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8/9/2019 Brdy 6Ed Ch23 OrganicPolymersAndBiochemicals
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Chapter 23:
Organic Chemistry,Polymers, and Biochemicals
Chemistry: The Molecular Natureof Matter, 6E
Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop1
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Carbon ChemistryBonding
Strong covalent bonding to itself and to other non-metal elementsCapable of forming extremely long carbon-carbonchains
Multiple arrangements ofidentical molecular formulaslead to numerous isomers.
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Structural Formula RepresentationsLewis Structure of Pentane
Condensed Structural FormulaCH3CH2CH2CH2CH3 pentane
3
C
C
C C
C
HH
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H
H H
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Structural Formula Representations
Lewis Structure of Pentan-1-ol
Condensed Structural FormulaCH3CH2CH2CH2CH2OH 1-pentan ol
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E 5
Chiral Isomers of CarbonChirality exists when carbon has fourunique constituents bond to itself
|||||
Non-superimposable mirror images
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Chiral Isomers of Butan-2-ol
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Abbreviated or Bond-Line Structure
Carbon atoms occur at intersection butno symbol used
CH3-CH2-CH3 would appear as:
Non-carbon atoms would appear assymbols
CH3-CH2-CH2-OH would appear as:
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Abbreviated or Bond-Line Structure
Open-Chain CompoundsExamples
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E 9
Abbreviated or Bond-Line Structure ofRing Compounds
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Abbreviated or Bond-Line Structure
Heterocyclic Compounds
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Learning Check 1. Draw at least two geometric isomers of C 4H10
using abbreviated structures.
-Draw the four carbon chain first-Now rearrange CH 3 groups
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Your Turn!When a chemical formula is written in the followingform, CH 3CH2CH2COOH, the representation isknown as:
A. an abbreviated structure
B. a Lewis dot structure
C. a condensed formula
D. an optical isomer
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Functional Groups in OrganicOrganic families can be defined by functionalgroups.
Frequently use R as a place holder foralkane-like hydrocarbon groups
R-OH alcohol
R-COOH organic acidR-O-R ether
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Functional Groups in Organic
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Learning Check
1.Write the abbreviated structure for benzoicacid.
2. What family does C 6H5NH 2 belong to?
1.2. amine family
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
HydrocarbonsHydrocarbon compounds only contain C and H
Alkanes C nH2n+2 CH3CH2CH3 propane
Alkenes C nH2n CH3CHCH2 propene
Alkynes C nH2n-2 CH3CCH propyne
Aromatic C 6H6 benzeneCharacterized by cyclic delocalized bonding
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Hydrocarbons Alkanes are defined as saturated compounds.
All singles bond to carbonCannot add more hydrogen atoms
Alkenes and alkynes are unsaturatedcompounds.
Alkenes have double bonds and H atoms can beadded to the double bond to create a saturatedcompound.
Alkynes have triple bonds and H atoms can beadded to create a saturated compound.CH2=CHCH3 + H 2 CH3CH2CH3
18
Pt uuuur
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Aromaticity- Characterized by conjugated bonds in a ring such
as benzene.- electrons are delocalized over the ring- Leads to greater stability than expected- Properties are different than those of other
hydrocarbon families- Polycyclic examples:
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Hydrocarbon NomenclatureRules for naming alkanes
Established by IUPAC
1. Name ends in -ane 2. Complete name uses that of parent
compound with constituent groups added.
3. Parent is longest continuous carbon chain.4. Name of longest chain based on the number
of carbons.5. Carbon atoms are numbered starting at theend that gives the lowest number for the
first branch.20
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Straight Chained Alkanes
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Alkyl Groups Alkane type groups added to parent chain areknown as alkyl groups. Consist of alkane,minus one H atom. Name always ends in - ylExampleCH4 : now remove one H which yields CH 3
Naming of CH 3Start with parent name, which is methane
Drop ane and add ylSo methane becomes methyl group
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Nomenclature6. Aryl groups names are prefixed to parent
name.7. Multiple aryl groups on a parent are
numbered and named alphabetically.8. When there are multiple identical groups add
di, tri, tetra to the aryl name.9. If multiple, identical aryl groups are attached
to the same carbon repeat the carbon
number.
