãe gentil,

Pátria amada,

Brasil!

From the Ipiranga River’splacid banks was heard

the resounding clamor of a heroic people

and in shining the sun of liberty

shone in our homeland’s skies at that very moment.

If we have achieved the promise

of equality by our mighty arms,

in thy bosom, O freedom,

our breast shall defy death itself!

O beloved,

idolized homeland,

Hail, hail!

Brazil, an intense dream, a vivid ray

of love and hope descends to Earth

if in thy lovely, smiling and clear skies

the image of the (Southern) Cross shines resplendently.

A giant by thine own nature,

thou art a beautiful, strong and intrepid colossus,

and thy future mirrors thy greatness.

Beloved Land

amongst a thousand others

art thou, Brazil,

O beloved homeland!

To the sons of this land

thou art a gentle mother

beloved homeland,

Brazil!

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SECOND CHORUS

Deitado eternamente em berço esplêndido,

Ao som do mar e à luz do céu profundo,

Fulguras, ó Brasil, fl orão da América,

Iluminado ao sol do Novo Mundo!

Do que a terra mais garrida

Teus risonhos, lindos campos têm mais fl ores,

“Nossos bosques têm mais vida”,

“Nossa vida” no teu seio “mais amores”.

Ó Pátria amada,

Idolatrada,

Salve! Salve!

Brasil, de amor eterno seja símbolo

O lábaro que ostentas estrelado,

E diga o verde-louro dessa fl âmula

- Paz no futuro e glória no passado.

Mas se ergues da justiça a clava forte,

Verás que um fi lho teu não foge à luta,

Nem teme, quem te adora, a própria morte.

Terra adorada

Entre outras mil

És tu, Brasil,

Ó Pátria amada!

Dos fi lhos deste solo

És mãe gentil,

Pátria amada,

Brasil!

Eternally lain on a splendid cradle,

amidst the sound of the sea and under the light of the deep sky,

thou shinest, Brazil, garland of America,

illuminated by the sun of the New World!

Thy smiling, beautiful prairies have more fl owers

than the most elegant land abroad,

“Our meadows have more life”,

“our life” in thy bosom “more love”.

O beloved,

idolized homeland,

Hail, hail!

Brazil, let the star-spangled banner thou showest forth

be the symbol of eternal love,

and let the laurel-green of thy pennant proclaim

- Peace in the future and glory in the past.

But if thou raisest the strong gavel of Justice,

thou wilt see that a son of thine fl ees not from battle,

nor does he who loves thee fear death itself.

Beloved Land,

amongst a thousand others

art thou, Brazil,

O beloved homeland!

To the sons of this land

thou art a gentle mother,

beloved homeland,

Brazil!

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POLITICAL GEOGRAPHICAL DIVISION

Brazil is a Federative Republic with 27 federated units (26 states and 1 Federal District), that together comprise 5 565 municipalities and 10 283 districts distributed over fi ve geographic regions.

NORTHERN REGIONArea: 3 853 327 km2 (45.2% of Brazil’s territory), 15 864 454 inhabitants (8.3% of the Brazilian population), with seven federated units (states):

States Area (km2) Population (inhabs.)Acre 152 581 733 559Amapá 142 814 669 526Amazonas 1 570 746 3 483 985Pará 1 247 690 7 581 051Rondônia 237 576 1 562 409Roraima 224 299 450 479Tocantins 277 621 1 383 445

NORTHEASTERN REGIONArea: 1 554 257 km2 (18.2% of Brazil’s territory), 53 081 950 inhabitants (27.8% of the Brazilian population), with nine federated units (states):

States Area (km2) Population (inhabs.)Alagoas 27 768 3 120 494Bahia 564 693 14 016 906Ceará 148 825 8 452 381Maranhão 331 983 6 574 789Paraíba 56 440 3 766 528Piauí 251 529 3 118 360Pernambuco 98 312 8 796 448Rio Grande do Norte 52 797 3 168 027Sergipe 21 910 2 068 017

WEST-CENTRAL REGIONArea: 1 606 372 km2 (18.9% of Brazil’s territory), 14 058 094 inhabitants (7.4% of the Brazilian population), with four federated units (three states and the Federal District of Brasília):

States Area (km2) Population (inhabs.)Goiás 340 087 6 003 788Mato Grosso 903 358 3 035 122Mato Grosso do Sul 357 125 2 449 024Federal District (DF) 5 802 2 570 160

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SOUTHEASTERN REGIONArea: 924 511 km2 (10.9% of Brazil’s territory), 80 364 410 inhabitants (42.1% of the Brazilian population), with four federated units (states):

States Area (km2) Population (inhabs.)Espírito Santo 46 078 3 514 952Minas Gerais 586 528 19 597 330Rio de Janeiro 43 696 15 989 929São Paulo 248 209 41 262 199

SOUTHERN REGIONArea: 576 410 km2 (6.8% of Brazil’s territory), 27 386 891 inhabitants (14.4% of the Brazilian population), with three federated units (states):

States Area (km2) Population (inhabs.)Paraná 199 315 10 444 526Rio Grande do Sul 281 749 10 693 929Santa Catarina 95 346 6 248 436

DEMOGRAPHY AND URBANISM

Brazil’s demography is the result of the highest degree of racial mixing, ethno-national intermarriage, cultural assimilation and religious syncretism. Most Brazilians have in their genetics some combination of Indigenous American, African and European (mainly Portuguese) lineages dating back to the early colonial times (XVI –XVIII centuries) or to the independent monarchical period (XIX century). However, among Brazil’s population there are many millions who have also European (mainly Italian, Portuguese, German, Polish and Ukrainian), Middle Eastern (mainly Lebanese and Syrian) and Asian (mostly Japanese) ancestors of more recent immigration (from the beginning of the XX century or later).

Approximately 84.4% of Brazil’s population live in urban areas. The state capitals are the largest and most populous cities. The metropolitan agglomerations around São Paulo (19 683 975 people) and Rio de Janeiro (11 835 708 people) constitute the most dense urban demographic networks of South America. There are also important metropolitan areas in some states.

Estaiada Bridge, São Paulo10

MAJOR CITIES AND THEIR POPULATION (2010)

STATE CAPITALS AND THE FEDERAL DISTRICT

City Population State % of the state population

São Paulo 11 253 503 São Paulo (SP) 27.3%Rio de Janeiro 6 320 446 Rio de Janeiro (RJ) 39.5%Salvador 2 675 656 Bahia (BA) 19.1%Brasília (Capital) 2 570 160 Federal District 100.0%Fortaleza 2 452 185 Ceará (CE) 29.0%Belo Horizonte 2 375 151 Minas Gerais (MG) 12.1%Manaus 1 802 014 Amazonas (AM) 51.7%Curitiba 1 751 907 Paraná (PR) 16.8%Recife 1 537 704 Pernambuco (PE) 17.5%Porto Alegre 1 409 351 Rio Grande do Sul (RS) 13.2%Belém 1 393 399 Pará (PA) 18.4%Goiânia 1 302 001 Goiás (GO) 21.7%São Luís 1 014 837 Maranhão (MA) 15.4%Maceió 932 748 Alagoas (AL) 29.9%Teresina 814 230 Piauí (PI) 26.1%Natal 803 739 Rio Grande do Norte (RN) 25.4%Campo Grande 786 797 Mato Grosso do Sul (MS) 32.1%João Pessoa 723 515 Paraíba (PB) 19.2%Cuiabá 551 098 Mato Grosso (MT) 18.2%Porto Velho 428 527 Rondônia (RO) 27.4%Florianopólis 421 240 Santa Catarina (SC) 6.7%Macapá 398 204 Amapá (AP) 59.5%Rio Branco 336 038 Acre (AC) 45.8%Vitória 327 801 Espírito Santo (ES) 9.3%Boa Vista 284 313 Roraima (RR) 63.1%Palmas 228 332 Tocantins (TO) 16.5%

Source: IBGE

NON-CAPITAL METROPOLITAN AREASMetropolitan

population% of state

populationCampinas (SP) 2 797 137 6.8%

Santos (SP) 1 664 136 4.0%Vale do Itajaí (SC) 1 508 980 24.1%Vale dos Sinos (RS) 1 112 638 10.4%São José dos Campos/Taubaté/Caçapava/Tremembé (Vale do Paraíba, SP) 1 034 343 2.5%

Ipatinga/Timóteo/Fabriciano/Santana do Paraíso (Vale do Aço, MG) 451 670 2.3%

Source: IBGE

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ECONOMIC DATAGDP (ppp, est. 2011): US$ 2.309 trillionSource: IMF, World Economic Outlook Database.

