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BritishColumbiaKindergarten‐12
FirstNationsLanguagesCurriculumBuildingGuide
ByDr.MarianneIgnace
Forthe
FirstNationsEducationSteeringCommittee
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TABLEOFCONTENTSABOUTTHISDOCUMENTINTRODUCTIONORGANIZATIONOFTHISREPORTAboutFNESCFirstPeoplesPrinciplesofLearningPARTONE:THECONTEXT1.1TheStateofFirstNationsLanguagesInBC1.2ReasonsForDecline1.3TheImportanceOfStemmingtheTideofLanguageLoss1.4ACriticalTime1.5TheRoleOfK‐12SchoolingInFirstNationsLanguageEducation1.6TheLegalPicture–OfficialLanguagesandAboriginalLanguages1.7BCLanguageProtectionLawsandPolicies
1.7.1 TheBCMinistryofEducationPoliciesPARTTWO:FUNDAMENTALSOFLANGUAGETEACHINGANDLEARNING2.1TheUrgentNeedForFluentSpeakers2.2ThinkingOutsideTheBox:CreatingProficiencyinFirstNationsLanguages
2.2.1HowManyWordsAreNeededForProficiency?2.2.2WhatIsGrammarandHowIsItBestTaught?2.2.3Phonology–CorrectAccentandPronunciation2.2.4TheCultureintheLanguage2.2.5HowManyHoursorYearsDoesItTake?
2.3TypesOfLanguageProgramsandTheLanguageEducationTheyProvide2.3.1SecondLanguageorAdditionalLanguagePrograms2.3.2FirstNationsLanguageImmersionPrograms2.4.3PartialImmersionorBilingualPrograms2.4.4IntensiveFrench
2.4LanguageTeachingMethodsInK–12Curriculum2.4.1The“BerlitzMethod”(InteractiveQuestion/Answer)2.4.2TotalPhysicalResponse2.4.3TotalPhysicalResponseStorytelling2.4.4Aim–AccelerativeIntegratedMethod2.4.5“WhereAreYourKeys?”
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2.4.6OtherConceptualPedagogicalApproachesPARTTHREE:LANGUAGE‐SPECIFICCURRICULUMFRAMEWORKS3.1TheNeedForCurriculumFrameworksAndPlans3.2ExistingCurriculumFrameworksForFirstNationsLanguagesInCanada
3.2.1TheWesternCanadianProtocolCommonCurriculumFramework3.2.2BCIntegratedResourcePackages(IRPs)andLanguagesTemplate
3.3ExamplesFromElsewhere3.3.1TheAustralianDraftFramework3.3.2TheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceForLanguages3.3.3WhakamātauriaTōReoMāori(NationalMaoriLanguageProficiencyExams)
3.4AdditionalLanguageBenchmarkAndStandardsDocuments3.4.1AmericanCouncilOntheTeachingOfForeignLanguages3.4.2CLB‐CanadianLanguageBenchmarks3.4.3FNLB‐CanadianLanguageBenchmarks3.4.4FirstNationsLanguageEssentials3.4.5PerceptionsofProficiency
3.5StudentAssessment3.5.1AssessingEmergingLanguageProficiency
PARTFOUR:DESIGNINGCONTENTCURRICULUM4.1BeyondCurriculumFrameworks:theNeedForContentInCurriculumDesign4.2AssemblingorConsolidatingYourTeam4.3StartingWithaNeedsAssessment
4.3.1DeterminingTheTypeofProgramandStartingPoint4.4.HumanResourcesNowandInTheFuture4.5TypesOfCurriculumDesign
4.5.1GrandorForwardDesign4.5.2Practice‐DrivenCentralDesign4.5.3“BackwardsDesign”–StartingWithCompetencyLevels
4.6MakingACaseFor“ScriptedCurriculum”4.7TheRoleofLiteracyInK‐12Education4.8AccommodatingDifferentDialects4.9CommunicativeTopicsorThemes4.10DevelopingCurriculumBindersandBreakingtheYearIntoUnits
4.10.1UnitDevelopmentAsaWeb4.10.2DevelopingContentForUnits4.10.3LessonPlanningFromUnits
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4.11IssuesRelatedtoCopyrightandIntellectualPropertyRightsCONCLUSIONSREFERENCES APPENDIX1COMMUNICATIVEOBJECTIVESANDGRAMMATICALCONCEPTSAPPENDIX2LANGUAGEBENCHMARKS:FIRSTNATIONSLANGUAGEESSENTIALSAPPENDIX3LISTOFTHEMEDTOPICSFORLANGUAGEUNITSANDLESSONAPPENDIX4SAMPLESYLLABIANDORGANIZATIONALCHARTSAPPENDIX5ASIMPLEASSESSMENTTEST(CHIEFMATTHEWSSCHOOL)
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ABOUTTHISDOCUMENTThisdocumentwasdevelopedattherequestoftheFirstNationsEducationSteeringCommittee(FNESC).RecognizingthediversityandwealthofFirstNationslanguagesandculturesinBritishColumbia(BC)andtheircriticallyendangeredstate,thispaperisintendedtoassistFirstNationslanguageteachers,membersofFirstNationslanguagecommunities,educationalstaffinFirstNationsandpublicschools,andpolicymakersastheyconsiderFirstNationslanguageandcultureframeworksattheK‐12level,asinformedbyexistingandemergingresearchandapproaches.Inaddition,itisalsomeanttoserveasaguidefordesigninglanguageandcultureK‐12curriculumthatwillprovidepracticaltoolsforFirstNationslanguagegroups,curriculumdevelopersandteachers.ThisdocumentbuildsonapriordraftdocumentdevelopedforFNESC,TheBreathofOurAncestors(2012),partsofwhichareincludedinAppendixFourofthisdocument.TheauthorandFNESCverymuchappreciatetheworkoftheteamthatwrotethatearlierpaper.ThisprojectalsofollowsaseriesofFNESC‐sponsoredworkshopsledbyDr.MarianneIgnacein2013.Atthoseworkshops,thetopicsincludedinthisguidewerepresentedfordiscussion,andtheinputandfeedbackfromtheworkshopparticipantsisgratefullyacknowledged.ThehelpandsupportofDeborahJeffrey,JenniferWhiteandJanHaugenwiththeworkshopsisalsomuchappreciated.Inthefinalstagesofwritingandeditingthisdocument,commentsandsuggestionsfromtheFNESCFirstNationsLanguagesSubcommittee,andespeciallyfromJesseFairley,FNESCManagerofLanguagesandCulture,providedgreatsupporttowardsitscompletion.Yiri7reskukwstsétselp,háw’aa,t’ooyaxsut’nuusm,maasicho,maasiandmythanksalsointhemanyotherlanguageswehaveandareworkingtomaintain.MarianneIgnace,PhD
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INTRODUCTIONInthisdocument,FirstNationsculturesandlanguagesareviewedasinseparableandintertwined.TheRoyalCommissiononAboriginalPeoples(RCAP,1996)expressedtheroleandfunctionoflanguageinthetransmissionofcultureasfollows:
Languageistheprincipalinstrumentbywhichcultureistransmittedfromonegenerationtoanother,bywhichmembersofaculturecommunicatemeaningandmakesenseoftheirsharedexperience.Becauselanguagedefinestheworldandexperienceinculturalterms,itliterallyshapesourwayofperceiving–ourworldview.
Knowledgesystemsandrelationswiththeland,peopleandeverythinginnatureareexpressedthroughthelanguage,whichguidesthewayinwhichcultureisexperiencedandshouldbeunderstood.Giventhisimportance,coupledwiththeprecariousstateoflanguages,itisvitallyimportantthatFirstNationslanguagesare(re)vitalized,used,practiced,andinstilledinyoungergenerations,thusbreathingnewlifeintoFirstNations’culturesandinvaluableheritage.OrganizationofthisDocumentThisdocumentisorganizedintofourparts.Part1:ThisdocumentbeginswithadiscussionoftheprecariousstateofFirstNationslanguagesinBC,thereasonsfortheirdecliningstate,andthevalueofmaintainingandrevitalizingFirstNationslanguagesbasedontheirreplaceableconnectionstheyhavewithculturalknowledgeandlearningandwithFirstNations’uniquewaysofperceivingtheworld.Knowingone’slanguageisconnectedtoone’ssenseofself,self‐worthandidentity,andbeyondthathelpstosupportcognitiveandintellectualdevelopment.Recognizingthatimportance,thisreportdescribestherolethatschoollanguageprogramscanplayasakeycomponentofthedauntingtaskoflanguagerevitalization.Inparticular,theprosandconsofdifferenttypesoflanguageprogrammingattheK‐12levelarereviewed.Part2:Thesecondpartofthisdocumentdescribessomekeyconceptsthatprovidethecontextforcurriculumdevelopment,includingwhatisneededforlanguageproficiency,typesoflanguageprograms,andfundamentalaspectsoflanguageprogramming.Part3:GiventheneedforaneffectiveframeworkthatcanenhanceK‐12FirstNationslanguageeducationinthisprovince,Part3ofthisdocumenthighlightsexistinglanguage
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andculturecurriculum,includingthemuchneglectedbutveryusefulCommonCurriculumFramework–AboriginalLanguageandCulturePrograms–WesternCanadianProtocolforCollaborationinBasicEducation.TheBCLanguagesTemplateisdescribed,which–althoughnotspecificallydesignedforFirstNationslanguages–forsometimehasguidedIntegratedResourcePackage(IRP)developmentforlanguagesinBC.Finally,thepaperreviewscurriculumframeworksthatsetstandardsandbenchmarksacrosslanguages,whicharenowincreasinglybeingusedforlanguageeducationinCanada.Part4:Inthefinalpartofthisdocument,wereviewtheissueofcurriculumdesignanddevelopmentforparticularFirstNationslanguages.Thispartisintendedtoprovidepracticaltoolsforlanguagecurriculumdevelopers,includingoutliningsomegeneralprinciplesandchallengesassociatedwithlanguagecurriculumdesign–andwithFirstNationslanguagedesigninparticular.AboutFNESCFNESCisanindependentsocietyledbyrepresentativesofFirstNationsacrosstheprovince.WithamandatetofacilitatediscussionabouteducationmattersaffectingFirstNationsinBCbydisseminatinginformationandsolicitinginputfromFirstNations,FNESChasworkedtopromotetheprioritiesofBCFirstNationstothefederalandprovincialgovernmentsandtosupportFirstNationscommunitiesinworkingtogethertoadvanceeducationissues.Amongitsmanyactivities,FNESCconductsresearchtosupportFirstNationseducationinitiatives(includingFirstNationslanguageprograms),andservesasaclearinghouseforresourcesandmodelsforFirstNationseducationactivities.FNESCisguidedbythebeliefthatBCFirstNations,foralltheirrichdiversity,sharesomesignificantcommonexperiences,priorities,andbeliefs,aswellasacharacteristicFirstNationsapproachestoteachingandlearningthatcanbeexpressedasasetofprinciples.OriginallyidentifiedfortheEnglish12FirstPeoplescurriculum,the“FirstPeoplesPrinciplesofLearning”articulatethesharedwisdomofEldersandeducatorswithinBC’sFirstNations.FirstPeoplesPrinciplesofLearning Learningultimatelysupportsthewell‐beingoftheself,thefamily,thecommunity,the
land,thespirits,andtheancestors. Learningisholistic,reflexive,reflective,experiential,andrelational(focusedon
connectedness,onreciprocalrelationships,andasenseofplace). Learninginvolvesrecognizingtheconsequencesofone’sactions. Learninginvolvesgenerationalrolesandresponsibilities. Learningrecognizestheroleofindigenousknowledge.
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Learningisembeddedinmemory,history,andstory. Learninginvolvespatienceandtime. Learningrequiresexplorationofone’sidentity. Learninginvolvesrecognizingthatsomeknowledgeissacredandonlysharedwith
permissionand/orincertainsituations.MoreinformationaboutFNESCcanbefoundatwww.fnesc.ca.
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PARTONE:THECONTEXT1.1 TheStateofFirstNationsLanguagesinBCBritishColumbiaishometoabout32‐34FirstNationslanguages,manywithtwoormoredialects.AllFirstNationslanguagesareinaprecariousstate,somehangingbyathread.ThecurrentstateofFirstNationslanguagesispartofaglobalprocessoflanguageshiftanddecline,reflectingthehistoricalforcesthathaveledtothedeathanddeclineofmanyIndigenouslanguagesworldwide,aswellasthecurrentandfuturedangeroflosingthosethatremain.Infact,ofthemorethan6,000languagesonearth,90%areendangered.AccordingtoanassessmentbytheBCFirstPeoplesHeritage,LanguageandCultureCouncil(FPHLCC(nowFirstPeoplesCulturalCouncil),2010),in2010only5.1percentoftheprovince’sFirstNationspopulationwasfluentintheirlanguage.“Semispeakers,”or“less‐than‐fluent”adultswhoacquiredtheirFirstNationslanguageinearlylife,aswellassecondlanguagelearnersofvariousages,madeupanadditional8.2percentofthepopulation.Inaddition,thevastmajorityofspeakerswereelderly.Afollow‐upstudy(FPHLCC,2014)showedthatby2014,thenumberoffluentspeakershaddeclinedtoabout4percent,althoughthenumberof“semi‐speakers”hadincreasedto9.32percent,whichwasconsidereda“promisingtrend”as“itindicatesthatrevitalizationeffortsarepayingoff.”FirstNationlanguagelearnersrepresentedonly9.14percentoftheFirstNationspopulationin2014(FPHLCC,2014).Inotherwords,ninetenthsofFirstNationspeopleinBCwerenotlearningorre‐learningtheirlanguages.Ingeneral,althoughyouthandchildrenrepresentmorethanhalfoftheFirstNationspopulationinBC,itseemsthatalargenumberofFirstNationschildrenandyouthdonothaveaccesstoeducationintheirFirstNationsancestrallanguage.Additionally,thereisanincreasedtrendinmigrationoffreservesandtourbanareas,andFirstNationschildrenandyouthwholiveawayfromtheirancestralcommunitiesoftenareespeciallydeprivedofopportunitiestolearntheirancestrallanguages.
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Source:MapofBCAboriginalLanguages.1.2 ReasonsfortheDeclineThedeclineofFirstNationslanguagesinBCandtherestofCanadaiscloselyconnectedtothiscountry’shistoryofcolonizationandoppression.Betweenthelate1700sandthe1860s,traumaticpopulationlossesthatresultedfromsmallpoxepidemicsandotherdiseasescausedadevastatingdeclineinthenumberofpeopleofallgenerationswhocommunicatedandtransmittedstoriesintheirlanguages,anddramaticallyreducedthewealthofknowledgeaboutthesocial,moralandphysicalworldencodedinthoselanguages.InBC,severallanguagesdiedoutduringthistime,includingNicola,TsetsautandPentlatch.
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ThegenocideprecipitatedbyinfectiousdiseaseswasfollowedbycalculatedpoliciesoftheCanadianStateto“killtheIndianinthechild,”includingtheestablishmentandcompulsoryattendanceofFirstNationchildrenatIndianResidentialSchools.Forthreegenerationsormore,theseschoolsdisruptedanddestroyedtheintergenerationaltransmissionofAboriginallanguagesbyremovingchildrenfromtheircommunities,relativesandElders,whilemoreoverinflictingphysicalpunishment,shameandhumiliationfortheuseofFirstNationslanguages.Inotherwords:
Itwasthroughlanguagethatchildrenreceivedtheirculturalheritagefromparentsandcommunity.Itwasthevitalconnectionthatcivilizersknewhadtobecutifprogresswastobemade(RCAP,1996).
SurvivorsofResidentialSchoolshavegiveneloquentandheart‐breakingtestimonyabouttheharmdonetothempersonally,andtothesocialandculturalfabricoftheirfamilies,communitiesandnations,whentheirlanguagewastakenfromthemintheseschools(see,forexample,Haig‐Brown1988,RCAP1996,TRC2015).WhattherecentreportoftheTruthandReconciliationCommissionandCanada’sChiefSupremeCourtJusticeBeverleyMacLachlinhavecalledculturalgenocideatthehandsofResidentialSchoolshassubstantiallyincludedlinguicide:thecalculatedsilencingandstigmatizingofAboriginallanguageswithinandacrossgenerations.1Further,theemotionalburdenoflossandgriefnowextendstoindividualswhowerenotraisedwiththeirhomelanguageasaresultofResidentialSchools,butwereinsteaddeprivedoftheirlanguageduetotheexperienceofparentsandgrandparentswhohadbeensubjecttobeatingsandemotionalabusesforspeakingtheirlanguageandwhosubsequentlyraisedtheirchildrenspeakingEnglish.BythetimemostoftheResidentialSchoolswereclosedinthe1970s,publicschoolinginBCemphasizedEnglishlanguageeducationonly,asopposedtobilingualeducationwithFirstNationslanguages.OtherfactorsalsocontributedtothelossanddeclineofFirstNationslanguages.Forexample,throughoutthe1950sto1970s,Englishincreasingly
1Beyondlife‐longemotionalstigmaofhavingone’slanguagesilenced,thelossoflanguageinindividualswasunevenandtoagooddegreedependedontheageatwhichchildrenweretakenawayfromindigenouslanguagesocializationinthehome:thereisacorrelationbetweenwhatlinguistsknowas1“languageacquisitionphases”andthedegreetowhichpresenteldersandadultsretainedtheirlanguageaftertheResidentialSchoolexperience:Thosewhoweresenttoschoolataveryyoungage(5‐6yearsold)hadacquiredtheirAboriginallanguagetoalesserdegreethanthosewhohadbeensentatage10‐11,bywhichtimeachild’slanguageacquisitionofgrammarandthesoundsystemisnearlycomplete.
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becamethelanguageoftheworkplaceforFirstNationspeopleworkingoffreserve,andintergenerationallanguagetransmissioncontinuedtodecline.Inaddition,accordingtothelateKwakwa’ka’wakwJudgeAlfredScow,outlawingthepotlatch“preventedthepassingdownofourvalues,oforalhistories,etc.allofwhichwereintheAboriginallanguage”(RCAP,1996).1.3 TheImportanceofStemmingtheTideofLanguageLossFirstNationsElders,languageeducatorsandactivists,supportedbyacademicstudiesundertakenbybothIndigenousandnon‐Indigenousscholars,havepointedouttheimportantreasonsforrevitalizingandmaintainingFirstNationslanguages.AsidefrombeingahumanrightandanAboriginalright(seeSection1.7below),languagerevitalizationandmaintenanceareconnectedtoculturalsurvival,culturalresilience,andaccesstointellectualworldsandknowledgethatareuniquelyembeddedinlanguages.Contemporaryresearchinlinguisticsandcognitivepsychologyhasresultedinnewunderstandingsaboutthewaysinwhichlanguagesshapethewaywethink,perceiveandorganizetheworldinculturallymeaningfulways,andBCFirstNationslanguagesprovideirreplaceablewaysoforganizingthesocialandnaturalworld,basedontheancient,cumulativehumanexperienceofFirstPeoples.Infact,astheworldisfacingenvironmentalchangeandlossofbiodiversity,therehasbeenagrowingresearchfocusontheconnection,oratleasttheparallels,betweenbiodiversityandlinguisticdiversity.PreservingIndigenouslanguagesmeanspreservingthevaluablelocalecologicalknowledgeencodedinthem,whichincombinationwithtraditionalresourcestewardshippracticescancontributegreatlytothesustainablemanagementoflandsandresources(Maffi,2001).Inrecentyears,numerousstudieshaveidentifiedastrongconnectionbetweenFirstNationslanguagemaintenanceandseveralfactorsthataffectpersonalandcollectivehealthandwell‐being.ResearchersChandlerandLalonde,forexample,foundthatyouthsuicideratesweresignificantlylowerwhereinstitutionsthatenabledculturalcontinuityexisted.Hallettet.al.(2007)alsodeterminedthatratesofsuicideweresignificantlylowerinFirstNationscommunitieswithhigherlevelsoflanguageknowledgeanduse,andtheauthorsconcludedthatthecontinuedexistenceanduseofaFirstNationslanguage“isastrongpredictorofhealthandwellbeinginCanada’sAboriginalcommunities.”CreelanguageeducatorMcIvor,alongwithA.NapoleonandK.Dickie(2009),alsopointtothepositiveimpactonhealth–inacomprehensive,holisticsense–ofFirstNationslanguageuseandrevitalization.
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Researchfromtheearlydecadesofthetwentiethcentury,basedonpoorempiricaldataandresearchmethods,madethepointthatearlybilingualismandmultilingualism(learningtwoormorelanguagesearlyinlife)weredetrimentaltochildren’scognitivedevelopment,notingthe“handicappinginfluenceofbilingualism”andpointingoutthatbilingualsperformedworseonIQtests,althoughtheadministrationofthesetestswasskewed.Unfortunatelythecommonperceptionaboutbilingualismthatcameoutofsuchmisguidedstudies,combinedwiththeCanadiangovernment’sintenttoassimilateAboriginalchildrenawayfromtheirlanguagesandcultures,ledtoeducatorstellingAboriginalparentsthattheirchildrenwouldbekeptbackiftheywereraisedintheirAboriginallanguage.Sincethe1960s,studieshaveincreasinglypointedtothepositiveimpactsofbilingualism.EllenBialystokandherresearchteam(1991,2004),havecarriedoutconvincingempiricalresearchformorethantwentyyearsthatpointstothepositiveconnectionbetweenbilingualism‐(includingbilingualismthatinvolvesindigenouslanguage(s))‐cognitivedevelopmentandcognitiveabilities.Bialystok’sresearchhasshownseveralwaysinwhichbilingualsoutperformmonolingualsinverbalandnon‐verbalcognitivetasks:
Bilingualchildrendevelopmetalinguisticawarenessearlierandtoahigherdegreethanmonolinguals.Metalinguisticawareness,inturn,supportsreflectiononlanguageandonthefunctionoflanguage,aswellasearlierandhighersensitivitytolanguagestructureandlanguageprocessing;
Giventheheightenedmetalinguisticawarenessofbilinguals,theyaremorecreativeinproblemsolvingthanmonolingualchildren
Bilingualsoutperformmonolingualsinreadingability.BetterreadingskillsintheirL1(e.g.English)weredemonstratedwithaslittleasonehouraweekofL2(otherlanguage)learning(BialystokandLuk).
Bilingualsdevelopadvantagesinexecutivefunctionsofthebrain,suchasproblemsolving,mentalflexibility,attentioncontrol,inhibitorycontrol,taskswitching–i.e.stayingfocusedontasks.Theseadvantagesarenotonlyverbalfunctions,butinvolvenon‐verbalfunctions:Bilingualsoutperformmonolingualsinsuchtasksasprovidinghigherselectiveattention(filteringoutdistractions),higherworkingmemory,abilitytoshiftattentionquickly,andthecoordinationofallofthesetasks.Althoughmoreresearchneedstobedonetoclarifythese,Bialystokconcludesthatbilingualscouldpossiblybebetteratmulti‐taskingthanmonolinguals.
Recentresearch(Bialystok,Moreno,Hermanto2011)hasalsoshownthatchildrenwhoparticipateinimmersionprograms,tovaryingdegrees,showedthesametendenciestowardsdevelopingexecutivebrainfunctionsandmetalinguisticabilitiesthathadbeenreportedforchildrenwhowereraisedbilinguallyinthe
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home.Moreover,theirresearch,usingexperimentaltestsandMRIimaging,showedthatcognitiveadvantagesofearlybilingualismpersistintoyoungadulthood.
Finally,theirresearchshowed(2010)thatagingbilinguals“outperformmonolingualsonnon‐verbalexecutivecontroltasks,”andthat,indeed,bilingualismcanslowtheonsetofdementiainAlzheimer’spatientsforaslongasfiveyears,constitutinga“cognitivereserve”thatdelaystheonsetofsignsofdementiainAlzheimerpatients.
Thus,researchhasprovidedconvincingevidenceofthepositiveconnectionbetweenbilingualismandcognitivedevelopmentandabilities.StudiesofanInuttitutimmersionprogramintheKativikSchoolDistrictinNunavik/Quebec(Wright,TaylorandRuggiero,1996)furthersupportthecognitiveandpsychologicaladvantagesoflanguageeducationinachild’smothertongue,whilealsodemonstratingpositiveself‐esteembenefitsforchildren.Otheranecdotalevidenceandachievementtestsadministeredtostudentsinlong‐termlanguageimmersionprogramsverifythatstudentswhoreceiveintensivelanguageexposureandinstructiontendtofarebetteracademicallyandsociallythanpeerswhoarenotexposedtotheirlanguage(Greymorning1997,BrandtandAyoungman1993).1.4 ACriticalTimeAsdescribedabove,inspiteoftheirimportance,mostFirstNationslanguagesarehangingbyathreadandarefacingcontinuousdecline,asEldersageandinevitablypasson.ThegraphbelowfromtheReportontheStatusofBCFirstNationsLanguages(FPHLCC,2010)–producedin2010butpredictinginformationfor2010‐15–showsthesoberingandsadcontinuinglossoflanguages.2
2Asthegraphshows,the2010datapredictaround2%remainingfluentspeakersin2014,althoughthe2014editionshows4%fluentspeakersremaining.However,asthereportauthorsindicate,the2014editionincludesdatafrom15speechcommunitiesnotrepresentedinthe2010report.Hence,thetwodatasetsarenotfullycomparable.
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Yetthegraphabove,soberingasitis,alsoprovideshope.Withanadequateinvestmentoffundsandhardwork,thefateofFirstNationslanguagescanbeturnedaroundbycreatingnewgenerationsofadultandyoungproficientspeakers.ThroughoutBC,
vibranteffortsandinitiativesexistthathavecontributedtostemmingthetideoflanguageloss.TheseincludeagrowingnumberofLanguageNestsmodeledontheMaoriTeKoangaReoandHawaiianPunanaLeomovements,sponsoredinlargepartwithfundsfromthe
FirstPeoples’CulturalCouncil(FPCC).Infact,theFPCCestimatesthatapproximately15‐20languagenestsarecurrentlyinoperationinthisprovince.Languageeducatorsandactivists
McIvor(2005),Michel(2005,2012)andChambers(2014)havereportedontheseinitiativesandgiveusoptimismforthefutureofFirstNationslanguages.
Inaddition,arisingfrom,orincombinationwith,locallanguagenests,asmallnumberofprimaryandelementarylevelimmersionschoolshaveshownthesuccessesandpotentialofFirstNationslanguageimmersioneducation,eveninthefaceoflimitedfundingandhumanresources(McIvor2005;Chambers2014;Michel,2005and2012).AdditionalrecentstudiesbyagrowingandimportantnumberofIndigenouslanguageeducators,includingMcIvor(2013),Johnson(2013),Thompson(2012),Rosborough(2012),Hinton(2011),Michel(2011),andPitawanakwat(2009),showtheexperiencesandpotentialofFirstNationslanguagerevitalizationinthecontextofdiverseBClanguages.Theyalsoshowthehardworkahead.1.5 TheRoleofSchoolinginFirstNationsLanguageRevitalizationEffortsMorethanthirtyyearsago,IrishlanguageactivistFennel(1980)remindedus:
ashrinkinglanguageminoritycannotbesavedbytheactionsofwell‐wisherswhodonotbelongtotheminorityinquestion.Inparticular,itsshrinkingcannotbehaltedbytheaction,howeverbenevolentandintelligent,ofamoderncentralisedstate.Itcanbesavedonlybyitself:andthenonlyifitsmembersacquirethewilltostopitshrinking,acquiretheinstitutionsandfinancialmeanstotakeappropriatemeasures,andtakethem.
Infact,languagerevitalizationcannotbeachievedwithoutthedeepspiritualandpracticalcommitmentofpeoplewhocareandarewillingtoputinenormous,long‐termeffortinlearning,teaching,recording,anddevelopingmaterials.Allsuccessfullanguagerevitalizationpractitionerssharestoriesofworkinglonghours,experiencingtheinterminablesadnessoverthepassingoffluentElders,andcarryingouttheirworkwithinthereallivingconditionsofFirstNationscommunitiesstillmarkedbythefall‐outofthetraumahistoricallyinflictedonthem.
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Reflectingthesignificanteffortneededtomakepositivechange,numerousFirstNationslanguagepractitionersandeducatorshavestressedthatlanguagerevitalizationcannotbelefttoschoolsalone;itisacommunityandNation,aswellasafamilyandhomeissue.However,giventhetremendousscopeofeffortneeded,schoolsdohaveavitalroletoplay.AsHinton(inHintonandHale2001,pg.7)hasobserved,“anhouraday[ofIndigenouslanguageinstruction],iftaughtwithappropriatemethodology,canbringchildrenalongwaytowardfluency.”Thus,educationsystemscanplayavitalroleinfacilitatingaccesstoFirstNationslanguagelearningamongchildrenandyouth.Theycanalsomeaningfullysupportcommunitylanguagerevivalandmaintenanceefforts.Whatisneededislanguageeducationinschoolsconnectedtolargereffortstoimprovethestatusanduseoflanguagesincommunities,witheveryonecollectively“takingownership”ofthelanguageinapractical,spiritual,emotionalandsocialsense.Butlanguageeducationinschools–inparticularpublicschools–isnotwithoutconstraints,includingarangeofpoliciesandlawsthatprivilegeEnglishoverFirstNationslanguages,andthatrepresentacontinuedpartofacolonialstructure.Generally,publicschoolsfavour“core”subjectslikemath,languagearts,scienceandsocialstudies,allofwhicharebetterresourcedandmuchbettersupportedwithrelevantcurriculummaterials.FirstNationslanguageeducationisoftenperceivedashavingtocompeteagainst“academic”subjects,ratherthanmorerightlybeingseenasofferingitsownsolutionsforcognitivedevelopment,literacy,self‐esteemandculturalconnection–asisstronglysuggestedbyawealthofresearch.Despitethosechallenges,a2009reportbytheCanadianCouncilonLearningtitledtheStateofAboriginalLearninginCanada:AHolisticApproachtoMeasuringSuccess,emphasizestheimportanceofAboriginallanguageeducationinimprovingandenhancingtheeducationalexperiencesofAboriginalyouth.Itdescribeshow“knowledgeofancestrallanguagesiskeytohowAboriginalpeopleviewlearning—aprocessthatislifelongandextendswellbeyondtheclassroom.”Asthereportpointsout,ancestrallanguagesareconsideredakeysourceofknowledgeforlearners,astheyhelp“transmitknowledgeandvaluesfromonegenerationtoanother.”Alloftheseissuesaredescribedinmoredetailbelow.1.6 TheLegalPicture–OfficialLanguagesandAboriginalLanguagesAtatimewhentheverysurvivalofFirstNationslanguageshangsbyathread,Canadacontinuestomaintainitsnationalpolicy–ormyth‐oftwo“foundinglanguages,”andthecrucialrole(orevenexistence)ofthe59ormoreAboriginallanguagesofthecountryisnotacknowledgedinCanadianlaw.3
3Bycontrast,invariousinternationaljurisdictions,Indigenousminoritylanguageshavelegalrecognitionasofficiallanguages‐e.g.MaoriinNewZealand/Aotearea,andHawaiianintheU.S.