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Examples
What is the name of the compound shown?
1. The longest carbon chain (parent) isfour. Parent name is butane.
2. Start numbering from the left to get thesmallest number for the attached group.
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Examples3. The attached alkyl group is a methyl
group.Thus, the correct name is:
2-methylbutane
What is the name of the following compound?
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
ExamplesThe parent chain contains five carbons.Thus, the parent name is pentane.Number from the left to obtain the smallest numberfor the first alkyl group.
The alkyl groups are at the 2 and 3 positions.The 2 and 3 positions each contain a methyl group.
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
ExamplesThe parent chain is six carbons long.The lowest correct numbering of positions isshown below.
There are methyl and ethyl groups attached tocarbon 3.
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Your Turn!What is the correct name for the molecule shownbelow?
A. 3-butylpentaneB. 1,1-diethylpentane
C. 3-ethylheptaneD. 5-ethylheptane
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Your Turn!What is the name of the compound shown below?
A. 3-methyl-3-methyloctaneB. 3,3-dimethyloctaneC. 2-ethyl-2-methylheptane
D. 6,6-dimethyloctane
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Alkenes and Alkynes Alkenes contain one or more double bonds
General form: C nH2n Alkynes contain one or more triple bonds
General form: C nH2n-2
Non-polar compounds are not water solubleExamples:
34
2 2
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Alkenes and AlkynesNomenclature
The parent chain must contain the multiple bondeven if it is a smaller chain length than one without
a multiple bondNumber from end that gives the lowest number tothe first carbon of the multiple bondThe number is given as -x- and placed just beforethe ene or yne of the parent name. For example,but-2-ene. The double bond starts on carbon 2 ofthe chain.
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Alkene Examples
Start numbering from the left to get the lowestnumber for the first carbon with the double bond
The parent is heptene and the correct namingincluding the double bond location would behep-2-ene
36
lk l
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Alkene Example
The parent chain is four carbons2,3-dimethylbut-2-ene
We would not name this 2-methyl-3-methylbut-
2-ene
37
N i P l
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Naming PolyenesHow do we name compounds such as the following?
This compound contains two double bonds and isknown as a diene
We want the lowest number for the first carbon ofeach of the double bondsStart numbering from the right
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N i P l
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Naming PolyenesThe correct name would be hex-1,3-diene
Three double bonds would be a triene
hex-1,3,5-triene
39
C li Alk
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Cyclic Alkenes
Number ring to obtain lowest number for firstcarbon of the double bond
40
C li Alk
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Cyclic AlkenesCorrect name is 1,6-dimethylcyclohex-1-ene
Other ring examples
41
Y T !
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Your Turn!What is the correct name for the compound shownbelow?
A. 1,4-dimethylcyclopent-1-eneB. 1,3-dimethylcyclopent-1-ene
C. 1-methyl-4-methylcyclopent-1-eneD. 1,3-dimethylcyclo-1-pentene
42
Your Turn!
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Your Turn!What is the correct structure for 3,3-dimethylpro-1-ene?
A.
B.
C.
D.
43
Geometric Isomers
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Geometric IsomersGroups cannot freely rotate about a double bondTherefore, it is possible to have geometricisomers
Examples:
44
Reactions of Alkene
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Reactions of Alkene Alkenes readily add across the double bondExamples of an addition reaction:
CH2CH2 + H 2 CH3CH3 hydrogenation
CH2CH2 + HCl CH3CH2Cl
CH2CH2 + H 2O CH3CH2OH
CH2CH2 + Cl 2 CH2ClCH2Cl
45
Pt
Aromatic Hydrocarbons
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Aromatic HydrocarbonsThe most common aromatic compound isbenzene and its derivativesRepresentation of bonding
Delocalized bonds create unique stability,called resonance stabilization. The circle in thering represents delocalization.
46
Reactions
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
ReactionsSubstitution reactions maintain benzenesresonance structure.
Addition reactions, like those of alkenes, destroyresonance structure
Substitution reaction:
47
Addition Reaction
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Addition Reaction
Notice that you have reduced the doublebonding in the ring and altered the resonancestabilization of the ring
48
L i Ch k
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Learning Check:What product would form if benzene reacted withnitric acid using an appropriate catalyst?