GDP (nominal, est. 2011): US$ 2.475 trillion(ranking 6th in the world)Source: Brazilian Central Bank.

GDP (ppp, 2010): US$ 2.169 trillionSource: World Bank.

GDP (nominal, 2010): US$ 2.143 trillion(ranking 7th in the world)Source: Brazilian Central Bank.

GDP per capita (ppp, 2011): US$ 12,105

GDP by sector (2011): - agriculture 5.5%- industry 27.5%- services 67%.Source: IBGE. GDP growth in 2011: 2.7%Source: IBGE. GDP growth in 2010: 7.5%Source: IBGE. GDP growth by sector (2011):Agriculture 3.9%Industry 1.6%Services 2.7%Source: IBGE.

FOREIGN TRADE

Exports (2011): US$ 256.0 billionChange in relation to 2010: 26.8%Source: Brazilian Ministry of Development, Industry and Trade (MDIC).

Imports (2011): US$ 226.2 billionChange in relation to 2010: 24.5%Source: MDIC.

Basic Products Exports (FOB, 2011):US$ 122.4 billionSource: MDIC.

Semi-manufactured Products Exports (FOB, 2011): US$ 36.0 billionSource: MDIC.

Manufactured Products Exports (FOB, 2011): US$ 92.3 billionSource: MDIC.

Flow of Trade (exports + imports, 2011): US$ 482.2 billion(US$ 383.7 billion in 2010)Source: MDIC.

Balance of trade: + US$ 29.8 billion(2011)

Change in the foreign trade turnover (2011): growth of + 25.7% in relation to 2010

Main destinies of Brazilian exports in 2011: China 17.3%, USA 10.1%, Argentina 8.9%, Netherlands 5.3%, Japan 3.7%.

Main exported goods (2011): Ores, oil and fuel, transport material, soybeans and derivatives, sugar and ethanol, chemicals, meat, metallurgic products, machines and equipment, paper and pulp, coffee, textiles, precious metals and stones.

Main countries exporting products to Brazil (2011): USA 15.0%, China 14.5%, Argentina 7.5%, Germany 6.7%, South Korea 4.5%.

Main imported goods (2011): fuel and oil, mechanical equipment, electrical and electronic equipment, motor vehicles and parts, organic and inorganic chemicals, iron, steel and its products, plastics and its products, optical and precision equipment, pharmaceuticals, fertilizers, rubber and its products, cereals and milling products, cooper and its products, airplanes and its parts, synthetic and artifi cial fi laments and fi bers.

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Brazil – IMPORTS Main products

US$ million2010 2011

Fuel and oil 29,958 41,968

Mechanical equipment 28,537 33,703

Electrical and electronic equipment 22,246 26,395

Motor vehicles and parts 17,276 22,621

Organics and inorganics chemicals 10,235 11,765

Fertilizers 4,943 9,138

Plastics and its products 6,521 8,104

Iron, steel and its products 7,882 7,583

Pharmaceuticals 6,093 6,499

Optical and precision equipment 6,093 6,302

Rubber and its products 3,990 5,103

Cereals and milling products 2,785 3,245

Cooper and its products 2,464 2,775

Airplanes and its parts 2,293 2,516

Synthetic and artifi cial fi laments and fi bers 1,949 2,342

Other products 28,496 36,186

Total 181,761 226,245Source: MDIC

Brazil – EXPORTS Main products

US$ million2010 2011

Ores 30,839 44,217

Oil and fuel 22,890 31,008

Transport material 21,748 25,120

Soybeans and its products 17,115 24,154Metallurgic products 12,948 17,387Sugar and ethanol 13,776 16,432

Chemicals 13,477 16,234

Meats 13,292 15,357

Machines and equipment 8,187 10,457

Coffee 5,739 8,700

Paper and pulp 6,769 7,189

Electrical equipment 4,815 4,811

Footwear and leather 3,513 3,659

Textiles 2,265 3,012

Precious metals and stones 2,270 2,961

Other products 22,272 25,341

Total 201,915 256,039Source: MDIC

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OTHER DATA

Infl ation rate (2011): 6.50% Source: IBGE (consumer prices)

Labour force (2009): 101.1 million Source: IBGE.

Unemployment (2011): 6.0%Source: IBGE.

Gini Index (2010): 0.53Source: IBGE.

Human Development Index (HDI): 0,718 (world rank: 84th/177)Source: UNDP, November 2011.

Net Public Debt (2011): US$ 805 billion (36.4% of GDP)Source: Brazilian Central Bank.

Foreign Direct Investment (2011): US$ 66.7 billionSource: Brazilian Central Bank.

Foreign Debt (December, 2011): US$ 298.2 billionSource: Brazilian Central Bank.

Foreign reserves (December, 2011): US$ 352.0 billionSource: Brazilian Central Bank.

SUMMARY OF HISTORICAL EVENTS

Arrival of the fi rst indigenous people: 8 000 BC

Discovery by the Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral: April 22, 1500

Offi cial start of the Portuguese Colonial system in Brazil: September 28, 1532(Establishment of the semi-feudal Hereditary Captaincies)

Arrival of the Portuguese Royal Family: March 8, 1808 (Escape to Brazil of King João VI, his family and Court from the invasion of Portugal by Napoleon’s troops)

Elevation to the rank of kingdom: December 16, 1815(as United Kingdom of Portugal, Brazil and Algarves)

Independence from Portugal: September 07, 1822(as a constitutional monarchy, the Brazil´s Empire, with a parliamentary form of government)

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Proclamation of the Republic: November 15, 1889

End of the Oligarchic Old Republic: October 24, 1930

Inauguration of the government of President Getúlio Vargas: November 3, 1930(Vargas’ different terms were renewed until October 10, 1945, and his period of rule was marked by increased Brazilian industrialisation and socio-economic modernisation; 25 000 Brazilian soldiers participated in the II World War in Italy)

Democratic Election of President Eurico Gaspar Dutra: January 31, 1946

Democratic Election of President Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira: October 3, 1955(who stimulated the Brazilian development process and founded the new capital city of Brasília on April 21, 1960)

Resignation of President Jânio da Silva Quadros: August 25, 1961(succeeded by Vice-President João Goulart on September 7, 1961)

Authoritarian Rule: April 01, 1964(Anti-democratic practices were gradually adopted following the military putsch against President João Belchior Marques Goulart, culminating in the implementation of a full dictatorship by means of the so-called Institutional Act No. 5, imposed by the military junta on December 13, 1968)

Re-democratisation: January 15, 1985(after the election by the Parliament of President Tancredo Neves, expressing the rejection of the military regime by the majority of the Brazilian people)

First direct election: 1989,President Fernando Collor de Mello, impeached and substituted by Vice President Itamar Franco in 1992

Real Plan (Plano Real): February 27, 1994(successful stabilisation of the economy and inauguration of the country’s current sustainable development process)

Election of President Fernando Henrique Cardoso: October 3, 1994,a member of the Brazilian Social-Democratic PartyRe-elected on October 4, 1998

Election of President Luís Inácio Lula da Silva: October 27, 2002Re-elected on October 29, 2006, a member of the Workers’ Party

Election of President Dilma Vana Rousseff: October 31, 2010, a member of the Worker’s Party

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HISTORY

DISCOVERY

The territory currently belonging to Brazil was fi rst inhabited 10,000 years ago by wandering groups of indigenous peoples that, according to the most accepted hypothesis, were the descendants of hunter-gatherer nomadic migrants from Asia who at the end of the last Ice Age crossed land passage corridors – then existing over the Behring Straits – into Alaska and from there down to the Americas. Around the last years of the 15th century, there was an estimated population of 4-5 million autochthonous inhabitants divided in thousands of semi-nomadic tribes living scattered along the Brazilian coast and countryside. These peoples belonged to seven main ethno-linguistic groups (Tupy, Gê-Kaingang, Karib, Arawakan, Panoan, Yanoman and Tukanoan), with more than 250 different languages, of which the 41 variations of the Tupy-Guarany branch have been the most widespread and historically infl uential.

