Brinkley Chapter 16 Notes

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Brinkley, Chapter 16

The Conquest of the Far West

California In California, Spanish settlement began in the 18th century with Catholic missions.

With the gold rush in 1849 though, the Californios (Hispanics in California) could not resist the onslaught of gold prospectors in

the region. Excluded from the gold mines, & lost their land through corrupt business deals or outright seizure.

Mexicans and Mexican Americans became part of the poor working class. They were clustered in barrios laboring as

migrant farmworkers for rich whites.

The 1849 Gold Rush also attracted Chinese Immigration.

The Chinese entered the US at Angel Island. By 1880, more than 200,000 Chinese settled in the US. Almost all

came as laborers.

Chinese MigrationWhite Americans welcomed the Chinese as a hardworking conscientious people. Quickly though, Americans perceived them as labor rivals (Immigrant labor = cheap labor)

As mining declined as a source of wealth, RR construction began. They formed 90% of the workforce of the Central Pacific RR company. Preferred over white laborers because they worked hard, made few demands, and took low wages.

When the Transcontinental RR was completed in 1869, many Chinese moved to San Francisco. Much of community life there and in other "Chinatowns" reflected the ethnic

neighborhoods in the East.

Political machines existed like the "Six Companies" and also served as brokers, unions, arbitrators, and dispensers of social services. Secret societies like the "tongs" were violent criminal organizations involved in the Opium trade and prostitution.

Chinese usually occupied the lowest rung of the socio-

economic ladder. Virtually all the women who made the journey to

the US were sold into prostitution.

Anti-Chinese SentimentAnti-Chinese sentiment grew as the Chinese community grew. White workers resented the Chinese for accepting such low wages.

The Democratic Party was hostile toward the Chinese.

In 1882 Congress responded to the political pressure and growing violence in CA by passing the Chinese Exclusion Act - banned Chinese immigration into the US for 10 years and barred Chinese already in the country from becoming naturalized citizens.

The law became permanent in 1902. The Chinese population dropped by 40% as a result. It

was repealed in 1943.

Migration WestPost Civil War migration West dwarfed everything preceding it.

Homestead Act 1862 - signed by Lincoln to promote economic development in the West.

Settlers bought 160 acres of land for $18 if they occupied the land for 5 years and improved it. After proof of land development, the Federal Gov't transferred ownership to the Homesteader.

Realizing that 160 acres was too small for grazing cattle the federal gov't passed the

Timber Culture Act and the Desert Land Act.

Timer Culture Act 1873 - permitted homesteaders to receive grants of 160 additional acres if they planted 40 acres of trees.

Desert Land Act 1877 - allowed settlers to buy 640 acres at $1.25/acre if they irrigated part of their land

within three years.

Between 1871 - 1900, 483,138 titles of ownership were transferred to citizens.

As a result, the western economy produced 3 major characteristics: mining, ranching, and commercial farming

Arrival of the MinersFirst economic boom in the Far West came in mining. Began around 1850 until the 1890s and abruptly declined. As gold deposits dwindled, other minerals were mined such as Quartz. Other great mineral strikes occurred: 1858, gold in Pike's Peak, CO; Silver in Leadville, CO; Silver in Comstock Lode, NV; 1874 Gold in Black Hills, Dakota Territory; 1881 Copper in MT; lead, tin, quartz, and Zinc found in other regions.

Those who flocked to mining towns in search of quick wealth failed to find it.

RanchingEnd of the Civil War, 5 million cattle roamed in TX

Eastern markets offered good prices for steers in any condition. The challenge facing ranchers was getting the

animals from the range to RR centers. Long Drives were completed (even though many

animals were lost) where ranchers could pasture the cattle along the route to the RR for transport East.

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Cattle Kingdom

Farmers from the East threw fences up on their land blocking trails and breaking up the Open Range.

Between a surplus of cattle, a shortage of grass, and bad climatic events,

hundreds of thousands of cattle died. The Open Range industry never

recovered and the long drive disappeared.