Sulfuric acid is the catalyst
A substitution reaction occurs
49
Your Turn!
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Your Turn!
Which product is most likely formed when sulfuricacid reacts with benzene?
A.
B.
C.
D.50
Organic Compounds Containing Oxygen
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
g p g yg
Important functional groups:
51
R
R'
O
R
O
O
R
OH
O
R'
Alcohols and Ethers
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Alcohols and Ethers
Common alcohols: names end in -olCH3OH methanolCH3CH2OH ethanolCH3CH2CH2OH propan-1-ol
If the OH group was attached to the central carbonthen the alcohol would be propan-2-ol
Alcohols form hydrogen bonds, causing their boiling
points to be higher than predicted.
52
Alcohols and Ethers
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Alcohols and Ethers
Primary alcohols:
Secondary alcohols:
Tertiary alcohols:
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Reactions of Alcohols
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Alcohols can undergo oxidation to form a varietyof products. Oxidation removes an H atom fromthe alcoholic carbon as well as the H on the O H
group.
Primary alcohols can be oxidized to aldehydesand carboxylic acids
55
Reactions of Alcohols
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Aldehydes are more readily oxidized thanalcohols
Secondary alcohols can be oxidized to ketones
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Reactions of Alcohols
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Ketones are not further oxidizedTertiary alcohols have no H atom on thealcoholic carbon and thus, do not undergooxidation
Alcohols undergo elimination reactions in thepresence of concentrated H 2SO4 forming waterand alkenes
-OH group readily accepts a proton fromsulfuric acid
57
Elimination Reaction
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Dehydration of an alcohol
During the reaction a very unstable carbocationis formed. This ion eliminates a proton to formthe alkene.
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H 3 C
H 2 C C
H 2 C OH
2 4
H 3 C
H 2C
CH
CH 22
H
H
Substitution Reactions of Alcohols
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Using heat and concentrated HBr, HI, or HCl, ahalogen will replace the OH group
A proton adds to the OH forming OH 2+
Water leaves and the halogen ion attaches to thecarbon site where the OH was attached
59
Aldehydes and Ketones
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Naming AldehydesParent name ends in al , replacing e in the alkanenameThe aldehyde group is always at the end of a chainand numbering starts with that end of the chain
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Naming Aldehydes
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Number from the Aldehyde end
Do not use -1- for Aldehyde:3-methylpropan-1-al, or 3-methyl-1-propanalwould be wrong
61
Learning Check
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
What is the name of the following aldehyde?
4-ethylhexanal
62
Naming Ketones
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Parent name ends in one Parent chain must contain carbonyl groupNumbering so carbonyl carbon has lowestpossible number
4-ethylheptan-3-oneNOT: 4-ethylheptan-5-one
63
Your Turn!
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
What is the correct name for the aldehyde shownbelow?
A. 2,4-dimethylpentanal
B. 2,4-dimethyl-1-pentanalC. 2-methyl-4-methylpropanalD. 2,4-dimethyl-5-pentanal
64
Your Turn! - Solution
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Aldehydes are numbered from the aldehyde endof the molecule
There are two identical groups, (methyl) so weuse di in the naming
65
Your Turn!
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
What is the correct name for the ketone shownbelow?
A. 4-methyl-3-ethylhexan-2-one
B. 4-ethyl-3-methylhexan-5-oneC. 3-ethyl-4-methylhexan-2-oneD. 3,4-diethylpentan-2-one
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Your Turn! - Solution
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Number to give lowest number to keto group soyou start from the right
Alkyl groups are ordered alphabetically so ethylcomes before methyl
67
Reactions of Aldehydes and Ketones
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Aldehydes and ketones add hydrogen across theC=O bondProcess is hydrogenation or reduction
68
2
O OH
2
Carboxylic Acids and Esters
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E 69
Naming Carboxlic Acids
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Name ends in oic, replacing e in the parentnameNumbering begins with carboxyl group
-COOH or -CO 2H is the condensed formCH3COOH is ethanoic acid (acetic acid)
70
Naming Carboxylic Acids
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Benzoic acid
Propanoic acid
71
O
OH
Naming Esters
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Name begins with alkyl group attached to the OName of parent acid is separate from the alkylgroup name and oic is replaced with ate
Ethyl propanate
72
Learning Check
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
What is the name of the following ester?