A fl eet of 13 warships with a crew of 1500 sailors and soldiers under the command of the Portuguese navigator Pedro Álvares Cabral (1460-1520) left Lisbon on March 9, 1500 and arrived supposedly by mistake to latitude 16°52’S of the Brazilian north-eastern littoral on April 21, 1500, when a piece of land, a hill later named Monte Pascoal (Paschal Mountain), was spotted. The fl eet anchored at Porto Seguro (Safe Harbour), setting foot on soil only on April 22, 1500, which is considered the offi cial date of the Discovery of Brazil.

The allegation that Cabral’s expedition found the Brazilian coast by accident while sailing to India – as he went

too far westwards to avoid dangerous African maritime currents – has been widely contested. The Portuguese Admiral and his captains had excellent training in navigation and were experienced seamen, who prior to the voyage had been sent by the Lusitanian Crown to other maritime exploration missions. For many historians, it seems doubtful that the Portuguese naval squadron would divert from the sea route opened by Vasco da Gama along the African continent if there were no royal instructions to take possession of the coastal landforms of Pernambuco and the estuary of the Amazonas river, which were already visited during four months in 1499 by the Spanish explorer Vicente Yanez Pinzón, who had been the commander of the caravel Niña on the occasion of the Discovery of America by Christopher Columbus on October 12, 1492. The Florentine cartographer and merchant Américo Vespucci had participated as observer in several voyages to the east coast of Brazil between 1497 and 1499, also at the service of Spain. Pursuant to the clauses of the Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), the Spanish Crown was not entitled to claim dominium over these regions, but the mere presence of its agents in territories lying within the “Portuguese half” of the globe was disquieting to King Manuel I (1469–1521). Another indication that Brazil was discovered intentionally by Cabral is that he was the son-in-law of the opulent entrepreneur Fernão de Noronha (1470–1540), who was the representative of the consortium which obtained in 1502 a concession for exploiting natural resources in the newly found coast, which the native Tupinikin people used to call these lands “Pindorama“ (“where the palm trees grow”) but was named by the navigators fi rst as Island of the True Cross (“Ilha de Vera Cruz“), later Land of the Holy Cross (“Terra de Santa Cruz“) and fi nally Brazil.

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COLONIZATION

The Colonial Period in the History of Brazil encompasses chronologically 315 years, beginning with its offi cial discovery and ending formally in 1815, when the country was elevated to United Kingdom with Portugal. The Portuguese Crown administered Brazil directly from 1500 until 1534, when the country was divided into fi fteen self-reliant Hereditary Captaincies under royal suzerainty. As this system failed, a government-general was instituted in 1549 to supervise the former semi-feudal setting, with seat fi rst in Bahia (1549) and later in Rio de Janeiro (1763–1808). The colony was disjointed in 1621 into the State of Brazil, under the governor-general in São Salvador (Bahia), and the State of Maranhão, which was further detached in 1772 into other two units, the State of Maranhão-Piauí, (capital São Luis) and the State of Grão-Pará and Rio Negro (capital Belém). From 1640, governors-generals of upper nobility had the title of “Vice-Rei” (Viceroy) and Brazil was decreed from 1645 an Honorary Principality to be regularly attributed to the heir of the Portuguese Crown.

Three consecutive economic cycles have dominated the Brazilian social development in the colonial times, each of them centred on an export commodity – brazilwood, sugar and gold – depending upon the proximity to the seashore. The wealth generated by the expansionary phases of these activities attracted the ambition of other European powers. The colonisation started effectively in 1532, when the fi rst stable settlement, the village of São Vicente, was founded by Martim Afonso de Souza in the littoral of what is today the state of São Paulo. The actual penetration into the “sertão” (backcountry) was lengthy and has assumed multiple

forms, as Portuguese colonists had to continually adapt to military, fi nancial and other constraints their advance from the Atlantic coast to the interior of South America. Nonetheless, during the junction of the Portuguese and Spanish monarchies (1580–1640), the Brazilian colonial frontiers moved forward rather fast into what should be Spain‘s domains in accordance to Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), until reaching a point of exacerbation of the confl ict of interests between the two countries around the confi nes of their respective territories south of the Tropic of Capricorn. As the Spanish were not in position to enforce their rights, in 1750 the Portuguese diplomacy was successful in convincing the adversary that in the resolution of their territorial disputes should prevail the principle of Roman law ’uti possidetis, ita possidetis’ (“who owns by fact, owns by right”). As a result, the Treaty of Madrid consecrated the boundaries of Colonial Brazil, enlarged to a shape nearing the present Brazilian geographic limits.

In the 16th century, thousands of different autonomous tribal societies existed in the area of South America that lies nowadays within the borders of Brazil. All were semi-nomadic and culturally Neolithic, and their economy was based on gathering, hunting, fi shing and slash-and-burn agriculture, with some animal farming. Most of them produced ceramics and artefacts with feather, wicker, wood, bone, seashells, stone and other materials. Their knowledge of the curative, hallucinogen and other properties of plants was sophisticated. From information compiled in their contacts with the natives, the Portuguese devised a generic classifi cation of these groups into three broad divisions: the Tupi and the Guarani (closely related by language and culture), and the Tapuia (“Barbarians”, which

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belonged to a myriad of ethnicities speaking mutually unintelligible languages). The Tupi were split into Tupinikin and Tupinambá and despite acknowledging their common origin were fi erce enemies, quarrelling constantly and killing each other‘s prisoners of war in cannibalistic rituals. From the very inception of the presence of Portuguese in Brazil, their de facto unions with indigenes were common. If monogamous, these relationships were susceptible to be legalized by marriage in the Catholic Church. And many have been because the ecclesiastical authorities and the Royal Administration encouraged the formation of an ethnically mixed population which would serve as an embryo for a future colonial society. Coming from Portugal in the early years of the 16th century, a dozen adventurers, “degredados” (banished convicts) and shipwreck survivors married into Tupinikin powerful clans of the coast. The respective tribes became loyal allies of the Portuguese, who availed themselves of the help of these friendly natives to gradually gain more access to the land. Emulating this strategy, the French made alliances with the Tupinambá and the Dutch with the Tarairu, a ferocious nation of the Tapuia. By this expedient, a handful of Europeans could raise on their side an army of several thousand “Indians” – as the Portuguese dubbed the indigenes – and this has been the characteristic feature in all the major battles fought during the colonial era on Brazilian soil.

At the onset of their rule, the Portuguese were unable to fi nd exploitable resources in Brazil, except for a tree that in local Tupi dialects was called ybirapitanga (“red wood”), arabutan or ybiratan (“hard wood”), and which was abundant in the Atlantic rain forest that then covered the entire Brazilian shoreline and hundred

kilometres inland. Ybirapitanga belongs to the same genus Caesalpinia as sappanwood, a species native to Southeast Asia, which was already utilised in Europe during the Middle Age for tinting drapery. The indigenous population employed the timber mainly as construction material, but also knew how to condense a red pigment from the kernel of its stem. Because the colour of that wood was similar to a “brasa”, which in the Portuguese language means “ember” or “glowing red”, it was associated to the “bresil” found by Marco Polo in Asia. Making profi ts up to 500 percent, Fernão de Noronha and his associates popularised the “pau-brasil” (brazilwood) in Europe and the textile industries of Flanders-Artois, France and England became huge importers of the product, who was turned into a highly priced commodity by the monopolistic policies of the Portuguese Crown. Aiming to break the Portuguese monopoly, merchants from Bretagne and Normandy fi nanced privateers to prowl the coasts of Brazil and search for indigenous partners willing to barter the precious red dye wood in exchange for cheap manufactures and metal tools.