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Canada’sAboriginal(FirstNation,Métis,Inuit)languagesarenotmentionedintheBritishNorthAmericaAct(1867),intheIndianAct,norintheCharterofRightsandFreedoms(1982).Section35ofthe1982ConstitutionActdoesnotmentionAboriginallanguages,butdealswithundefinedAboriginalrights,stating,“TheexistingaboriginalandtreatyrightsoftheaboriginalpeoplesofCanadaareherebyrecognizedandaffirmed.”ThequestionofwhetherAboriginallanguagerights(individually,collectively,orboth)legallyqualifyas“existingaboriginalrights”hasnotbeentestedincourt.Canada’sOfficialLanguagesAct,initiallypassedin1969andamendedinlightoftheCharterofRightsandFreedomsin1988,acknowledgesEnglishandFrenchasthetwoofficiallanguagesofthecountry,andguaranteesminoritylanguagerightsforEnglishandFrenchspeakers,includingaccesstoservicesintherespectivelanguagesandtolanguageeducation.However,theActissilentonAboriginallanguages.Basedonabilateralagreement(2009‐2013,andrecentlyreneweduntil2018)betweentheProvinceofBCandtheFederalDepartmentofCanadianHeritage,federalfundssupportK‐12Frenchprogramminginschools(core,immersion,andintensiveFrench)anduniversities,andprovidegrantsforlearningresources,teacherprofessionaldevelopment,culturalactivities,studentandteacherexchanges,andotheractivities(www.bced.gov.bc.ca).The2009‐2013protocolbetweenthefederalgovernmentandBCprovides$64.4million(approximately$16.1millionannually)infederalfundingforFrenchminoritylanguageandsecondlanguageeducationbasedonaformulaofupto50percentofthefundscontributedbythefederalgovernment,withtheremaindercontributedbyBC.Althoughthe2003‐2005nationalTaskForceonAboriginalLanguagesandCultures(TFALC)stronglyrecommendedthe“legislativerecognition,protectionandpromotionofFirstNation,InuitandMetislanguagesastheFirstLanguagesofCanada”(Canada,2005),suchlegalrecognitionatthenationalleveloratanyprovinciallevelhasnotbeenrealizedtodate.Infact,the1988CanadianMulticulturalismActandthesubsequentCanadianHeritageLanguagesInstituteAct(1990)classifiedAboriginallanguagesas“heritagelanguages,”puttingtheminthesamecategoryasimmigrantlanguages.TwoterritorieshaveaccordedofficiallanguagestatustotheirAboriginallanguages.
StateofHawaii.Othercountriesalsohaveameasureofprotectionandsupportforregionalorminoritylanguages(e.g.the1992EuropeanCharterforRegionalandMinorityLanguages).
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TheNorthwestTerritories(NWT)nowrecognizesChipewyan,Cree,Dogrib,English,French,Gwich'in,InuktitutandSlaveyasofficiallanguagesoftheterritory.
ThelegislatureofNunavutunanimouslypassedaterritorialOfficialLanguagesActin2008,recognizingtworelatedInuitlanguages–InuktitutandInnuinaqtun,aswellasEnglishandFrench,asofficiallanguages.Importantly,theOfficialLanguagesActwasaccompaniedbytheInuitLanguageProtectionAct,“theonlyActinCanadathataimstoprotectandrevitalizeafirstpeoples’language”(langcom.nu.ca).ThetwoactshaveenabledInuitinNunavuttosettargetsandstandardsforincreasinglanguageproficiencyinInuktitut/Innuinaqtun,topromotetheuseofthelanguages,andtoquicklyexpandInuitlanguageeducationasaright,includingcreatinglanguagenests,earlyimmersioneducation,andInuktitut/Innuinaqtuneducationacrossallgrades,withtheeducationalresourcesrequiredtodoso.
Since2007,theUnitedNationsDeclarationontheRightsofIndigenousPeoples(UNDRIP)hasrepresentedanimportantadditionalvoiceforIndigenouslanguageprotection.TheUNDRIPwasadoptedbytheUNGeneralAssemblyin2007,andaimstoestablishlegalandhumanrightsstandardsfortheplanet’s370millionIndigenouspeople.CanadafinallyendorsedtheUNDRIPinNovember2010,statingthatitsupporteditin“spirit”andasan“aspirational”document.Asitexistsnow,theUNDRIPfunctionsasaUNDeclaration,butdoesnothavetheforceoflawintheinternationalorCanadiansetting.TheUNDRIPaddressesIndigenouslandandenvironmentalrightsandrightstohealth,culturalandintellectualpropertyandculturalexpression,andmoreoverincludesseveralArticlesthatspecificallyaddresslanguagerights. Article13.1.states:“Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttorevitalize,use,developand
transmittofuturegenerationstheirhistories,languages,oraltraditions,philosophies,writingsystemsandliteratures,andtodesignateandretaintheirownnamesforcommunities,placesandpersons.”
Article14.1states:“Indigenouspeopleshavetherighttoestablishandcontroltheireducationintheirownlanguages,inamannerappropriatetotheirculturalmethodsofteachingandlearning.”
Article14.3.states:“Statesshall,inconjunctionwithindigenouspeoples,takeeffectivemeasures,inorderforindigenousindividuals,particularlychildren,includingthoselivingoutsidetheircommunities,tohaveaccess,whenpossible,toaneducationintheirowncultureandprovidedintheirownlanguage.”
Article16addressestherightofindigenouspeopletoestablishtheirownmediaintheirownlanguages.
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1.7 BCLanguageProtectionLawsandPoliciesAlthoughBChasnoofficiallanguagerecognitionorprotectionforitsmorethan30Indigenouslanguages,4ithasdevelopedlimitedpoliciesandprogramstoprotectFirstNationslanguages.In1996,BCpassedtheFirstPeoplesHeritage,LanguageandCultureActaspartofitsFirstPeoples’Heritageinitiative,andcreatedaCrownCorporationwiththepurposeof:providingoperatingandcapitalfundsforthe“creation,maintenanceandadministrationofNativeculturalcentresandprogramsthroughoutBC”(Section6);supportingthegovernmentonwaystopreserveandfoster“nativelanguagesandotheraspectsofculturaldevelopmentofNativepeoplesthroughoutBC;”andactinginanadvisorycapacitytotheBCgovernmentonsuchmatters.ThisActprovidesthefoundationfortheBCFirstPeoples’CulturalCouncil(FPCC).Since1990,theFPCChasallocatedmorethan$20millioningrants–includingfederalAboriginalLanguagesInitiativeandprovincialBCLanguagesInitiativegrants‐toFirstNationsorganizationstoenablelocallanguagerevitalizationanddocumentationprojects.Italsohasproducedanumberofusefulguidebooksonavarietyoftopics,includinglanguageimmersioncamps,languagenests,mentor/master‐apprenticelearningprograms,andlanguagepolicyandplanning(allavailableatwww.fpcc.ca).1.7.1 TheBCMinistryofEducationPoliciesTheBCMinistryofEducationLanguageEducationPolicyregulatestheteachingofEnglishandFrenchasofficiallanguages,aswellasforeign,immigrantlanguagesandAboriginallanguagesintheK‐12schoolsystem.ThispolicystipulatesthatallBCstudentsmusttakeasecondlanguageaspartofthecurriculuminGrades5‐8(exceptthoseexemptedasspecialneedsstudents,thosereceivingEnglishLanguageLearnerservices,orthoseenrolledinlateFrenchimmersion).WhilenotlegallymandatingAboriginallanguageeducation,theMinistrysupportsAboriginallanguageeducationasanoption,noting(www2.gov.bc.ca):
Allstudents,especiallythoseofAboriginalancestry,shouldhaveopportunitiestolearnanAboriginallanguage.…TheBoardofEducationandthelocalAboriginalpeopleshouldcollaboratetodevelopAboriginallanguagecurriculumandresources.
4AgoodoverviewofAboriginallanguagerecognitionmeasuresinCanadaisprovidedinwww.slmc.uottawa.ca/?q=native_legal(retrievedOct.1,2014).NeithertheNisga’aFinalAgreementAct(1999),theSecheltIndianBandSelf‐GovernmentAct,northeBCTreatyCommissionActincludeslanguageprovisions.The2010TsawwassenFirstNationFinalAgreementnotesthat“CanadaandBCacknowledgetheaspirationofTsawwassenFirstNationtopreserve,promoteanddeveloptheculture,heritage,languageandeconomyofTsawwassenFirstNation”(p.2).
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TheMinistry’spolicystipulatesthatitisuptoSchoolBoardstodecidewhichsecondlanguageswillbeoffered.CoreFrenchisofferedbydefaultifaschooldistrictdoesnotofferanalternativelanguage.OnlylanguageswithcurriculalistedintheMinistryofEducation’sEducationalProgramGuideOrderareeligibletomeetthesecondlanguagerequirementforGrades5‐8.InthecaseofFirstNationslanguages,thisincludesonlylanguageswithaprovinciallyapprovedIntegratedResourcePackage(IRP)basedontheMinistry’sLanguagesTemplate(see2.1below).Alternately,SchoolBoardscandeveloptheirownsecondlanguagecurriculaforelectiveoradditionallanguagestudiesaspermittedundertheBoardAuthorizedCourseOrder.BoardscanapplytotheMinistrytohavetheirlocallydevelopedsecondlanguagecurriculagivenprovincialapproval.Boardapprovedcoursescanbeusedtowardsgraduation,buttherearenoguaranteesthatthosecourseswillmeetpost‐secondaryentrancerequirementsforlanguagelearning.Therefore,ratherthanprovidingmandatoryFirstNationslanguageeducation,theBCSecondLanguagePolicyprovidesoptionsfordeliveringFirstNationslanguagesforGrades5‐12.Althoughearlysecond/additionallanguageeducationiswellsupportedbyresearchandadvocacygroups,thepolicymakesnoprovisionsforGradesK‐4languageeducation,(althoughsomeschooldistrictsincludesomemeasureofprimarylevelandearlyintermediatelanguageeducation).OtherchallengesforFirstNationslanguageeducationinBCpublicschoolsalsoexist.TheMinistry’spolicyguidelinesfortheamountoflanguageeducationperweekstipulate90to120minutesattheGrades5‐7level.InGrades8through12,FirstNationslanguageeducationispartofthesystemofrotatingblocks,usuallyabout115minutesinlength,inmostschoolsbasedonasemestersystem.Asprovidedwithinasemestersystem,manyschoolsareunabletooffersecondarylanguageeducationthroughouttheyear,andinstead,basedonschoolscheduling,astudentmayhaveablockofFirstNationslanguageinSemester1,notinSemester2,followedbyasummerbreak,andthenagaininSemester1ofthefollowingyear,orbasedonschedulingperhapsnotuntilSemester2ofthefollowingyear.Suchgapsinschedulingarenotconducivetoincrementallanguagelearning,whichbestoccursincontinuouslessonsthroughouttheyear.5
5IndependentSchools–includingFirstNationsschoolsthatareaccreditedasCategoryIorIIIndependentSchools–offersomeflexibilityregardingcurriculumandFirstNationslanguageeducation,butgenerallyfollowprovincialcurriculumguidelinesassetoutintheBCSchoolActandMinistryofEducationpolicies.FirstNationsschoolsnotaccreditedasIndependentSchoolsatpresentoffergreaterflexibilityinestablishingprogramsoutsideofthenormsofpolicyand
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Inlightofdemographics,Aboriginallanguageeducationalsofacesadisproportionateshortageofresourcesincomparisontoheritageorimmigrantlanguages.Finally,althoughtheBCSchoolActprovidesthatalanguageotherthanEnglishorFrenchcanbethelanguageofinstruction,thustechnicallyenablingFirstNationslanguageimmersioneducation,noschooldistricthasyetmadeuseofthisprovision,andFirstNationseducatorswhowerehopingtoimplementimmersionschoolingthroughschooldistrictshaveexpresseddisappointmentabouttheseeminglyinsurmountableobstaclestoestablishingFirstNationlanguageimmersionschoolsinthepublicsystem.
legislation,includingimmersionprogrammingorpartialimmersion.TheinclusionoflanguageteachinginFirstNationsschoolsisdiscussedinmoredetaillaterinthisdocument.
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PARTTWO:FUNDAMENTALSOFLANGUAGETEACHINGANDLEARNINGAsdescribedinPart1,giventheuniqueimportanceofFirstNationslanguagesandthelimitedhumanandfinancialresourcesavailabletosupportthem,schoollanguageeducationprogramsrepresentavitalcomponentofthedauntingtaskoflanguagerevitalization.Byaddressingseveralkeyconcepts,schoolprogrammingcanmeaningfullycontributetoeffortstobreathenewlifeintolanguages.2.1TheUrgentNeedForFluentSpeakers:InconsideringthevitalroleofFirstNationslanguagesinFirstNationseducationgenerally,aswellasthedecliningnumberoffluentfirst‐languagespeakers–especiallyinBC–thereisanurgentneedtocreateandsupporthighlyproficientsecond‐languagespeakersofFirstNationslanguageswhocanfilltheroleoflanguageteachersinhighqualitysecondlanguage,immersionandadulteducationprograms,aswellaslanguagenests.Infact,ittakestremendoustimeandefforttobecomefullyproficientinalanguage,andduetoavarietyoffactors,therearefewhighlycompetentsecond‐languagespeakersofFirstNationslanguages.Contributingfactors,asexpressedbyadultlanguagelearnersandteachers,includethefollowing. Therearefewerandfeweropportunitiesforcontemporarylearnerstoimmerse
themselvesinsituationswhereonlytheFirstNationslanguageisused.Withthecriticaldeclineinthenumberoffluentfirst‐languagespeakers(seePart1),manylearnersstruggletofindopportunitiestopracticethelanguageoutsideoftheclassroom.
Thereisalackofintensivelanguagetrainingopportunitiesandincentivesbeyondintroductorylevelcoursesandbeginnercompetencies.
Itisdifficulttofindfunding,individuallyoringroups,forthesustainedandintensiveworkneededtodevelophighproficiency(althoughinrecentyears,someinitiativeslikeMentor(Master)‐Apprenticetraininghavecreatedsmallnumbersofhighlymotivatedlearnerswhohavebeenabletoacceleratetheirskills(FPCC,2014).
Workresponsibilitiesandpersonalstressesmakeitimpossibleformanyindividualstodedicatethemselvestointensivelanguagelearning.
ThedegreeofdifficultyofFirstNationslanguages,combinedwithfarfewerlearningresources(especiallyuser‐friendlymaterialsbeyondthebeginnerlevel)isaseriouschallenge.Infact,thestructureofFirstNationslanguagesmakestheminherentlymorechallengingtolearn,andmakesitimpossibletosimplyadaptortranslateEnglishlanguage‐basedcurriculummaterials.
ThelegacyofResidentialSchoolingcontinuestonegativelyimpactmanyspeakersandlearners.
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Butthesechallengesmustbeovercome,astoday’ssecond‐languagelearnerswillbecometheteachersofthelanguageintothenextgeneration.Further,adultswhobecomethenew(andfuture)generationsofFirstNationslanguageteachersmusthavetheopportunitytodevelopstrongproficiencyandcompetenceintheirlanguage,orthelanguageitselfwillatrophyandchangeasitistaughttochildrenintheK‐12educationsystem.AsHinton(1999,pg.75)hasobserved,“anyincompletelearning(accent,grammatical,orlexicaldeficiencies,etc.)willbecomepartofthefutureofthelanguageitself,”anddiminishedcompetencecanalsoleadtotensionsoverwhichwaysofsayingthingsare“correct”oracceptable.2.2CreatingProficiencyinFirstNationsLanguagesThroughK‐12EducationInconsideringhowtopromotelanguageprograms,itisusefultobeginbyconsideringwhatisknownaboutproducing“fluent”orproficientspeakerswhodemonstratealevelofeffortless,fluidcommunicationineverydaytopics.Tobegin,theultimategoalshouldbecommunicativecompetence–beingabletotakepartinconversation,narrateevents,andengageinculturallygroundedandmeaningfulinteractions.Becausepresentandfuturesecond‐languagelearnerswillbethetorch‐bearersofthelanguage,atleastsomeofthemwillneedtoacquireadvancedcompetence–meaningtheabilitytounderstanddetailsofwhatisbeingsaidratherthanjustthe“generalgist,”andtheabilitytoexpressoneselfwithfluidityandaccuracy,creativelyusingthelanguageratherthanmerelyrepeatingpreviouslyheardsentences.Competentorproficientspeakerscancommunicateinthelanguagetosuchadegreethattheycanfunctioninall,ornearlyall,communicativesituationswithout“gettingstuck”orhavingtoswitchtoEnglish.ForFirstNationslanguages,oralproficiencyisobviouslyneededinorderforlearnersto(re)builddomainsofuseinthehome,family,andpublicsettings.Wherecommunicationinvolveswrittenmedia(books,otherprintmaterials,andsocialmedia,etc.),alevelofaccurateandfluidexpressioninreadingandwritingisalsoimportant.Itisgenerallyagreedthatthislevelofproficiencyrequiresthattheindividual:1. acquiredthelanguageinearlychildhood;2. hasintuitiveknowledgeofthelanguage;3. isabletoproducefluent,spontaneousdiscourse;4. iscompetentincommunication;5. identifieswithorisidentifiedbyalanguagecommunity;and6. doesnothaveaforeignaccent(seewikipedia.org/wiki/First_language).
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Inaddition,FirstNationsspeakersusuallyconsiderindicatorsofnative‐likefluencyandhighproficiencytoinclude: intuitivelyaccuratepronunciationandaccent(phonemesorsounds,wordstress,
prosodyorsentencemelody,pitch‐tone); intuitivelyaccurateuseofgrammar; asufficientrangeofvocabulary; anabilitytoengageinword‐play;and anabilitytoperformculturallyimportantprotocols(prayer,speech,story,ceremony).2.2.1HowManyWordsAreNeededforProficiency?Howmanywords,orwhatamountofvocabulary,makesacompetentspeaker?OnewaytoanswerthatquestionistoconsiderthenumberofwordslistedindictionariesofFirstNationslanguages.The2012DictionaryoftheSquamishLanguagecontainsabout8,000headwordentries,thecurrentSecwepemcDictionarycontains6,000,andtheAlaskanHaidaDictionarycontains5,500headwordentries.ForFirstNationslanguages,itisnotalwayseasytodeterminewhatisa“word”andwhatisa“phrase”,giventheirproductivegrammarsystemstobuildcomplexconceptsoutofsmallerbuildingblocks.6However,thenumberofwordsusedineverydaycommunicationisactuallyfarlessthanthenumberofheadworddictionariesinexistingFirstNationslanguagedictionaries,consideringthatineverydaycommunication,inalllanguages,speakerstendtorelytoagooddegreeonhigh‐frequencywords,andonlytoaverysmalldegreeonunusual,specializedandrarewords.FortheEnglishlanguage,theGeneralServiceList,recentlyupdatedtotheNewGeneralServiceListshowsthatinvariousoralcommunicationmodes(everydayspeech,radio,TV)90%ofwordsusedarefromarepertoireofbetween822and1,388words.95%ofwordsusedconsistofarepertoireofbetween1,849to2,855words.Basedonresearchwithacorpusof273millionwords,researcherscompiledanoveralllistof2,818highfrequencywords(theNewGeneralServiceList)thatcover90%ofspeechproduction.Tomovetothe95%inthe95%range,itconsistsof6,828words–morethandouble!Corpus 90% 95%SpokenEnglish 822 1,849Radio 1,348 2,766TV 1,388 2,855WholeNewGeneralServiceList 2,818 6,828Source:http://www.newgeneralservicelist.org6Seebelow,pg.26,alsoKell2014foranon‐technicalexplanationofpolysyntheticlanguages.PolysyntheticlanguagesarelanguagesinwhichwordsarestrungtogethercomposedofmanypartsthatgiveinformationaboutWho?What?Inwhatway?When?Beyond
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Forindigenouslanguagelearning,theNewGeneralServiceListgivesustwoimportantlessons:
Excellentlisteningandspeakingskillsrequirecommandoveraratherfiniteamountofwords–notexceedingaround2,800words
Focusshouldbeonhigh‐frequency,commonwords Theamountofvocabularyrequiredofproficientspeakersmovingfromwhatwould
beanintermediatetoanadvancedlevel(seeabovep.24)risesexponentially!Regardingtheamountofvocabularythatshouldbeincludedincurriculuminordertoprovidecompetenceinalanguage,aschoolprogramthatisofferedattheGrades5‐12levelwouldneedtoprovidelearnerswithsome250vocabularyitemsperyearover8yearstobewithinthe95percentileforspokenlanguage.Itisalsoimportanttofocusonhighfrequencywordsinaconcreteandauthenticcontextofuse,whichwillgreatlyassistinthedevelopmentofgoodlisteningandspeakingskillsfromtheonset.Learnersdifferinhowquicklyandefficientlytheyareabletomemorizenewwordsandtransferthemfromshort‐termintolong‐termmemory.Asidefrommemorizingwordswiththehelpofflash‐cards,learnersneedtobeexposedtonewwordsindifferentsituationsandcontexts,throughdifferentmedia,andwithmuchrepetitioninordertoretaintheminlong‐termmemory.Hinton(2001)reportsthatanewvocabularyitemmustbeheardandpracticedapproximately20differenttimesineachof20differentsituations(foratotalof400times)beforealearnerwillmasterit.CreatingNewWordsForsometime,FirstNationslanguageteachers,speakersandlearnershaverealizedtheneedtocreateoradaptnewwordsinordertonamenewlyintroduceditemsthatareusedandtalkedaboutineverydaylife.Inthepast,speakersofalllanguagesdidthisbasedonwhatanobjectremindedthemof,wasusedfor,oritsshape,consistency,kindortype.Forexample,whentheyfirstexperiencedtelevision,Secwepemctsin(Shuswap)speakerscoinedthetermmelkwék’wye7tenforatelevisionset,derivedfromtherootmelk’w‐for“shadow,”towhichaninstrumentalsuffix–tenwasadded.Thiswasinthedaysofgrainy,oftenshadowyblack‐and‐whiteTVreceptioninthe1950sand60s.Sm’algyaxspeakerscoinedthetermxbiismgwiniitskfortelevision,whichliterallymeans“boxforlookingat.”AnotherwaytomakenewwordsistoborrowtheEnglishrootword,andthenmodifyitaccordingtotheword‐buildingprocessesoftheFirstNationslanguage.Itisusefultoteachstudentsaboutwordcreationandborrowing;notonlydoesitshowthatthelanguageisflexibleandinventive;italsoprovidesfascinatinginsightsintothewaypastandpresentspeakersperceive(d)introducedobjectsandconcepts(seeKell,2014forfurtherdiscussion).
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Astheyexpandandre‐awakentheiruseofthelanguage,languageteachers,fluentspeakersandlearnersareconstantlydevisingnewwords–insomecasesthroughtheirlanguageauthorities,inothercasesonthespotorthroughtheprocessofdevelopingcurriculum.InFirstNationslanguageclassrooms,childrenoftenaskthewordsforthingsthathavenotyetbeennamed.Manylanguageteachers,speakersandlearnershavethereforeexpressedtheneedformoreopportunitiestodevelop,discussandauthorizenewwords.2.2.2WhatisGrammarandHowIsItBestTaught?Itiswellknownthatmemorizingadictionarydoesnotmakeaproficientspeaker.Whenwespeakalanguage,wecombinewordsintolargerchunksofmeaning.Weusethetermgrammartodescribethewaysinwhichwords,withtheadditionofparticlewordsoraffixes,arecombinedtomakenewwordsorevencomplexstringsofmeaningthatamounttophrases,sentencesandlargernarratives.OneofthereasonsthatBritishColumbiaindigenouslanguagesaredifficulttolearnandtakemoretimetolearnisthefactthattheirgrammarisverydifferentfromEnglish,whatKell(2014)hasreferredtoaspolysyntheticlanguagestructures.7Forexample,inAthapaskanlanguages,aswellasTlingitandHaida,theverbofasentenceembedsnotonlytheactionitself,butincludeswithinitawealthofinformationthatincludeshowtheactioniscarriedout,whatistheshapeandkindoftheobjectactedupon,theduration,statusofcompletionandtimeoftheaction,andthemodalityandstatusofevidenceaboutwhathappened(real,inferredorhear‐say,always,neverorfromtimetotime,realorpotential,etc.).Someonewholearnsanylanguageasachildintuitivelylearnsitsgrammarwithoutbeingabletodescribehowsentenceswork.Asfluentspeakers,theyproducesentencesthatare“correct”oracceptabletoothers,andtheyarealsoabletointuitivelytellwhetherutterancesproducedbyothersareacceptableorgrammatical.8
7Linguistsdefinepolysyntheticlanguagesaslanguagesinwhichwordsarecomposedofmanymorphemes(wordsorwordpartsthatcanstandindependentlyorneedtobeattachedtootherparticlewords),sothatwhatisawholesentenceinEnglishisrepresentedbyalongword,oftenfocusedaroundaverb,whichincorporatesandencodesreferencestosubject,object,qualities,duration,modeofaction,time,etc.Whiletheterm“polysynthetic”isusefultoaddresstheverydifferentwayinwhichideasconceptsareexpressedinindigenouslanguagesthataredifferentfromEnglishorotherIndo‐Europeanlanguages,itisimportanttokeepinmindthatthemanyindigenouslanguagesfoundinBCbehaveverydifferentlyfromoneanotherinexpressingsuchideasandconcepts,andnotallareequallypolysynthetic.8Linguistswhostudythegrammarofalanguagespecializeindeterminingthe“rules”thatunderlietheproductionofgrammaticalsentences.MostFirstNationslanguagesinBChavegrammarsproducedbylinguists,whichlayouttherulesforthegrammaticalconstructionofwordsandsentences.Linguisticgrammarstendtobeverytechnical,eventheoretical,andareinmostcasesverydifficultforthelaypersonornon‐linguisttodecipher;inotherwords,theyareeverythingbut
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Intermsofteachinggrammar,intheearlierdecadesofthetwentiethcenturygrammarwastaughtasanobjectinitself,withafocusongrammarrulesandlearnersproducingaccuratespeechatthesentencelevel.Later,theemphasisswitchedtocommunicativecompetenceandstrictgrammarteachingbecamechastised.Inrecentyears,however,languageteachershaveacknowledgedthatacommunicativeapproachalonedoesnotensuregrammaticallyaccuratespeech,andthatinstillingsomeconsciousawarenessofgrammarisuseful,oftenreferredtoasfocusonform.Infact,asHale(2001andHinton(2001)pointedout,awarenessofgrammarisespeciallyusefulforteachers,asitwillguidetheminleadinglearnerstocorrectspeech.MembersoftheIndigenousLanguagesInstituteintheUnitedStatesdeclared:“Wecannotteachlanguagesimplybecausewearespeakersofthatlanguage.Wemustknowwhatourlanguageislike–itsstructureandfunctionineverydayexistence”(citedinWatahomigieandYamamoto,1992).WilliamO’Grady,alinguistandlanguageacquisitionspecialistfromtheUniversityofHawai’iatManoawroteaninsightfulpaperonthistopic.Hisimportantpointwasthatlearnersofcriticallyendangered[Indigenous]languagesneedtobeledtoproduceaccuratespeechsimilartowhatthegenerationsbeforethemproduced,lestthelanguagetheyhavelearnedundergotremendousattritionandlossasaresultofsecondlearners’reducedproficiency(O’Grady2013).Therealpointliesinhowgrammarpracticeiscarriedout.Tomakeitmeaningfulandusefulforlearners,itshouldnotinvolvelearningrules,butinsteadshouldinvolveinteractivegamesandvariedactivitiesinoralandwrittenform.Forexample,inafewinstanceslinguistshaveworkedwithfluentspeakersandlanguageteacherstoproducepedagogicalorteachinggrammarsofFirstNationslanguages.OneexampleisVisibleGrammar:Ts’msyenSm’algyaxGrammarResources–TwentyUser‐FriendlyModulesonKeyTs’msyenSm’algyaxStructurescreatedbyM.AndersonandM.Ignace,incooperationwithmanyfluentspeakersofSm’algyax(2008).Thatresourcecolour‐codesSm’algyaxsentencepartsandallowsthelearnertoliterally“build”Sm’algyaxsentencesbyassemblingtime‐words,verbs,subjects,objects,andtheiridentifyingconnectivesinthecorrectorder.Learnerscanalsodothiswithmagnetstripsofmanyexamplewordsandgrammarparticles,whichtheycanassembleintocorrectsentences.Understandingandusinggrammarcanbeinductive,inthatstudentscanbeledtoself‐discoverthemeaningsbehindforms(particlewords,endings)astheyheartheminavarietyofcontexts.Inductiveteachingofgrammarshouldinvolvethefollowing.1. Presentation:theteacherleadsstudentstoperceiveastructure(likeapronoun
“user‐friendly”andindeedareoftenfrustratingforlearners.
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ending)informandmeaning.Thiscanbedonebyemphasizingitaloneandbystayinginthelanguage.Studentscanbepresentedwithasetofsentences(likeashortstory,toldinthe“I‐form”)wherethe“I‐form”(firstpersonsingular)isemphasizedandstressedbytheteachereachtimeitoccurs.Intheelementaryclassroom,theteacher’spresentationofgrammarstructuresandtheirmeaningcanbeflaggedas“focus‐on‐form”teachingandlearningactivities(seesection4.5.1formoredetails).
2. Isolationandexplanation:mostteacherszeroinongrammaticalforminEnglishby
wayofanexplanation.However,itispossibletodothiswhilestayinginthelanguagebywayofaskingyes/nooreither/orquestionsaboutwhichendingneedstobeadded.IntheAIMmethod(seesection2.5.4formoreinformation)languagestudentsarepresentedwithbasicgrammarrulesthroughjazz‐chants!
3. Practice:exercisesdoneintheclassroomandasfurtherhomeworkpracticehelp
learnerstofullyabsorbthestructureandtotransferitsusefromshort‐termtolong‐termmemory.Practiceshouldincludeoralandwrittenexercises,whole‐class,groupandindividualwork,games,TotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)andTotalPhysicalResponseStorytelling(TPR‐S)activities(describedfurtherinPart4),and,ifthewrittenlanguageistaught,itcaninvolveworkandpractice‐sheets.9
HowdoweidentifywhatgrammarstructuresexistforFirstNationslanguages?Onewayisbystudying(andmaking“user‐friendly”)theexistinglinguisticgrammaroftheFirstNationslanguage,includingidentifyingitstopics.Anotherwayistoconsiderasetofgrammaticalfunctionsthatthelearnerofanylanguageneedstobeabletounderstand(andread)anduseinspeaking(andwriting).Thefollowingaresomeuniversalgrammartopics(althoughnotaninclusivelist)thatareexpressedinavarietyofformsindifferentFirstNationslanguages. Simplesentencesthatdescribethecharacteristics,stateofbeing,qualityofapersonor
athing(thecatisbig;mygrandmotheristired;etc.).NotethatthesecanfunctioninverydifferentwaysthaninEnglish.
Yes‐noquestions(Isthehouseblue?Isyourgrandmotherwell?). Informationquestionsor“wh”questions(Who?Where?What?When?). PronounsthatexpressI,you,he/she,we,youfolks,theyasthe“doer”orsubjectofa
sentence(notethatthesemaybeorganizeddifferentlythaninEnglish). Sentenceswitha“doer”(subjectoragent)andapersonwhoreceivestheaction(object
9ExamplesofinteractiveGrammarTeachingresourcesincludeSchessler,Eric,EnglishGrammarThroughActions(1997);Schessler,Eric,(n.d.)HowtoTeachGrammarUsingTPR Ur,GrammarPracticeActivities;TheGrammarPracticeBookfromtheOxfordLanguageLearningSeries.
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orpatient). Pronounsthatexpressobjects(tome,toyou,tohimorher,tous,toyoufolks,tothem). Reflexivepronouns(doingsomethingtooneself). Negation(sentenceswithNOT). Modals(can,might,should,alwaysdoes,usedtodo).Thesemightbeparticlewords
insideverbsoraddedtoverbs. Demonstratives(this,that,thatwayoverthere,etc.). Adverbsoftime,tenseandaspect.(Istheactiondescribedinasentencetakingplace
now,isitcompleted,diditstartatsomepointinthepastandisitstillongoing,isitexpectedtohappeninthefuture?)