Alkyl group is propylNumber, starting withthe ester carbonPropyl 4-methylpentanate
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3
2
1
O
O
4
5
propyl group
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Reactions of Carboxylic Acids
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
The COOH is weakly acidic and therefore reactswith base
RCOOH + OH - RCOO- + H 2O
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Formation of Esters
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Esters give fruits their characteristic odor
ethyl pentanoate76
O
O H + H 3 C C
OH
H
H
O
O
+ H 2O
Saponification
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Strong base reacts with an ester to form alcoholand the esters anion formspentanoate ion
77
Your Turn!
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Name the ester formed when methanol reacts withhexanoic acid.
A. 1-methyl hexanoateB. methylhexanoate
C. methyl hexanoateD. methyl hexan-1-oate
78
Organic Derivatives of Ammonia
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Amines are derived from ammonia with one ormore H atoms replaced with organic groupsLike ammonia, amines are weakly basic
Amines react with acids
79
Acid Property of Protonated Amines
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Ethylmethylammonium ion is the conjugate acidof ethylmethylamine
pK a = 10.76 pK b= 3.24
80
CH 2
N
H
CH 3
H 3 C+ H+CH 2
N
H
CH 3H 3 C
H
ethylmethylamineethylmethylammoniun ion
+H2O
Amides
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
General form
Where (H)R indicates either an H atom or an R
group attachedNaming
The name of the parent acid is amended droppingthe oic ending and replacing it with - amide
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2
Example Names of Amides
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Propanamide
4-ethylhexamide
These are examplesof simple amides
82
Synthesis of Simple Amides
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
An organic acid reacts with aqueous NH 3 to forman amide
2-methylpropanoic acid yields 2-methylpropanamide
83
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Amide Reactions
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Urea, an amide, ultimately hydrolyzes to NH 3,CO2 and waterCarbonic acid is formed, which then decomposes
to carbon dioxide and waterThe overall reaction is:
85
Basicity of Amides
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Amides are not basic like aminesThe lone pair on the N atom is delocalized andthus not readily available for donation to a
proton
Amides are neutral in an acid-base sense
86
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Organic PolymersMacromolecule made up of small, repeating units
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Jespersen/Brady/Hyslop Chemistry: The Molecular Nature of Matter, 6E
Example, polypropylene
Starting material
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PolymersRepeating unit is called a monomer
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The reaction to create a polymer is known aspolymerization
Chain Growth Polymers
Polymers created by the addition of one monomerto another monomerPolypropylene is an example of a chain growth
polymer
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Common Polymers
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Dacron-A Polyester Another example of a condensation copolymer
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Physical PropertiesHDPE is lightweight, water repellent, resists tears
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Common usesStrong mailing envelopes
Tyvek
Ultrahigh molecular weight polyethlene3 to 6 million molar massUHMWPE
Used to make very strong polymersSails, bullet proof vests, bike helmets
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Disaccharide
Sucrose
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Sucrose
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Disaccharide ReactionsDisaccharide molecules split intomonosaccharides
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monosaccharidesGal-O-Glu + H 2O galactose + glucose
Polysaccharides
Starch is a large polymeric sugar moleculeCan be broken down into glucose, which is used forenergy in biochemical reactions
Amylose is the structurally simpler glucose polymerportion of starch
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Disaccharide Reactions Amylose
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Amylose + n H2O n glucose
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PolysaccharidesThe majority of starch is made up of a morecomplex polysaccharide known as amylopectin
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complex polysaccharide known as amylopectin
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Cellulose A polymer of glucose with different oxygenbridge orientations
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bridge orientationsWe lack an enzyme to digest cellulose
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LipidsWater insoluble natural productsDi l i l l t
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Dissolve in non-polar solventsRelatively non-polar with large segments that are
hydrocarbon-likeCholesterol
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LipidsFats and oils
Triacylglycerols esters of glycerol and long chain
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Triacylglycerols-esters of glycerol and long chaincarboxylic acids (fatty acids)
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Fatty Acids