Martim Afonso de Souza organised in São Vicente extensive plantation of sugarcane and installed the fi rst “engenho” (mill complex) for processing industrially that crop. He attracted to the venture Johan van Hielst, who was the representative in Lisbon of the Flemish tycoon Erasmus Schetz. Soon that colony was exporting sugar to Portugal, where commercial intermediaries resold the product in European markets with enormous profi ts. The Vincentin experience was replicated in other parts of Brazil, becoming particularly successful in Pernambuco and Bahia.

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The French continued to frequent the Brazilian maritime coasts and in 1555 a bunch of 600 colonists and soldiers under the commandment of the Huguenot vice-admiral Nicolas Durand de Villegagnon erected a fortress in the Guanabara Bay (Rio de Janeiro) and inaugurated a colony, France Antarctique, that with the support of the Tamoio (“Ancestral“) from the Tupinambá ethnicity, lasted until 1567, when it was destroyed by governor-general Mem de Sá. Another attempt of colonization by the French in Maranhão in 1612 – France Équinotiale - withstood the Portuguese reaction only until 1615.

The natives were indispensable for fi nding and chopping ybiratan trees in the forest, sawing and transporting them to the shores, and loading cargoes onto ships. This hard work was obtained upon proffering to the indigene labourers goods that they liked – like hats, garments, cloths, knives, hammers etc - but which were from a monetary point of view unworthy of their efforts. Yet once the Portuguese had encroached themselves on stretches of the Brazilian territory, slaves start to be rounded up by “entradas” and “resgates“. These were sporadic incursions into the backlands offi cially sponsored by the colonial authorities for exploring regions distant from the coast and capture prisoners in “just wars” against tribes that resisted the invasion of their homes, refused christianisation, practiced anthropophagy or were deemed by any allegation of convenience to be refractory to “civilisation”. Despite the brutality exercised against the tribes that were considered irreconcilable foes, a reciprocal cultural assimilation between the Portuguese and the friendly natives was occurring to a high degree since the outset of the colonial experiment. However, living

isolated from the populations of other continents for thousands years, the Indians didn’t have immunity to diseases the Europeans unwittingly brought with them. Epidemics of smallpox, grippe, measles and other infections caused a tragic death toll among the indigenes and impelled the remainder to evade towards their primeval backwoods. Such a calamity depopulated areas engendering an acute shortage of manpower for the sugar industry and other economic activities. The attention of the colons turned to the Jesuit “reduções” (missionary townships) that had been formed to congregate the Indians for catechetical purposes, soon after militant clergymen of the then recently created Society of Jesus disembarked in Brazil in 1549. The sugar industry growing fast in importance and turning itself into a “gigantic machine insatiably devouring manual labour”, the missionary were harassed to furnish additional contingents of native workers. Finally, many Jesuit religious precincts were attacked and looted and their Christianised Indians simply enslaved, as it has been the case for the Carijó.

The continuous scarcity of workforce prompted the appearance of the “bandeirantes” (bearers or followers of a fl ag), who were members of the “bandeiras” (fl ags), private militias rooted in the village of São Paulo. These raiders also cognomened “paulistas” were mostly of mixed European and indigenous ancestry and spoke less Portuguese than Nheengatu (“good speech”), “a lingua franca” that for the sake of catechesis had been made up by the Jesuit Anchieta of vocabulary and phonetics from Tupi dialects, with grammatical borrowings from Latin. From 1570, the bandeiras hunted indigenes for enslavement and devastated more

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than fi fty Jesuit townships in Paraguay and were responsible for the captivity of 500 thousand Indians. Their fortune changed when they suffered together with their allies Tupinikin decisive defeats near river M’bororé, in Paraguay, against Guarani troops that had been allowed to carry fi rearms and received training from Jesuits with military experience. The “paulistas” focused thenceforth their energy on prospecting gold, diamonds and other precious minerals. Antonio Rodrigues Arzão and his brother-in-law Bartholomeu Bueno da Siqueira, two explorers from Taubaté, discovered in 1693–1694 copious alluvial gold in the southeastern highlands of Minas Gerais.

A few Africans had arrived to Brazil since the discovery, as members of the crew, interpreters or domestic servicemen in the ships that visited the Brazilian coasts. In 1531, people enslaved in Africa started to be employed by the sugar industry and the fi rst governor-general Tomé de Souza brought with him in 1549 a group of African slaves that had been “given” to him by the king of Portugal. After that year until 1850, around 3.6 million Africans have been victims in Brazil of the infamous trade, among them Angolan Bantus, Nigerian Yoruba and Adjas, Fons and other ethnicities. According to historian Afonso d’Escragnole Taunay, the numbers of Africans that came as slaves to Brazil have been 100.000 in the 16th century, 600.000 in the 17th century, 1.300.000 in the 18th

century and 1.600.000 in the 19th

century.

In their courageous and unyielding defi ance to slavery, the Afro-Brazilians have showed creativity and determination. Already in 1530, there were many “quilombos“ (villages

of runway slaves) in the Northeasten part of the Brazilian territory. These settlements tended to reproduce forms of tribalistic social organization existing in Africa, but one of them, the Mocambo of Palmares, in the current state of Alagoas, has evolved to a semi-republican structure and in fact has been a proto-state that lasted during 100 years, being destroyed only in 1694, when the bandeirante Domingos Jorge Velho, aided by a traitor, arrested and beheaded the leader Zumbi.

THE DUTCH INVASIONS

In 1580, the Portuguese and Spanish monarchies were joined together by a personal union under King Philip III of Spain, following the crisis of succession that ensued in Portugal after the disappearance of its King Sebastião I in war. The Iberian Union lasted until 1640 and, although the two countries continued to be separate states, preserving their respective borders, distinct institutions and colonial empires, their foreign policy coalesced because both kingdoms were under the same monarch. The antagonists of Spain thus became also a contender of Portugal.

As Holland and the rebellious northern Dutch provinces were waging a war of independence against the Spanish Habsburg’s religious and political oppression, they considered the colonies of the Iberian dual monarchy as a legitimate target for pillage or conquest. The Staten-Generaal (Parliament) of The Seven United Provinces approved the establishment of the the Geoctroyeerde West-Indische Compagnie (Authorised West Indies Company) or GWIC , which was founded in 1621 by the writer, merchant and diplomat Willem Ussenlincx. Upon his concept, the

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Dutch colonies should be set up in the New World against the two nations that championed the cause of Roman Catholic Counter Reform in Europe, persecuting Protestantism and other religions. The chartered corporation was structured as an association of investors for the purpose of exploration, trade and colonisation of lands in the West Indies. It had its own army and navy, but was not allowed to conduct military campaigns without authorization from the Dutch government. In the confl uence of the geopolitical aspirations of the Dutch state and the persuasive infl uence of relevant stakeholders in the West Indies Company, the decision to capture Portugal’s centres of sugar production in Brazil and also the Portuguese sites of slaves trade in Africa has unleashed a major military operation which goal was to break the economic might of the ideological enemies of the Dutch Republic.

A belligerent action from the GWIC navy of Admiral Jacob Willekens took place against São Salvador in 1624 and the Dutch troops of Colonel Jan van Doorth gained control of the capital of Bahia for one year, but subsequently suffered exhaustion due to a relentless war of attrition by local Portuguese guerrillas and fi nally had to surrender to a strong Spanish-Portuguese armada. In 1630, however, a powerful fl eet commanded by Admiral Hendrick Corneliszoon Loncq conquered Olinda and Recife and the forces under colonel Diederick van Weerdemburch fi rmly consolidated strongholds in Pernambuco. From that year onward, expeditionary troops gradually extended the GWIC dominance to adjacent regions and came to control the entire Northeaster coastline of Brazil. The count Johan Maurits van Nassau, a gifted military commander and a brilliant statesman, was

appointed in 1636 governor of Niew Holland, as the Dutch colonial enclave had been named. During his term of offi ce, he inaugurated an interstice of enlightment, prosperity and refi nement that did not perdure after his departure in 1644. The Portuguese Crown, which had dissociated from the Spanish royalty in 1640, saw the opportunity for launching an ingenious diplomatic and military offensive to eradicate the GWIC colony.