Therelativelocationofthingsandpeople. Singulars,pluralsofnounsandactions. Wordorderindifferentkindsofsentences. Complexsentences.(If….then;when….then,firstxhappens/happened,theny).Inorganizinggrammartopics,especiallyforthebeginninglearner,Michel(2009)sharesanimportantwordofcaution,basedonmanyyearsofteachingprimaryandelementarylevelchildreninanimmersionprogram:
…Ageneralruletokeepinmindisthattheprocessofteachingandacquiringanynewpronounform,tense,orgrammaticalstructuretakesuptoonemonthandsometimeslonger.Duringthepilotstagesofthecurriculum,teachersshouldmakecarefulnotesonwhethertheformisreadilyunderstoodoracquiredbytheirstudents.Giveampletimetoteachandpracticeeachformbeforeintroducinganynewones.Often,youwillfindthattheintroductionofcertainlanguageskillsareoutofsequencewithwhatstudentsarereadytolearn.Itisimportanttonotethatlanguagelearningcannotbeforcednorspedup.Itismucheasier(andlessstressful)forallinvolvedtojustdelaythatteachingforanotherunit,oreven,toalatergrade.Onefeatureofsecondlanguageacquisitiontokeepinmindis,themoreaskillparallelsthestudent'sfirstlanguage,thegreaterchancetheywillacquireit.Theoppositeisalsotrue,so,regardlessofhowimportantorintegraltheskillistothelanguage,resistintroducingcomplexandconfusingstructuresuntilyouknowthestudentshaveenoughcompetencytocomprehendit,oreventonoticeit.
ForSecwepemctsin,Sm’algyaxandUpperSt’at’imcets,curriculumdevelopmentteamshavedevelopedCommunicativeandGrammaticalScopeandSequencecharts(seeAppendix1foranexample).Thesechartsmapoutandlistthegrammaticaltopicsthatmatterforthe
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specificlanguageaccordingtoseveralsub‐topicsorareas.Withinacommunicativelearningframeworkthatdoesnotaimtoteachgrammarasanobject,itispossibletomatchupatwhatgradelevelconceptsareinitiallyusedbytheteacher,withoutexpectationthatlearnerswillbeawareoforbeabletousethemwithaccuracy.Atsubsequentgradelevels,suchconceptsarethenintroduced,practiced,andideallymastered.AsKell(2014)hassuggested,communicativeandgrammaticalscopeandsequencechartscanalsoperformdoubledutybybeingadaptedasrubricsforemergentgrammaticalcompetenceinlearners.2.2.3Phonology–CorrectAccentandPronunciationIngeneral,mostsecond‐languagelearnerswhobeginlearningatayoungagedonotrequirespecificexplanationandscaffoldingtohelpthemwithgoodpronunciation,accentandsentencemelody.Aslongastheyreceiveanadequateamountofexposuretothelanguagefromateacherwhohasaccuratespeech,alongwithampleopportunitiesforspeakingthelanguage,theywillintuitivelydevelopgoodpronunciation.However,especiallyadultlearnersmaybenefitfrompracticethattargetsthesoundsystemofthelanguage,focusinginparticularondifficulttoproducesoundsthatareunlikeEnglish.Thesecouldincludesounddiscriminationexercises,wherethelearnerhastoidentifyandproducethecorrectsoundinasetofwordsthathavesoundsthataredifficulttodistinguishforearsattunedtotheEnglishlanguage.Forexample,XaadKilorHaidahasaseriesofconsonantsdifficulttodistinguishforlearners:Thewordk’aad(witha“pinched”or“glottalized”kmeansdeer,whereasthewordk’aad,withapinchedorglottalizedthroat‐ksoundmeansdog‐fish.Anothergoodwaytopracticedifficulttopronounceanddifficulttodistinguishsoundsisthroughtonguetwisters,chantsetc.Manylanguageteachersfindthatsongswithrepetitiouslyricshelplearnerspickupdifficultsounds.2.2.4TheCultureintheLanguageAfurtheraspectofgainingcompetenceinaFirstNationslanguageinvolvesmindingculturalprotocolsinone’sspeech,andrespectfullyinteractingwithotherspeakersaccordingtothewayspeoplemutuallyreinforceandsupportoneanother’sstatementsandstories.Fluentspeakersoftencommentontheimportanceofnot“thinkinginEnglish”butfromwithinthecategoriesofspeechandculturalprotocolsofspeechoftheindigenouslanguage.CulturallyinappropriateorinaccuratespeechmostoftenoccurswhenlearnersapproachwhattheywanttosayfromEnglishandthentrytotranslateitintotheFirstNationslanguage.Amuchmoreauthenticandfeasible(butharder!)wayistoapproachcontentfromwithinthechoicesofwords,grammar,protocolsofspeechandculturalwaysofperceivingandorganizingtheworldthatareembeddedinthelanguage..Itisimportanttopointoutthataslanguagesbecomecriticallyendangered,someofthespeakerswhoareleftmayhavespecificknowledgeofsomespecializeddomainsand
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registers(e.g.hunting,fishing,ceremony,placenames,storytelling,oratory),butnotofothers.SomeindividualsalsomayhavereceivedsomewhatlimitedexposureandsocializationintheFirstNationlanguage,resultinginagoodgraspofbasicbutnotallcomplexstructures.Thesedifferencesareconnectedtothelifeexperiencesofindividuals,theamountofcommunicativeexposuretothelanguagetheyhadaschildren,andtheparticularteachingsorlanguagesocializationtheyreceivedfromtheirownElders.2.2.5HowManyHoursorYearsDoesItTake?Variousfactorsdeterminehowquicklyfluencylevelsarereached.Inaddition,“ifsecondlanguageacquisitionbeginsattheageof5itfollowsadifferentpatternthanwhensecondlanguageacquisitionbeginsatage25oratage15”(Archibaldetal.,2006).Thisisnottosaythatlanguagelearningcanonlybesuccessfulifsomeonestartsataveryyoungage:itjustmeansthatthepath,methods,milestonesandoutcomeswillbedifferent.Infact,whilesomeresearchersarguethatthereisa“criticalperiod”betweenearlychildhoodandaround15yearsofage–anoptimalperiodnotonlyfortheacquisitionofafirstlanguage,butalsofortheacquisitionofasecondlanguage,otherresearchhasshownthatolderyouthandadultscanstillgainverygoodfluencyiftheybeginlearninglaterinlife(althoughthemostdifficultthingtoacquireisanear‐nativepronunciationoraccent).RegardingtheamountoftimeittakestolearnaFirstNationslanguage,Hinton(1994)notesthatoneneedsabout500hoursofregularandwell‐structuredinstructiontoreachbasicproficiency.ReferringtoteachingtheArapaholanguage,Greymorning(1997)estimatesthat600‐700hours,withasmuchas6hoursadayofinstruction,isneededtoproduceproficiency.However,indescribingherownandheryoungadultcolleagues’pathtomid‐intermediatelevelproficiencyinNsilxcen(Okanagan),Johnson(2013,2014)estimatesthatittakesatleast1,000guidedteachinghourstoreachthatlevelofproficiencyinNsilxcen.TheU.S.ForeignServiceInstituteandtheAssociationofLanguageTestersofEurope(ALTE)haveprovidedestimatesregardingthenumberof“guidedteachinghours”requiredtoreachnotonlybeginnerandmid‐intermediatelevelproficiency,buttoreachadvancedlevelproficiency.Theirestimatesarebasedontheexperiencethatsomelanguagesareeasiertolearnthanothers,withproficiencyinthemoredifficultlanguagesrequiringfarmoretime.FSIandALTE’sestimatesdistinguishbetweenfourtofivecategoriesofdifficultyforEnglishspeakersamongwidelyspokenworldlanguages:Thus,languageslikeItalian,SpanishandDutchinCategory1,andlanguageslikeArabic,Mandarin,JapaneseandKoreaninthemostdifficultcategory(IV)which,accordingtothesescales,requires1,000to1,200hourstohighintermediateproficiency,and2,400to2,760hourstohighadvanced
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proficiency!10Amonglearnersandlinguistsalike,FirstNationslanguagesarecommonlyperceivedtofallwithinthatmostdifficultcategory,Thischallengeisfurtherexacerbatedbyfactorssuchasrelativelyfewerlearningresources,limitedlanguageteachertraining,andthelimitedabilityto“soakoneself”inthelanguagebybeingsurroundedbyradio,TV,socialnetworks,andspeakerswhoarewillingandabletoremaininthelanguage.Otherfactorsthataffectthespeedofattaininglanguageproficiencyaredescribedbelow. Personalability/aptitudecharacteristics,suchastheabilitytofocusorprior
experienceinlanguagelearning,canbeimportant(althoughasdescribedabove,researchshowsthatsecondlanguagelearningisitselfbeneficialforcognitivedevelopment,problemsolving,mentalflexibility,attentioncontrol,etc.).Studentswithlearningdisabilitiesandbehaviouraldisabilitiesmayhaveahardertimelearningasecondlanguage.
Learnermotivationandattitudescanbepositiveinfluences.Forexamplethedesiretoconnecttoone’sculture,knowledgeandworldviewcaninspirelearning,andamonganincreasingnumberoflearnersandFirstNationslanguageactivists,thedeterminationandresolvetoprovidealifelinetolanguagesurvivalisasignificantmotivationalfactorandcatalyst.However,attitudescanalsomakelanguagelearningdifficult.Forexample,thelingeringtraumaresultingfromResidentialSchoolscontinuestorepresentseriouschallengesformanyindividualsacrossgenerations.
Lowanxietylevelsarecrucial,andremovingthreat(indifferingforms)fromtheclassroomwillkeepstudentsopentocognitivegrowth(Gaffney1999).
Teacherswhoareproficientenoughtousethelanguageforallcommunicationintheclassroombetterpromotefluency(asopposedtoteacherswhouseEnglishforinstructionwhileteachingisolatedwordsintheFirstNationslanguage).Also,teacherswhoarewellversedineffectivelanguagelearningmethodsarecrucial.
Effectivecurriculumandcurricularresourcesthatallowforincrementalandsequentiallearningofalanguage,supportedbyavarietyoflearningresources,arebeneficial.
Moderntechnology(digitalmedia,audio‐files,languageapps,smart‐boards)canplayapositivesupportingrole.
ThetimerequirementsassociatedwithdifficultlanguageshaveimportantimplicationsforK‐12FirstNationslanguageeducation.IfthegoalofFirstNationslanguageprogramsisproficiencybuildingthat,atleastforsomestudents,willleadtoconversationalcompetenceandtherevitalizeduseofthelanguage,itisimportanttoprovideenoughtimeforlearning.Overall,manylanguageeducatorsobjecttothelackoftimeprovidedinschoolstoenable
10Section4.1belowprovidesmoreinformationaboutproficiencylevelsinthecontextoflearnerassessmentandlanguagelearningbenchmarks.
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oralproficiencydevelopment.Infact,thenewdraftcurriculumforCoreFrench(Grades5‐12)doesnotevensetadvancedproficiencyasatarget;instead,ittargetsthedevelopmentofintermediateor“independentuser”proficiency,whichcanbereachedforalanguagelikeFrenchin560‐650hours.ForaFirstNationslanguage,some1,000hourswouldberequiredtoreach“independentuser”proficiency.ThisnumberofhoursisnotreflectedintheBCSecondLanguagesPolicy,norinthemajorityofK‐12FirstNationslanguageprograms–exceptforimmersionprogramsofferedbyafewFirstNations‐operatedschools.BelowaresomecalculationsforthenumberofguidedlearninghoursthatcurrentlyexistinFirstNationlanguageprogramsofvariouskindsthroughoutBC.Grades5‐12languagelearningsupportedbyBCLanguagePolicy(basedon90‐120minutesofinstructionperweekGrades5‐12):BCGrades5‐12 456‐608hours OtherExamples:SchoolDistrict52GradesK‐12Sm’algyax11Kindergarten 58‐97hours(varieswithschool)Grades1‐4(total) 156hoursGrade5 59hoursGrades6,7,8(total) 312hoursGrades9‐12(total) 500hoursTotal: ca.1,084‐1,123hoursBellaBellaCommunitySchool12GradesK‐12 ca.1,521hrs@3hrs/week(someofthisincludessinging,drumming,artetc.taughtpartiallyinEnglish)ChiefAtahmSchool(SecwepemclanguageImmersionSchoolGradesK‐9)13GradesK‐3:fullimmersion 3,600hrs.Grades4‐9:2hrs/week) 456hrs.Total: 4,000+Generally,mostschoolprogramsdonotprovideenoughhoursforlowindependentuser(earlyintermediate)languageproficiency,althoughasreportedbylanguageteachers,someindividualstudentscanreachsuchagoaldependingontheamountofpracticeandexposuretheyareprovided,andtheirpersonalmotivationandinterestlevel.AnOptionforMoreGuidedTeachingHours–Hinton’s“HouraDay”inPracticeIntermsoftheireffectivenessinenablingchildrentobecomeproficientthroughtheguidedteachinghourstheyprovide,immersionprogramsarebyfarthebestoption(seeSection
11InformationprovidedbySchoolDistrict52AboriginalEducationServicesSm’algyaxCommittee.12InformationprovidedbyMs.BrendaHumchitt,BellaBellaCommunitySchool.13InformationprovidedbyDr.KathrynMichel,ChiefAtahmSchool.
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2.3.2below).Yetgiventheinitiativeandhumanresourcesrequiredforimmersionprograms,theyarerarelybeingimplementedinBC.Fortunately,Hinton’s(1004)recommended“houraday”practicefortheK‐12yearsasameanstoachievingcompetencemaybeanoptionwithintheexistingpoliciesandpracticesoftheBCpubliceducationsystem.Byruleofthumb,inelementaryschooling,schooldistrictsallow20percentofthecurriculumtobedesignatedaslocalcurriculum–translatingintoaboutoneof5hoursperday.Hereishowthiscouldwork…K–Grade7–1hour/dayx175days approx.1,520hoursGrades8‐12@125hrs/year approx.625hours Total: approx.2,145hoursK–Grade7–45minutes/day approx.1,050hoursGrades8‐12@95hrs/year approx.475hoursTotal: approx.1,525hoursInthissection,wehavediscussedthecomponentsoflanguageteachingandlearningthatneedtobeaddressedinthelanguageclassroomtoproduceproficiencyamonglearners.Nexttointroducingagoodamountofvocabulary,modelingandinstillingaccuratepronunciationandembeddingwhatislearnedinculturalconnections,acrucialareais“user‐friendly”andcommunicativegrammarlearning,whichinturnrequiresadequateteachingmethodsandresources.Beyondthat,itisofutmostimportancethatinordertoleadtoresults,i.e.learnerproficiency,FirstNationslanguageprogramsmustallocatetheamountoftimelearnersneedtoreachproficiency.
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2.3TypesofLanguageProgramsandtheLanguageEducationTheyProvideInCanada,varioustypesofschoolprogramsthatofferinstructioninaFirstNationslanguagehavebeenimplementedforsometime,andatleastoneadditionaltypeofprogramcurrentlyofferedforFrenchinsomeschooldistrictsmayhavepotentialforFirstNationslanguages.Thoseprogramsarebrieflydescribedbelow,includingaconsiderationoftheamountofguidedteachinghourstheyoffer.2.3.1SecondLanguageorAdditionalLanguageProgramsInsecondlanguageprograms,thelanguageistaughtasoneamongasetofsubjectcourses(alongwithmath,science,etc.).FirstNationssecondlanguagecoursesareoftenbasedonthematicunitsconnectedtotraditionalseasonalroundsandsubsistenceactivities.Mostsecondlanguageprogramsofferedattheprimary/elementarylevelfocusonorallanguageasopposedtoliteracyskills(readingandwriting).Atthehighergrades,theyusuallyincludeliteracyandvariouskindsofpractice(grammar,pronunciation,vocabularybuilding)aimedatinstillingoralcommunication.Insomeinstances,theprogramsincludecross‐curricularconnectionstoothersubjects;forexample,ifthesocialsunitexplorestraditionaltravelbycanoe,vocabularyandactionsofcanoebuildingandtravelmaybethetopicofthelanguageunit.(FirstNationssecondlanguageprogramsthatteachcontentinthelanguage(e.g.mathproblems,scienceobservations,culturalactivities,physicalactivities,art,crafts,songanddrumming)withadequatetimeallocationcanbeconsideredonacontinuumwithpartialimmersion(seebelow)).FirstNationssecondlanguageprogramsexistinvariousformsinBC.SomeexistatthefullK‐12graderange;othersexistonlyattheelementaryorsecondarylevels.WhiletheseprogramsexisttosomedegreeinmostFirstNationschools,notallschooldistrictsinBCofferFirstNationslanguageprograms,andthosethatdohavewidelyvaryingtimeallocations.Insomesettingstheyarewellsupportedbycurriculum;inothersettingstheyarenot(yet).Intermsofthenumberofguidedteachinghourstheyarecurrentlyabletooffer,secondlanguageprogramsfallwellshortofthenumberofhoursrequiredtocreateanewgenerationofproficientspeakersorevenintermediatelevelspeakers.Thisshortageintimeallocationdoesnotdenythefactthatmanywelltrainedandcompetentlanguageteachersworktirelesslyinsecondlanguageprogramstohelpchildrenandyouthlearntheirancestrallanguage,butitdoeshighlighttheenormouschallengestheyface.
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2.3.2FirstNationsLanguageImmersionPrograms.Theterm“immersion”isoftenusedtorefertolanguageprogramsinwhichtheteacherandlearnersattemptto“stay”inthelanguage,ratherthanusingEnglishtoteachFirstNationslanguagewordsandphrases.Inotherwords,inimmersioneducation,alsocalledContent‐BasedLanguageTeaching(CBLT),allsubjectmatter(literacy,numeracyandmath,socials,science,physicaleducation,etc.)istaughtthroughandinthe“targetlanguage.”FrenchimmersionprogramshavebeeninexistencethroughoutCanadasincethe1970sandaresupportedbyCanada’s“officialbilingualism”policy,discussedearlier.TheacademicbenefitsofFrenchimmersionandearlybilingualismhavebeenwellstudied(Genesee,1987).ForFrenchimmersion,early(K)andlate(Grade5/6)entrymodelsexist,withearlyentrythemostcommoninBC.Earlyimmersionfollowsanaturalpathoflanguageacquisitionthatmirrorsthepathoffirst‐languageacquisition.EarlyimmersionFrenchtypicallystartswith100%instructionofprimarycurriculuminFrench,andreducesFrenchlanguage‐basedinstructionto50percentbythemiddleschoolyearsandsome30percentbyseniorsecondary.Basedonresearch,today’simmersionprogramsusuallyincludefocus‐on‐formpracticethatmodelsandreinforcescorrectspeech.ComparedtostudentswholearnFrenchasasecondlanguageorasaschoolsubjectforseveralyears,Frenchimmersionstudentsdevelopmuchhigherlanguagecommunicationskills.Frenchimmersionprogramsresultinadvanced“functionalproficiency”bytheendofhighschool,withlisteningandreadingabilitiesbeingnative‐speaker‐like(aheadofspeakingandwritingability,whichinmoststudentswillnotbenative‐speaker‐like).Numerousstudieshavealsoshownthatimmersioneducationdoesnot“holdback”studentsintheiracademicdevelopment.Infact,Frenchimmersionstudents’performancemeetsorevenexceedstheperformanceofEnglish‐onlystudentsinmathandsciences.Initially,immersionstudentsmaylagbehindnon‐immersionstudentsintheirEnglishliteracyskills,buttheycatchupwithinabouttwoyears.Studentswhodevelopliteracyandnumeracyskillsthroughlanguageimmersiongenerallytransfertheseskills,andimmersionstudentshavebeenshowntobenefitfromthecognitiveadvantagesofbilingualism(describedabove).SeveralFirstNationslanguageimmersionprogramshavebeeninspiredbyMaoriandHawaiianmovements,whichfolloweduponearlychildhood“languagenests”bycontinuingtheimmersionexperienceintotheK‐12schoolsystem.AboriginallanguageimmersioninCanadawaspioneeredbytheMohawkinKahnawake,andimmersion
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programsnowexistforAnishinabe,Cree,Peigan,Mi’kmaq,Oneida,Inuktitut,Innuttitut,andsomeotherlanguages.14InBC,asmallnumberofimmersionprogramsalsoexist. Ts’elcéwtqenClleq’mél’ten(ChiefAtahmSchool):TheSecwepemctsin(Shuswap
language)immersionprogramatChiefAtahmSchoolnearChase,BCgrewoutofalanguagenestandhasofferedimmersioneducationsincetheearly1990s.ItcurrentlyoperatesasafullimmersionprogramattheK‐3levels,followedbybilingualeducationattheGrades4‐9levelsthatincludes2hours/weekofSecwepemctsininstruction.
Clao7alhcwImmersionProgramatXit’olacwCommunitySchool,MountCurrie(Lil’wat)isacohort‐basedprimary/elementaryimmersionclasswithinthelargerschool.TheschooloffersasecondlanguageprogramintheremainderofitsK‐12school,whichisattendedbysome250students.
WSANECSchoolBoardoffersaSENCOŦENlanguageimmersionprogramatthePreschool/KLevelatLENONETSCUL,AUTWSurvivalSchool.
NkmaplqsISnmamayatnklSqilxwtetisanOkanaganlanguage(N’syilxcen)immersionprogramoperatedbytheHead‐of‐the‐LakeBand,whichwascreatedin2006(Cohen2010;Michel2012).
NoFirstNationslanguageimmersionprogramscurrentlyexistinBCpublicschools.Overall,despitetheiradvantages,developingimmersionprogramsrequiresrisk‐taking,conviction,passion,hardworkandhighenergyamongteachers,familiesandcommunities,oratleastgroupsoffamilieswithincommunities.Inaddition,theyrequirefluentadultswhoarealsotrainedandexperiencedclassroomteachers,althoughprogramslikeChiefAtahmSchoolhavesuccessfullymetthischallengethroughteamteachingbyfluentEldersandlanguageapprenticeswhoaretrainedasteachers.2.3.3PartialImmersionorBilingualPrograms“Partialimmersion”programsusuallyteachabout50percentofthesubjectmatterinthetargetlanguage,althoughinsomesettingsitmaybeless.ItisunclearwhatnumberofFirstNationspartiallanguageimmersionprogramsexistinBC.Itappearsthatfewprogramsoffer50percentor2.5hoursofdailyFirstNationslanguageinstruction,althoughprogramsthatoffer45minutesto1.5hoursperday,witha
14GoodsourcesonAboriginallanguageschoolimmersionprogramsincludeMorcom,Lindsay,(n.c.);Kipp,Darrell(2009),McIvor,Onowa(2005),Michel,Kathryn(2004).TheCARLA‐CenterforAdvancedResearchonLanguageAcquisition(UniversityofMinnesota)–websitealsoprovidesadetailedlistofsourcesonIndigenousimmersionprograms:www.carla.umn.edu/immersion/bibs/results
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combinationoflanguage‐andcontent‐focusedinstruction,doexist.TahayghenElementarySchoolinMassetBC,forexample,beganin2011/2012withanall‐dayKclassthatincludedXaadKil(Haidalanguage)instructiontwoafternoonseachweek.2.3.4IntensiveFrenchAnotheroptionhasbeendevelopedasanalternativetoFrenchimmersion,andisnowofferedinmostprovinces,includingBC.ThismodeldoesnotcurrentlyexistforanyFirstNationslanguage,butitmightprovideinspirationforaFirstNationsintensivelanguageprogramthatisacompromisebetweenfullimmersionandasecondlanguageprogram.IntensiveFrenchisusuallyofferedattheGrade6level.Inthefirsthalfoftheyear,80percentofclasstimeistaughtinFrench,with20percent(mathwithoutreductionandEnglishreducedbyhalf)taughtinEnglish.Duringthefirsthalfoftheyear,studentsreceivehigh‐intensity,concentratedexposuretoandinstructioninFrench,whichquicklybuildscompetence.Curricularcontent(geography,history,health,etc.)isthenintegratedasstudents’languageskillsimprove.Languageinstructionishighlyinteractiveandcommunication‐based,whilealsoincludingreadingandwritingandproblem‐solvinggroupworkinthelanguage.DuringthesecondhalfoftheGrade6year,studentsreceive20percentofinstructioninFrenchand80percentinEnglish.IntheFrench‐intensivefirsthalfoftheyear,thecurriculumisstrippedofallbutbarebones;inthesecond,English‐intensivehalfoftheyear,theregularGrade6curriculumis“compacted”tomeetlearningoutcomesfortheyear.TheprogramcontinueswithstrongFrenchinstructioninthefollowingyears(usuallyonehourperday),called“enhancedFrench.”AssessmentsofstudentswhohavecompletedintensiveFrenchhaveshownthat,followingtheGrade6year,studentshadoralcompetencecomparabletocoreFrenchGrade9,10oreven11students,andtheyhadwrittencommunicationskillssimilartoGrade3‐4Francophonestudents.TheirFrenchlanguageskillsatthesecondaryschoollevelweresimilartothelanguageskillsofFrenchimmersionstudents.Datahasindicatedthatthe“compacting”ofcorecurriculumhashadnolong‐termimpactsonoverallstudentachievementlevels.ProvidingthatintensiveFrenchstudentsreceive“enhanced”FrenchinGrades7‐12,bythetimetheygraduatefromsecondaryschool,theirFrenchskillsareonparwithFrenchimmersiongraduates.Intensivelanguageprogrammingis,inprinciple,enabledbytheBCMinistryofEducation’slanguageeducationpolicy.Supportedbyafluentspeaker(orthroughateam‐teachingapproach)andwithcurricularresourcesfocusedonfast‐pacedintensiveteaching,itcouldoffercohortgrade5or6levelprogramsforparticularFirstNationslanguagesthataresupportedbyfluentandwelltrainedteachers,motivatedlearners,familiesandElders.Ifproperlyresourced(instruction,curriculum,andhumanresources)itcouldleadto
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advancedlevelproficiencythatwouldbecomparabletotheresultsofafullimmersionprogram.
2.4LanguageTeachingMethodsinK–12BelowisalistingofteachingmethodsembracedbylanguageteachersinBCandteachersofIndigenouslanguagesworldwide.ThesemethodsareconsistentwithbestpracticesandmeaningfulFirstNationslanguageteachingactivities.2.4.1The“BerlitzMethod”(Interactivequestion/answer)Attheheartofthisapproacharetwoprinciples. Onlythetargetlanguageisusedintheclassroom,withtheteacherleavingEnglish
outsideandcarryingoutallteaching,studentprompts,andcommunicationswithstudentsinthelanguage.
Theuseofquestion‐and‐answerexchangesbetweenteachersandstudentsisattheheartoftheBerlitzMethod.Throughquestioningtechniques,learnersinteractwiththeteacherandeachotherusingthelanguage,andthusenhancetheircommunicativeabilities.Question/answersetsareorganizedaroundasetoftechniquesandprinciples.
TheexamplesbelowareadaptedfromBerlitz(2000).Technique1:Demonstration
SalientFeature:Askaquestionwhileactingoutorpointingatanobjectorpicture. LinguisticFocus:Adjectives(comparison),adverbs,verbtenses,WHquestions,
straightforwardvocabularyitems,pronouns,passivevoice
Example:Teacher: (holdingupapictureofasalmon)‐isthisasalmon?Student: yes.Teacher: Yes,it’sasalmon.Teacher: (actingoutwritingontheblackboard)AmIwritingontheboard?Student: Yes,youare(writingontheboard).Technique#2:Elimination
SalientFeature:Asktwoormorequestionsuntilthestudentgivesthecorrectresponse.
LinguisticFocus:Adjectives(comparison),adverbs,verbtenses,WHquestions,straightforwardvocabularyitems,pronouns,passivevoice
Example:Teacheractsasthoughreadingabook.Teacher: AmIdrinkingjuice?Student: No,youarenot(drinkingjuice).Teacher: WhatamIdoing?
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Student: Youarereading(abook).Technique#3:Substitution
SalientFeature:Asktwoquestions,withthesecondquestionhavingthesamemeaningoranswerasthefirst.Affirmtheresponse.
LinguisticFocus:Adjectives(comparison),adverbs,verbtenses,WHquestions,straightforwardvocabularyitems,pronouns,passivevoice
Example:Teacher: Isthemanglad?Isthemanhappy?Student: Yes,heishappy.Teacher: Yes..Heisgladandheishappy.Technique#4:Contrast
SalientFeature:Askaquestionwhoseanswerisnotdepictedintheillustrationormime.
LinguisticFocus:Adjectives(comparison),adverbs,verbtenses,WHquestions,straightforwardvocabularyitems,pronouns,passivevoice
Example:Teacher: Isthemancooking?Student: No,heiseatingsalmon.(Thisrequiresuseofnegativephrases,whichcanbemuchmorecomplexinFirstNationslanguagesthanplaindeclarativesentences).Technique#5:Definition
SalientFeature:Providelead‐inquestionsgivingadditionalcluetothemeaningoranswerafterstudentshavelistenedtoadialogue,orlistenedtoashortstory.
LinguisticFocus:Adjectives(comparison),adverbs,verbtenses,WHquestions,straightforwardvocabularyitems,pronouns,passivevoice.
Example:Teacher: DidRichardcallSusanthismorning?Student: Yes,hecalled(Susanthismorning).Teacher: Didhetellherthathewouldvisithertonight?Student: Yes.(Hetoldherthathewouldvisithertonight).Teacher: Right.Hetoldherthathewouldvisitordropbyherhousetonight.Technique#6:Control
SalientFeature:Askquestionstocallonstudentstoreproducethesentencetheyhavejustbeenaskedtorepeat.
LinguisticFocus:Grammaticalstructurecoveredbytechniqueusedtointroducethenewlesson.
Example:Teacher: RichardcalledupSusanthismorning?Student: Yes.(HecalledupSusanthismorning).
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Teacher: Hewillvisithertonight?(Or:Hesaidhewouldvisithertonight?)Student: Yes.HecalledupSusanthismorningandsaidthathewouldvisithertonight.Technique#7:Question‐Answer
SalientFeature:Askquestionstopracticethelessonthathasbeenintroducedbywayofastoryordialogue.
LinguisticFocus:Yes/noquestions,orWh‐questions(Who?What?When?Where?)
Example:Teacher: IsMs.Taylorlookingforasuit?Student: Yes,sheis(lookingforasuit).Technique#8:QuestionfromStudent
SalientFeature:Askquestionstopracticethelessonthathasbeenintroduced. LinguisticFocus:Question‐answer‐questionpattern,answer‐questionpattern,indirect
questionpattern
Example:Teacher: Whatareyoudoing?Student: I'mlisteningtoyou.Teacher: WhatdidIask?Student: Whatareyoudoing?Suchexchanges(involvingcontentor“wh”,aswellasyes‐noquestions),andcontinuousreinforcementofvocabularyandgrammaticalformsthroughanswers,canbeintegralbuildingblocksofadditionallanguageteachingstrategies,includingthosediscussedbelow.2.4.2TotalPhysicalResponseTheTotalPhysicalResponse(TPR)approach,developedbyDr.JamesAsherandothers,isaright‐brainapproachtosecondlanguagelearning,whichusescommandsinthetargetlanguagecombinedwithphysicalactionstoinstilllisteningskillsinstudents.Itisbasedontheconceptthatlanguagelearningcanbegreatlyacceleratedthroughtheuseofbodymovement,anditfocusesonnurturinglisteningcomprehensionbeforethestudentsareexpectedtoproducespeech,readorwrite.TPRcommandsetstypicallyinvolve: Themodelingofcommandswithavolunteerstudentorteacher’shelper Commandstotheclass,smallgroups,orindividuals Thecreativecombinationofpreviouslylearnedcommandsandnewwordsintonovel
commandsTPRbyitselfhasthreeseriouslimitations.
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1. Itismainlyintheimperative(command)mode,generallyexcludingtherestofthelanguage'ssentenceforms.However,withtrainingandbyusingextensionsbeyondbasicmotioncommands–likeaskinglearnerstorespondtowhattheyjustdidandwhattheywilldo,aswellasconvertingcommandsintofirst‐person,third‐person,and“we”sentences–thelimitationofcommandformscanbeovercome.
2. Itisoftenfocusedonshortphrasesorsingle‐itemvocabularywords,although“TPRroutines”asstories(seebelow)canbeproductivefollowup.
3. Itmightmainlyproduceonlypassive(listening)languageskills,unlessspeakingisintroducedrelativelyearlyon(after10hours)intheprocess.