Ranching was dangerous in terms of speculation in the cattle business, Indian raids, and thieves. Sheep breeders from CA and OR brought their flocks onto the range to compete for grass.

A series of "range wars" between sheepmen and cattlemen, ranchers, and farmers erupted out of

the tensions between the competing groups.

Increasingly, the structure of the cattle economy became corporate. The result of

massive cattle speculation led to overstocking the ranges that did not have enough grass to

support all of the cattle.

Farming on the PlainsMost important factor to westward migration and farming was the construction of the railroads. RR companies actively promoted settlement: Set rates low for settlers to afford the trip west. Sold their land at low prices and gave credit to prospective settlers liberally.

Contributing to the migration was the changing weather. Many consecutive years of heavy rainfall led Americans to believe the West was no longer the "Great American Desert".

Farming presented many problems. Farmers had to enclose their land, and used barbed wiring to do it. Water was scarce. Farmers had to dig deep wells and pump water by steel windmills. Usually, though, only large-scale irrigation could save the farms. These irrigation projects of this magnitude required government assistance, and neither the federal nor state governments were prepared to help.

Falling crop prices plagued farmers and caused many to fall further in debt. The problems farmers faced by the late 1880s, caused a reverse migration east, turning communities into Ghost Towns.

Farmers' Grievances1. Railroads charged higher rates for farm goods than industrial goods, and higher rates in the South and West than in the Northeast. Railroads also controlled elevator and warehouse facilities in buying centers and charged arbitrary storage rates.

2. Banks controlled credit (loans) and farmers were dependent on the interest rates ranging from 10%-25%. Many farmers had to pay these loans back in years when prices were dropping and currency was becoming scarce. As a result, expansion of the currency became an increasingly important issue to farmers.

3. Prices - a farmer could plant a large crop when prices were high and expect to yield large profits but by the time they harvested and sold their crops, prices fell. Farmers' incomes rose and fell unexpectedly and uncontrollably. Many began to believe there were "middlemen" who conspired to fix prices at the expense of the farmer. Also believed manufacturers in the East were also colluding with "middlemen" on agricultural prices.

4. Resentful to the federal government for protecting industry through the use of protective tariffs but farmers' crops were sold in a competitive "tariff free" market. Further, farmers had to pay more for manufactured goods while earning less for their goods.

The Western Landscape & the CowboyPainters of the "Rocky Mountain School" celebrated the new West in grandiose canvases, attracting migrators and tourists to the West. Even more appealing was the rugged, free-spirited lifestyle Americans associated with the West - the Cowboy.

Western novels romanticized the cowboy's supposed freedom from traditional social constraints, his affinity with nature, even his supposed propensity for violence. Among the reasons for the widespread admiration of the cowboy were the remarkable popular Wild West shows that traveled throughout the US and Europe.

Most successful were the shows of Buffalo Bill Cody, a former Pony Express rider and Indian fighter, and the hero of popular dime novels for children.The romanticized the life of the cowboy through reenactments of Indian battles and displays of horsemanship and riflery by the famous sharpshooter Annie Oakley. Confirmed the popular image of the West as glamorous.

The Idea of the Frontier

Many Americans considered the West the last frontier. Images of uncharted territory to the west had always comforted and inspired those who dreamed of starting life anew.

Mark Twain gave voice to this romantic vision of the frontier in The Adventures of Tom Sawyer and The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn. His characters repudiated the constraints of organized society and attempted to escape into a more natural world.

Theodore Roosevelt also contributed to the romanticizing of the West. He traveled to the Dakotas badlands in the mid-1880s and in the 1890s he published a 4 volume

history, The Winning of the West, with a heroic account of the spread of white civilization into the frontier.

The Idea of the Frontier

The most influential statement response to the closing of the frontier came from historian

Frederick Jackson Turner in a paper he titled, "The Significance of the Frontier in American History." He announced his thesis at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition celebrating 400

years of Christopher Columbus.