The invasions patronised by Protestant Netherlands achieved the objective of hurting the economic interests of the Iberian Union in Brazil and Africa, but at the same time disrupted the world’s sugar market. The Dutch troops and the resistance movement destroyed many Brazilian “engenhos” (cane sugar mills) and plantations and the local production of the commodity never really recovered. The transfer of part of Brazil’s sugar industry to the Caribbean provoked indeed the downfall of the Portuguese colonial monopoly, but the accrued productivity brought by new techniques invented by Brazilian Jews that took refuge in that region resulted in the oversupply of the commodity and a steady decline in its international prices.

TIRADENTES AND THE MINAS CONSPIRACY

In 1789, a number of students returned from Europe infl uenced by the example of the independence of the United States of America, the liberal and revolutionary ideas spreading through the whole of France, and disenchanted by the iron fi st with which Queen Maria I ruled Brazil. They began to prepare the ground for a revolution which would free the colony from Portuguese supremacy and lead to the creation of an independent republic. Joaquim José da Silva Xavier (generally known

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by his nickname of Tiradentes (The Dentist, after his original profession) was one of the most zealous of those who spread the idea of overthrowing the Portuguese rule. Most supporters of the conspiracy were well-known intellectuals and almost all were poets of the literary style called Arcadia. They usually met at the home of the lawyer Claudio Manuel da Costa in the town of Vila Rica (today known as Ouro Preto, in Minas Gerais). They agreed on the likeness of the fl ag, the abolition of slavery, the creation of a university in Vila Rica and even on the transfer of the capital city to São João del Rei.

From the beginning, the conspiracy, known as Inconfi dência Mineira, was not a well-kept secret and a lot of information about it leaked out. Portuguese Colonel, Joaquim Silverio dos Reis, easily worked his way into the movement and on 15 March 1789 he revealed the names of all the main actors to the Governor of Minas Gerais, the Viscount of Barbacena. Tiradentes was arrested in Rio de Janeiro, where he had gone to spread the idea of revolution. On 10 May 1789 he was jailed and kept in solitary confi nement. At the same time, the order was given for the imprisonment of all members of the conspiracy, who were to undergo a lengthy court-process, all except for lawyer Claudio Manuel da Costa, who hung himself after one month spent in prison. At the end of the process, twelve of the conspirators were sentenced to death, fi ve to eternal banishment and the rest of the conspirators to temporary banishment. The death sentences were later commuted to banishment in Africa for all except Tiradentes. On the morning of April 21, 1792, the hero was led from prison to the gallows. His execution took place with great pomp and numerous ceremonies,

such as a military parade and religious procession.

In addition to all this, the city was decorated as for a public holiday. After he was hung, Tirandentes’s body was quartered and his limbs were scattered along the route from Minas Gerais to Rio de Janeiro, while his head was displayed on the main square in Vila Rica, where it later mysteriously disappeared, leading to many legends. The Inconfi dência Mineira conspiracy in 1789 was an important historical event and Tiradentes remains to this day in the hearts of Brazilians. This is refl ected by the respects which are paid to him every year: 21 April is the Day of Justice, when all citizens remember this unforgettable martyr and pioneer of Brazilian independence.

BRAZILIAN INDEPENDENCE

The fact that the Royal family temporarily moved from Portugal to Brazil when in danger meant that the Brazilians’ attempts to gain independence did not take on the violent nature that they did in other parts of the American continent. Moving the royal family was an old idea from the time of John IV.

In Portugal, Queen Maria I was declared insane and her son John became Prince Regent. At the end of 1807, he was forced to make the decision of moving his Court to Brazil in order not to be made prisoner by the French after Napoleon’s invasion into Portugal. In January 1808, the Prince Regent, his family and a large accompanying party arrived in the town of Bahia and in March they moved to Rio de Janeiro, which marked the beginning of a period of prosperity for the country, which until then had been merely a colony. When Queen Maria I died in 1816, John inherited the

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throne as John VI. In 1821, he was forced to return to Portugal due to the new political situation there, leaving his twenty-three year old son Pedro I (1798–1834) as Prince Regent. In Brazil, strong nationalist sentiments were spreading over the entire country. Brazilian nationalists called on the Prince to stay on as ruler with full authority. While Pedro had been trying to show a certain willingness to compromise with his father, in December 1821 he received a letter from John VI ordering him to return to Lisbon. On the urging of his advisors and the people, the prince decided to stay in Brazil. The situation became tenser and tenser until it came to a head on 7 September 1822 when the prince, on the banks of the Ipiranga river near the city of São Paulo, decided to declare the independence of Brazil. That year, he was crowned Emperor under the name Pedro I. The battle with the Portuguese when it came was short-lived and was virtually over within a year. It is important to stress the importance the opinion of the statesman and nationalist José Bonifácio de Andrada e Silva, one of the Emperor’s most loyal and devout friends, played in his decision. In 1825, an agreement was signed in which John VI formally recognized the independence of Brazil for a certain amount of economic compensation and being conferred the life-long title of Emperor, although with no real power.

EMPIRE

The beginning of Pedro I’s reign was promising despite its diffi culties; when in 1826 his father died, he could have taken the Portuguese crown but he opted instead to abdicate so his eldest daughter could take on the role, and he continued his reign in his adopted country. Over time however,

his popularity fell as a monarch for a number of political reasons (his government was accused of being a government of one man, and he was accused of refusing to nominate the ministers his people wanted), and in 1831 he abdicated to give way to his son, Pedro of Alcantara (the future Pedro II). Before his return to Portugal, he named Bonífacio de Andrada e Silva as guardian of the young prince. He had to fi ght for his kingdom on his return to Portugal, as his brother Miguel, Regent up to that time, was refusing to give him his crown. He governed until his death in 1834, when his daughter Maria da Glória was crowned as Maria II.

Because Pedro II (1825–1891) was only fi ve years old on the occasion of her accession to the throne, a Triumvirate Regency was created, which later became permanent. At that time, three political parties were in existence: the Republican Party, the Moderate Party (supporting the Regency) and the Renewal Party, wanting the return of Pedro I. In 1833, José Bonifácio was removed from his function as the Prince’s guardian as it was shown that he had had a leading role in a conspiracy led by the Renewal Party. The death of the Emperor a year later brought an end to the wishes of this party.

In this same year, Diogo Feijó (1835–1837) was named sole guardian, this being the period when the Guerra dos Farrapos broke out: republican sentiments leaking out of Uruguay and Argentina, together with high taxes, brought about a rebellion in the state of Rio Grande do Sul, which fi nished only 10 years later under the rule of Pedro II . The rebels declared an independent government, called the República de Piratini with their leader, Bento Gonçalves, later imprisoned by the government, as its president. His

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subsequent escape discredited Feijó’s government and led to his resignation. In 1838-1840, Araújo Lima took over the Regency, but he could not do much better with rebellions still continuing. In 1840, the Liberal Party asked Pedro to be named, despite his being only just over fourteen years of age. The proposal was discussed by the Parliament and, under the pressure of the public, the young prince was sworn in as Emperor Pedro II on 23 July 1840 and took over governance.