Overall,languagelearnedthroughTPRalonerarelydevelopsintomeaningfulcommunication.Inaddition,TPRteachersandstudentseventuallygettiredofexecutingcommandsandtendtorunintotheproverbial"TPRWall."However,TPRisaveryusefulteachingmethodforphysicalactionverbs(run,jump,turnaround,dance,etc.)andforcreatingnounvocabularybycombiningnounwordswithactions(suchastouch,pointto,give,take,etc.).ShortdailyTPRcommandsegmentsof5‐10minutesareintegratedintolessonsthroughoutGrade3Sm’algyax,derivedfromB.Segal‐Cook’s(1987)TeachingEnglishThroughAction.OtherveryusefulresourcesaretheTPR1and2booksdevelopedbyChiefAtahmSchool(seeChiefAtahmSchoolwebsite).2.4.3TotalPhysicalResponseStorytellingTPRStory‐telling(TPRS)buildsonboththefast‐pacedquestion/answersetsoftheBerlitzMethodandthephysicalactioncommandsofTPR.Itprovidesfast‐paced,comprehensibleinputthroughaseriesofstepsthatleadtolearnersbeingabletotellastorywiththehelpofvisuals,afterhavinglearnedandpracticedtheneededvocabulary.ThestepsofTPR‐Sareasfollows.1. Thepre‐teachingofsetsof3‐4vocabularyitemsatatimethroughTPRcommands,
emphasizinggesturesandkinestheticmovements,aswellastheuseandhandlingofvisuals(flashcards,pictures,photos,propsandmodelsofitems).
2. TheincorporationofthisvocabularyintoPersonalizedQuestion‐Answersets(PQA’s),throughwhichtheteacherincorporatesthenewandpreviouslylearnedvocabularyintoyes/noquestionsand“wh”questions.
3. ThecreationofPersonalizedMiniSituations(PMS),whichcombinethenewandpreviouslylearnedvocabularyintoveryshortnarrativesofafewsentences.
4. Therepetitionof1‐3untilallvocabularyofthestoryisinternalized.5. Thetellingofastorythatinvolvespreviouslypracticedvocabulary,withthehelpof
visuals(aseriesofpictures)andfirstmodeledbytheteacherandthentoldbylearners.
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BecauseTPR‐Sismulti‐sensory,involvingauditoryinput(teacher’scommands,questions,answers,narration),visualimages(pictures,props,models),gesturesandkinetics,itmeetstheneedsofvariouslearningstyles.2.4.4AIM–AccelerativeIntegratedMethodTheAccelerativeIntegratedMethod(AIM)isalsoausefulapproachforlanguageinstruction(www.aimlanguagelearning.com).KeyaspectsofAIMareasfollows.1. Theuseofaspeciallyselectedvocabularytoacceleratelanguageacquisition:simplified,
high‐frequencyvocabulary(PDL‐Pared‐downlanguage).2. Theuseofaninnovativegesturetechnique,wherenotonlynounwordsbutalso
adjectives,pronouns,andgrammaticalelementsaregestured.3. Creativeuseofthelanguageinplays,song,dramaandstory.4. Promotionofproductiveandcooperativelearningandtransferofthelanguageskills
acquiredduringstructuredwhole‐classactivitiesinordertopromotespontaneityandauthenticconversationsthroughcreativecollaborativework.
5. Aninductiveapproachtoteachinggrammar(notteaching“rules,”buthavingstudentsdiscoverregularitiesthroughgames,repetition,modeling,gesturing,emphasis).
6. Incorporationofemotionallanguageandrhythm.7. Incorporationof“pleasantrepetition.”8. Limitonclassroomactivitiestointensive10‐minutewholeclassactivities.2.4.5“WhereAreYourKeys?”TheWhereAreYourKeys?(WAYK)methodisagame‐basedapproachthatusesgesturesandsignlanguagetofacilitateimmediatecommunicationinthelanguage.Thegameisbasedonrepeatedquestionsandanswers(anapproachderivedfromtheBerlitzMethod),andalsointegratesconceptsfromTPRandTPR‐S.LikeAIM,WAYKusesgesturesas“scaffolding”tohelpthelearnerunderstandwhatthespeakeristellinghim,andthelearneralsousesgesturestohelpconveymeaning.Eachshortlessonisorganizedasalanguage“game”thatbeginswithobjectsandthenquicklymovesintoadjectives(forexamplecontrastingsize,colour,qualities).Fromthere,ownership(mine,yours,his/hers),wishingorwantingsomething,verbs,singularvs.plural–alloftheseareeasilyexpressedinobviousways.AsinAIM,eachwordhasanAmericanSignLanguagehandsign,soiflearnersneedhelpclarifyingthemeaningofawordorphrase,theyandtheteachercanusesignlanguageandgesturetoconveymeaninginsteadofswitchingtoEnglish.Sincetherearehandsignsfor“slowdownyourspeech”and“faster,”thelearnerhasgoodcontrolofthelearningsituationinthe“game.”WAYKpromptslearnerstorespondincompletesentencesfromthebeginning,ratherthanspendingthefirstsetoflessonsphysicallyrespondingtocomprehensibleinput,aswith
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TPR.Stimulatingstudents’useofthelanguageinsentencesfromtheonsetinturnstimulatescommunicativecompetence.Seealsowww.whereareyourkeys.org,andseveralvideosshowingFirstNationslanguagelearningusingWAYKcanbefoundonlineonYouTube(Squamish,Karok,Yurok).2.4.6OtherConceptualPedagogicalApproachesInadditiontothewell‐recognizedlanguageteachingmethodsoutlinedabove,other“bestpractice”pedagogicalapproachesincludethefollowing.• Teachingthroughactiveengagementoflearners–e.g.basedontheconceptof
ImaginativeEducationdevelopedbyKieranEgan(https://www.sfu.ca/~egan/).• “Discoverylearning”approaches,whichsupportexperientialorhands‐onlearningon
theland–inthiscaseinvolvingElderandknowledgekeeperteachings(e.g.drummaking,tanning,traditionalfoodgathering,experiencingtraditionalvillagesitesandstories).Thismodelmaymeandealingwithchallengesrelatedtothelogisticsofarrangingfield‐tripsandfittingland‐basedlearningintoregularscheduledschoolhours.FirstNationsschoolstendtohavemoreflexibilityforimplementingsuchlearningexperiences.
• Indigenousapproachestolearning–learningbydoing,experientiallearning,andculturallyembeddedlearning.TheWesternCanadianProtocolLanguageandCultureCurriculumFrameworkdiscussedinSection3.2.1ofthisreportdescribesmethodsforthoughtfulintegrationofIndigenousapproaches.
Inaddition,forthepastsevenyears,theSm’algyaxCommitteehasintegratedaspectsoftheImaginativeEducationapproachintoitsK‐12languagecurriculumbindersasawaytosupportstudents’emotionalengagement,creativity,useofstory,metaphor,song,dramaandrhythm,orinotherwords:
awayofteachingandlearningthatisbasedonengaginglearners’(andteachers’)imaginations.Imaginationistheabilitytothinkofwhatmightbepossible;itisthe‘reachingout’featureofthemind,enablingthelearnertogobeyondwhatheorshehasmasteredsofar.Connectingthechild’simaginationwiththeworldisthekeytomuchsuccessfulteachingandlearning(www.ierg.net/LUCID/overview).
During2006‐09,severalschooldistrictsparticipatedinaLUCIDProject(LearningforUnderstandingThroughCulturallyInclusiveImaginativeDevelopment),includingworkshopsfocusedonhowImaginativeEducationconceptscouldbeusedintheFirstNationslanguageclassroom.ImaginativeEducationisbasedontheideathatchildren’s
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developmentofintellectualandcognitiveskillsissupportedthroughavarietyofapproachesthatappealtolearners’emotionsandphysicalsensesthroughrhythm,visualandverbalimagery,patterningtosupportlearning,humour,theuseofmimeandgesture,notionsofextremes,adventureanddrama. Emotions:Whatisemotionallyengagingaboutthistopic?Howcantheteacherconnect
itwiththestudent’sfeelings? Senses:Howcanthetopicengagethesenses?Howcanstudentsseeit,touchit,hearit,
smellitandeventasteit? RhythmandMusic:Howcanthetopicbeexploredthroughrhythms(seasonal,syllabic
anddailyrhythms)?Howcanmusicandsonggiveaccesstothetopic? Metaphor/Images:Whatimageormetaphorwillhelptoexplainthetopic? Patterns:Whatpatternscanbeusedtoexplorethetopic?(framesentences,repetition,
patternswithinsentenceorwordstructure=focus‐on‐form) Humour:Arethereanydoublemeanings?Howcanyouincorporatetheunexpected? ExploringLimitsofReality–ExtremesandCollections:Whatisthegreatestandthe
leastofthetopic,themostextreme?Howcanstudentsbecomeexpertsonthetopic?Howcantheyorganizeorlistit?
Gesture/Imitation:Howcanyoushowthetopicthroughgesture?Howcanyouuseyourbodytoexplainthetopic?Canthestudentslearnbyimitatingyourexample?
Fromtheperspectiveofbestpracticesandmethodologyinlanguageteachingandlearning,theaboveconceptscaneasilybetranslatedintosensibleandrewardingmethodologiesandapproachestolanguageteaching,asfollows.
Engagestudentsthroughhumour,interestingprops,stories,words,actionsandgames
thatwillcapturetheirattentionandcuriosity.Forexample,theteachercanintegrateImaginativeEducationconceptsintotheclassroombybringinginterestingobjectsintoclassthatfitintotheunit,hideobjectsintheclassroomorduringTPRlessons,and/orintroducesillyorunexpectedcommandsandphrases.
Uselotsofgestureandbodylanguageinteachingtoconveyandemphasizemeaning,andprovide“scaffolding”forstudentsinternalizingvocabularyandgrammar.TPRandTPR‐Sarebothbasedontheuseofactions(mainlythroughcommands)tosupporttheinternalizationofvocabulary.
Userhythmandmusic,aswellasrhythmicspeechthatmakesuseofthebeautifulintonationpatternofthelanguage.Also,songscanhelpyounglearnerslearnandusevocabularyandstructuresofthelanguageinafunandinterestingway.
Integratecollectionsofitems,counting,andcomparison.
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PARTTHREE:LANGUAGE‐SPECIFICCURRICULUMFRAMEWORKS3.1.TheNeedforCurriculumFrameworksandPlansThetermcurriculumisusedinthisdocumenttoreferto“theoverallplanordesignforacourseandhowthecontentforacourseistransformedintoablueprintforteachingandlearningwhichenablesthedesiredlearningoutcomestobeachieved”(WigginsandMcTighe,2006).Acurriculumisa“roadmap”orplanofwhatistaught,howitistaught,withwhatmaterials,andinordertoachievewhatintendedoutcomes.AFirstNationslanguagecurriculumdocumentusuallyincludesthefollowing. Broadgoalsandobjectivesandtheirrationale–Whyshouldthelanguagebetaught?
Curriculumframeworksareincreasinglyfocusedonsettingobjectivesintheformofstandardsandbenchmarksthatcanbeimplemented,assessedspecifictoalanguage,andalsocomparedacrosslanguages.
Theintendedoutcomes–WhatmightbetheoutcomesbasedonwhatweknowaboutthebenefitsofbilingualismandFirstNationslanguagemaintenance(seePart1)?AppreciationoftheFirstNationslanguageandculture?Competenceorproficiencyinthelanguage?Whatlevelofcompetence?
Theoverallapproachtothesubjectmatter–Whatassumptions,inthiscaseaboutlanguagelearningandlanguageacquisition,guidethecurriculum?Insteadofstressinglinguisticandgrammaticalcompetence(i.e.themechanicsofthelanguage),contemporaryapproachestolanguageteachingandlearningtendtofocusoncommunicativecompetence,authenticcommunicationinthelanguage,action‐orientedapproachestoteaching,andtheenhancementoflearningthroughengagingemotions.
Specificprescribedlearningoutcomes–Whatarelearnersexpectedtobeabletodowithinspecificincrementsofthecurriculum?Althoughintendedoutcomesstatedasprescribedlearningoutcomes(PLOs)werefordecadesthenormofcurriculumwriting(forexample,itisexpectedthatstudentswillbeableto…..),“cando”statementsarenowincreasinglyusedincurriculumframeworks(describedmorebelow).
Instructionalstrategies–Whatclassroomactivitieswillbeusedtodelivertheprogram?
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Learningresourcesandmaterials–Whatwillteachersuseandwhatdotheyneedtofacilitatelearners’progress?
Assessmentformats–Whatwill:enabletheteachertodetermineifandhowthe
learnerhasmetlearningoutcomes;guidethewaystudentsreflectontheirlearning;andallowtheteachertoreflectonwhatworkswell,andwhatperhapsdoesnotworkaswell,astheyteachsubjectmatterlaidoutincurriculum?
Formanyteachers,theirprogramdescriptions,courseplans,ortheyearplanstheydevelopfortheschoolprincipalconstitutetheircurriculum.Indeed,“whatstudentsarelikelytolearn”canoftenbeinferredfromateaching/instructionalplan.However,ateaching/instructionalplanusuallyonlyreflectstheapproachoftheteacherwhocreatedit–hisorherparticularteachingstyleandteachingcircumstances(i.e.,itassumesaparticularstudentpopulation,acertainbodyofpriorlearning,andtheavailabilityofparticularresources).Itoftenfocusesmoreonhowteachersintendtoguidestudentlearningthanonwhatstudentswilltakeawayfromtheprogram.Butwhatisdeliberatelytaughtisnotalwayswhatstudentsinfactlearn.Ontheotherhand,standardizedcurriculumplanscanlayoutapermanentsetofobjectives,outcomes,instructionalmethodsandassessmenttoolsthatextendbeyondtheindividualteacherwhoteachesthesubjectmatteratagiventime.Inotherwords,whilecurriculumframeworkscreatecommongoals,instructionalmethods,andassessmentformats,theyalsoserveasawaytostandardizewhatistaughtandhowandcanbeusedasawaytoaccrediteducationprograms.Recentcurriculumframeworksalsoaimtonotonlyprovidecommonstandardsbutalsotoestablishcommonandcomparableoutcomesoflanguageproficiency,usuallywithasetoflevelsandbenchmarksbasedondescriptorsoflearnercompetenceintheareasoflistening,reading,speaking(ininteractionandintelling),andwriting.3.2ExistingCurriculumFrameworksforFirstNationsLanguagesinCanadaSincethe1990s,variouscurriculumframeworksforFirstNationsLanguagesinCanadahavebeendeveloped.ThewebsiteoftheCanadianAssociationofSecondLanguageTeachers(www.caslt.org)includesalinktoFirstNationsLanguages,whichprovidesaccesstoprovinciallyandterritoriallydevelopedandapprovedcurriculumguidesforFirstNationslanguages.Forseveralprovinces(Alberta,Ontario,NovaScotia)language‐specificcurriculahavebeendeveloped,suchasCree/Nehiyawewin,Anishinabek,Mikmaw/Miigmao,andBlackfoot.Inaddition,OntarioandSaskatchewanhavedevelopedgeneralNative/AboriginallanguagecurriculumguidesforGrades1‐12.ForBC,onlytheMinistryofEducationLanguagesTemplate(discussedbelow)islisted.
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3.2.1TheWesternCanadianProtocolCommonCurriculumFrameworkAcurriculumframeworkofparticularinterestisoutlinedintheCommonCurriculumFramework–AboriginalLanguageandCulturePrograms–WesternCanadianProtocolforCollaborationinBasicEducation,publishedinJune2000(www.wncp.ca).ThisWesternCanadianProtocolforAboriginalLanguageandCulture(WCPALC)wasdevelopedin1997‐2000byaconsortiumofEldersandlanguageeducatorsfromthefourwesternprovinces(BC,Alberta,Saskatchewan,Manitoba),aswellasYukonandtheNWT.Itspurposeistocreateacommonvisionandlanguageforteachers,schoolrepresentatives,administratorsandtrusteestocommunicatetheobjectivesandgoalsofAboriginallanguageandcultureprograms.TheFrameworkviewslanguageandcultureasinseparable,withlanguageperceivedasvitaltounderstandinguniqueculturalperspectives.Inotherwords,languageisconsideredas“atoolthatstudentscanusetoexploreandexperiencetheirculturesandtheperspectivesembeddedintheircultures.”Withagoalofsupportingtherevitalizationandenhancementoflanguages,thedocumentrecognizesthatthecommunitymusttakeresponsibilityforrevitalizingitslanguageanditsculture,andnotes:
TheElderstellofthepowerofthelanguagetogeneratechangeandasenseofdirectionwithinthelearner.LearningtheFirstLanguagebecomesapowerfulsourceofone’spersonalcommitmenttobecomehealthyandtolearnthewaysofachievingahealthyenvironmentoncemore.
MuchoftheWCPALCconsistsoflearningoutcomesforcultureandlanguageaimedatbothfirst‐languageandsecond‐languagelearners(childrenwhosefirstlanguageisEnglish).AstheFrameworkauthorsacknowledge,thefirst‐languageoutcomesarealsosuitableforimmersionprogramsorpartialimmersion(“bilingual”)programs.Firstandsecondlanguageoutcomesaretiedtotheculturaloutcomesinvariousimplicitandexplicitways.TheculturalcontentisorganizedaroundAboriginal‘lawsofrelationship’,asarticulatedbytheconsultingElders–whoseadviceandknowledgewasviewedasfundamentaltotheWCPALC.Thelawsofrelationshipidentifiedintheframeworkincludethefollowing.
Apersonalcommitmenttothesacred(respectinrelationships) Protocol(conductinceremoniesandsocialinteraction) Medicine(personalhabitsandpracticeinrelationtohealthandspiritualgifts) Ceremonies(rolesandconduct) Copyright(earningtherighttoknowledge) Oraltradition(expressionofknowledge,itsformsandownership)
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IntheWCPALC,thelawsofrelationshipareorganizedintothreecurriculumorganizers–1.LawsofSacredLife,2.LawsofNature,and3.LawsofMutualSupport,withthreebroadcategoriesoflearningoutcomesforeach:CulturalOutcomes(culturalskillsandpersonaldevelopment),FirstLanguageOutcomes,andSecondLanguageOutcomes,allofwhicharearticulatedatsixlevels(K‐1,Grades2‐3,Grades4‐6,Grades7‐8,Grades9‐10andGrades11‐12).CulturaloutcomesarefurtherdividedintoCulturalUnderstandingsandCulturalSkills.ThetablesbelowaresampleexcerptsfromtheWCPALC,whichshowhowculturaloutcomesareorganizedandexpressed.
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Example1:CulturalOutcomes
Example2:SecondLanguageOutcomes
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IntheWCPLC,thesecondlanguageoutcomesstressthedevelopmentofcommunicativeproficiencyinlistening,reading,speakingandwriting.Levelsofcommunicativeproficiencyaredescribedintermsofcharacteristicssuchas:degreeofaccuracyinthecommunicationofmeaning;thevarietyoftopicsthatcanbedealtwith;andtheamountofspontaneityandabstractioninvolvedinvariouslanguage‐usesituations.Ataparticularlevelofproficiency,secondlanguageoutcomesareorganizedintofourtypes:languageusecontexts,strategiesforlanguagelearning,languagequality,andlanguagefunctions.
Intermsoflanguagequality(grammatical/phoneticaccuracy,fluencyoreaseofcommunication,coherency)theWCPLCnotes:
Whilethecommunicativeapproachtoteachingsecondlanguagesemphasizestheprimacyoffunctionoverform,thequalitativefeaturesoflanguageusemustnotbedismissednordelayedduringinstruction.Ignoringskillsintheseareastendstoleadtoafossilizationoflanguagedevelopmentregardlessofcontinuedinstructionorlanguageuse.Individualsareabletofunctionrelativelywellinthesecondlanguage,understandingandbeingunderstood,butareviewedbythelanguagecommunityashavinga‘broken’languageora‘pidgin’language.
TheFrameworkprovidesdetailedlearningoutcomesforeachofthefourareasofproficiency.BelowareexamplesoflearningoutcomesthatmeasureaccuracyforLevels1‐3(GradesK‐6)and4‐6(Grades7‐12).AsdescribedinPart4ofthisdocument,forspecificlanguagesitisusefultomapouttheparticulargrammaticalandphoneticconceptsthatunderlielearningoutcomesexpressingaccuracyandfluency.Itisalsousefultomapoutatwhatgradeorcompetencelevelsspecificconceptsareintroduced,practiced,knownbystudents,andexpectedtobemastered,atleasttosomedegree.
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Note:fromthepointofviewoflanguagequalityorlinguisticquality,“simplesentences”arethosewithasinglestatement;“complexsentences”aretwoormoresentencesthatarelinkedbyaconjunction(“hedidthisandthenhedidthat,”“shedidxbutyhappened,)orsentencesthatgivecauses(like“because,“dueto”,etc.).Complexsentencesaremoredifficultthansimplesentencesbecausetheyinvolvesignificantjugglingofdetail.
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Insummary,theWCPALCisathoughtfulanddetaileddocumentthatwasdevelopedwithparticipationfromlanguageeducators,Eldersandotherkeystakeholders.ItdetailsapproachesunderlyingFirstNationslanguageeducation,FirstNationapproachesandphilosophiesthatshouldbeembeddedinlanguageeducation,alongwithlearningoutcomesandassessmentmaterials,allofwhicharestillrelevantfifteenyearsafteritsinception.YetwhilethisresourcehasguidedAboriginallanguageeducationinotherjurisdictions,ithasnotbeenputtoproductiveuseinBC.3.2.2BCIntegratedResourcePackages(IRPs)andLanguagesTemplateAsdescribedinPart2ofthisdocument,inBCpublicschoolssecondlanguageinstruction,includingFirstNationslanguageeducation,isregulatedthroughtheBCSchoolActandthroughtheMinistry’sLanguageEducationPolicy,developedin1997.Asnotedabove,theBCMinistryofEducationLanguagePolicyencouragesAboriginallanguageeducationbynoting:“allstudents,especiallythoseofAboriginalancestry,shouldhaveopportunitiestolearnanAboriginallanguage.”Specifically,thelanguagespolicydeterminesthatallstudents“musttakeasecondlanguageaspartofthecurriculuminGrades5to8,”makingcertainexceptionsforstudentswithspecialneeds,studentswhoreceiveEnglishLanguageLearningservices,andstudentsinlateFrenchImmersion.SchooldistrictsthatofferlanguagesattheGrades5‐8levelusuallyofferthemforGrades9‐12,thusenablingstudentstocompleteGrade11and12inthelanguage–allowingthemtousethelanguageforacademiccredittowardsgraduationandmeetsecondlanguagerequirementsestablishedbyuniversities.Inordertosetstandardsforsecondlanguageeducationinschools,inthemid‐1990stheMinistrybegantodevelopIntegratedResourcePackages(IRPs)forallcoresubjects.IRPsprovideanoverviewoftheapproachandprinciplesusedinteachingthesubjectand,brokendownintocurriculumorganizers,layoutprescribedlearningoutcomesforspecificgradelevels.Theyalsolistprovinciallyapprovedcurricularresourcesandprovidestudentassessmentformatsandsamples.TheMinistryhasalsodevelopedaLanguagesTemplatedocument,lastupdatedin2003,whichprovidesanorganizationalframeworkandwordingforanIRPforanysecondlanguage–includingaFirstNationslanguage–forwhichlocalorganizationsseekprovincialapproval(www.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/language_template).TheMinistrywebsiteprovidesalistofMinistry‐authorizedsecondlanguagesdevelopedthroughtheprovincialLanguagesTemplate,whichincludesfifteenFirstNationslanguageIRPsthatwerecompleteandprovinciallyapprovedasofAugust2014.
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Halq’eméylem(UpriverHalkomelem/Sto:lo)5‐12andIntroductory11 Heiltsuk5to12andIntroductoryHeiltsuk11 Hul’q’umi’num’(IslandHalkomelem)5to12andIntroductoryHul’q’umi’num’11 Kwak’wala5to12andIntroductoryKwak’wala11 Liqwala/Kwak’wala5to12andIntroductoryLiqwala/Kwakwala11 nsíylxcən(Okanaganlanguage)5to12andIntroductorynsíylxcən Nte?kepmxcin(Thompsonlanguage)5to12andIntroductory11 Nuu‐chah‐nulth5to12andIntroductoryNuu‐cha‐nulth11 Secwepemctsin(ShuswapLanguage)5to12andIntroductorySecwepemctsin11 SENĆOŦEN5to12andIntroductorySENĆOŦEN11 Shashishalhem(SecheltLanguage)5to12andIntroductoryShashishalhem11 Sim'algaxhlNisga'a5to12andIntroductorySim'algaxhlNisga'a11 Sm'algyax(CoastTsimshian)5to12andIntroductorySm'algyax11 Tsek'ene(Sekani)5to12andIntroductoryTsek'ene11 UpperSt’at’imcets(FraserRiverLillooet)5‐12andIntroductoryUpperSt’at’imcets11SeveraladditionalFirstNationslanguageIRPsarenowinpreparationorareawaitingMinistryapproval.UnlikeotherMinistry‐approvedIRPs,FirstNationslanguageIRPsarenotavailableontheMinistry’swebsite,astheircopyrightisinthenameoftheFirstNationsorganization/languageauthoritythatsponsoredtheIRPproductionincollaborationwithalocalschooldistrict.TheKwak’walaIRP,however,hasbeenmadeavailableonline,withpermissionfromtheFirstNationsorganizationthatproducedit(seemoreinpart4).WritinganIntegratedResourcePackageTheLanguagesTemplatedocument,availableasaread‐onlyPDFfileandasaMicrosoftWorddocumentthatcanbeoverwrittenandedited,includesdetailedinstructions.Thediagrambelow(fromtheBCLanguagesTemplate)showsthestepsinvolvedindevelopingaFirstNationslanguageIRP.
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AnIRPincludesthefollowingcomponents. Anintroduction,whichincludesanumberofsectionsbasedonMinistryofEducation
Policythatmustappearexactlyaswritteninthetemplate(e.g.sectionsonthecommunicative‐experientialapproachtolanguageteaching,prescribedlearningoutcomes,cross‐curricularintegration,suggestedinstructionalstrategies,exemptionsfromthelanguagepolicy,specialneedsstudents).TheonlysectionthatallowsFirstNationslanguagegroupstoexplaintheculturalandhistoricalcontextofthelanguageanditsuniquenatureistherationalesection.
ThecoreoftheIRP–includingfour“stronglyrecommended”curriculumorganizers:
(Communicating,AcquiringInformation,ExperiencingCreativeWorksandUnderstandingCulturalInfluences),whichforeachGradelevel(5‐12andIntroductoryGrade11)listprescribedlearningoutcomes,suggestedinstructionalstrategies,suggestedassessmentstrategies,andlearningresources.
Asetofappendices,whichpresentstheprescribedlearningoutcomesintables,
providesassessmentandevaluationsamples,andlistslearningresourcesavailableforthelanguageaccordingtogradelevel,alongwithinformationaboutsuppliers.
Constraints,ChallengesandAlternativesAtpresent,theBCLanguagesTemplaterepresentstheonlyoptionforhavingFirstNationslanguagesmeettheprovincialsecondlanguagerequirement.YetFirstNationsrepresentativeshavepointedoutvariousconstraintsrelatedtothetemplate.
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ItwasnotdesignedaccordingtotheparticularconditionsandcontextofAboriginal
languages.UnliketheWCPALCdiscussedabove,theBCLanguagesTemplateisperceivedasprimarilyaccommodatingheritageandimmigrantlanguages.
ThecurrentversionoftheLanguagesTemplate(2003)is11yearsold. IRPsonlyaddressFirstNationslanguageeducationattheGrades5‐12level.Despite
thefactthatsomeschooldistrictsandmostFirstNationsschoolsofferFirstNationslanguageeducationattheGradeK‐4level,todatenoprovincialIRPshavebeenapprovedforprimaryandearlyelementaryFirstNationslanguageeducation.AfewFirstNationslanguagegroupshaveproducedIRPsforGradesK‐4,butthesearenotaccommodatedwithinexistingMinistrypolicy.
DespitetheproductionofIRPs,FirstNationslanguageprograms(unlikeFrenchandforeignlanguageprograms)inmostcasesarenotcoveredbycoreschooldistrictfunds.
IRPshavenoprovisionsforimmersionorpartialimmersionprogramming,andinsteadareentirelyfocusedonsecondlanguagelearning.
FirstNationslanguageIRPsbasedontheBCLanguagesTemplatefunctionasauthorizingdocumentsfortheprovincialaccreditationofFirstNationslanguages,ratherthanprovidingpracticalguidance(letalonedetailedsubstance)forthepreparationofunitsandlessons,includinglanguagecontent.Accordingly,someFirstNationshaveengagedinIRPdevelopment,andinadditionhavedevelopedgrade‐specificbindersofcurricularcontentthatlistbroadlearningoutcomes,sampleinstructionalstrategiesandassessmentformats,anddetailedcontentintheFirstNationslanguagelaidoutinunitsandlessons–alldescribedinPart4below.
Despitetheseconstraints,participantsinconsultationworkshopsandFirstNationsEldersandlanguageteacherstendtosupportthedevelopmentofFirstNationslanguageIRPs,inlargepartduetotheimprovedstatusandrecognitionthatIRPsprovide,theincentiveofacademiccredittheyoffersecondarystudents,and–toalesserextent–thecurricularsupporttheyoffer.IRPshavebeencompletedandsubmittedtotheMinistryofEducationbycommunitiesandschoolsrepresentingjustoverhalfoftheFirstNationslanguagesinBC.3.3ExamplesfromElsewhere3.3.1TheAustralianDraftFrameworkTheAustralianCurriculum,AssessmentandReportingAuthority(www.australiancurriculum.edu.au)hasproducedadraftcurriculumframeworkforAustralia’smorethan200Indigenouslanguages.LiketheWCPALCdiscussedabove,theAustralianFrameworkprovidesthreelearnerpathways:
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L1–First‐LanguageLearnerPathwayforlanguagesthatarestilllearnedinthehome
asfirst‐languagesandthatstillhaveasubstantialcommunityofspeakersacrossgenerations.AkeyfeatureofthispathwayisthedevelopmentofwrittenliteracyandnumeracyskillsintheAboriginallanguage,valuingthelanguage,andbuildingtoolstoadaptthecapacityofthelanguageforcommunicationinallcontexts.
LR–LanguageRevivalLearnerPathwayprovidesstudentswiththeopportunityto
“studyalanguagethatisbeingrevived,revitalizedandremadebyitsowners,custodiansandcommunities,andtheyrangefromlanguagesthatareonlybeginningtoberevitalizedtolanguagessoadvancedintheirrevivalthatinitialgenerationsofnewfirst‐languagespeakersarebeginningtoemergeasparentsusethelanguageswiththeirchildren.”TheselearnerswillnotonlybecomelanguagerevitalizationpractitionerswhocancommunicateintheAboriginallanguage:theywillalsoacquire“techniquesoflinguisticpracticesthatapplytolanguagerevival,”andtechniquestoworkwithrecordedmaterials.
L2–SecondLanguageLearnerPathwayprovidesstudentsofallbackgroundswith
opportunitiestolearnanAboriginalorTorresStraitIslanderlanguagethatiswelldocumentedandstillspoken.L2studentsmaynotliveinthehomelandwherethelanguageisspoken.
TheACARAisorganizedaroundlearningoutcomesthatinstillculturalandlanguagecompetencieswithintwocurriculumorganizers–communicationandresearching–payingsignificantattentiontotherolethatlearnersofAboriginallanguageswillplayinlanguagerevitalization.3.3.2TheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguagesTheCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguages(CEFR)isaninternationalstandardforsecondorforeignlanguagecompetence.DevelopedbytheCouncilofEuropein2001,itestablishesinternationalstandardsforlearning,teaching,andassessment,andrepresentsatoolfordescribingandcomparinglearners’communicativeabilityinalanguageasitemerges.TheCEFRisacommonreferenceforcurriculumguidelinesandresources,andinrecentyears,ithasalsobeenusedforsomeofEurope’s84regionalandminoritylanguages(www.coe.int/minlang),someofwhichareendangeredorevencriticallyendangered,andsomeofwhichareIndigenous.Inthepastdecade,theCEFRhasbeenimplementedworld‐wide.TheCEFRsetscommonstandardsandcriteriaforlevelsoflanguagelearningandproficiency,anditdescribesaGlobalScalethatcanbeusedwithvirtuallyanylanguage.