He boldly claimed the experience of western expansion stimulated individualism, nationalism, and democracy; kept opportunities for advancement alive; and made Americans

the distinctive people they were.

1890 - US Census bureau announced the disappearance of a frontier line.

Turner argued that the frontier had meant that every American

generation returned "to primitive conditions on a continually

advancing frontier line."

Turner concluded "the frontier has gone and with its going has closed the first period of American history." In accepting his conclusion, many Americans acknowledged the end of one of their most cherished myths: As long as it had been possible for them to consider the West and empty, open

land, it was possible to believe that there were constantly revitalizing opportunities in American life.

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Expanding the Frontier

Turner offered his frontier thesis as both an analysis of the past and a warning about the

future. If the frontier had been so essential to the development of American culture and

democracy, then what would befall them as the frontier closed?

It was on this forboding note that he closed his address: "And now, four centuries from the

discovery of America, at the end of a hundred years of life under the Constitution, the frontier has gone, and with its going has closed the first period

of American history."

The 2nd period of American history began with spreading democratic ideals

beyond American borders.

The Western Tribes

Indians made up the largest western population group before white migration. The most widespread Indian groups were the Plains Indians.

The buffalo provided the economic basis for the Plains Indians' way of life - flesh was food, skin was clothing and utensils, "Buffalo chips" (dried manure) was fuel, bones were knives and arrow tips, tendons were stings of bows. Plains Indians lived in tepees as temporary dwellings.

Plains warriors were the most formidable foes to white migrators. The various tribes were usually unable to unite against white aggression, could not overcome the spread of small pox, or the new industrial technology of warfare

White Tribal PoliciesTraditional policy of the US government toward Indian tribes was to treat them as

sovereign nations and uphold treaties with them.

As white migration expanded West, the desire to continue traditional Indian policy waned.

The Concentration Policy survived until 1867.

By the 1850s, the idea of establishing reservations and forcing Indians to reservations emerged - the

Concentration Policy. In 1851, the gov't assigned all tribes their own defined reservations and signed

individual treaties to keep the tribes divided & scattered. It opened up the most desirable land to whites.

The Indian Peace Commission recommended that the government move all Plains Indians into 2 large reservations - one in the Oklahoma Territory and the other in the Dakotas. This

solution was no better than previous ones particularly because whites decimated and slaughtered the population of buffalo - thereby killing the Indians' way of life as well.

The Indian WarsAs white migration increased, so did hostility between whites and Indians. As the US Army

became more involved in the fighting, the Indians shifted their attacks toward the army.

Colorado - Arapaho and Cheyenne were conflicting with white miners. Indians attacked stagecoach lines and settlements to regain lost territory. In response, whites called up a

large militia. The governor urged all friendly Indians to congregate at army posts for protection before the army began its campaign.

Black Kettle led the band of Arapaho and Cheyenne near Fort Lyon on Sand Creek in

November of 1864. Black Kettle believed his tribe was under official protection.

The militia commanded by Colonel J.M. Chivington led the militia to Sand Creek

massacring over 130 Indians. Black Kettle survived but was later killed by Colonel

George A. Custer.

The Indian WarsIn Montana 1863-1868, the army was attempting to build a road, the Bozeman Trail - connect the gold rush territory of Montana to the Oregon Trail.

The western Sioux resented the intrusion into their buffalo range. Red Cloud led the Sioux in a destructive raid against the army that the road could not be used.

White vigilantes harassed the tribes and engaged in violence called "Indian hunting". The goal was the literal "elimination" of the tribes at any cost, a goal that rested on the belief that coexistence was impossible.

After the Sioux refused to sell the Black Hills to the Federal Gov't they were

ordered to return to negotiate again. Instead of returning, the Sioux, Cheyenne,

and Arapaho united under Crazy Horse and Sitting Bull (Lakota Indians).