During his years of Governing, Pedro II, who reigned from 1840 until 1889, stabilized the country and managed to unite its people who until recently had been so divided. At that time, Brazil took part in many confl icts connected with the Republics in the area of La Plata. In 1863, Brazil fought against Solano López, President of Paraguay, who had taken over the Brazilian ship Marquês de Olinda and begun an invasion of Mato Grosso. An alliance with Argentina and Uruguay was formed against Marshall Lopéz and in 1870 they achieved victory. Six years later, an Agreement on Peace, Friendship, Ocean Navigation and Trade was signed between the so-called Triple Alliance. Some of the most important social and political reforms during the reign of Pedro II were the abolition of slavery, the formation of a civic register, the support of an immigration policy, and the foundation of the fi rst schools and universities. Under Pedro II, public opinion was against slavery and wanted it to be abolished. On May 13, 1888, Princess Isabel, daughter and heir to Pedro II, during his travel to Europe, signed the so-called ‘Golden Law’, which fi nally abolished slavery.

THE REPUBLIC

The economic crisis – triggered by the abolition of slavery that signifi cantly

affected the interests of the land-owners, the last supporters for the monarchy – hastened the onset of the Republic, declared on November 15, 1889, led by Marshall Deodoro da Fonseca. A Constituent Congress was called to draft a Constitution along the lines of the North American example, and it was ratifi ed on February 24, 1891. The Congress declared elections on February 25 the same year, being Marshall Deodoro elected president and Floriano Peixoto Vice-President.

A federal and decentralised system of government replaced the centrally managed Empire. A centralised political and judicial system was replaced by a high level of autonomy for individual states, which had arisen from the former provinces. Over time, the new rule of law settled down and, after the governments of Marshall Deodoro da Fonseca (1891) and Marshall Floriano Peixoto (1891–1894), the Presidents Prudente de Morais and Campos Salles were able to approach a consolidation of institutions and fi nances.

In the so-called Old Republic (1889–1930), the development of the political system together with democratic formalism led to a certain artifi ciality of the electoral system, with numerous agreements between the leaders of political parties, which rendered legitimate elections impossible. The Republic was governed by a so-called ‘politics of Governors’, a system by which the President of the Republic supported the Governors and vice-versa.

Many states in the Federation became dissatisfi ed with the economic strength of the largest states, which made the power to be shared between candidates from São Paulo (important coffee producer) and Minas Gerais (cattle breeding and the dairy industry), known at the time as the politics of ‘coffee with milk’.

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The situation came to a head in the revolution of 1930, the aim of which was to renew the electoral system and change political habits. Getúlio Vargas, from Rio Grande do Sul, took control of the government and became head of the interim state two years later, leading to impatience in the state of São Paulo and to an uprising known as the Constitutional Revolution in 1932. After the pacifi cation of the country new elections took place, a new constitution was enacted (1934) and Vargas was elected President. In 1937, he passed a constitutional law of dictatorial character and he ruled the so-called New State until 1945. Some of the achievements during the period of Getúlio Vargas’s governance were the creation of an advanced working legislative and a modern social security system. It was during that period that the conditions were formed for the industrial development of Brazil, by the construction of the fi rst steel-mills in Volta Redonda, in Rio de Janeiro. The Brazilian support of the Allies in the Second World War and the defeat of the dictatorial regimes of the Axis Powers hastened the consolidation of democracy in the country. General elections took place, Marshall Eurico Dutra was chosen and a new, more liberal Constitution was enacted.

In 1950, former President Vargas was voted for a second Presidential mandate together with Vice-President João Café Filho. On August 24, 1954, the President comitted suicide in tragic circumstances and Café Filho took on the President’s offi ce. In 1955, with a new president, Juscelino Kubitschek in power, Brazil underwent signifi cant economic development. At that time, new businesses focused on consumer industries were set up, car and boat plants, steel-mills and railways, as well as a number of hydro-electric power stations were also built together with a

whole range of transport infrastructure. The ancestors of JK were from the town of Třeboň in South Bohemia.

On April 21, 1960, Rio de Janeiro was replaced by Brasilia as the capital of the Republic – a city specially built using new architectural and urbanistic methods in the geographical center of Brazil. This new capital city had been for many decades an unfulfi lled dream, mooted in Brazil’s fi rst Constitution (1824). On January 31, 1961, Jânio da Silva Quadros entered Presidential offi ce. He resigned on August 25 of that same year and Vice-President João Goulart took his place. The deepening political, economic and social tensions in the country led to a military coup and Goulart’s loss of power on March 31, 1964.

On April 15 of the same year, Marshall Humberto de Alencar Castelo Branco was indirectly elected President by the National Congress and his government lasted until March 15, 1967. During his mandate, the Federal Constitution was rewritten and was ratifi ed on January 23, 1967. Castelo Branco was followed by Marshall Artur da Costa e Silva. In December 1968, Institutional Act 5 was ratifi ed, which gave the military government extensive powers and practically led to the installation of a military dictatorship in the country. After the sudden illness of President Costa e Silva, he was temporarily replaced by a Military Junta and the Constitution of 1967 was changed by Amendment No. 1 Oct. 17, 1969. The Army chose General Emílio Garrastazu Médici to be the new President, a position he held from 30 October 1969 until 15 March 1974. During his rule, Brazil underwent a new phase of rapid economic development with heavy industry. Efforts to improve transport connections inland led to rapid road construction to even the most remote areas. Hydroelectric

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power also became a more signifi cant source of electricity.

General Geisel took over from Emilio Médici, until March 15, 1979. His government had to confront a diffi cult moment in Brazil’s economic history during the World Energy Crisis, but also steps were taken to the renewal of Brazil’s democratic processes, as cancelling the Institutional Act 5.

General João Baptista de Oliveira Figueiredo was President until March 15, 1985. During his government, an amnesty law was signed allowing the return of people who had been punished for taking part in the upheavals after 1964; reform of the political parties was enacted and in 1982 the fi rst direct governor elections since 1965 took place. The country had to deal with a worsening World Energy Crisis, increasing foreign debts. Despite this, new hydroelectric power plants began operations in Tucuruí and Itaipu and a new railway system was laid in Carajas (iron ore mining and other types).

On January 15, 1985, the opposition candidate for President, Tancredo Neves, was elected in by the Congress, but he was unable to assume offi ce after a sudden illness and was temporarily replaced on March 15, 1985 by the elected Vice-President, José Sarney. On April 21 the same year, Tancredo Neves died and José Sarney became the new President. The main aim of Sarney’s government was a new Constitution, that was ratifi ed on October 5, 1988. Work began on fulfi lling the national land reform, development plans, a program of irrigation in the northeast of Brazil. In foreign policy, conditions were met to achieve political, economic and cultural integration with Argentina and Uruguay. In the fi eld of economics, ‘Plano Cruzado’ was launched to fi ght

infl ation, but was unsuccessful.

On November 15, 1989, the fi rst round of direct general elections for the offi ce of President of the Republic for 29 years took place. On December 17, Fernando Collor was elected: 80 million Brazilians including people from the age of sixteen and the illiterate took part in Brazil and in countries with diplomatic representations abroad. President Collor took offi ce on March 15, 1990. The failure of his plan aimed at balancing economy and accusations of corruption led to his abdication after impeachment proceedings were undertaken. Vice-President Itamar Franco took his place.

On October 3, 1994, Fernando Henrique Cardoso was elected President, taking up offi ce on 1 January 1995. He was responsible as Minister of Finance of the Real Plan in 1994. In 1998 he was elected for a new (four-year) term. His government was focused on controlling infl ation, opening up the Brazilian economy and reforms aimed at reducing state infl uence in the economy.

On January 1, 2003, Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva was elected President of the Federative Republic of Brazil for a four-year term. His government has focused on economic stability, foreign trade development and a concern with social issues, aiming to reduce social inequalities.

On January 1, 2007 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva began his second term as President of the Republic. On January 1, 2011 President Dilma took offi ce. She is the fi rst woman to occupy the position in the History of Brazil.