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A1andA2–BasicUser(Basic/Beginninglearner)B1andB2–IndependentUser(Intermediatelearner)C1andC2–ProficientUser(Advancedlearner)TheCEFRisorganizedaroundasetofstatements(whatsomeoneshouldbeabletodoateachlevel),eachwithdescriptors(waysinwhichthatcompetencyisshown).Inaddition,theCEFRhasturnedcompetencylevelsanddescriptorsintochartsof“cando”statements,whichlearnersthemselvescanusetochecktheircompetencyastheyarelearning–whetherinaformalschool,adulteducationsetting,orotherwise.TheCEFRprovidesaroadmapforlevelsofcompetencythatisbasedoncommunicativecompetenceineveryday,authenticsettingsandtheabilitytofunctioninthelanguage.Communicativecompetenceismappedoutaslistening,speaking(comprisingspokenconversationandspokenproduction),15readingandwritingskills.In2006,basedonacomparisonofvariousassessmentframeworksandbenchmarks,theCEFRwasrecommendedfordescribinglanguageproficiencyacrossCanada(Vandergrift,2006).Asof2011,theDepartmentofCanadianHeritagerecommendedtheimplementationoftheCERFfor“officiallanguages”acrossCanada,althoughthedocumentdoesnotmakementionofFirstNationslanguages.16MinistriesandDepartmentsofEducationacrossNorthAmericaareadoptingtheCEFRforguidingSecondLanguagetemplatesandIRPs,andtheCouncilofMinistersofEducationCanada(CMEC)hasreviewedandsupportstheapplicationoftheCEFRinCanadianschools.17Thecurrent(2011)BCDraftIRPforFrenchisbasedontheCEFRmodelandisorganizedaroundCEFR‐basedproficiencylevels,matchedupwithapproximategradelevels.AnimportanttoolthathasresultedfromtheCEFRistheEuropeanLanguagePortfolio.Ownedbylearnerswithinthecontextoflife‐longlearning,theportfoliodocumentsthelearners’emergingproficiencyinthelanguagestheyarelearning/havelearned.Itconsistsofthreecomponents: LanguagePassport–completedbyalearner’steacher(s)orschool,thisreportsonthe
learner’saccomplishments,levelofcompetenceattained,course(s)completed,andincludeslettersofrecommendation;
15Spokenconversationreferstoauthenticuseoflanguageinverbalexchanges(dialogue);spokenproductionincludesnarrating,makinganoralpresentation,presentingaverbalreportonatopic.16elpimplementation.ecml.at/IMPEL/Documents/Canada/ProposalofaCFRforCanada/tabid/122/language/fr‐FR/language/en‐GB/Defaul.asp17WorkingwiththeCommonEuropeanFrameworkofReferenceforLanguages(CEFR)intheCanadianContext:GuideforPolicy‐MakersandCurriculumDesigners.
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Biography–thisself‐assessmentbythelearnerprovidesareflectiononlanguagelearningchallengesandsuccesses,aswellasemerginglanguageskillsanduseofthelanguage(s)beinglearned;and
Dossier–aportfoliothatincludessamplesofthelearner’sworkatvariousstagesoflanguagelearning.
WithinCanada,Nunavuthasadaptedthelanguageportfolioconcepttoallowteachersandlearnerstoreportandreflectontheiremerginglanguagecompetence.Forweblinkstoelectroniclanguagepassportsamplesseewww.bced.gov.bc.ca/irp/french.Anotherveryusefulexampleofastudentlanguageportfolio,aswellasateacher’sguideforitsuseandimplementation,wasdevelopedbyMaxwellforAIMLanguageLearning.ThisdocumentalsoincludesaLanguageAssessmentActivitiesPackagebasedontheCEFR(seewww.aimlanguagelearning.com).CEFRandFirstNationsLanguagesGiventheattentionthattheCEFRhasreceivedamonglanguageeducators,itisworthwhiletoconsiderwhetheraFirstNationsK‐12LanguageandCultureFrameworkcoulddrawinspirationfromtheCEFR.OnewelcomeaspectoftheCEFRisthefactthatitisbasedonstatementsofwhatlearners“cando”(notwhattheycan’tdooraredoingwrong).Inaddition:• TheCEFRislearner‐orientedandencouragesreflectiononlearning.• Ratherthanstipulating“mastery”ofasecondlanguage,theCEFRfocusesondeveloping
communicative,action‐basedrepertoireanduse.GiventhefactthatoftheK‐12studentsandadultswhohavebeguntolearntheirFirstNationslanguages,onlyafewindividualsarelikelytoachievehigh‐levelproficiency,suchanapproachmaybemostrealisticandfeasible.
• TheCEFRconsiderslanguagelearningasalife‐longtask.Similarly,forthosewhoarelearningtheirancestrallanguage,itwillbeimportanttosupporttheircontinuedlearningandlong‐termuseoftheirlanguageastheyhelptore‐builddomainsofuse.
• Sinceitsaimistosetcommonobjectives,outcomesandstandardsacrosslanguages,theCEFRdeliberatelydoesnotrefertoorincludegrammaticalstructure,amountandcontentofvocabulary,orcompetenceoverthephoneticsorsoundsystemoflanguages.Itisthecurriculaandtextbooksforspecificlanguages,whichareguidedbytheCEFR,thataddresslanguage‐specificcompetencyovervocabulary,grammar,phoneticsandculturalconnections.Inthisway,thiscurriculumframeworkleavesroomforlanguage‐specificcurriculaandcurricularresourcesinavarietyofformats(print,audio‐andvideomaterials,digitalapps).
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• TheCEFRpromotesplurilingualism,understoodascompetenceanduseof(tovaryingdegrees)twoormorelanguages.Giventhefactthatrevitalizingandre‐creatingcompetenceanduseofFirstNationslanguageswiththehelpofK‐12schoolingexistsandwillcontinuetoexistinadditiontoEnglishcompetence(ratherthanreplacinguseandcompetenceofEnglish)theconceptisrelevantforthiscontext.
Insummary,istheCEFR–whicharisesfromaninternationalforeignlanguagecontext–appropriate?Isitmeaningfulforlanguagesthathavealmostnofluentfirst‐languagespeakersleft?ThepointslistedabovemakeitworthconsideringwithinthecontextofFirstNationslanguages.AtleastitwouldmostdefinitelybeusefultoadaptanddevelopcompetencyassessmentsthatwillguidelearnersofFirstNationslanguages–whetheradultsoryouth–toaclearerunderstandingofwheretheyareonthepathtogainingcompetenceintheirlanguage.SuchaprocesswillalsoguideFirstNationslanguageauthoritiesthatarechargedwithdeterminingtheproficiencyofusersandspeakersofthelanguage(alldiscussedmoreinPart4ofthisdocument).3.3.3WHAKAMĀTAURIATŌREOMĀORI(NationalMaoriLanguageProficiencyExaminations)AnotherframeworkisofferedbyTeTauraWhiriiteReoMāori,theMaoriLanguageCommission.ItoffersfivelevelsofMaorilanguageproficiency:Level1)BasicRoutineLanguageLevel2)BasicConversationalProficiencyLevel3)ModerateProficiencyLevel4)HigherProficiencyLevel5)CompleteProficiencyTheselevelsaremeasuredbytheMaoriLanguageCommissionusingaLevelFinderExamination,whichmeasuresMaorilanguageknowledgeandactsasa“generalindicatoroflanguageability.”Itstestconsistsofvocabulary,grammar,dictationandself‐assessmenttasksreportedasoneofthefivelevelslistedabove.3.4AdditionalLanguageBenchmarkandStandardsDocumentsSeveralotherbenchmarksexistinNorthAmerica,manyofwhichhavebeeninfluencedbytheCEFR–especiallyitsuseof“cando”statements.SomeattemptsalsohavebeenmadetoapplythemtoIndigenouslanguageteachingandlearning.Thesearediscussedbelow.3.4.1AmericanCouncilontheTeachingofForeignLanguagesTheAmericanCouncilontheTeachingofForeignLanguages(ACTFL)proficiencyguidelines(www.actfl.org)arepresentedasdescriptionsofwhatindividualscandoin
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termsofspeaking,writing,listening,andreadinginreal‐worldsituationsinaspontaneousandnon‐rehearsedcontext.Foreachskill,theguidelinesidentifyfivemajorlevelsofproficiency:distinguished,superior,advanced,intermediate,andnovice.Theadvanced,intermediate,andnovicelevelsaresubdividedintohigh,mid,andlowsublevels.ThelevelsintheACTFLGuidelinesdescribeacontinuumofproficiencyfromhighlyarticulate,well‐educatedtolittleornofunctionalability.Criteriaforeachofthelevelsinclude: fluency(usewithouthesitation,pausing,switchingtoEnglish); range,depthandvarietyoftopicsthatcanbeaddressed; accuracyofuse(grammar,useofsimplevs.complexstructures,pronunciationand
accent,andthedegreetowhichuseofvocabulary,pronunciationandsyntaxareinfluencedbythelearner’sfirstlanguage);and
theabilitytorespondtounexpectedsituationsandunfamiliartopics,andtheabilitytousethelanguagecreatively,ratherthanrelyingonmemorizedwordsandphrases.
SimilartotheCEFRbenchmarksandCanDocharts,intheACTFLguidelines,independencefrommemorizedrepertoire,creativeuseoflanguage,andaccuracybeyondverybasicstructuresbegintooccurattheintermediatemid‐level.TheACTFLBenchmarkshavebeenusedbytheNorthwestIndianLanguageInstitute(NWILI)–agroupofOregonandWashingtonIndigenouslanguagespeakers,educators,learners,specialistsandlinguistshousedattheUniversityofOregon(www.uoregon.edu/nwili).Inasimplifiedformatandexpressedaslearningoutcomes,theNWILIbenchmarkslayoutproficiencylevels(listening,speaking,reading,writing)withafocusonaccuracyaroundincreasinglycomplextopicareasorthemesthathavebeenidentifiedbyspeakersandEldersasculturallyrelevantandimportant.TheACTFLproficiencylevelsrepresentedinthegraphbelowshowtheexponentialdegreetowhichlanguagecompetenceincreasesbetweenthenoviceandsuperiorlevels.
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ACTFLProficiencyLevels(www.actfl.org)
3.4.2CLB‐CanadianLanguageBenchmarksTheCanadianLanguageBenchmarks(CLB;www.language.ca)wereinitiallydevelopedin1992bytheGovernmentofCanadatoguideEnglishasaSecondLanguage(ESL)learningforadults(nowalsocommonlyreferredtoasEAL‐EnglishasanAdditionalLanguage).Thecurrent2012versionwasproducedincomparisonwithCEFRandACTFLguidelines,anditwastestedforvalidity,reliabilityandaccuracy.ItsintendedaudienceisNOTK‐12languageeducators,butratheradultESLteachers.LiketheCEFRandACTFLguidelines,theCLBstandardsfocusoncommunicativecompetenceinreal‐lifetasks.TheCLBstandardisadescriptivescaleofsuccessivelevelsofEnglishlanguageabilityamongESL/EALlearners.BasedondescriptorssimilartotheCEFRandACTFL,12benchmarksexistforlistening,reading,speakingandwritingskills,allorganizedintothreeLanguageAbilityStages: StageI(Benchmarks1‐4)expressesBasicLanguageAbility StageII(Benchmarks5‐8)expressesIntermediateLanguageAbility StageIII(Benchmarks9‐12)expressesAdvancedLanguageAbility
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TheCLBacknowledgesthatlearnersmaybeatdifferentbenchmarksinthefourskillsets(listening,reading,speakingandwriting).Ontheonehand,theCLBfocusesonlanguagecompetence,whichconsistsof: Grammaticalknowledge–practicalknowledgeofgrammarandvocabularyatthe
sentencelevel; Textualknowledge–cohesionandcoherenceinbuildingdiscourseandnarratives; Functionalknowledge–theabilitytoconveyandinterpretcommunicativecontent
gettingthingsdone,persuadingothers,learningandthinking,creationandenjoyment,andmakingrequests,threats,warnings,pleas;and
Sociolinguisticknowledge–rulesofpoliteness,register,dialect,appropriatenessofspeech,figurativelanguage,culturalknowledge,socialrelationships.
TheCLBalsoencompassesstrategiccompetence,whichensureseffectivenessincommunication(planningandassessingcommunication,repairingdifficultiesincommunication,copingwithbreakdown,usingaffectivedevices).TheCLBfunctionsasanassessmenttoolthatallowsstandardizedtestingofESL/EALlearnersbasedontheabilityoflearnerstocarryoutavarietyoflanguagetasks.Withtherecentdevelopmentof“CanDo”checklists,theCLBcanalsohelplearnerscarryoutself‐assessments.3.4.3FirstNationsLanguageBenchmarksMiller(2004)hasattemptedtoadapttheCanadianLanguageBenchmarkstodevelopaLanguageTeacher’sGuidetoAssessingFirstNationsLanguageProficiency,usingasimplifiedsetofthreestages(basic,intermediate,advanced),eachwiththreeproficiencylevels(developmental,progressive,andaccomplished).LiketheCLB,theseFirstNationsLanguageBenchmarks(FNLB)involvefourlanguageskills(listening,speaking,reading,writing).Thethree“competencyareas”aresocialinteraction,followingandgivinginstructions,andinformationsharing,althoughthechartsforthethreestagesdonotparticularlyreferencethesecompetencyareas.ItisuncleartowhatdegreetheFNLBchartshavebeenfield‐testedforspecificlanguages.Inaddition,languageteachersandlearnerswillbenefitfromtransferringthedescriptorsforproficiencylevelsintomoreconcreteexamplesofspeechproducedatrespectivelevelsintheparticularFirstNationslanguage.ItwouldbeusefultorevisitandexpandupontheFNLBinlightoftherecentimplementationoftheCEFRinadditional/secondlanguagelearning,andtodevelopassessmenttoolsforcompetencylevelsinparticularFirstNationslanguages,similartothedetailandmethodsemployedfortoolsrecentlydevelopedforFrench.
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3.4.4FirstNationsLanguageEssentialsAdditionally,averypracticalframeworkforbeginner‐levelFirstNationslanguagecurriculumisfoundinMichel’sFirstNationsLanguageEssentials(FNLE)project,developedfortheFirstNationsSchoolAssociation(FNSA),whichbuildslearninggoalsforthebeginningGradeK‐4learneraroundthreemaingoals:
Eachofthethreegoalareashasanaccompanyingsetofbasiclearningoutcomes.
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Finally,thecommunicativeobjectivesandlearningoutcomesconnecttoasetofLanguageBenchmarks.Thesebenchmarksfocusentirelyoncomprehensionskillsbasedonmemorizedrepertoireforthefirst150hours,withspeakingskillsalsobasedonmemorizedrepertoire,verysimpleutterances,interferencefromthelearner’sfirstlanguage(English),incompleteandfaultyutterances,alongwithimprecision(SeeAppendix2forFNLEBenchmarks).3.4.5PerceptionsofProficiencyAnotherwaytoorganizelevelsoflearnerproficiencyistoapplydescriptivetermsintheFirstNationslanguagetostagesandproficiencylevels.ThiswasdonebyN’syilxcen(Okanagan)languagelearnerandlanguageeducatorMicheleKayS7imla7xwJohnson(2012,2013),employingNsilxcentermsthatdescribesuccessivedevelopmentalacquisitionstagesduringtheprocessofadultN’syilxcenlanguagelearning,andthusprovideculturallyrelevantorientationforlearners.Itwasrewardingforagroupoflearnerswhocompletedabout1,000hoursoflanguagelearninginalanguagehousetobe
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consideredbyspeakerstobeatthenłeqwcin(“clearspeech”)stage,meaningtheirspeechwasstartingtobeheardandwasbecomingclearandaudibletoElders/speakers.Johnsonequatesthenłeqwcinstagewithmid‐intermediatelanguageproficiencyaccordingtoCLBbenchmarks.N’syilxcenAcquisitionStages(Johnson2012)
Secwepemctsin(ShuswapLanguage)CompetencyStagesAccordingtoSkeetchestnElders(2014)WhenaskedtothinkaboutstagesofSecwepemclanguageacquisitionbylearnerswhobeganwithlittleornopriorknowledge,theSkeetchestnEldersSecwepemcLanguageGroupspontaneouslyarrivedatsixsuccessivestagesoflanguagecompetency,beginningwithverybasic,difficulttounderstandspeech,andmovingtoclearspeechorwhatcouldbeunderstoodas“fluency”orhighproficiency.Indiscussingandcollectivelynamingthesestages,theeightElders–onlysomeofwhomwritethelanguage,althoughallconsiderthemselvesandoneanother“fluent”–focusedontheimportanceofspeakingabilityfromStage2onwards,asopposedtolistening,readingorwritingskills.
Stage1:estœelπéne–“you’relistening[asalearner]andyouareunderstandingalittlebit.”‐Alsousedwhensomeoneunderstandsyouandyoudidn’tthinktheycouldunderstandanything.Stage2:estπenllexwtsín–“it’scomingoutofhis/hermouth”Thelearnerisbeginningtouselanguageactivelyinverysimpleandincompleteways.Stage3:lexptsín–whenyourspeechisstartingtomakesense(lexép=havingarrivedattheprocessoflearning,internalizingandgettingsomewhere).Stage4:tsqixtsíñ–yourspeechisalittlebitoff,nottoobad,andsometimesyou’resayingitwrong.Stage5:xexewílc–startingtobecomesmart,improving.
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Stage6:tuxwtuxwtsín–straightenedout,correctspeech/Althoughfocusonthefourcompetencyareas–listening,speaking,readingandwriting–makessensewithinthewiderfieldofassessmentinsecond/additionallanguageacquisition,thereisanimportantpointtothefocusonspeakingabilityemphasizedbytheSkeetchestnEldersandtheNsyilxcenspeakers.AsnotedinPart1ofthisdocument,competentsecondlanguagespeakerswhocantransmitthelanguageintergenerationallyarethebesthopeforthefutureexistenceofFirstNationslanguages.Therefore,listening,readingorwritingcompetence,althoughimportantskillsets,donotservethepurposeofintergenerationallanguagetransmission.Onlyindividualswhohavegoodcompetenceinspeaking,andwhousethiscompetenceinday‐to‐daycommunication,canensurethesurvivalofFirstNationslanguages.3.5StudentAssessmentAssessmentisthesystematicprocessofgatheringinformationaboutstudents’learninginordertodescribewhattheyknow,whattheyareabletodo,andwhattheyareworkingtoward.Learnersbenefitwhenteachersassessstudents’learningandemergingabilitiesregularlyandonanongoingbasis.Ratherthancritiquingstudentsforthemistakestheyaremaking,assessmentsshouldpromotelearningbyshowingstudentstheirstrengthsandsuggestinghowtheycandeveloptheirlearningfurther.WithinK‐12education,assessmentiscriterion‐referenced,meaningassessmentformats(e.g.oralorwrittentests,teacherobservationsofstudentperformance,portfoliosofstudentwork)arebasedonthelearningoutcomessetoutfortheage,gradelevel,orparticularunit,measuringwhetherastudentisabletocarryoutthetaskssetoutinthelearningoutcomes.AccordingtoguidelinesfromtheBCMinistryofEducation,assessmentattheprimarylevelshouldfocusonthefollowingareas. Assessmentforlearningallowstheteachertoidentifythelearningneedsofstudents,
toselectandadaptmaterialstosuitthoseneeds,toprovidefeedbacktostudents,andtochooseteachingstrategiessuitedtothestudents.
Assessmentaslearningenablesstudentstobecomeconsciousoftheirlearningandto
improveandgainmasteryovertasksandskills.Assessmentaslearningmirrorsthenaturallearningthattakesplaceforchildrenoutsideofschool,wheretheyworkalongsidetheirparentsorEldersandareguidedastheycometomasterskillsandlearnhowtoemulatetheiroldersiblingsandfamilymembers.
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Assessmentoflearningallowstheteachertodeterminewhatstudentsareabletodoasaresultoflearningandhowtheycandemonstratewhattheyknow.
TheguidelinesoftheBCMinistryofEducationgiveparticularattentiontoassessmentforlearning,withtheSixBigAssessmentFORLearning(AFL)Strategies.1. Clarifylearningintentions2. Provideclearcriteriaforsuccess3. Provideregularcoachingfeedbackthatmoveslearningandlearnersforward4. Developclassroomdiscussion,questions,andlearningtasksthatgenerateevidenceof
learning5. Activatestudentsaslearning/teachingresourcesforeachotherusingselfandpeer
assessment(learnersusecriteriatoassesstheirownlearning)6. DeveloplearnersasownersoftheirownlearningRe‐ThinkingAssessmentwithPurposeinMind(WesternandNorthernCanadianProtocolforCollaborationinEducation;www.wncp.ca)
AssessmentforLearning Assessmentas Learning AssessmentofLearningFormativeassessmentisongoingintheclassroom Teacherassessment,studentself‐assessment,and/orstudentpeerassessment Criterion‐referenced–criteriabasedonPrescribedLearningOutcomesidentifiedintheprovincialcurriculum,reflectingperformanceinrelationtoaspecificlearningtask Involvesbothteacherandstudentintheprocessofcontinualreflectionandreviewaboutprogress Teachersadjusttheirplansandengageincorrectiveteachinginresponsetoformativeassessment
Formativeassessmentisongoingintheclassroom Self‐assessment Providesstudentswithinformationontheirownachievementandpromptsthemtoconsiderhowtheycancontinuetoimprovetheirlearning Student‐determinedcriteriabasedonpreviouslearningandpersonallearninggoals Studentsuseassessmentinformationtomakeadaptationstotheirlearningprocessandtodevelopnewunderstandings
Summativeassessmentoccursatendofyearoratkeystages Teacherassessment Maybeeithercriterion‐referenced(basedonPrescribedLearningOutcomes)ornorm‐referenced(comparingstudentachievementtothatofothers) Informationonstudentperformancecanbesharedwithparents/guardians,schoolanddistrictstaff,andothereducationprofessionals(e.g.forthepurposesofcurriculumdevelopment) Usedtomakejudgmentsaboutstudents’performanceinrelationtoprovincialstandards
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Ascurriculumbindersaredeveloped,assessmentasandforlearningshouldbeintegratedintotheverynatureofactivitiesandinstructionalstrategies.Itisusefulattheendofeachunit,inaseparatesection,toalsosupportassessmentforlearning.Thelanguageteacherandclassroomteachershouldprovidefeedbackonwhichactivitiesworkedwell,producingcommunicationandinteractions,and/orstimulatingstudentinterestandresponse.Teacherscanalsoprovidefeedbackabouttheeffectivenessoflearningresources,andlanguageteachersshouldbeencouragedtoreflectontheoverallandindividuallearningneedsofstudentsandhowclassroominstructionwasadaptedtomeetthoseneeds.Asdescribedabove,toencouragestudentstoengageinassessmentforandaslearningtasks,theCEFRadvocatesforandhasdevelopedstudentportfoliosor“LanguagePassports”thatinvitestudentstocommentontheirlearningofalanguage,todevelopa“biography”oftheirlanguagelearning,tolistandcommentonactivitiestheyenjoy,tokeeptrackoftheirlearningbylistingandshowingexamplesoftheirworkinthelanguage,andbyincluding“CanDo”checklists.Forrelevantexamples,seeDraftCoreFrenchCurriculum,2011,andMaxwell,LanguageAssessmentActivitiesPackageandStudentPortfoliobasedonthePrinciplesoftheCEFR,AIMLanguageLearning,2011.3.5.1AssessingEmergingLanguageProficiencyinRelationtoLevelsandBenchmarksAsnotedabove,thedevelopmentofcompetencelevelsconnectedtobenchmarks,alongwithlearningoutcomesforeachgradelevelandspecifictoeachunit,isconnectedtoassessmentformatsandstrategies.Tablesthatlistwhatskillslearnersshouldbeabletodoasevidencedbyatasktheyareabletoperform,andtheextenttowhichtheycanperformthistask(fully,tosomedegreeorwithhelp,notyet)arereferredtoasassessmentrubrics.Assessmentrubricsareusuallyintheshapeofagridortable.Variousexamplesofassessmentrubrics,accompaniedbyexamplesofmeasuringperformanceaccordingtorubrics,areincludedintheBCMinistryofEducationLanguagesTemplate.BelowisanexamplefromtheSm’algyaxGrades5‐12IRP.Thestudenttaskwastodevelopaposteronthetopic“Thisismyfamily”–nagyedgu,andtopresentthispostertotheclassasanoralpresentation.
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Rubricsshouldbeavailabletostudents.Basedonthecriteriaforwhatconstitutesperformancethatisoutstanding,good,satisfactory,orrequirementsnotmet,theteacher(orstudentsaspeers)canassessperformance.Beyondthat,inordertohelpstudentsimprovetheirlanguagelearning,itisveryusefultoprovidefeedbackaboutwhatthingsweredonewellandwhatthings(pronunciationofwords,useofvocabularyandchoiceofwords,grammaticalform)requireadditionalwork.Afurthercrucialassessmenttaskforlanguageteachersistomeasureandkeeptrackofstudents’abilitytoperformspecificlanguagetasksasmappedoutinlearningoutcomesforaunitoragradelevel.Forolderstudents,writtentests(vocabulary,grammar,translation,dictation,re‐tellingastory)areameaningfulmeasureofstudentabilitytoperformlanguagetasksthatwereintroducedandpracticedinagivenunit.Foryoungerstudents,orinordertomeasurecomprehensionandproduction,teacherscantakestudentsthroughasetoflanguagetasksandusecheckliststomeasureperformance.AsimpleoralassessmentexercisethattestsGrade1and2students’abilitytoidentify(listen)andsay(speak)wordsandphraseswasdevelopedbyChiefMatthewsSchool.The
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languageteachercarriesoutshorttestsforeachunit,providingfeedbackonwhatsimplelanguagetaskslearnersareabletodoafteraseriousoflessons,andprovidingarecordofstudents’abilitiesinthelanguage(SeeAppendix5forasample).Similarly,theFNLEsincludeprogressivelymoredifficultassessmentsofstudentperformanceoflanguagetasks.Theseinitiallyinvolvehavingstudentscarryoutasimplecommand(“walk,”“sitdown,”“gotothewindow,”etc.),withincreasingcomplexitygraduallyintroduced,suchas“drawafatpig,”“erasethepig,”orpromptslike“givetheappletome,”“giveMikethepen,”“grabtheboyfromthetableandgrowllikeabear!”Assessmentofspeakingskills,whichbeginsmanyhourslater,involvesquestionsaboutpicturesorprops(“Isthisamanorawoman?;”“Pretendtogiveafishtothefather,saygoodbyetothefather,andwalktoyourchairandsitdown.”)Studentperformanceismeasuredaccordingtothreeprogressindicators:1=beginning,2=developing,3=mastery.Suchsimpleassessmenttoolsprovideusefulmeasuresandindicatorsoflanguagetasksthatstudentsareabletodo,strugglewith,orarenotyetabletodoandrequirefurtherhelptoperform.Beyondassessingstudents’basicabilitytoperformlanguagetasks,anareathatFirstNationslanguageeducatorsmightdevelopistheassessmentofstudents’languageproficiencydevelopmentasitinvolvesmeasuringanddocumentingaccuracyinpronunciationandintheuseofgrammar.18VerylittleassessmentofthistypeiscurrentlytakingplaceinFirstNationslanguageclassrooms,althoughoneimportantexceptionistheCherokeeKindergartenImmersionLanguageAssessment(C‐KILA)andtheCherokeeLanguageImmersionLiteracyAssessment(C‐LILA),bothofwhichmeasurenotonlylanguagefunctions(beingabletoperformtasksinthelanguage),butalsostudents’useofforms(grammar).TheCherokeeassessmentteamisstilldevelopingmeasuresformanyofthepolysyntheticfeaturesofthelanguage.Gatheringinformationaboutcommonlearnererrorsandinaccuracieshasprovidedimportantfeedbackforteachersandcurriculumdevelopersaboutaddressingfocus‐on‐form(grammar)instructionintheclassroom.AsKell(2014:57)hassuggested,thetablesofgrammaticaltopicsthatmarkincreasedproficiencydevelopedbyIgnace(seeAppendix1)couldalsobeadaptedintorubricsandusedasassessmentchecklistsaccordingtoprogressindicators(4=exceedsexpectations,3=meetsexpectations,2=approachingexpectations,1=notyetmeetingexpectations).
18SonyaBirdfromtheUniversityofVictoriaiscurrentlycarryingoutresearchwithfourgenerationsofSENCOTENspeakersonpronunciationchange.MarianneIgnaceandagroupofHaidalearnersandspeakerhavebeengatheringandanalysingassessmentdataonlearners’useofgrammarandpronunciation.
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Overall,thedevelopmentofassessmenttoolsthatmeasureandanalyzestudents’emerginggrammaticalcompetenceintheFirstNationslanguagewillenhancethedevelopmentofcurriculumtoolsandteachingstrategies.
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PARTFOUR:DESIGNINGCONTENTCURRICULUMFORYOURCOMMUNITYOFLEARNERS4.1BeyondCurriculumFrameworks:TheNeedforContentinCurriculumDesignTheCurriculumFrameworksdiscussedinPart3ofthisreportallaimtoprovidecommonobjectives,standardsandbenchmarksforK‐12programsformultiplelanguages.Curriculumframeworksprovidemapsforachievingthe“outputs”ofdesiredstudentperformance,andsuggestlearningactivitiesandassessmentformatsthatmakeitmostlikelythatstudentswillachievethedesiredresults.Bycontrast,theterm“input”isusedtorefertothelanguage‐specificcontentofacourseorprogram(Richards,2013).InworkshopsorganizedbyFNESC,languageteachersandcurriculumdevelopersstronglyagreedthatbeyondframeworks,theeffectiveteachingandlearningofFirstNationslanguagesrequirescontent‐basedcurriculathatmapout,forspecificgradelevels,whatcontentwillbepresented.The2014ReportontheStatusofBCFirstNationsLanguagesunderscoresthisurgentneedforFirstNationslanguagecurriculum.Itemphasizesthatonly52percentofFirstNationscommunitieshadanykindofcurriculumforteachingtheirlanguagesinschools,andthatmanyoftheexistingcurricula“areverylimitedandhavenotbeendevelopedformanylevelsoflanguagelearners.”Thatreportalsonotes:“clearlythisisanareathatstillneedsattention.IfFirstNationslanguagesaretobetaughtaswellasanyotherlanguagetypicallytaughtinschool,curriculumisurgentlyneeded”(FPCC2014).Forteachers,thereareseveralimportantadvantagestohavingaccesstoasmuchdevelopedclassroomcontentaspossible. Curricularcontentinthelanguagefacilitatesmonthly,weeklyanddailyplanning,
helpingtoanswerkeyquestions:Whatvocabulary,phrases,sentencesandformswillstudentsbeexposedto?Whatarestudentsexpectedtobeabletodoafteracertainsetofactivitiesthathavethempracticewordsandsentences?Whatmethodsandclassroomactivitieswillbeused?Howwillstudentsbeassessed?Whathand‐outsandworksheetswillbeused?
EspeciallyiftheFirstNationslanguagegrouphasnotyetproducedtextbooks,workbooks,orotherprintordigitalmediaresources,contentor“input”basedcurriculumbinderscanfunctioninlieutheseresources.
Wheretheyhavebeendevelopedbyproficientspeakers/writersofthelanguage,curriculumdocumentsorbindersprovideauthorizedwaysofspellingwords,correct
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andappropriateuseofwords,correctsentencestructure,etc.,whichwillhelpthenoviceteacherdetermineworduse,correctandappropriategrammaticalconstruction,andspellings.