Treaties signed 1867 & 1868: Temporarily stopped the fighting, but in 1874 General George A. Custer announced the discovery of gold in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Fighting ensued between the influx of miners and the Sioux Indians. The Sioux left the territory and went to Montana.

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Enraged by the refusal of the Sioux to sell the Black Hills, George A. Custer led 210 men of the US Army's 7th Cavalry to Sitting Bull's Camp along the Little Big Horn River in Montana.

It was a huge victory for the Indians and the saw it as vindication for the

Sand Creek Massacre.

Custer's Last Stand

Custer was ordered by the US military to wait outside the camp for reinforcements. Sitting Bull however, attacked by Custer by surprise and

killed all 210 men in less than 1 hour.

But the Sioux did not have enough political organization or supplies to keep their troops united. Soon, warriors after watching their children starve, drifted off or returned to

Reservations in Dakota. The powerful Sioux quickly collapsed.

The Indian Wars1877, Idaho - The Nez Perce were a small and peaceful tribe. Pressured by white settlers, the government forced them to move to a reservation. They moved peacefully, but along the way a few drunk Indians killed 4 white settlers. The leader of the band, Chief Joseph, persuaded his followers to flee from US retribution. American troops pursued and attacked them, only to be driven off in a battle at White Bird Canyon.

The Nez Perce scattered in several directions and chased 1,321 miles to the Canadian border, but were caught short of it. Some escaped to Canada and some surrendered in 1877.

The last Indians to resist whites were the Chiricahua Apache led by Geronimo.

Geronimo fought off white attacks for over a decade. He established bases in Arizona and Mexico. At one point he had nearly 1/4 of the American army

and hired Apache mercenaries in the Southwest hunting him. He refused peace with the Americans but finally surrendered in 1886, when his band of

less than 30 was met with an army of 10,000. Spent over 20 years as a POW in AL, wishing he never surrendered.

The Ghost DanceThe Apache wars were the most violent of all Indian

conflicts. Whites committed the most flagrant atrocities - particularly when it came to religion.

1890 - Vovoka, a Paiute Indian, inspired a fervent spiritual awakening that began in Nevada and spread quickly to the

plains. Emphasizing the imminent coming of the messiah, the new revival's feature was the "Ghost Dance," which inspired ecstatic, mystical visions - including images of the retreat of white people from the plains and a restoration of the great

buffalo herds.

White agents on the Sioux reservation were fearful of the dances and warned the army they might be attacked by the Indians. December 20, 1890, the 7th Cavalry tried to round up a group of 350

cold and starving Sioux at Wounded Knee, SD. Fighting broke out. 40 US soldiers and 200 Indians died. The army's new machine guns mowed the Indians down.

The Dawes Severalty ActThe federal government moved to destroy forever the tribal structure that was central to Indian culture.

Congress abolished the practice of Indians owning Reservation land communally. The new policy required Indians to become landowners and farmers, to abandon their collective society and culture and become part of white civilization.

Supporters of the new Indian policy were paternalists protecting the Indian's "vanishing race."

The Dawes Severalty Act 1887 - gradual elimination of tribal ownership of land and the allotment of tracts to individual owners: 160 acres to the head of a family.

Adult owners were given US citizenship, but unlike other citizens, they could not gain full title to their property for 25 years.

The Dawes Severalty Act

In applying the Dawes Act, the Bureau of Indian Affairs relentlessly promoted the idea of assimilation that lay behind it. Not only did agents of the bureau try to move Indian families onto their own plots of land; they also took many Indian children away from their families and sent them to boarding schools run by whites.

They moved as well to stop Indian religious rituals and encouraged the spread of Christianity and the creation

of Christian churches on reservations. Few Indians were prepared for this change.

Administration of the Dawes Act was so corrupt and inept that ultimately the government simply abandoned most efforts to enforce it. Much of the reservation land, therefore, was

never distributed to individual owners.