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PRESIDENTS OF THE FEDERATIVE REPUBLIC OF BRAZIL

1889 Manuel Deodoro da Fonseca1891 Floriano Peixoto1894 Prudente José de Moraes e Barros1898 Manoel Ferraz de Campos Salles 1902 Francisco de Paula Rodrigues Alves1906 Alfonso Augusto Moreira Pena1909 Nilo Peçanha1910 Hermes Rodrigues da Fonseca1914 Wenceslau Braz Pereira Ribeiro1918 Delfi m Moreira da Costa Ribeiro1919 Epitácio da Silva Pessoa1922 Artur da Silva Pessoa1926 Washington Luis Pereira de Sousa1930 Getúlio Dornelles Vargas1934 (Elected 17.7. by the Constitutional Assembly) Getúlio Dornelles Vargas1945 José Linhares1946 Eurico Gaspar Dutra1951 Getúlio Dornelles Vargas1954 João Café Filho1955 Carlos Luz (temporarily)1955 Nereu de Oliviera Ramos1956 Juscelino Kubitschek de Oliveira1961 Jânio da Silva Quadros1961 Ranieri Mazzili (temporarily)1961 João Belchior Marques Goulart1964 Ranieri Mazzili (temporarily)1964 Humberto de Alencar Castello Branco1967 Artur da Costa e Silva1969 Emilio Garrastazu Médici1974 Ernesto Geisel1979 João Baptista Figueiredo1985 José Sarney1990 Fernando Collor de Mello1992 Itamar Franco1995 Fernando Henrique Cardoso1999 Fernando Henrique Cardoso (2nd term)2003 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva2007 Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva (2nd term)2011 Dilma Vana Rousseff

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GEOGRAPHY

Brazil has a roughly triangular shape if you take its largest sides along the lines of latitude and longitude (north/south and east/west). Its northeast, east and southeast shore is washed by the waters of the Atlantic Ocean along a total length of 10 959 kilometres. The total length of its inland border is 15 719 kilometres. Almost the whole of Brazil is located in the Southern Hemisphere and it borders with practically all the countries of South America, apart from Chile and Ecuador. On the south it borders with Uruguay; on the south east with Argentina and Paraguay; on the north with Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam and French Guiana; on the north east with Colombia and on the west with Bolivia and Peru. Its position and huge area determine its wealth of natural resources and the diversity of its peoples. Virtually the whole of Brazil (90%) is located in a tropical zone. It has an area of 8 514 876 square kilometres, making it the fi fth largest country in the world behind the Russian Federation, Canada, China and the USA in terms of unbroken land mass. If we were to observe the land either along its latitude or its longitude, we would fi nd a whole range of soils, climates and vegetation, which has of course led to varying patterns of settlement and economic activities according to area. Despite the enormous differences, looking at the size of the country, the irregularity of settlements and the use of areas not yet cultivated, it can be said that practically the whole of its area is inhabitable, as there is no desert area which would render life, farming or industrial activities impossible or complicated.

A number of different types of warm and humid climates can be distinguished: from Equatorial Amazonia with its monotonous, constant temperature

(yearly average 24°C–26°C) where it rains almost non-stop (2 000 to 3 000 mm rain annually), through the sub-tropical region in the northeast and the south coast of the state of Bahía; through the continental tropical climate of the Brazilian highlands (where there is: the rainy season, from October to March, and the dry season, from April to September), to the so-called high mountain tropical climate, where the winters are cold and the summers humid (mountainous regions in the states of Rio de Janeiro, Minas Gerais, Espírito Santo and most of the state of São Paulo). The three southern states (Paraná, Santa Catarina and Rio Grande do Sul) have sub-tropical and mild climates, while inland and in the northeast of the country the climate is semi-arid, very hot with few and irregular bouts of rain, and high levels of sunshine and heat.

Geological processes and crust deformation have created Brazil’s varying terrain, which nevertheless does not contain high mountain peaks (only the mountain of Pico de Neblina in the Serra do Imeri, on the border with Venezuela, 3 014 metres high). Despite this fact, 5/8 of the land in Brazil is highland or mountainous. The mountain range of Guayanas on the northern border in the Amazonian region belongs to the fi rst category (an impressive mountain-ocean barrier, called Atlantic Plateau), as well as the extensive highland region in the central parts of the country. On the highlands in the south, the presence of basalt (a very hard and unusual dark volcanic rock) creates a rich farmland area. The most important lowland areas are: Amazonia, which is made up of roughly 2 000 000 km of rainforest, stretches of water and full of mystery; the lowlands around the Paraguay river, which bears the regional name of Pantanal Matogrossense, and the unusually long coast, lying between the ocean and the mountains and it plays a role of great importance to the

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whole country. This area was inhabited over the centuries by the fi rst colonies.The extensive Atlantic plateau, whose peaks often exceed 2 000 metres, frequently present an unsurpassable barrier for crossing inland, which explains why lots of the river systems run parallel with the coast only forming the tributaries of other rivers, preventing communication with the coast. They form a network of rivers which, while they begin not far from the coast, they all fl ow inland to the Paraná river valley. The varying terrain, often broken by steep slopes also impedes or even prevents their navigability. Brazil has barely 44 thousand kilometres of navigable rivers, most of which are Amazon tributaries and of negligible economic signifi cance. In vegetation terms, tropical rainforest predominates, although its rich variety of species is again of little use from an economic perspective. On the Atlantic coast and in the Central Highlands, the forests are considered as suitable for agricultural use and they are being systematically destroyed. The pinewood forests in the south of the country and the palm groves (wax and babaçu palm) in the centre of North Brazil hold real economic value. Cerrados, Caatingas and various types of savannah-type grassy plains form a large cattle-rearing area, although it should be stated that these areas in the tropical climates only have a relative value, particularly inland between highland areas.

DIPLOMACY: BRAZIL AND SOME MULTILATERAL INITIATIVES

The Brazilian diplomacy has as its patron Baron of Rio Branco, who served as Foreign Minister under four Presidents, from 1902 until his death in 1912. Rio Branco peacefully consolidated Brazil’s boundaries, an area of around 16,000 km of land which Brazil shared with its 10 South American neighbours.

Brazil is a founding member of the United Nations and since then opens the United Nations General Assembly. In 2011, President Dilma became the fi rst woman to open the Assembly since its foundation. The fi rst term of Brazil on the Security Council was in 1946–1947 and it has served there ten times. The 10th election of Brazil, on 2009, has been endorsed by 182 of the 183 voting members of the General Assembly. The country is fully engaged in the United Nations reform in order to refl ect current international realities.

Brazil has consistently demonstrated commitment to the principles and purposes of the Organization, in particular the maintenance of international peace and security. The pursuit of peace and the peaceful settlement of disputes are enshrined in the Constitution as guiding principles of Brazil’s foreign policy.

Brazil makes a signifi cant fi nancial contribution to the Organization as the 19th top contributor to the regular budget and 31st to the peacekeeping. The country has participated in 33 United Nations peacekeeping operations with over 24,000 troops. Brazil is the largest troop-contributing country to the United Nations Stabilization Mission in Haiti (MINUSTAH).

Baron of Rio Branco

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Brazil is among the original drafters and signatories of the Universal Declaration on Human Rights and is party to the main human rights instruments. It promoted the adoption of a set of voluntary goals, aimed at advancing human rights beyond the legal obligations of States.

As a founding member of the International Criminal Court, Brazil has enshrined in its Constitution the principle of respect for the ICC’ s jurisdiction.

Brazil condemns terrorism in all its forms and manifestations, as well as the use of violence to achieve political ends. The fi ght against terrorism must address its root causes and be carried out with full respect for human rights.

Nearly all Millennium Development Goals have been achieved in Brazil and it is expected that by 2015 all targets set by the United Nations will have been surpassed. The Family Grant Program (Programa Bolsa Família) is a large conditional income transfer program. It ensures school attendance, guarantees medical care and has lifted millions of individuals out of poverty.

Brazil was the fi rst developing country to chair a Country Specifi c Confi guration of the UN Peace-building Commission. It is actively working with international stakeholders to consolidate peace and promote development. Brazil is committed to disarmament and non-proliferation of weapons of mass destruction and favors balanced progress in both areas, as well as in cooperation for the development of technologies for peaceful use.

Brazil has been increasing its humanitarian assistance to countries in need, especially those affected by natural disasters. More than 15 countries in situation of food insecurity received Brazilian humanitarian aid in 2011.