4.2AssemblingorConsolidatingYourTeamTobegin,itisnecessarytobringtogetheracurriculumdevelopmentteamtosupporttheeffortsahead.Dependingonthesituationandcircumstancesofeachcommunity,therearedifferentwaystoconvenesuchateam.Ofcrucialsignificance,fluentspeaker(s)mustberepresentedontheteam,astheycanguidethecontentdevelopmentandlendtheiradvice.Iftherearedialectsofthelanguage(eithermajordialectsor“microdialects”representingparticularvillagecommunities),italsowillbeimportanttoincluderepresentativesofeachtofullyaccountfortheirversionsofspeech.Additionally,FirstNationslanguagecurriculumdevelopmentteamsbenefitfromaresourcepersonwhohasabackgroundinlanguageteachingandlearningtheoryandmethod,andwhohasexpertiseinformulatinglearningoutcomes,assessmentformats,teachingstrategies,andclassroomactivities.Thispersonshouldhavestrongskillsinwritingthesecomponentsofcurriculum.Sometimesitworkswelltohaveanapprenticefromthecommunityassistingwiththisworkandreceivingmentorshipintheseimportantskillsfromtheseniorcurriculumdeveloper.Languagecurriculumdevelopmentteamsalsosometimesrelyonhelpfromalinguistwhohassuccessfullycollaboratedwithspeakersandhasthetrustofthecommunity.Thiscanbeespeciallyusefulwherethelinguisthasinterestandexpertiseinapplied,on‐the‐groundworkinlanguageteachingandlearning,andhasanassociatedskillset.Otherconsiderationsincludethefollowing: Itisimportanttokeepinmindthatthegroupisintendedtodothepracticalworkof
languagecurriculumdevelopment,ratherthangettingboggeddowninpoliticaldecision‐making–orwhatCohen(2010)hasidentifiedasthe“politicsofdistraction.”Itisthusbesttohaveaclearmandatefromapoliticalbody(bandcouncil,boardofdirectors).
Aworkingcommitteeof6‐10individualsisaneffectivesizetodothenecessarywork. Animportantprincipleoflanguagecurriculumdevelopmentcommitteesisthespiritof
collaboration. Itisalsoimportantforthecurriculumcommitteetohavearoleineditingandrevising
thecurriculum,perhapscollaborativelywiththelocalLanguageAuthority. Whenformulatinggoalsandobjectivesforthelanguageprogram,orinusingthe
processofcurriculumdevelopmentasawaytoenhanceexistingcontent,itisimportant
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toconsidersomeoftheissuesraisedinPart1ofthisdocumentandtodeterminewhatkindofprogramisfeasibleanddesirable.Inconsideringtheseissues,rememberthatalanguageprograminwhichwordsintheFirstNationslanguagearetaughtwhiletheteachercommunicatesinEnglishwillnotinstillanylevelofcommunicativecompetence.Similarly,aprogramwithoutampleinstructionaltimeorwithnoprogressionoflearningwilllikelynotbesuccessfulinreachingcommunicativegoals.
4.3StartingWithaNeedsAssessmentOnevitalcomponentoflanguagecurriculumplanningisaneedsassessment,whichinvolvesgatheringinformationabouttheactualstateofthelanguageinthecommunityand/orNation,togetasenseofhowmanyspeakersofthelanguageareleftandwhoisabletoactivelysupportlanguageteachingandlearningand/orassistwithdevelopingcurriculumandproducingresourcematerialsinprint,audio,videoandotherforms.Agoodstartingpointmaybeinformationalreadycollectedbythespeechcommunityand/orneighbouringspeechcommunitiesaboutthenumberofspeakers,“silentspeakers,”learners,aswellasexistingschoolprogramsandlanguageresources.FormanyFirstNations,needsassessmentsalreadyexistintheformofonlineLanguageAssessmentsprovidedtotheFPCCthroughfundingapplications(seeFPCC2014).UndertakinganeedsassessmentmayinvolvehavingacommunitydiscussionandplanningmeetingswithElders,parents,teachers,languageactivists,leaders,andyouth.Itisimportanttohearcommunitymembers’hopesregardingpresentandfuturelanguagerevitalizationefforts,theirthoughtsaboutbestwaystolearnthelanguage,andapproachestheythinkhaveworkedathome.Anotherusefulcomponentofaneedsassessmentandplanningprocessmaybejointdiscussionof“promisingpractices,”aswellasopendiscussionofhowcuttingedgeandinnovativemeasures(immersion,adultmaster‐apprenticelearning,languagenests,language‐in‐the‐homeprojects,intensiveFirstNationassecondlanguageorbilingualprograms)couldbeimplementedlocally.Thisreviewmayleadtoadiscussionaboutwhatkindsofsustainedefforts,resources,organizationsand/orinstitutionsmightbeneededforthecriticalworkahead.Aspartoftheplanningprocess,Elders,adults,youth,educatorsandothercommunitymemberscanformulatepowerfulstatementsofwhyitisimportanttokeepthelanguage–inconnectionswiththeculture–alive.CommunitymembersmayalsoreflectonandarticulatetheroleofK‐12educationinregardtothefutureofthelanguage.Leadinguptosuchadiscussion,itcouldbeusefultoshowcommunitymemberstheresourcesforcommunitylanguageprogrammingthathavebeenproducedbyFPCC(www.fpcc.ca)andbyFNESC(www.fnesc.ca).Theseresourcesaddresscommunitylanguageplanning,
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languagenests,languagecamps,Master‐Apprenticeprograms,developingaLanguageAuthority,developinggoalswithinthecommunity,andmanyotherissues.Throughtheprocessofreviewingexistinginformation,engagingincommunityconsultations,anddiscussingbestpractices,itshouldbepossibletoformulateastatementthatcanbecomeapreambletoacurriculumdocument,whicharticulatestherationaleforrevitalizingthelanguage,aswellasthevision,goalsandobjectivesfortheprogram.4.3.1DeterminingtheTypeofProgramandStartingPointIntermsofdeterminingwhatisfeasibleandwhatkindoflanguageprogramthecommunitymemberswant,itmaybeusefultoconsiderthetypesofprogramsthatcurrentlyexistandwhatispossibleunderexistingpolicies.Theseconsiderationsmayaddressthefollowingquestions. Areyouconsideringafullimmersion,partialimmersion,orbilingualprogram?Atthe
primary,elementary,middle,and/orsecondarylevels? IfitisnotfeasibletodesigncurriculumforalanguageprogramatthefullK‐12range
(recognizingthatittakesatleastseveralmonthstodevelopayear’sworthofcontentcurriculum),wherewillyoubegin?
Ifaprogramforsomegradelevelsalreadyexists,whatisthemostfeasiblewaytoenhanceit?
Whatcommunicative,task,andactivity‐basedclassroomactivitiescanbeincorporated? Whatkindoflanguageteachertraining,shortandlongterm,isrequired? Perhapstryinganinnovativeapproach,woulditbepossibletoimplementanintensive
FirstNationslanguageprogramatthegrade5or6level,followedbyasemi‐intensive,hour‐a‐dayprogramthatcontinuesthroughtoGrade12?
Giventhatfewsolutionswillbeperfect,whatisyourshort‐termandlong‐termplan?Arethereanypossible“hybrid”waystoimprovethestatusofthelanguageintheschool?
Additionalconsiderationsincludethefollowing. PublicschoolprogramsmaybeconstrainedbytheBCMinistryofEducationSecond
LanguagesPolicy,discussedinParts2and3. Forprimaryorelementaryprograms,itmaybeusefultobeginattheearliestlevel
(NurseryorK)andprogresstowardhighergradelevels. Consideringtheimportanceoftimeallocation,itwillbeimportanttorevisitthenumber
ofhoursof“guidedinstruction”requiredtoreachintermediatelevelproficiency(seePart2).Inmostschools,timeallocationstendtobeapproximately1,000hours,butto
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developindependentuser(highintermediate)proficiency,moretimewouldbeuseful.SchoolprogramsthatfallundertheBCMinistry’sSecondLanguagepolicytypicallyoffer90‐120minutesofinstructionsperweek–oftenclosertothe90minutelevel.Thislevelofinstructionamountsto60hoursorlessperyear,andevenwith13yearsofcontinuousinstruction,studentswillhavelessthan1,000hoursofguidedinstructionfromGradesK‐12.Bycontrast,ifinstructionaltimecouldamounttoatleastanhour4timesperweek,studentscouldreceiveapproximately2,000hoursintotalbetweentheelementaryandsecondarylevels–enoughtoactuallyattainhighintermediatelevelproficiencyorevengreater.
Anadditionaloption,asexplainedinPart2,mightbepartialimmersion,withahighfocusonteachingcontentthroughthemediumoftheFirstNationslanguageattheprimarylevel,followedbyagradualreductionofinstructionalcontenttosome20‐30percentbythesecondaryschoollevel.
4.4HumanResourcesNowandInTheFutureNomatterhowwelldesigned,alanguageprogram’ssuccesshingesontheavailabilityofwell‐trainedspeakersandteachersofthelanguage.Thereforeanylanguageprogramdesignmustincludeathoughtfulconsiderationofthefollowingquestions. Whathumanresourcesareavailableforteaching? Whatnumberofqualifiedlanguageteacherswillweneedin5years;in10years? Whatinstitutionsprovidethekindoftrainingweneed(DevelopmentalStandardTerm
Certificate,fullteachereducationdegreesandprofessionalcertification,effectivetraininginFirstNationslanguageandlanguagerevitalization)?
4.5TypesofCurriculumDesignDevelopingcontent‐basedcurriculumforaFirstNationslanguagecanbeapproachedindifferentways.Forexample,itcanbeginwitha“grand”or“forward”designmapofanentirescopeandsequenceplanorsyllabusforaK‐12curriculum,itcanbeundertakenoneyearoroneunitatatimeoutofthepracticeofteaching–“centraldesign,”–oritcanuse“backwardsdesign”oflearner‐basedcommunicativeobjectives.
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4.5.1GrandorForwardDesign“Grand”or“forward”designbeginsfromscratch.Withthelanguageasthesubjectmatter,contentisaccumulatedaccordingtoascopeandsequenceofthemes,withassociatedvocabulary,phrases,andculturalconceptsandincreasinglycomplexgrammaticalstructuresintegratedintothethematiccontent.Insequence,fromearlynursery/Ktoelementary,middle,andsecondaryschool,contentisorganizedaroundage‐anddevelopmentallyappropriatesubjectmatter.Subjectmatteristhenorganizedaroundlanguageteachingmethodsandactivitiesthathavebeenshowntobeeffective,andmatchedwithresources(books,video,audio,games,manipulatives,etc.)thateitherexistorneedtobeproduced.Finally,theunits,gradeandagelevelsareorganizedaroundprescribedlearningoutcomes,andperhapsareadditionallyorganizedaccordingtohowtheyrelatetobenchmarkslikethosediscussedinPart3.Derivingfromtheprescribedlearningoutcomesidentifiedforeachgradelevel,assessmentformatsaredevelopedtohelptheteacherdetermineifindividualstudentsandtheclassaremeetingtheoutcomes.Such“forward”designislinear.Itbeginswithmappingoutthelanguagecontentthatthecurriculumdevelopmentgroupwantstoinclude,andaftermappingoutthesyllabus(the“what”thatisbeingtaught),itaddressesthelanguageteachingmethodsandstrategiesthatwillbeused.Thenitformulatestheexpectedskillslearnerswilldevelop,describedaslearningoutcomesthatareconnectedtoassessmentformatsandtools.
Forwarddesignplanningbeginswithdevelopingasyllabus(orScopeandSequenceChart)asagrandmasterplanforK‐12content,whichmapsoutwhattopicsaretobetaught/learnedinwhatsequence.Thisworkwillinvolveconsiderationofthefollowing. Themesorlanguagetopics–Appendix2providesalistofcommunicativetopicsthat
learnerswillneedintheirrepertoire,includingarangeoffairlyuniversalthemes.Forexample,thematictopicsexistinvocabulary(words),buttheyalsoconnecttoconventionsofspeech(howtoorganizeastory,aspeech,modesofpolitespeech),andoptimallywillbeintegratedwithgrammaticalcomponents(seebelow).
Input(Languagecontent)
Process(LanguageteachingMethods)
Output(Learningoutcomes)
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CulturalLessons:Unitsmayalsoincludeculturallessonsabout,forexample“principles”(atermusedbytheSto:lo)or“laws”(reflectingtheSecwepemctermstsq’ey’),orayaawx(or“laws”asusedbytheTs’msyenpeopleinSm’algyax).Dependingontheobjectivesofthelanguageprogramandthelanguageskillsoftheteacher,thesecanbecommunicatedintheFirstNationslanguageusingsimplesentencesandaccompanyingimages,ortheycanbeexplainedusingEnglish.
Grammaticalforms:Formsshouldbeorderedfromelementaryorbasicmovingto
moredifficultgrammaticalformsthatcontinuouslybuilduponpreviouslylearnedsimplerforms.
AsdiscussedinPart2ofthisdocument,inbestteachingpractices,wherelessonsareconductedinthelanguage(especiallyforyoungerlearners),grammarisnottaughtasatopicinitself.Instead,theyshouldbe“focus‐on‐form”componentsoflanguageactivities,meaninggrammarstructures(suchaspronounprefixesorsuffixes,connectives,etc.)areemphasizedtoconveymeaningandaretaughtthroughgesture,repetitionandcontrast.Thisapproachwillenablelearnerstograspgrammaticalconceptsbyhearingandseeingthemrepeatedlymodeledbytheteacher.ExamplesfromXaadKilGrades1‐2Curriculum,ChiefMatthewsSchool,OldMassettExample1:Teachinginalienablepossessivepronounsusedforrelativesandbody‐parts,butnotbelongingsorotherthings
Focus-on-Form: For the teacher: unlike the possessives (“my”, “your” etc.) for things, words for relatives and body parts use a different set of possessives: Díi my Dáng your ‘ll his/her/their íitl’ our daláng you folks’ Use the possessives when reviewing the names for relatives. Show students pictures of your own relatives, name them with the possessives and the correct kinship term, pointing to yourself, and emphasizing díi.
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Example2:TeachingthemodalsuffixsGwáanang(keepondoingsomething)
Focus-on-Form For the teacher: the ending (or suffix) – sGwáanang means that an action is going on and on, or keeps going on: dii kaj guugangsGwaananggaa my head keeps hurting hlaa uu k’usangsGwáananggaa I keep on coughing, I cough on and on dii sk’alaawsGwáaanggaa I keep on having diarrhea Eli uu k’usangsGwáananggaa! Eli keeps on coughing! Mary uu sgayhlang sGwáananggaa! Mary keeps on crying. Use a hand-gesture or sign language gesture to convey the idea of “on and on” to students in sentences with sGwáanang , as you emphasize the ending sGwáanang as well. After a number of repetitions with various verbs/actions, the students will catch on what sGwáanang means. Forolderstudents,itisusefultoincludegrammarpracticeactivitiesthathelplearners:1. identifystructuresinthelanguage,likepronounsuffixes,correctwordorder,tense
markers,questionmarkers;2. applysuchstructuresinavarietyofexercises(fill‐in‐the‐blanks,unscrambling,
substitution,orperhapstranslationexercises);3. applysuchformsintargetedconversationsandbyhavingstudentscarryoutnarrations
–forexampletellingwhattheydidyesterday,narratingasequenceofeventsaccordingtopicturesoracomicstrip,etc.;and
4. listeningforandapplyingcorrectedforms,wheretheyareonlypartiallyornotyetproducingthem.
IntheearlyyearsofFrenchimmersioneducation,itwasrealizedthatyearsofimmersionalonedidnotproducenative‐likeandgrammaticallycorrectspeechinstudents.Accordingly,intensiveFrenchandFrenchimmersioneducationnowincludes“focus‐on‐form”exercisesandactivitiestohelpstudentsacquirethecorrectuseofgrammaticalforms.ThesameistrueformanyIndigenouslanguageprograms.Forexample,asKell(2014)reports,a2007assessmentofCherokeeNationprimarystudents’languageskillswhoattendedanimmersionprogram:
showedthatmoststudentscouldnotusepastorfuturetenses,orevenproduceallpresenttenseformsaccurately.Adetailedanalysisofthisassessmentdatabyfluentspeakersandlinguistsrevealedspecificknowledge
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ofCherokeelanguagestructuresthatthechildrenwerelacking,andsuggestedthatimmersionwasnotsufficientforthemtoachievelanguageproficiencywithgrammaticalaccuracy.Researchinotherimmersionsettingshashadsimilarfindings.Peter,SlyandHirata‐Edds(2011[theCherokeeresearchteam])identifiedaneedforteacherstobalancenaturalinputwithplannedopportunitiesforpracticeusingspecificlanguagefunctionsandtheirforms…The2008[studentlanguageassessment]showedthatanincreaseinform‐focusedinstructionhadledtogreaterproficiencyandaccuracyinchildren’sproductionofCherokeeverbforms.
Inthiscase,focus‐on‐formpracticeinvolvedthestepsof:a)discoveringthelinguisticrulesofCherokeegrammar,especiallyverbforms;b)planninglessonstoprovideopportunitiesforchildrentopracticesuchforms;andc)preparinglearningandteachingmaterialstoexposeandencouragestudentstousesuchformsinengagingways.4.5.2Practice‐DrivenCentralDesignAnotherwaytoembarkoncurriculumdevelopmentistobeginnotwithagrandorforwarddesignapproach,butbybuildingsmallerblocksandaddingtothemonanongoingbasis,asneeded.Manylanguageteacherstakethisapproachbasedontheirpracticalneeds,existingresources,andtheirclassroomteachingpractice.Curriculumisthusvisualizedandimplementedasclustersandsetsofclassroomactivities,withthematerialsandresourcesrequiredtocarryoutlessons.Suchcurriculumdesign(sometimescalled“centraldesign”)ismoreimmediatelyteacherandlearnerfocusedandbasedonclassroompractice.Centraldesigncanbegraphedasfollows(adaptedfromRichards,2013).
content
outcomes
assessment
content
assessment
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Inthecentraldesignmodel,thelanguageteacherleadsthecurriculumdevelopment,oftenbyunitorworkingonasinglegradelevelatatime.Theteacher’spreferencesand/orskillsinlanguageteachingapproachesandmethodsarethefocus,andtheunitsandlessonsdevelopedthroughcentraldesignareoftendeterminedbyseasonalthemesandculturalpractices(salmonmigrationandfishinginfall;birdmigrationoranimalhibernationpatterns;plantgatheringinlatespringorlatesummer).TheFirstNationsLanguageEssentialsmentionedinPart3(FNLEs)areanexampleofcentraldesign,astheyaroseoutofpractice.TheFNLEsengageTPRandCommunicativeLanguageTeaching(CLT)todevelopbasicauralandoralcommunicativeskillsbasedontwodecadesofpracticeusingTPRandCLTstrategiesinimmersionclassrooms–especiallyattheKtoGrade4level.TheFNLEprogramisdesignedtodevelopabasiclevelofcommunicativevocabularythatcanbereusedandrecombinedinmanywayssothatstudentscanproduceauthenticspeechtomeettheirowncommunicativeneeds.Initially,vocabularyisintroducedintheimperativeor“command”formsothatteachersmaybegintoteachinthelanguageimmediately,withoutresortingtoEnglish,becausethecontentiscomprehensibletothestudentsandthereisnoexpectationofanoralresponse.Asstudentsbuildvocabularyandtheirlevelof“comprehensibleinput,”teachingstrategiesexpandtoincludeTPR‐Storytellingandothercommunicativeactivities.4.5.3“BackwardsDesign”–StartingwithCompetencyLevelsYetanothertypeofcurriculumdesign–“backwardsdesign”–beginsnotwiththelanguageanditscontent,butinsteadwithcommunicativeoutcomesasexpressedinexistingcurriculumframeworksandbenchmarks.Thisapproachbeginsbyaskingwhatlearnersshouldbeabletounderstandordoregardlessofwhatactivitiesortestsareused,whatistheevidenceofsuchability,andthereforewhattexts,activitiesandmethodswillbestenablesucharesult(WigginsandMcTighe2006,citedinRichards2013).In“backwardsdesign,”thefocusisonhowtocreatecompetencylevelsinlearners,whichisarticulatedaccordingtoanumberofauthentic“survivaltasks.”ForFirstNations,culturallyimportantauthenticsurvivaltasksmightinvolve:communicationanddialoguerelatedtorelatives,theirwell‐beingandwhereabouts;introducingandaskingaboutfamily;cookingameal,preparingtraditionalfoods,visitinganolderrelative,cleaninghouse,traditionalsubsistencetasks;etc.Suchcompetencies,accordingtotopicsandtasks(brokeninto“CanDo”statements),arethenmatchedwithlanguagecontent(vocabulary,grammar)inspeaking,listening,readingandwriting.Instructionalmaterials–eitherinprint,electronicmedia,videooraudio–are
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chosenoridentifiedasneeded.Thecurriculumdevelopersalsodeterminewhichofthefourareas(speaking,listening,readingandwriting)shouldhavepriority.Overall,thesequenceofcurriculumdesigninacompetency‐basedapproachor“backwardsdesign”canbevisualizedasfollows(fromRichards2013).
Inthismodel,thecurriculumdevelopmentteambeginsbyconsideringwhatkindsofcompetencylevelsthegroupexpectsaslearnersprogress.Suchmappingoutofemergentcompetenceorproficiencyinthelanguagecanbeadaptedfromexistinglanguagebenchmarkdocuments,likethosediscussedinPart3.Forexample,theDraft2011CoreFrenchIntegratedResourcePackageusesCEFRbenchmarkstoguidelearnersthroughnumerouslevelsinlistening,speaking,readingandwritingskills.Asstudentsreacheachbenchmark,theyareassessedonthebasisoftasksthey“CanDo.”Belowareafewexamplesoflisteningandspeaking“CanDo’s”adaptedfromMaxwell(AIMLanguageLearning,2011).SAMPLECANDOExamplesA1–Listening Iunderstandthewordsthattheteacherusesallthetime.[suggestion:listthesewordsin
yourcurriculumdocument] Iunderstandshortandeasyphrasesandquestions[suggestion:listthem] Iunderstandthephrasestheteacheruseseverydaywhentalkingtotheclass
[suggestion:listthese!] Iunderstandtheactionstheteachermakes Iunderstandthewordstosongswesinginclassandstoriesourclassislisteningto
A1Speaking(interaction) IcansaywordsIhaveheardmanytimesbeforeinveryshortandsimplephrases IcansaywhereIliveandwhomyimmediatefamilymembersare Whenthepersonspeaksveryslowly,Icanrespondtosimplequestions Icanasksimplequestions
outcomes syllabus materials teachingassessment
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Formanypeople,especiallythosewhohavepreviouslyengagedinIRPdevelopment,theseCanDo’swillbefairlyfamiliar;inlargepart,theyreflecttheprescribedlearningoutcomestatementsastheyexistedinpreviousiterationsofcurriculum.Inwritingandassessing“CanDo’s”adaptedfromEnglishorFrenchlanguage,itisimportingtonotesomeculturalconstraints,suchasdifferentconventionsofspeech.Forexample: ItcouldberudeforachildtointerruptorbeperceivedasinterruptinganElder(e.g.
teacher).Itcouldalsobeconsideredrudeforayoungerlearnertointerruptorcorrectanolderlearner(evenifthelearnersareanoldersibling).
AccordingtomanyFirstNations’conventions,whilepeoplespeakcasuallyaboutthemselves,thepreferredconversationtendstonotemphasizeself,butinsteadtovalidateothers.Accordingly,fromaFirstNationsperspective,focusedtalkonMeisinconflictwithsocialnormsofdiminishingselfforreasonsofsocialinteraction.Therefore,whiletalkofpreferences,likes,wantsandinterestsareoftenemphasizedinIRPsand“CanDo”statements,suchtalk(asquestionsanddeclarativesentences)isnotahighfrequencytopicinauthenticFirstNationslanguagediscourse.
Correctingsomeoneexplicitly(orbeingperceivedtodoso)canbeconstruedasviolatingaperson’ssocialspace,andthemoreauthenticwayofcorrectingapersonmaybeteachingthroughastory(see,forexample,Basso,1995).
WhileTPRhasproventobeausefulandproductivemethodinmanyFirstNationslanguageclassrooms,somespeakersconsiderbasicimperativeformsaslackinginpoliteness(althoughtheymaybeappropriateatleastwithyounglearners).
Intheend,“CanDo’s”areusefulwaystoshowlearners’progress,buttheycannotbesimplytranslatedfromEnglishorFrench‐basedCEFRorCLBstatements;instead,theymusttakeintoaccountculturalnormsandconventionsofhowprotocolsbetweenself,others,community,society,andalllivingthingsareconstruedinparticularlanguages.4.6MakingaCasefor“ScriptedCurriculum”AsdiscussedinPart1,secondlanguagelearnersor“semi‐fluent”speakersareincreasinglyactingasteachersinFirstNationslanguageclassrooms.Therefore,manypresentandfuturelanguageteachersarestillimprovingtheirlanguageproficiencyandcouldbenefitfromdetailed,“scripted”curriculumthatlistsnotonlylearningoutcomes,teachingstrategies,assessmentsandresources,butalsoprovidesthedetailedcontentofwhatistaughtinthelanguage(vocabulary,phrasesas“frame‐sentences,”stories,TPRexercises,dialogue,“focus‐on‐form”exercises).Ideally,thewholedocumentwouldbeintheFirstNationslanguage,butthismaybeinfeasible.
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“Scriptedcurriculum”alsocanincludethequestions,prompts,instructions,andothersentencesforunit‐basedandrecurrentactivities(weather,calendar,time,season,crafts,clean‐up,turn‐taking,games)thatthenot‐yet‐fluentteachercanuseinordertoconductlessonsinthelanguageasmuchaspossible.Suchscriptedcurriculumworksmostefficientlyifitalsoexistsassoundfilerecordingsthattheteachercanlistentoandpracticewhenpreparingforlessons.Itisimportanttocontinuallybuild“teachertalk”andclassroomcommunicationrepertoireastheteachergainsmoreconfidenceinconductinglessonsinthelanguage,andaslessonsreachhighergradesandbecomeincreasinglycomplex.Agoodexampleofdetailed“scriptedcurriculum”thatdoesnotlimittheteacher’sverbalinteractionswithstudentsarethebindersproducedbyAIMlanguagelearning(www.aimlanguagelearning.ca).ForFirstNationslanguages,theSm’algyaxPrimaryCurriculum(GradesK‐4)andtheChiefMatthewsSchoolcurriculumprovideadditionalexamplesofwaystoincludedetailedcommunicativecontentinthelanguage,aswellasthe“teachertalk”necessaryforcarryingoutavarietyofclassroomactivities,includinggames,crafts,cleaningup,turn‐takingetc.(seebelow).ForOkanagan(Nsilxcen),thePaulCreekLanguageAssociationhasdevelopeddetailedsetsofcurriculathatengageavarietyofmethodologieswithdetailedcontentinthelanguage.Seehttp://www.interiorsalish.com.
ExamplesofLanguageCurriculumDevelopmentTheSm’algyaxCommitteehasengagedinSm’algyax(CoastTsimshian)curriculumdevelopmentwithDr.M.Ignacesincethelate1990s.Followingcommunityconsultations,aSm’algyaxGrades5‐12programwasimplementedinallschoolsofthedistrictin1997‐98,beginningwithaGrade5curriculum.Between1999and2006,onetotwoyearsofcurriculumbinderswereaddedannuallyuptothegrade12level,withanIRPdevelopedin2001andabeginnersGrade11course,asstipulatedbytheIRP,developedatthesametime.In2007,theSm’algyaxAuthorityandschooldistrict52alsoembarkedonaK–Grade4Sm’algyaxprogram,whichledtothedevelopmentofcurriculumbindersforthoselevels.WiththefirststudenttocompletetheK‐4programnowhavingmovedtoGrades5and6,thecurriculaforGrades5‐12arebeingadaptedtoreflectthepriorK‐4languageskillsofstudents.Eachcurriculumbinderincludesunitsfora10‐monthyear,inmostcasesorganizedaroundthe“Ts’msyenSeasonalRound”(seasonalroundsaredescribedmorebelow).Eachunitincludesunit‐specificlearningoutcomes,particulartopicswithvocabulary,stories,dialogue,andotherlanguagecontent,aswellasteachingstrategiesandclassroomactivities,worksheets,studentexercises,andstudentassessmentformats.ChiefMatthewsSchoolinOldMassettisaFirstNationsschoolwithXaadKil(Haidalanguage)instruction,includinglearningonthelandasanimportantcomponentoftheschool’sobjectives.LedbytheXaadKilteacherRhondaBell,anadvancedlearnerofthelanguage,alongwithanassistant,thefocusisonteachingcommunicativecontentinthe
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language,ratherthanusingEnglishwhileteachingHaidawordsandsentences.TheschoolcomprisesNursery,KandGrades1‐5.Studentsreceive45minutesofinstructioninXaadKilperday,basedoncommunicationalmostentirelyinthelanguage.TheschoolbeganwithaNursery/Kcurriculumin2007/2008,addinganadditionalsplitgradeyearofcurriculumannuallyuntilGrade3/4wascompletedin2011.Thecurriculumwasproducedoutofinitialdiscussionofcross‐curriculargoalsandcontentbetweentheHaidalanguageteacher,RhondaBell,theschoolprincipal,andthecurriculumdeveloper(M.Ignace).Subsequently,thelanguageteacherandcurriculumdevelopermappedoutayearlongsequenceofthemesandlanguagecontent.Thedetailsofcommunicativecontent(teachertalk,classroomroutines,TPRsequences,shortstoriestaughtwithTPR‐S,games,craftsandotherhands‐onlessons,weresubsequentlyrecordedinsoundandtextwithfluentElders,mostofwhomarenowdeceased.Duetotheageofspeakersandlogistics,contentwasrecordedduringsome80hoursofsessionspersplitgradewithElderfluentspeakers.4.7TheRoleofLiteracyinK‐12EducationAnimportantconsiderationindevelopingFirstNationslanguagecurriculumistheroleofliteracyskills(readingandwriting).ManyEldersandfluentspeakerswhoareinvolvedindevelopingFirstNationsassecondlanguage(FNSL)programsstronglyadvocateorallanguageeducationintheearlygrades(e.g.K‐Grade4),withthegradualintroductionoftheorthographyofthelanguageataroundtheGrade5level.Intheintermediatelevels(Grades5‐7),readingandwritingpracticebecomesthefocusof30–50percentofinstruction,whilecontinuingtofocusatleast50percentofinstructionaltimeonorallanguageskills.Similarly,theFNLEdiscussedabovebeginwithorallanguageonly,initiallyfocusedoncomprehensionaloneandsubsequentlyintroducingspokenlanguagelearningoutcomesandassessmentbenchmarksafterthefirst150hoursofinstruction.TheChiefAtahmSecwepemcimmersionprogramisalsohighlyfocusedonorallanguageintheprimarygrades,althoughstudentsareintroducedtopre‐literacyandearlyliteracyinstructioninSecwepemctsin,andtheyareexpectedtotransfertheirliteracyskillstoEnglishliteracybyGrade4,atwhichpointteachingEnglishlanguageartsandothersubjectsinEnglishbegins.ManyFirstNationslanguageteachersnonethelessliketodisplaylabeledpictures,charts,visuals,andpostersintheclassroom,whichwillintroducestudentsgraduallytothewrittenlanguagefromanearlyage,withoutmakingreadingandwritingskillspartoflearningoutcomesandassessment.Inthisway,pre‐literacyandliteracyisatacitpartoftheearlyprimaryFirstNationslanguageclassroom,whenmanychildrenarenaturallycuriousaboutthewrittenlanguage.