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TriacylglycerolsTriacylglycerol example
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H 2C
HC
C
H 2
O
O
O
C
C
C
O
O
O
CH 2
HC
CH 2
CH 3
CH 2
H 3 C
CH 2
CH 2
CH 3
Reactions of TriacylclycerolsDigestion
Breaks down the triacylclycerol into its three
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Breaks down the triacylclycerol into its threecomponent fatty acids and glycerol. Takes place inbase so in fact the fatty acids are in their anion form
Hydrogenation
The addition of hydrogen to the double bondsTurns oils into solids
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SoapCastile soap is made from olive oilOlive oil has many different fatty acids
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Olive oil has many different fatty acidsTwo major fatty acid constituents are oleic acid, 50-
85%, and linoleic acid, 4-20%
Saponification of triacylglcerols using NaOH or otherbase, and heat, results in salts of the fatty acidcomponents plus glycerol
Sodium oleate and sodium linoleate, for example
This product mixture, soap, is thus the result ofsaponification of triacylglcerols
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Cell MembranesGlycerophospholipids
Diacylclcerols with phosphate unit which is attached
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Diacylclcerols with phosphate unit which is attachedto a amino alcohol unit
Contain a hydrophobic, water avoiding, unit and ahydrophilic, water loving, unit
Aggregate together to form lipid bilayers withhydrophilic layers oriented to the outside and insidelayers of the membrane
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Cell Membranes
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Cell MembranesMembrane also contains protein units, somewhich act as ion channels to move select ions in
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and out of cells
Other proteins act as molecular recognition sitesfor hormones and neurotransmitters
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ProteinsPolypeptides made up of -amino acidsServe as hormones, neurotransmitters, and
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Serve as hormones, neurotransmitters, andenzymes
Essential amino acids are those the body doesnot synthesizeBasic amino acidstructure:
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Amino AcidsLysine
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Cysteine
Amino AcidsIsoleucine
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Alanine
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PolypeptidesFormation of peptide bond
OOH
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H 3 N
O
R
N
O
R'
H
H
H 3 N
O
R
N
O
O
R'
H
2
PolypeptidesCombining two amino acids forms a dipeptideOften the amino acids are abbreviated
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Glycine - Gly
Alanine Ala A dipeptide of these would then be shown as:
Gly- Ala
A few amino acids can be arranged in a verylarge number of orders leading to many different
proteinsGly-Ala-Arg Gly-Arg-Ala Ala-Gly-ArgPlus three more
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Polypeptides and ProteinsHow many ways can you arrange n differentobjects?
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n ! Therefore 3 amino acids have 6 arrangements
You can also use the same amino acid more thanonce in a polypeptideProteins
Consist of polypeptides and usually small organicmoleculesThey may also incorporate metal ions into theirstructure
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Structure of Hemoglobin
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Nucleic AcidsRNA ribonucleic acidDNA deoxyribonucleic acid
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The chemical of a gene
Chemical basis of inherited characteristics
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Nucleic Acid Sugars
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Basic Nucleic Acid Structure
phosphate Sugar phosphate sugar phosphate Sugar phosphate
G G' G"
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Where G is a placeholder for a unique nucleicacid side chainThe sugars are ribose for RNA and deoxyribosefor DNA The groups, G, are:
adenine (A), thymine(T), uracil(U), guanine(G), andcytosine(C)
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phosphate g p p g phosphate Sugar phosphate
DNA - Double Helix Structure A unique arrangement of amino acids maximizedhydrogen bonding resulting in a pairing ofstrands to form a do ble heli
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strands to form a double helixBase Pairing A only with T
C only with G
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DNA ReplicationEnzyme catalyzed process unzips the two strands
Arrangement of base pairs dictates replication
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pattern
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Polypetide SynthesisControlled formation of peptide bonds to make apolypeptideRepeated man times to form pol peptides and
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Repeated many times to form polypeptides andproteinsGenetic information is transcribed from DNA in thenucleus onto RNA ( m RNA)
This messenger RNA moves outside the nucleus andthrough a complex process, using other RNA types,synthesizes a specific protein
The order of amino acid synthesis is coded so thatthe correct amino acids are made available in theproper sequence
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