Brazil is an active member of G-20, which seeks to address the current fi nancial crisis and reform the global fi nancial system, taking into account the views of developing countries from all regions of the world.

In 2010, Rio de Janeiro hosted the III World Forum of the Alliance of Civilizations, an initiative to overcome prejudice among different cultures and communities. In June 2012, Brazil will host the Rio+20 Conference, focused on green economy and sustainable development.

In 2003, India, South Africa and Brazil established the IBSA Dialogue Forum, through which these three large multi-cultural democracies from the developing world are working towards greater political coordination and South-South cooperation.

With Russia, India, China and South Africa, Brazil integrates a mechanism called BRICS, countries that altogether occupy 26% of the global territory and are home to more than 41% of the world`s population, with access to immense natural and energy resources and technological development.

In 2008, a Brazilian initiative brought to Bahia the fi rst meeting including 33 countries from Latin America and the Caribbean with an aim to discuss specifi c interests, which evolved with time and in December 2011 became the organization known as CELAC – Community of Latin America and Caribbean States. This is a wide circle of integration, which from the Brazilian perspective, reaches its deepest level with the Mercosul (Argentina, Brazil, Paraguay and Uruguay), followed by the UNASUL (12 countries of South America).

The existence of new mechanisms (such as Unasul, ASEAN, Dialog Latin America Africa, Latin America-Arab Countries)

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refl ects a new reality in the international scene and the growing importance of developing countries. They are also complementary to multilateral politics and to bilateral relationships.

LIST OF BRAZILIAN CULTURAL AND NATURAL SITESDECLARED WORLD CULTURAL AND HISTORICAL HERITAGE BY UNESCO

Brasília, Federal DistrictBrasília is the result of a modern urban project created by architect Lúcio Costa that became a reference in the fi eld of urban planning. Several works of the architect Oscar Niemeyer and of the landscape designer Roberto Burle Marx can be seen in the capital of Brazil, which is the only city in the world built in the 20th century to be declared a World Historical and Cultural Heritage by UNESCO.

Historic Center of Salvador, BahiaIts streets are like a journey into the Brazilian history, gathering thousands of houses and other buildings dating from the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries spread in areas such as Praça Municipal, Largo de São Francisco, Pelourinho, Largo do Carmo and Largo de Santo Antônio.

Historic Center of São Luís, MaranhãoIt includes a homogeneous set of examples of Latin American colonial architecture dating back to the 18th and 19th centuries. There are over 3500 buildings of historical and artistic value that portray the way of life of the former inhabitants.

Diamantina, Minas GeraisThe historical importance of Diamantina resides in its collection of old houses and churches as well as in other monuments dating back to the golden age of diamond mining.

Goiás, GoiásThe town of Goiás was founded in 1725 when gold was discovered there by the so called “Bandeirantes”. Over 90% of its original colonial Baroque architecture has been preserved.

Olinda, PernambucoIts original urban layout and collection of houses are an important architectural example as well as the scenario of one of the liveliest carnivals in the country. Everyday Olinda receives hundreds of visitors.

Ouro Preto, Minas GeraisOuro Preto, the former capital of the Province of Minas Gerais, is one of the richest clusters of the Baroque architecture in the country. The city attracts tourists with especial interests in the Brazilian Baroque period and its religious art as well as in its local handicrafts and typical cuisine.

Bom Jesus de Matosinhos Sanctuary,Congonhas, Minas GeraisSurrounded by imposing mountains, Congonhas do Campo was once an important mining center. In 1796 the wealth created by gold mines attracted

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the sculptor Aleijadinho and there he left, working partly with his feet, the most concrete manifestation of his art.

Capivara Mountain, PiauíThe Serra da Capivara National Park was created with the aim of preserving important archeological treasures: thousands of prehistoric paintings on the rock over 12 thousand years old. There are over 700 archeological sites in this park with arid landscapes where giant canyons, small patches of forest, scrubcovered savannah and wild animals are to befound.

São Miguel das Missões,Rio Grande do SulThe São Miguel ruins tell the history of the colonization undertaken by the Jesuits and their work in catechizing the Guaraní Indians that lived in the region.

Jaú National Park, AmazonasSituated on the right bank of Rio Negro, the Jaú National Park is the largest National Park in Brazil and the largest in the world in terms of untouched tropical rainforest. Its vegetation is formed by a mosaic of forests in which over 460 species of birds and 300 species of fi sh are to be found.

Foz do Iguaçu, ParanáIt includes the grandiose cataracts, one of the natural wonders of the

world, with 275 waterfalls, some with 60 meters drop, as well as the Iguaçu National Park, one of the most beautiful ecological reserves in the world, with an area of 185 thousand hectares (over 460 thousand acres). Almost 400 species of birds and as many as 50 species of mammals have been registered there, including jaguars and pumas. 257 species of butterfl ies should also be highlighted. The park has an infrastructure suitable for receiving ecotourists.

Chapada dos Veadeiros National Park, GoiásLocated on top of an immense plaque of crystal quartzite, the ecosystem of the “cerrado” or scrubland savannahs is protected by this National Park of 60.000 hectares. Visits are only allowed with specialized guides. The region is the home of several kinds of animals, such as the Guará wolf, the savanna deers and the emus.

Fernando de Noronha, PernambucoWith its 21 islands, Fernando de Noronha has a total area of 26 square kilometers. The main island, which bears the same name, is the only one inhabited and has an area of 17 square kilometers. The Fernando de Noronha National Marine Park, an area of environmental protection since 1988, is situated in the main island. Its fauna is characterized particularly by the presence of the Spinner Dolphin and of birds of passage. The fl ora is marked by areas of mangrove, something extremely rare in oceanic islands. Five trails have been defi ned, leading to the various beaches that can only be visited with prior authorization of the Brazilian Institute for the Environment and Renewable Natural Resources – IBAMA. Sustainable tourism is operated creating the possibility of a balanced encounter between man and nature by means of a good

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infrastructure for the visitors of this ecological sanctuary, one of the most important in the world.

Pantanal, Mato Grosso and Mato Grosso do SulPantanal is a region of enormous biological diversity. Researchers have subdivided it into 11 specifi c areas, each one with its own natural characteristics, activities and appropriate periods for visitation. The existence of adequate structures for ecotourism is also taken into account. It is one of the best places in Brazil for bird watching and sport fi shing – only permitted from March to October. During the dry season, from April to September, the visitor can enjoy pleasant temperatures, with warm days and cool nights. This is the best time for observing the fauna. The rain season starts usually in October, and the high temperatures only fall in the evening immediately after the shower of rain. This is when the Pantanal is transformed into an immense sheet of water where rivers, swamps and lakes are all mixed together.

Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest ReservesThe Discovery Coast Atlantic Forest Reserves, in the states of Bahia and Espírito Santo, consist of eight separate protected areas in 112,000 ha including the Atlantic forest itself and associated sandbanks (restingas). Brazilian Atlantic rainforests are considered the world’s richest site in

terms of biodiversity, containing a wide range of species with a high level of endemism. It also reveals a pattern of evolution that is of great interest for scientists.

Atlantic Forest South-East ReservesThe Atlantic Forest South East Reserves, in the states of Paraná and São Paulo, contain some of the best and most extensive examples of Atlantic forest in Brazil. The 25 protected areas that compose the site (some 470,000 ha in total) display the biological wealth and evolutionary history of the last remaining Atlantic forests. From mountains covered by dense forests, down to wetlands and coastal islands with isolated mountains and dunes, the area comprises a rich natural environment of especial scenic beauty.

General Information about Brazil ............................... 3

State Symbols ........................................................... 4

Political Geographical Division ................................. 9

Demography and Urbanism..................................... 10

Economic Data ........................................................ 12

Summary of Historical Events ................................. 14

History ......................................................................16

Geography ............................................................... 28

Brazil and some Multilateral Initiatives .................... 29

List of Brazilian Cultural and Natural Sites .............. 31

INDEX

Embassy of BrazilOdengatan 3

114 24 Stockholm

B R A Z I L I A N G O V E R N M E N T

2012