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4.8AccommodatingDifferentDialectsMostFirstNationslanguagesinBChavetwoormoredialectscharacterizedbyaslightlydifferentpronunciationofwords,andoftenbythereplacementofcertainsoundswithothers.Dialect‐baseddifferencesinspeechidentifyspeakersasmembersofparticularcommunitiesorareaswithintheirterritories,andactasmarksofcollectivelocalidentity.Variousoptionsexisttoincorporatedialectdiversity.Forexample,SecwepemclanguagecurriculumwasdevelopedforGradesK‐4and11/12inthelate1990sbyacommitteethatconsistedofsevenspeakersfromtheFirstNationsrepresentedinSchoolDistrict73(Kamloops–NorthThompson),alongwithM.JulesandM.Ignace.TheEldersinitiallyfeltthateachofthesevenspeechcommunities(fourofthemrepresentingtheWesternDialectofSecwepemctsin,andthreerepresentingtheEasternDialect)shouldhavetheirownversionofthecurriculum.Thiscouldbedonefairlyeasilybykeepingtrackofthesmallnumberofdifferentwordsandphrasesassociatedwitheachspeechcommunity.OncetheEldersrealizedhowsmallthedifferenceswere,theypreferredtonotethedifferentwordsusedinsomecommunities,buttomakeonlyanEasternSecwepemcandaWesternSecwepemcversionofthecurriculum.InthecaseoftheSouthernTutchonecurriculum,developedin2010bytheYukonGovernmentinpartnershipwiththeChampagne‐AishihikFirstNation,thegroupproducedasinglecurriculumdocument,whilenotingandaudio‐recordingwordsandphrasesineachofthethreelocaldialectswheretheydiffered.4.9CommunicativeTopicsorThemesWhatevertypeofcurriculumdesignbeingused,itisalwaysusefultodeterminewhatcommunicativetopicsmatterforyourlanguage,culture,andpresentandfuturespeakers.Appendix3providesalistoftopicstoconsider.Thefollowingtipsalsomaybehelpful. Meaningfulconnectionscanbemadebetweenthemeorcontentandgrammaticalform.
Forexample,learningaboutrelativescanincorporatepersonalpronounmarkers(formy,your,his/her,our).Insomelanguages,pronounmarkersforrelativesandbodypartsdifferfrompronounmarkersforone’spossessionsandthings.Learningaboutgoingplaces(placesinthevillage,intown,houses)caninvolvepost‐positionsorprepositions(infront,behind,beside,above,below,etc.).
Itmaybeusefultoconsiderlevelsofdifficultyingrammarorvocabularyassociatedwithcommunicatingabouttopics,andhowtheyrelatetosuggestionsaboutfocusingonhigh‐frequencyvocabularyandphrases.
Sometopicsaremoresuitableforcertainagelevels. Akeyconsiderationistheculturalrelevanceandtheinterestthatthecontentwill
generate.
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Itiscommontobeginwithfamiliartopicslikemakingintroductions,tellingaboutone’sfamily,foods,“bodyparts,”clothing,community,etc.,buteachgroupshoulddecidewhatismostfitting(seeFNLEsasanexample).
Itisusefultoincludeonlyalimitedamountofcontent(vocabulary,grammaticalform)ineachthemeunit.Forexample,whenfirstintroducingwordsforrelatives,itisnotnecessarytoincludeallofthekinshiptermsthatexistinyourlanguage;instead,beginattheintroductorylevelwiththeeighttotenmostcommonandage‐relevantterms.Thetopicoffamilyandkinshipcanberevisitedlater,addingnewtermsincrementally.Keepinmindthatstudentswillnotbeabletoretainmorethan3‐4wordsperlesson,andtimeisalsoneededforreview.
Whendesigningthemeunitsandcontent,includeavarietyofwordclassesandphrases,ratherthanjustnounvocabulary.
4.10DevelopingCurriculumBindersandBreakingtheYearIntoUnitsBasedonthetypeofdesignbeingused(forward,central,backward,oracombination),thecurriculumteamshouldchunkthesyllabusorbenchmarksintoageandgradelevelcurriculumbindersthatreflectlearningoutcomesorbenchmarksspecifictoeachlevel.Asmentionedabove,whendevelopingthematicunitsandlessons,manyteamsuseaseasonalroundapproachbasedonthetraditionalnamesofmonths(moons),andontraditionalresourcegatheringactivitiesthroughouttheseasons.BelowisanexamplefromtheGrade3Sm’algyaxCurriculumbinderdevelopedbySchoolDistrict52AboriginalEducationServicesandtheSm’algyaxAuthority.Itbreaksayeardowninto10thematicunits,withassociatedcontent.Example:Grade3Sm’algyaxataGlance
Month Themes Ha’lilaxsimaay - September
Ha’lilaxsimaay – the berry month, or month of blueberries; berry words and phrases.
Questions and answers surrounding the Seasonal Round Poster and booklet for Ha’lilaxsimaay (September)
Review of some classroom words, question words and short sentences for describing where things are in the classroom.
Optional review activity: my family Ha’lilaxsits’a’ax - October
Ksuut - Fall time – questions and answers about changes in nature occurring in fall
Ha’lilaxsits’a’ax– the cockle month: showing and telling about gaboox (cockles).
Question and answer activities with the Seasonal Round Poster and Booklet for Ha’lilaxsigaboox (October).
Introducing the Beaver and Porcupine Story: Noun and action vocabulary, and the plot of the story.
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Optional: Review of Halloween Words. Ha’lilaxsigaboox - November
Ha’lilaxsigaboox – the month for digging clams. Questions and answers around the Seasonal Round Poster and booklet for
Ha’lilaxsits’a’ax Dm liitsgm - Review of Sm’algyax Counting 1 - 10, and counting in 10’s to
100 Action words and sentences for climb, swim, walk, dive, jump and directionals
up (man) and down (tgi) Ha’lilikluulgit - December
The Seasonal Rounds Poster and Booklet for Ha’lilikluulgit Words for Christmas things (review) Decorating a Christmas Tree – based on a 10 sentence TPR action routine that
includes prompts for getting a tree, putting it up, decorating it with different colour ornaments and lights.
Making a Christmas Card with a Christmas message in Sm’algyax New and Review Christmas Songs
Ha’lisuwiiliinsk - January
The meaning of Ha’lisuwiliinsk: the month when people trap animals Ha’lisuwiliinsk in the Ts’msyen Seasonal Round – Questions and answers Counting animals with the animal counting system (review) Describing the tracks of Beaver and Porcupine Song: The Bear went over the Mountain in Sm’algyax
Ha’ligisi’yaask - February
Ha’liwilgisi’yaask, the North Wind Month More words and phrases for winter, snow and cold The Seasonal Round Poster and booklet for Ha’liwilgisi’yaask Learning about emotions (Beaver and Porcupine) Winter weather and dressing warm (optional review activity) Making a Valentine’s card with a Sm’algyax message
Ha’lilaxsiẅah - March
The seasonal theme of the month is ‘ẅah - ooligans Questions and answers about the Seasonal Round Poster and booklet for
Ha’lilaxsi’ẅah Habitat or “playgrounds” for beaver and porcupine Where do you live? – human dwellings and comparing beaver and porcupine
habitat with human dwellings Further optional review materials for this month will deal with vocabulary,
questions and phrases that deal with spaces and places in the house. Ha’lilaxsis’waanax – April
Xs’waanax – Herring Roe on hemlock boughs The Seasonal Rounds poster and booklet for Ha’lilaxsis’waanax – asking and
responding to questions about the pictures. Words and phrases for spring Drawing a map or picture of beaver’s house and habitat or of their own
neighbourhood (creative activity) Review of counting words for people Song: K’bool K’abatgüüłk
Ha’lilaxsiła’ask The Seasonal Theme of the Month: ła’ask – Seaweed The Seasonal Round Poster for Ha’lilåxsiła’ask – asking questions and giving
answers about people, things, actions and places in the pictures Review: Foods we eat Foods of beavers and porcupines – asking and telling what foods they like and
don’t like, and naming them
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Expressing likes and dislikes (as negative sentences) about foods. Ha’lilaxsimaḵ’ooxs Traditional theme – maḵ’ooxs (salmonberries)
Questions and answers about the Seasonal Round Poster and booklet Summer weather The Seasonal Rounds Posters and booklets for July and August Going for a Nature Walk (Review Activity) Telling what I will do in summer
Wheretheseasonalround–whichintheSm’algyaxprogramiswellsupportedbyasetofposters,accompanyingbookletsandlearningresources–providestheculturalframeworkfortheorganizationofthemeunitsandtheircontent,thechallengeforcurriculumdevelopersistodevelopadditionalcontentformoreadvancedlearnersthatwillenablereview,whileatthesametimeaddingmorecomplexvocabulary,grammaticalstructures,andculturalknowledge.Anotheroptionistoorganizethematicunitsaroundseasons(Fall,Winter,Spring,Summer),ortouseacombinationofseasonalactivities(weather,hunting,fishing,gathering,trappingandtraditionalecologicalknowledge,gardening,seasonalfoods,observationsofseasonalchangesamonganimals,plantsandtheland)andeverydayvocabulary(familyandrelatives,humanbodyandhygiene,clothing,food,utensils).TheSouthernTutchonecurriculumdevelopedwithChampagne‐AihishikFirstNationEldersandeducatorsincludesaseasonalroundsapproachthatfeatureslessonsaboutfallfreeze‐up,hibernationofanimals,birdmigrations,wintercelebrations,andinlatewintertoearlysummer,thereturnofbirdsandfowl,animals“comingout”ofhibernation,andthecomingofspringandearlysummer.Inthewintermonths,indoorlessonsaboutcommonthemeslikeclothing,body,inthehouse,etc.wereaddedtotheunits.4.10.1UnitDevelopmentasaWebThegraphbelow,fromtheSm’algyaxGrade3Curriculum,providessomeorientationforhowtomapoutaunitbasedonatheme.Inthiscase,thethemeunitencompassesthreetofourmonthsoftheschoolyear.Itisaweb‐likesetoftopicsthatderivedfromtheBeaverandPorcupine(Sts’ooldiłAwta)story,awell‐knownadaawxororaltraditionthatexistsinvariousversionsastranscribedrecordingsfromdeceasedTs’msyenElders,andasablackandwhiteillustratedbookletinSm’algyaxwithEnglishtranslation.Sts’ooldiłAwtaisawidelyknownadaawxnotsubjecttocrestorotherlocalgroupownershiprestrictions,whichmakesitagoodchoiceforuseinschoolcurriculum.Likemanyadaawx,itismulti‐dimensionalinthatitincludesmessagesthatpertaintosocialandmoralprotocols,traditionalecologicalknowledge(animalcharacteristicsandhabitat),weather,seasons,andgeography.
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TheSm’algyaxCommitteeundertookthefollowingstepstomakeSts’ooldiłAwtathecornerstoneofatheme‐basedunit–inspiredbyAIMLanguagelearningthemeunits.1. Reviewedandeditedthestoryfromversionspreviouslyrecorded,andpareditdownto
simplelanguagewithoutcompromisingtheessentialsofplotandmessage(arelativelycomplextask).
2. Recordedthepared‐downstoryandanaccompanyingsongforteacheruse(teachersthemselvesbenefittedfromlearningandmemorizingthestory,especiallysinceseveralofthemwerenotyetfluentspeakers).
3. ConsideredvocabularyandgrammaticalformspreviouslytaughtinGradesK‐2Sm’algyax,andisolatedandlistedstoryvocabularytobepre‐taughtoverseverallessonswithTPRandTPR‐Storytellingmethodology.
4. Developedageandlearnerappropriateteachingstrategiesandclassroomactivitiesforengagingstudentsinlearningthestoryoverthecourseofseveralsessions.
5. Brainstormedrelatedorextensionthemesandactivitiesthatflowfromthestory.6. Developedvocabulary,phrasetypes(questionsandanswers,descriptions),andfocus‐
on‐form(grammar)elementsforeachoftheextensionthemes,andorganizedtheseintoasequence.
7. Developedteachingstrategiesandclassroomactivities(communicativeoralcontent,artsandcraftsactivities,games)fortheextensionactivities.
8. WiththehelpoftheeditedstoryandanexistingEnglishstory‐theatreversion,developedaSm’algyaxstory‐theatreversion,anddevelopedteachingstrategiesandclassroomactivitiesforanend‐of‐unitperformance.
9. Laidoutlearningoutcomesfortheunitbasedonevidenceofstudents’understandingandproductionofwordsandphrases,understandingofplotandmessage,andparticipationinstorytellingandtheextensionactivities.
10. Basedonlearningoutcomes,developedavarietyofassessmentstrategiesaimedatgatheringinformationthroughobservationandcheck‐listtestingofstudents’oralcomprehensionandproductionoflanguagecontent,andbasedonportfoliosofstudents’creativeworksandparticipationinclassroomactivities.
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4.10.2DevelopingContentforUnitsEachtopicshouldincludeall,oratleastmost,ofthefollowing. “Teachertalk,”orcommunicativecontentproducedbytheteacherusingprompts,
props,visuals,role‐playandactions. Dialogueorconversation,whichintheearlygradescanbemodeleddialoguewith
puppets. TPRexercises(TPR’ingnewvocabularywiththehelpofpropsandphraseslike“goto
the…”,“pointto…,”“showme…,”“goandget…,”“givexthe….,”etc.). Story/narrativeaboutthetopic,usingprintandaudio,comics,TPR‐Sexercises. Atraditionalstoryinlanguageappropriatetothelearners’level,likeaRavenorCoyote
story.Atthebeginnertointermediatelevel,thismayneedtobeapareddownversionofthefullstory,whichwillrequiresometime,discussionandpreparation,becausethebasicsoftheplotshouldnotbechanged.
Games,includingphysicalactivitygames,boardgames,flashcardgames,guessinggames–someforwholeclass,someaspartnerorsmallgroupactivities.
Video(s). VocabularyGlossary(notonlynounvocabulary,butALLwordcategories‐adjectives,
verbs,adverbs,demonstratives,directivesetc.,plusaffixesthatexpressverbtenses,modality,applicatives,control),withicons,photos,pictures,andflashcards.Theglossaryshouldnotbeprovidedtolearnersasawordlist,butinsteadshouldguidetheteachertobreakdowncontentintochunkstobepre‐taughtandtaughtusingvariousstrategies(question‐answerswiththehelpofrealitems,pictures,TPRcommands,etc.).
Culturalcontext,includinginterestingfactsinprint,video,graphics,andphotos. Grammarorfocus‐on‐formactivities.Theincreasedlevelofcomplexityofgrammarthat
isbeingtaughtcanbetrackedthroughamastersyllabuswithatableofgrammartopics
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connectedtocommunicativecompetence(seeAppendix4),orthroughalistingofgrammartopicsconnectedto“CanDo”statementsandbenchmarks.
Exercises(oral[listeningandspeaking]andwritten[readingandwriting]). Learningoutcomesfortheunit,basedonthecontent,activities,vocabulary,focus‐on‐
form,orgrammartopicsandexercises/activitiesoffered.Learningoutcomesshouldcompletethestem“aftercompletingthisunit,studentsshouldbeableto…,”andtheyshoulduseconcretewaystomeasurethetasks.Forexample,theycanincludeverbslike“beabletosayx,”“beabletodox,”“respondtoquestionsaboutybydoing/sayingz,”ratherthanusingvaguewordslike“appreciate,”whicharedifficulttomeasure.
Assessmenttoolsthatarebasedonmeasuringifandtowhatdegreelearnersareabletoperformthelanguagetaskslistedinthelearningoutcomes.
4.10.3LessonPlanningfromUnitsFortheSm’algyaxcurriculum,thecurriculumdevelopmentgroupdeveloped13gradelevelcurriculumbinders(K‐Grade12),eachwitheightto10unitspartiallybasedontheseasonalround,alongwithage‐andgrade‐levelappropriatecommunicativetopics.Inaddition,themes,communicativetopicsandsampleassessmentstrategiesdevelopedfortheSm’algyaxIRPatthestartofthecurriculumdevelopmentprocessalsoprovidedguidanceforthemes.Asteachers,teamsoffluentspeakers,andteamteachers19wereteachingspecificgradelevels,theybrokedownthecurriculumunitsintoasetoflessonsaccordingtotheamountofinstructionaltimeavailable.Withthehelpofwrittenlessonplans,teachersaddedoradaptedclassroomactivitiestoincludeparticularprops,resourcesandgamestheyhadretrieved.Lessonplanningalsoprovidedauseful“realitycheck”fortheusefulnessofthecontent–whetheritengagedlearners,andwhetherthecontentwastoodifficultortooeasy.Suchconsiderationsrepresentedassessmentforlearning,andsubsequentlyinformedfurthereditingofthecurriculumbinders.4.11IssuesRelatedtoCopyrightandIntellectualPropertyRightsIndevelopingandprintingacurriculumframework(likeonebasedontheBCLanguagesTemplate)orlanguage‐specificcontent‐basedcurriculumbinders,itisimportanttoconsidertheissueofhowtoprotectyourcopyrightandtheintellectualpropertyrightsofyourproduct.Note:copyrightaddressestherighttomakecopiesofpublishedworks(art,
19InSchoolDistrict52,manyclassroomsengageateamoffluentspeakerand“teamteacher”,thelatterbeingacertifiedteacherwhoisnotyetfluentintheFirstNationslanguage,buthoninghis/herlanguageskillsastheyco‐teachwiththefluentspeakerandastheypreparelessonsandreviewcontent.
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music,film/video,text),inprintordigitally,butnottherighttotheknowledgecontainedintheproduct.Inrecentyears(1997‐2012),Canadiancopyrightlawhasbeenamendedwithafocusonallowingnot‐for‐profitcopying.Also,governanceofcopyingforeducationaluseisdifferentiatedfromfor‐profitusebysomeexemptions.Inmanycases,makinganindividualcopyofadocumentforpersonal,non‐forprofitpurposesisallowed,butcopyingforfurtherdistributionisnot.Thisprincipleappliestocurriculumusingsamplesofotherpeople’swork,orworksheetsandexercisesfromexistingworks.Inordertousematerialsfromexistingworks(beyondcitingandquotingsources),writtenpermissionfromthepublisherisrequired.IncopyrightingFirstNations’curriculum,itiscrucialtoconsiderinwhosenamethecopyrightisstated–consideringwhetheritshouldbethelocallanguageauthority,aFirstNationsorganizationthatsponsoredthecurriculum,theFirstNationsschool,aschooldistrict,orsomecombination.Permissions,ifany,relatedtowhocanmakecopiesoftheproductandforwhatpurposes,shouldalsobeclearlystated.WhenFirstNationslanguageIRPdevelopmentthroughtheBCMinistryofEducation’sLanguages5to12Templatebeganinthelate1990s,FirstNationsorganizationsinsistedonretainingthecopyrighttotheirFirstNationslanguageIRPs,reflectingtheperspectivethatneitherthelanguagecontentnorthedocumentshouldbecopyrightedorownedbytheprovinceofBC.Accordingly,whiletheBCMinistryofEducationmakesmostofitsIRPsforcoreacademicsubjectsavailablefordownloadonitswebsite,FirstNationslanguageIRPsarenotincluded,astheircopyrightlieswiththeFirstNationsorganizationsthatproducedthem.AnexceptionistheKwak’walaIRP,whichisavailableonline,althoughitiscopyright‐protectedinthenameoftheorganizationsthatproducedit.
Beyondcopyrightasrelatedtocopyingadocument,itmaybeimportanttoprotecttheintellectualpropertyrightstotheproduct.Intellectualpropertyrightsare“legally
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recognizedexclusiverightstocreationsofthemind.”Underintellectualpropertylaws,ownersaregrantedcertainexclusiverightstoavarietyofintangibleassets,suchasmusical,literary,andartisticworks;discoveriesandinventions;andwords,phrases,symbols,anddesigns.Commontypesofintellectualpropertyrightsincludecopyright,trademarks,patents,industrialdesignrights,tradedress,andinsomejurisdictions,tradesecrets(seeWikipedia–intellectualpropertyrights).WhileUNDRIP(althoughnotlegallybindinginCanada)addressestheprotectionofIndigenousintellectualpropertyrights,CanadianlawdoesnotspecificallyprotectFirstNationsintellectualpropertyrights.However,inanticipationoffuturelegislation,somewordingofFirstNations’intellectualpropertyrightscouldserveasusefulmodels.Forexample,agroupofresearchersworkingwiththeShuswapNationTribalCouncildevelopedwordingtoassertSecwepemcintellectualpropertyrightstoprintanddigitalculturalandlinguisticproducts.VariousFirstNationsgroupsthathavedevelopedpublicationsandcurriculumdocumentshavesinceadoptedsimilarwording.TheSm’algyaxCommittee,forexample,adoptedthefollowingwordinginitsstatementofintellectualpropertyandcopyright.
Inaddressingtheissueofcopyrightandintellectualpropertyrights,FirstNationslanguagecurriculumdevelopersmayalsowanttoconsiderthefollowingquestions.• Whatareourownlegaltraditionsrelatedtoquoting,acknowledging,protecting,and
celebratingtheknowledgeofindividualsandgroups?• Inwhosenameshouldourcurriculumbecopyrightprotected?OurHereditaryChiefs,
FirstNationsgovernment,culturalcentreororganization,Elderswhocontributedtheir
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information,aFirstNationsschoolorschooldistrict,orinpartnershipbetweenanumberofgroups(e.g.theKwak’walaIRP)?
• Howcanwecreateeffectivecopyrightandintellectualpropertyrightsstatementstoprotectourexistingandfuturerights?
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CONCLUSIONSThisdocumentcontainsinformationandideastosupportdiscussionsbyFNESC,theBCMinistryofEducation,FirstNationscommunitiesandschools,andpublicschooldistrictsaboutasuitableandimprovedcurriculumframeworkforFirstNationslanguages.ThisguidesuggeststhattheBCMinistryofEducation’sK‐12secondlanguagepolicyisinsufficientforFirstNationslanguages.AsnotedinPart1,theveryfutureofFirstNationslanguagesinBChangsbyathread,withFirstNationsElders,languageactivists,andlearnersofdifferentagesworkinghardtostemthetideoflanguageloss.Giventhiscontext,K‐12FirstNationslanguageeducationcanhaveameaningfulroleinlanguage(re)vitalization,butthepremisesforhowFirstNationslanguagesaretaughtneedtobeimprovedandvalidated.AnadditionalurgentissueistheneedtoencourageandsupporttheengagementofFirstNationsadultsinacceleratedlanguagelearning,particularlyfacilitatinghighlevelsofproficiencyinthecomingyears.WithoutacriticalnumberofhighlyfluentFirstNationsadultspeakersitwillnotbepossibletosustainK‐12FirstNationslanguageprogramsthatwillenablechildrenandyouthtoattainproficiencyandthereforebuildanothergenerationofpeoplewhocanuseFirstNationslanguagesincommunication.Indeed,wemustmakeeveryefforttosecurethefluent,creativeandcompetentuseofourbeautifulandamazinglanguages.
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Appendix1:CommunicativeObjectivesandGrammaticalConceptsPreparedbyMarianneIgnace,PhDSecwepemctsinlanguageteachers,eldersandcommunitymembershavestatedthatproficiencyinSecwepemctsinisadesiredgoalforaschoolprograminlocalschools.Inordertomeetthisgoal,itisusefultodefineparticularcommunicativeobjectiveswhichstudentsofthelanguageneedtomeet,andtodefinewhatgrammaticalconceptsofSecwepemctsinstudentswillneedtoknowandmasterbytheendofGrade12inordertobeconsideredproficientinthelanguage.Thetablesbelowbreakdownessentialcommunicativeobjectivesandgrammaticalconceptsintospecificcomponents.Theyalsolayoutasequencefromexposuretoaconcept,toworkingonit,andtoeventualmasterywhichstudentsshouldreachbeforeorbytheendofGrade12.Thus,foreachcommunicativeobjectiveandgrammaticalconcept,thechartindicatesatwhichgradelevelaconceptisintroduced,thenworkedonandeventuallymasteredbythestudent.Itiscrucialthatcurriculummaterialswhichwillbedevelopedinthefuturewillenforcethepracticeoftheconceptslistedbelowthroughavarietyofteachingstrategies,throughavarietyofresources,includingprint,audio‐,video‐,audiovisual,computer‐multimedia,hands‐onmaterials,andliveresources(teachersandelders),andthroughavarietyofassessmentstrategies.TheIntegratedResourcePackageLanguagesTemplate5‐12bytheBCMinistryofEducation,SkillsandTrainingsuggestsavarietyoflearningoutcomes,instructionalstrategies,andassessmentstrategieswhichwouldallowforthis.Inaddition,theexistingSecwepemctsinGrades11Beginners’andGrade12CurriculumGuides,aswellasexistingCurriculummaterialsforSecwepemctsin4‐10,andfutureCurriculumGuidesforthesegradelevelswillprovidefurtherdetailedlearningoutcomes,instructionalandassessmentstrategiestomeettheseobjectives.Instatinggrammaticalandphonological(=soundsystem)objectives,thisdocumentfollowsthegrammaticalmaterialspresentedinAertKuipers,TheShuswapLanguage(Leiden1974),A.KuipersandM.Dixon,AShuswapCourse(Leiden1984)andA.Kuipers,AReportonShuswap(Paris1989),aswellasfurtherunpublishedgrammaticalmaterialsdevelopedbyMarianneIgnaceandSecwepemctsinfluentspeakers1995‐2010.
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The key to the letter codes in the tables below is as follows: T = teacher Teacher uses the concept but does not explicitly present it to students and
does not enforce its use.
P = present Teacher presents the concept to the class and all students are exposed to it.
W = work on All students practise the concept. Some students will understand it and apply it independently, while others will need more time to understand and independently apply the concept.
K = know Students understand the concept, but not all students can apply it independently.
M = master Students can correctly apply the concept in most situations, including in new contexts and situations.
I.CommunicativeObjectivesCommunication 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Exchangesimplegreetings W K M M M M M MIntroducethemselvesandothersusingappropriatetermsofrelationship(familyterms) W K M M M M M M
Countto20andrecognizenumberswhengivenrandomly W K M M M M M MRecognizeandusenumbersto100andcarryoutmathematicaloperations(addition,subtraction)
W K M M M M M M
Understandandusecountingwordsforthingsofparticularshapes T P W K K M M M
Communicatelikes,dislikesandpreferences W W K K K M M MFollowclassroominstructionsandcommands W W K K K M M MMakerequests,askandgiveinformationaboutsomethingintheclassroom,communityetc.
W W K K K M M M
LanguageLearningStrategies 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Guessthemeaningofanunknownwordbyitscontext P W K K M M M MRecognizewordsderivedfromthesameroot W K K M MBeabletofindwordsintheSecwepemctsin‐EnglishDictionary
W W K K M M M
BeabletofindwordsintheEnglish‐ SecwepemctsinDictionary W W K K M
BeabletofindwordsintheEnglish‐SecwepemcWordlist W K K M M MUseanewwordcorrectlyinsideasentence P P W W W K M MReplaceawordwithasynonymorparaphrase P W W K M MStories 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Drawpicturesafterlisteningtoanoraldescription W W K K M M M MRecognizecharacters,placeandeventsinanoralstory P W W K K M M MActoutastorythatyouhaveread W W W K K M MRespondtooralquestionsaboutatextstudenthasread W W W K K M M
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Chooseanappropriatetitleforapassageinatext W K M M MPresentanoralsummaryafterhearingastory P W W K K M M MCompleteamissingpartofatext P W W W K K MTellashortstoryfrommemory T W W K MUnderstandtopic‐trackingthroughoutatext P P K MPresentationsandSpeeches 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Doashowandtellactivity W K K M M M MGiveabrieforalpresentation,usingnotesorcue‐cards W W K K M M M MLeadaprayerinSecwepemctsin W W K K M MFollowalongaprayerinSecwepemctsin W W K K M M M MGiveabrieforalpresentationwithoutnotes P W W K K M M MRecognizethemainfeaturesofafeastorwelcomingspeechinSecwepemctsin
P W K K M M
Translateanelder’sfeastorwelcomingspeechintoEnglish W W K M M
GiveashortspeechinSecwepemctsin,usingconventionsofspeech‐making W W K M M
GiveanelaboratefeastorwelcomingspeechinSecwepemctsin,includingappropriatecontentandstyle
W K K M
II. Phonology: The Sound System
Sounds and sound system 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Distinguish and pronounce Secwepemctsin vowels W K M M M M M M Distinguish and pronounce all sounds that are similar to English sounds
M M M M M M M M
Distinguish sounds that are different from English but not glottalized
W K K M M M M M
Reasonable accuracy in pronouncing sounds that are different from English but not glottalized
W W K K K K M M
Distinguish glottalized sounds W W W K K K M M Reasonable accuracy in pronouncing glottalized sounds P W W W W K M M Distinguish all vowel variations T P W W K K M M Reasonable accuracy in pronouncing all vowel variations T P W W K K M M Recognize correct stress marking in a word T P W W K K M M Pronounce stress correctly in a word T P W W K K M M Follow proper intonation of a phrase T T P P W K K M
III. Literacy
Reading 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Read already known short words K M M M M M M Read already known longer words W K M M M M M Sight-read unknown short words P W W K M M M Sight-read unknown long words with consonent clusters and glottalized sounds
W K K M M M
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Read a short text aloud and understand it P W W K K M M Read a text of 250 words or more aloud and understand it P W W K K M Read a text silently and find time, place, participants and events
P W K K M M
Give an oral summary of a short text you read P W W K M M Give an oral summary of a longer text you read P W W K M
Writing 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Copy already learned short words without mistake K K K K M M M Copy already learned longer and complex words without a mistake
W K K M M M M
Write known short words from memory W K M M M M M Write known longer and complex words from memory W K K M M M Correctly sound out and write new words mainly with sounds similar to English
W K K K M M
Correctly sound out and write new words with Secwepemctsin-only and glottalized sounds
W W K K K M
Write a short dictation with largely known vocabulary W W K M M Transcribe a short text or speech in Secwepemctsin W W W K M Re-write a story you have heard in your own words W W K K Compose an original short story and write it out W W K K
IV. Grammar: Morphology and Syntax Grammar:QuestionsandAnswers 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12Respondtoquestionswiththequestionmarker‐enwithsinglewordsoryes/no W K K M M M M M
Askquestionswiththequestionmarker ‐en W W K K M M M MRespondtoquestionsthataskstem’i,“what”,withafullsentence
W K K M M M M M
Askquestionsthatbeginwithstem’i,“what” P W K K M M M MRespondwithfullsentencestoquestionsthatask sweti7,who?
T P W K M M M M
Askquestionsinfullsentencesthatbeginwithsweti7,“who” T P W K K M M M
Respondtoquestionsusingt’he7en,“where”,telhe7en“fromwhere”,nehe7en“whereat” T P W W K M M
Askquestionsusing,“where”? T P W W K M MRespondtoquestionsusingkw’incanditsvariations,“howmany” P W K K M M M M
Askquestionsusingkw’inc,“howmany” P W K K M M M MAskandrespondtoquestionsaskingkenem,“whathappened?” T P W K M M
Askquestionsusingkenemme7e,“why” T T P W K MRespondtoquestionsusingkenemme7e“why” T P W K MAskquestionsusingpenhe7en,“when” T T P W K MRespondtoquestionsusingpenhe7en,“when” T P W K MAskquestionsusingtkenhe7e,“how” T P W K
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Respondtoquestionsusingtkenhe7e,“how” T P W K
Grammar: Deictics, Possessives and Verbs 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Understand the 3 levels of deixis in pointing words (yi7ene, yirey, yiri7 - this, that near you, that over there)
T P W K K M M M
Use the pointing words yi7ene, yirey, yiri7 in short sentences T P W W K K M M Understand and use deictics that distinguish visible/invisible things, nekllu7, nu7 etc.
W K M M
Understand and use the intransitive verb pronoun suffixes, 1st, 2nd and 3rd person sing.
P W W K K M M M
Understand 1st pers. singular consonant reduplication W W K K K K M M Correctly use 1st pers. singular consonant reduplication P W W W K K M M Understand and use the intransitive verb pronoun suffixes, 1st (inc./exc.), and 2nd pers. plur.
T P W W K K M M
Understand and use the possessive suffixes for 1st, 2nd pers and 3rd person sing.
P W W K K M M M
Understand and use the possessive suffixes for 1st(inc./exc.), 2nd pers person plur.
T P W W K K M M
Understand the transitive subject suffixes, 1st, 2nd sing. And 3rd pers.
T P W W K K M M
Use the transitive subject suffixes, 1st, 2nd sing. and 3rd person
W W K K M M M M
Understand the transitive object suffixes, 1st (inc./exc.), and 2nd pers. plural
P W W K K K M M
Use the transitive object suffixes, 1st (inc./exc.) and 2nd pers. plural
T P W W K K M
Understand the transitive subject suffixes, 1st and 2nd sing. and 3rd pers.
T P W W K K M
Use the transitive subject suffixes, 1st and 2nd sing. and 3rd pers.
T P W W K K M
Understand the transitive subject suffixes, 1st and 2nd pers. plural
T P W W K K M
Use the transitive subject suffixes, 1st (inc./exc.) and 2nd pers. plural
T P W W K K M
Understand and use the intransitive subordination suffixes, 1st and 2nd pers. and 3rd pers. sing.
W W K K M
Understand and use the intransitive subordination suffixes, 1st (inc./exc.) and 2nd pers. plural
W W K K M
Understand and use the transitive subordination suffix, marked trans. suffixes + -es.
W W K K M
Understand and use passive forms P W K M Understand and use prepositional phrases, including appropriate preprosition, or prefix, or lexical suffix, or verb
T P P W W K K M
Understand the independent pronouns re ntsetswe7, re newi7, renewi7s, wellenwi7s etc.
T T P W W K K M
Use the independent pronouns re ntsetswe7, re newi7, renewi7s, wellenwi7s etc.
T P P W W K K M
Use and understand the ct/cit benefactive form with transitive verbs
P W W K K M
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Sentence Building, Determiners, and Connectives 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Correctly understand and make statements with a noun subject and intransitive verb or adjective
W K K M M M M M
Understand and make statements using a two-word predicate W W K K K K M M Understand and use negated sentences with ta7 and intransitive verbs.
P W K M M M M M
Understand and use negated sentences with ta7 and transitive verbs
W K M M M M M
Understand time phrases and other adverbs at beginning of a verb phrase which are followed by nominalized verbs w/possessive or transitive endings
T P W W K K M M
Use temporal designators at beginning of a verb phrase with correct nominalized verb form
T P P W W K M M
Understand and use sentences expressing verb+es + correct intransitive poss. Or transitive form
P W W K M M
Understand the use of the determiner/connective te in simple subject/predicate phrases
T P P W W K M M
Understand and use the determiner/ connective re in simple subject/predicate phrases
T P P W W K M M
Understand and use re and te correctly in object marking W W K K M Understand and use causal clauses (“because”) T P W W K M Use and understand construction of relative clauses T P W W K M Understand and use consequential clauses (“therefore”; “if...then”)
T P W W K M
Morphology: Word Formation 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 Understand the concept of word roots T P W K K M M M Understand the concept of singular and plural verbs, including plural reduplication in verbs
W K K M M
Correctly use singular and plural reduplicated forms on a range of verbs
P W W W K K M
Understand and correctly use a range of Lexical Suffixes on roots
T T P W W K K M
Understand and use basic prefixes, like s-, c-, t-, tk, pell-, etc. T T P P W W K M Understand the principle of and types of reduplication and plural formation in nouns and other words
T T P W W W K K
Use the principle of and types of reduplication and plural reduplication in nouns and other words
T T T P P W W K
Understand and use allophonic variations of prefixes, suffixes and clitics
T T P W W K K M
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Appendix2LanguageBenchmarks:FirstNationsLanguageEssentialsByDr.KathrynMichel
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Appendix3ListofThemedTopicsforFirstNationsLanguageUnitsandLessons(notexclusive!) Makingintroductions:“Howareyou?”“I’mfine.”“What’syourname?”“Mynameisx.”
Awordofcautionhere:manylanguageteachers,fluentspeakersandeldersarereluctanttouseandteachgreetingsthatintheendaretranslationsfromEnglishconventionsofgreetings.Forexample,Secwepemcspeakers,promptedbyEuro‐Canadianeducators,atsomepointinthepastdevisedphraseslikele7tescwén’wen“itisagoodmorning”,agreetingtheysaywasneverusedbyspeakersinthepast.Instead,theyusedtscwinúcw‐en‐k?whichmeanssomethinglike“didyoumakeitthroughthenight?”
Myrelatives,yourrelatives,ourrelatives:basicterms(mother,father,grandparents,
son,daughter,brother,sister,grandchild).Moreadvancedtermscanbeintroducedincrementally.Somelanguageshaveverycomplexsetsoftermswhoseusedependsonwhetherafemaleormaleisspeaking,and/orwhethertheydistinguishbetweenrelativesonthemother’sandfather’sside.Therearealsodifferencesbetweenhowkinshiptermsworkwhentheyareusedastermsofaddressortorefertoarelative.
Villages,communitiesandplacesintheNation. Goingtoplaces/travelinthecommunityandNation.Thiscouldincludeplacenames,
geographicterms,buildings,stores,modesoftransportation,actions(walk,goback,turnleft,turnright).
Foods,eatingandsharingfoods:traditionalfoodsfromtheland;modernfoods,utensils,
eating,settingandclearingtable. Preparingcertainfoods:recipes,alongwithcutup,chopintobits,fillet,pourliquidsor
solids.Manyindigenouslanguageshaveavarietyofglued‐togetherwordsforwhatinEnglishcanbeexpressedbysuchubiquitouswordsas“put”or“cut”.
Washingdishes,dryingdishes,puttingawaydishes,wipingcounters/tablesinthe
kitchen. Thingsaroundme:roomsinthehouse,furnitureandactionsinthehouse(thiscan
includesomelocationwords–in,on,under,nextto,below,etc.). Cleaninghouse:actionsofsweeping,vacuuming,mopping,wiping,wordsforgadgets. Gettingfirewoodandmakingfire/acampfire.
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Campingout:travelling,buildingashelter(orsettingupatent),makingfire,cookingfood.
Preparingasweat. Bodyparts:humanandanimalanatomy(basicterms&actions). Hygieneandhealth:grooming,bathing,washingup(thiscouldalsoincludecultural
meaningsandvalues). Sicknessandgettinghealthy:fluseason,differentpartsofbodyhurting. Doinglaundry:clothing,actions,foldingclothes,puttingaway. Talkingabouttheweather:weatherformations,announcingpresent,tomorrowand
yesterday’sweather,gettingdressedfortheweather. Tides(incoastalareas)andchangestorivers(freshet/highwater,lowwater,
meltwateretc.). Celestialbodies:theirmeanings,storiesandassociationswiththeseasonalround–
sun,moon,stars,constellations. Reckoningtime:calendar,months,seasons,daysoftheweek,clocktime–ifandwhere
suchtimereckoningisculturallyappropriate. Seasonalroundofsubsistence:whatsubsistenceresourcespeopleengagedin,inthe
pastandnow. Animalsandtheirhabitats:characteristicsandbehaviour,includingwhenanimalsgo
intoandcomeoutofhibernation;whendifferentbirdsflysouthandcomebackinearlyspring.
Cardinaldirectionsandwinddirections(thesemaybedifferent). Geography:thelayofthelandandsea,nounwordsforgeographyterms,
demonstratives,locationalanddirectionalaffixes,instrumentals,classifiers,etc.etc.,movementverbsandcompounds.
Occupationsandjobs:placeswherepeopleworkandwhattheydothere. Dwellings:longagoandnow(longhouses,pithouses,shelters,camps)andlocations,
lay‐out,andactivitiesinadwelling. Clothing:dressingfortheweather(clothingwordsandputon/takeoffwords).
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Trading(longagoandnow). Goingshoppingatthelocalstoreormall:forfood,clothes,etc. Visitingrelatives,Elders(combineswordsfor“visiting”withsharingfood,teaorcoffee,
helpingoutinthehouse). Lookingafterababyorchild. Fishing:salmonandlakefishing,methods,gear,fish,actions,places. Hunting:deer,moose,elk,smallanimals. Trapping:insomeFirstNationscommunities(e.g.inNorthernBC),trappingcontinues
tobeanimportantandvaluedskillandoccupation. Fishing:ocean,river,lakefishing,technology,actions. Plantsandplantgathering:berries,rootplants,vegetables,nutsandseeds,cambium,
gatheringseaweed,eelgrass. Gatheringandpreparingmedicines(consultwithEldersastowhatkindofmedicines
theyfeelaresafetosharewithstudentsinclass). Otherseafood:shellfish,seaweed,ooligans. Traditionalecologicalknowledge:connectionsbetweenanimals,plants,seasons,
sustainablewaystoharvestfoods,payingrespecttoeverythingontheland. Traditionalskillsandcrafts:tanninghides,makingmoccasins,butcheringanimals,
weavingabasketorahat,otherweaving(wool,Indianhemp,sage…),makingadrum,carvingapole,makingacanoe.
Modesoftransportation:goingsomewherebycar,partsofavehicle,railway. Canoesandcanoetravel:partsofacanoe,typesofcanoefordifferentfunctions,
travellingbycanoe,makingacanoe,paddlingacanoe,rowingaboat(forexample,inXaadKillessons,Grade4childrenlearnedtheactionsforrowing,whichwasagreatwayoflearningtheinstrumentalprefixessku‐“motionofpushingoutfromoneselfwithfists”anddáng‐=“motionofpullingsomethingtowardsoneself”.)
Travellingbyplanetoalocation,orgettingvisitorsbyplane(theSm’algyaxcurriculum
includesastorythatcanbeactedoutabouthavingvisitorsfromTak’waan,New
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Metlakatla,andtakingthemaroundKxeen,PrinceRupert,forsightseeingandentertainment).
Fishingboatsandothermodernwater‐craft. Learningandsayingaprayer:mealtime,openingameeting,athank‐youprayer. Songsandmusic:repertoireofvarioussongs,includingtraditionalsongsandtranslated
songs(fromEnglishnurseryorothertunes). Makingaspeech/oratory:canbecoveredatdifferentstages,fromaveryshortrote‐
memorizedspeechtothankpeopleatagathering,toalonger,improvised,occasion‐specificspeechwhereinformationisshared.
Communicationatceremoniesandplanningafeast:give‐away,potlatch.(Forexample
theSm’algyaxGrade10and11curriculaincludeafeast(luulgit)unitaboutpreparingforafeast,invitingpeople,organizingtasksandcarryingoutafeast,culminatingintheclassgivingafeasttotheschool).
Dating,friendship,marriage(forolderyouth). Counting:differentcountingsystems,countingmoney,rotenumbercounting,word
mathproblemsintheFirstNationlanguage,traditionalunitsofmeasurement. Colours:bestintegratedintolessonsthatteachadjectives(clothes,thingsintheroom). Relationsinspace:ontop,under,in,besidesetc.(canalsobeusedinconjunctionwith
othertopicsabove,e.g.inthehouse/dwelling,describingwherepeopleetc.are). Holidays:Christmas,Easter,Valentine’s,RemembranceDay,Birthday.Forafurtherlistingofessentialthemesortopicsinlearningalanguage,seealsoHinton(1994).
Appendix4:SampleSyllabiandOrganizationalCharts(from:TheBreathofOurAncestors,FNESC,2012)SampleCulturalContentChart
Place, Land, Nature &
Living Things
Place, Land, Nature & Living Things
tides, winds seasons, weather, moons hunting/fishing grounds different types of hunting
& fishing gathering outdoor education
(horticulture, sea, land) how to live off the land campgrounds (where,
what, who) …
Identity through Language
Family&CommunityRelationships
Stories,Songs,Dance,Art,&Ceremonies
Identity through Language
cedar tree of life; environmentalism, science, & medicines
technologies for all aspects of life
stewardship & conservation
expressing gratitude prayer words for plants
and animals beliefs and teachings re
hunting and fishing …
language as a source of motivation to learn confidence leadership in
community language (words,
structures) as expressing relationships social (e.g.,
inclusion) with the natural
world (e.g., seasonal calendar)
…
Family & Community Relationships
traditional cooking and food preservation
multigenerational learning trade connections transportation methods cultural exchanges (land
use and animals from diff territories)
sharing of resources (vs. colonial concept of ownership)
family-specific fishing & gathering locations
…
chieftainship (head of house)
connection with the spiritual world
responsibility for revitalizing the language
specificity of roles encourages mastery in community (treasuring each child’s special gifts)
…
beliefs re child rearing resolving issues,
healing activities and systems
that bring us together societal rights &
responsibilities individual and
community responsibilities
family kinship …
Stories, Songs, Dance, Art, & Ceremonies
how dances and songs are tied to the land
history of the people seasonal celebration place names, history,
teachings re land (names tied to locations)
vocab for describing relationships & kinship,
knowing stories and traditions connects students to who they are
values and beliefs, as expressed in rituals; oral teachings re morality
…
public speaking (students taking a role in ceremony)
ceremony, celebration, feasting (naming, marriage, death etc.) –participation & witnessing
traditional dance contemporary songs and
dance composing new other arts (carving, visual,
dramatization) student-generated work beliefs learned from creation
stories (origin stories) learning to tell stories
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including relation with spiritual
ancestral names & ceremonial rights
crests and symbols related to the land
…
ownership of dances & song (kinship)
regalia representing houses, families, …
place oral history systems & protocols
(acknowledging sources of info)
…
types of songs (seasonal, prayer, etc.)
…
CommonThroughoutValues–the“pillars”oflearning(e.g.,responsibility,roles,respect,reciprocity,butalsohumility,gratitude,etc.).
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SampleAge‐AppropriateLearningRelatedtoCultureTopics With your Culture Topics identified, you will need to elaborate on what you focus on at each level. The two charts provided here illustrate by distinguishing four levels that span the entire K-12 range. Depending on how new your program is and how many students at differing ages you intend to serve, your own curriculum may need to have more levels and/or you might opt to reduce the range of ages/grades covered.
Level Cultural Content Re Place, Land, Nature, & Living Things
Advanced(ages16&up)
tides, water flows, winds: significant social and cultural teachings (including laws) that relate to these; as taught through stories; the water cycle (e.g., changing levels in lakes and waterways) – see Connecting Culture and Language Topics
seasons, weather, moons: phases of the moon; advanced biology and chemistry associated with seasonal animals, plants, foods; ceremonies and other cultural expressions of respect for the natural world
hunting/fishing grounds; different types of hunting & fishing; gathering (those who participate can share their experiences)
outdoor education (horticulture, sea, land): the planning component how to live off the land (survival); stories of resourcefulness; mapping the traditional territories; landmarks and
finding your way; water safety (esp. re travel on water); more practical knowledge of the properties of plants for food, medicine, creating technologies (shelter & other types)
campgrounds – stories and knowledge related to traditional territory) cedar tree of life; environmentalism, science (chemistry, biology) & medicines
LateIntermediate(ages12‐16)
tides, water flows, winds: names, attributes/characteristics, and stories/songs/dances related to these; also relationships among them; as aspects of weather and climate – see Connecting Culture and Language Topics
seasons, weather, moons: gathering and preparing seasonal foods, rituals and observances related to these activities and the seasons; science associated with weather & seasons; conservation; traditional and contemporary ways of acknowledging the seasons and natural world
hunting/fishing grounds; different types of hunting & fishing; gathering: health considerations related to handling and preparing game/fish/plants; using entire parts of killed animals
outdoor education (horticulture, sea, land): reflection and personal connection with the land how to “live off the land” (survival): modifying activities to allow for personal conditions (e.g., girls during
menstruation) – safety in the wild; this also relates to community customs campgrounds – fire creation, management
cedar tree of life; environmentalism – science (ecosystems & interdependence) & medicines
EarlyIntermediate(ages8‐12)
tides, water flows, winds: effects on harvesting and travel & celebrations – see Connecting Culture and Language Topics
seasons, weather, moons: characteristics and indicators of each season; dangers and opportunities, including social responsibilities associated with the seasons; as told in stories/songs/dances; concepts of time; science associated with seasonal plants and animals – their life cycles; recognition and respect
hunting/fishing grounds; different types of hunting & fishing; gathering: techniques (including protocols) & technologies for gathering, catching, trapping food plants and animals; the significance and meaning of particular place names
outdoor education (horticulture, water & land); safety (buddy systems; not wandering alone) how to “live off the land” (survival): bringing only what you need; sources of food and shelter campgrounds (where, what, who)
cedar tree of life; environmentalism – why & how to practice: respect (clean up after; minimal footprint; leave as you find it)
Basic(ages4‐8)
tides, water flows, winds: staying safe near water – see Connecting Culture and Language Topics seasons, weather: what they are, common activities associated with each season; choosing the right clothing for
the weather & staying safe; seasonal plants & animals – habitats & characteristics; respect for themselves & the natural world
different types of hunting & fishing; gathering: learning to identify some tracks & signs of animals; where foods come from; place names for nearby, frequently visited places; creation & teaching stories featuring animals
outdoor education (horticulture, sea, land) campgrounds (where, what, who)
cedar tree of life: identifying, knowing some uses of, and having respect for key plant and animal species
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Level Cultural Content re Family & Community Relationships
Advanced(ages16&up)
beliefs re child rearing responsibilities of establishing a family traditional and contemporary approaches to
teaching and learning resolving issues, healing restorative justice and consequences for violation
of customs, laws the legacy of colonialism (e.g., residential
schooling) – decolonization appropriate and effective ways of effecting change
activities and systems that bring us together expressing respect for responsibilities
societal rights & responsibilities rights of indigenous peoples, worldwide
(e.g., UN declaration) ownership and systems of mutual support within
communities treaty and other legal rights and responsibilities traditional and contemporary governance systems
family kinship roles of extended family members (aunties,
uncles) in specific situations – disciplinary, et al roles of Elders in communities (part of expanding
spiral of understanding)
LateIntermediate(ages12‐16)
beliefs re child rearing reasons underlying community practices
resolving issues evolving peer relationships conflicts; healthy and unhealthy responses to
challenges/disappointment personal planning (balance and healthy lifestyles)
activities and systems that bring us together organizing and carrying out feasts and celebrations mentoring relationships
societal rights & responsibilities regalia, its significance & purpose; protocols &
stories initiations volunteering, role modelling, and leadership
family kinship practices around family loss (funerals) beliefs around death and dying
part of expanding spiral of understanding increasing respect for differences significance of residential schooling (what, when,
who)
EarlyIntermediate(ages8‐12)
beliefs re child rearing puberty rites tasks associated with looking after children
resolving issues, (peers) friends (what is a good friend, how to be a good
friend), including boyfriend/girlfriend self-care and health bullying, racism, respectful gender relations respecting differences
activities and systems that bring us together technology symbols, images; places for gathering community events (feasts, memorials,
birthdays,…)
societal rights & responsibilities being helpful; increasing (new) roles in the family
and community (chores, activities) participation in ceremonies (initiations, roles) resources for youth in trouble
family kinship other peoples’ places and roles in the extended
family – family trees (part of expanding spiral of understanding)
crests or other family “symbols” similarities and differences among families
Basic(ages4‐8)
beliefs re child rearing Who looks after children? How/when did you get your name? expectations for siblings in a family nurturing a child’s special qualities (what are
yours?) resolving issues self-care and health What are “rules” for behaviour in class? …in
family? …in public situations (e.g., big house)? empathy, courtesy, respect
activities and systems that bring us together How do families stay in touch? (e.g., computer e-
mail, telephone, Skype, family/community events)
activities and systems that bring us together How do families stay in touch? (e.g., computer e-
mail, telephone, Skype, family/community events) societal rights & responsibilities What is the name of your
“house”/clan/tribe/society? Can you give an example of a “house”/clan/tribe/society?
Who is the chief, …the matriarch? family kinship Who are your relatives? Who you are (identity) is tied to your family (part of
expanding spiral of understanding – understanding of self, family, community, nation, world)
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ConnectingCultureTopicsandLanguageSkillsAgoodselectionofage‐appropriateculturetopicsprovidesavaluablebaseforsettingoutthelanguageskillsyouwantlearnerstoacquire,sincetheculturetopicsaremostlywhatwillbediscussedinthelanguage–bytheteachers,thesupportinglanguagespeakers(e.g.,fluentElders),andsoon,thelearnersthemselves.Eventually,aslearnersmatureandastheirlanguageskillsdevelop,theculturetopicswillbewhattheyreadabout,writeabout,andotherwiselearnaboutbyviewingand/orproducingaudio‐visualworksusingthelanguage.Nowwhenitcomestogeneratingideasaboutwhichaspectsofthelanguagetointroducefirstandthenbuildon,ascurriculumdevelopersyoucanproceedinanyoneofthreeways:a) Beginbythinkingaboutcommunicativetasks–whatstudentsneedtobeabletosayand
understand(andlaterreadorwrite)inthelanguageinordertodealwiththeculturetopicsyouhaveitemized.Followupbyidentifyingthelanguagestructures–sounds,word‐buildingpatterns,sentence‐buildingpatterns,andlanguageprotocols(prayers,speeches,conversationpatterns,etc.)–neededtoaccomplishthesecommunicativetasks.Thisapproach–identifyingcommunicativetasksandthenstructures–extendsnicelyfromtheworkofidentifyingculturetopics,andcanbetackledsystematicallybyusingtheorganizers&levelsyouhaveestablishedforculturetopics.Ifyourcurriculumteamdoesn’tincludememberswithmuchlinguisticsexpertiseorexperiencedevelopingalanguagecurriculum,however,thesomewhatformal&theoreticaldemandsofthisapproach(i.e.,havingtoformulatecommunicativetasksanddefinestructuresusing“grammar”language)maymakeitlesscongenialforyourgroup.Inthisevent,considerbeginningwithsomethingabitmorepracticalandspecific,assuggestedinapproach(b).Foranillustrationofhowyoumightconnectcommunicativetasksandlearningactivityideastoaspecificculturetopic,checkoutsample6xontheensuingpages.Thenseethethreesamples6yforillustrationsofhowspecificlanguagestructuresmightbeidentifiedanddescribed.Thethreesamplesincludeexamplesofstructuresfromdifferinglanguages(Hul’q’umi’num’,Kwak’wala,andSm’algyax),sincetherecanbesignificantvariationamonglanguagesintermsofstructures.Theyalsoincludeexamplesfromdifferinglevels(i.e.,BasicandAdvanced).
b) SimplybrainstormspecificwordsandphrasesstudentsarelikelytoneedatparticularlevelsIfyourdevelopmentteamincludesmanyfluentspeakers(e.g.,Elders)withlimitedteachingexperience,brainstormingacollectionofspecificage‐appropriatewordsandphrasesmaybeagoodwaytostartbuildingthelanguagecomponentofyourcurriculum.TrytobuildthesamenumberoflevelsasforyourCulturetopics,rememberingthatyoucanexpectstudentsateachleveltobeabletouseallthelanguagelearnedatanearlierlevel.Onceyouhavelistsofspecificage‐appropriatewordsandphrases,youcancross‐checktheirfitwithyourculturetopics(rememberthatforbeginnersinthelanguage,lotsoffunctionalvocabularyandphrasesforroutineclassroomactivitiessuchasstoringouterwear,greetingeachother,followingsimpledirections,etc.willbeneededatthestart).
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Foranillustrationofhowyoumightconnectspecificwordsandphraseswithcommunicativetasksandlearningactivityideas,ifyoubeginwiththistypeofbroad‐spectrumbrainstorm,seesample6zontheensuingpages.
c) Beginbyimaginingactivitiesthatcanbeconductedtohelpstudentsatthevariouslevelslearnabouttheitemizedculturetopics,usingthelanguage.Forclassroomteachers,thisissometimestheeasiestplacetostart,sincethisisthe“stuff”ofdailyinstructionalplanning,andfindingwaystoengagestudentsisessentialifanylearningwhatsoeveristooccur.Remember,however,thatmanyactivityideasfocusasmuchonHOWtoengagestudents(pedagogy)asonWHATtheyaretolearn(curriculum).Soitremainsimportanttocompilelistsofwords,phrases,andotherlanguagestructuresthatgetcoveredinthecourseoftheimaginedactivities.Again,seesamples6x,6y,and6zontheensuingpagesforexamplesofhowactivitiescanhelptieculturetopicstospecificvocabularyandgrammarstructuresyouwantstudentstolearn.
Ultimately,arichcurriculumdocumentwillprovideclarityaboutthecontenttobecoveredateachlevel(culturetopics,languagestructures,andlotsofexamplesofwordsandphrases),aswellasasenseofpurposeandfocus(communicativetasks).
Cultural Content Communicative Tasks Possible Activities, Teacher Cues
Advanced(ages16&up) tides, water flows, winds:
significant social and cultural teachings (including laws) that relate to these; as taught through stories; the water cycle (e.g., changing levels in lakes and waterways)
All the earlier level language capacities + new capacities such as the following understanding more extended and complex discourse
delivered at a normal rate of speech using abstract and technical terms related to weather,
climate, waterways recognizing and responding to humour performing ceremonies used to express gratitude and
respect for natural bounty, including songs and ritual phrases (in the language)
dramatizing stories related to the tides, winds, waterways (involving rehearsed use of the language)
formulating a sequence of events as a narrative conversing with an Elder or non-classroom speaker writing (composing) personal stories in their own words
more extended presentations to the class science experiments, demonstrations,
and explanations the carbon cycle and water cycle weathering and erosion water chemistry and effects of pollution on
biological organisms undertaking water ecosystem restoration or care
activities using information technology: (apps) to communicate via text messages audio and video recording to document and archive
information, traditions, and stories from Elders re weather, climate, and water (or to retrieve and analyse)
presentation software to create image and word presentations related to language
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LateIntermediate(ages12‐16) tides, water flows, winds:
names, attributes/characteristics, and stories/songs/dances related to these; also relationships among them; as aspects of weather and climate
All the earlier level language capacities + new capacities such as the following understanding, speaking, reading, and writing concrete
and some abstract words (related to elements of climate and weather; to mood, attitude, and feelings, and to family relationships)
understanding simple utterances delivered at a normal rate of speech
creating and memorizing stories, songs, dances involving the winds and waterways
narrating actions and events in increasingly complex terms
recognizing and being able to identify words in written forms of the language
responding appropriately to simple, closed questions formulating more complex and socially sensitive personal
observations about the environment recognizing and responding to humour regularly combining simple language structures into
sequences or more complex forms able to make themselves understood even if errors of
usage are present beginning to self-correct summarizing key ideas
Having students make a video of performed stories, songs, or dances
Having students use presentation software to create image and word presentations
conducting science experiments and demonstrations cyclonic action recording data (weather, climate measurements) observing gathered water samples for micro-
organisms undertaking water ecosystem restoration or care
activities Having students retell stories for younger children, with
and without use of pictures using circumlocutions, repetition, gestures, and pictures
rather than translation to discuss topics
EarlyIntermediate(ages8‐12) tides, water flows, winds:
effects on harvesting and travel & celebrations
All the Basic level language capacities + new capacities such as the following understanding and speaking concrete terms (e.g., for
gear, paddles, or other tools, directions, steering and manoeuvring, balancing, parts of watercraft, various aquatic animals, colours, clouds, weather conditions)
understanding and repeating phrases such as “stay low,” “don’t stand up,” “low tide,” “flooding tide,” “slack tide,” “upstream,” “downstream”
understanding short sequences spoken slowly recognizing and responding to protocol expressions (e.g.,
blessings, expressions of thanks) spoken slowly describing actions and events in simple terms responding appropriately to simple, closed questions, with
assistance formulating personal observations about the winds,
waterways, weather (with teacher support), using two or three-word phrases
beginning to use more than one tense beginning to combine simple language structures into
sequences or more complex forms
guest speakers (Elders) educational exchanges with other,
dissimilar communities exposing students to water travel
(boats) weather awareness (safety on or in
the water) taking students to a beach or
watercourse and engaging in harvesting activities (seaweeds, shellfish, freshwater fish, tules, ) discussing restrictions on harvesting (seasonal
concerns re red tide/PSP or other micro-organisms) building and operating model water craft visiting fishery enhancement facilities and discussing
the salmon (fish) life cycle; growing activities modeling using stream tables, water tanks, stationary
pools recognizing places to avoid (safety considerations) demonstrating ceremonies used to express gratitude
and respect for natural bounty, including songs and ritual phrases (in the language)
picture creation and analysis (using the language) using repetition, gestures, and pictures rather than
translation to discuss topics
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Basic(ages4‐8) tides, water flows, winds:
staying safe near water
understanding and speaking words for clothing, water, objects in the environment, respect (for the environment), buddy, group, walk, come, go
understanding phrases such as “everybody be careful,” “stop and listen,” “go,”
understanding and using (repeating) command expressions or greetings used in groups (e.g., warnings, “look at what I found”)
following simple instructions using simple questions such as “what is this [called]?”
from a learned set
taking students to a beach or watercourse and playing running, “finding,” or other games (e.g., skipping rocks) with talk about rules for games things to look for good gear (clothing) for the situation “rules” for staying safe
pointing out natural sounds in the environment (wind, animal calls) and how they are captured, imitated, or reflected in the words or speech sounds
repetition of key utterances and speech sounds using gesture and body language to help convey and
reinforce meanings slowing down the rate of speech picture examination and discussion of representations
InfillingouttheLanguageStructurescolumn,ourdeveloper(s) readthroughthelistintheCommunicativeTaskscolumn(fromsamplex) brainstormedalistofsentencesthatstudentswouldneedtoaccomplishthosetasks thoughtaboutwhatgrammaticalfeatures(commandwords,singular/plural,demonstratives,
etc.)couldbehighlightedfromthosesentences
organizedthemthatwayintheLanguageStructurescolumn.Thewords,sounds,andphrasescitedintheLanguageStructurescolumnarefromtheHul’q’umi’num’language. Cultural Content Communicative Tasks Language Structures Possible Activities, Teacher Cues
Basic (ages 4-8) tides, water flows, winds: staying safe near water
understanding and speaking
words for clothing, water, objects in
the environment, respect (for the
environment), buddy, group, walk, come, go
understanding phrases such as “everybody be careful,” “stop and listen,” “go,”
understanding and using (repeating) command expressions or greetings used in groups (e.g., warnings,
“look at what I found”) following simple
instructions using simple questions such as
“what is this [called]?” from a learned set
recognizing and pronouncing the
distinctive sounds of Hul’q’umi’num’ – e.g., hw, x, xw, lh, ch’, kw’, p’, q, qw, q’, qw’, t’, tl’, ts’,
tth, tth’ using and responding to commands
with lhe – e.g., ’Imush lhe! “Walk!” Nem’ lhe! “Go!”
showing respect for classmates with expressions of politeness – e.g., Tth’ihwum ‘i’ m’i ewu. “Please
come here.” ‘Uy’ skweyul, si’em’! “Good day,
respected one!” recognizing and using singular and
plural pronouns in context – e.g. La’lum’uthut ch! “You be careful!” La’lum’uthut tseep! “You all be
careful!” ‘Ii ch ‘o’ ‘uy’ ‘ul’? “How are you?” ‘Ii tseep ‘o’ ‘eli ‘ul’? “How are you
all? following instructions in short phrases
– e.g.,
taking students to a beach or
watercourse and playing running, “finding,” or other games (e.g., skipping rocks) with talk about rules for games things to look for good gear (clothing) for the
situation “rules” for staying safe
pointing out natural sounds in the environment (wind, animal calls) and how they are captured, imitated, or reflected in the words or speech sounds
repetition of key utterances and speech sounds
using gesture and body language to help convey and reinforce meanings
slowing down the rate of speech picture examination and discussion of
representations
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‘Unuhw ‘i' hwiyuneem’. “Stop and listen.”
using and responding to learned phrases and questions with tu’i and kwu’i – e.g., Lemut tu’i! “Look at this!” Stem ‘a’lu kwu’i? “What is that?” Stem kwun’s hun’ut tu’i? “What do
you call this?”
InfillingouttheLanguageStructurescolumn,ourdeveloper(s) readthroughthelistintheCommunicativeTaskscolumn(fromsamplex) brainstormedalistofsentencesthatstudentswouldneedtoaccomplishthosetasks thoughtaboutwhatgrammaticalfeatures(commandwords,singular/plural,demonstratives,
etc.)couldbehighlightedfromthosesentences
organizedthemthatwayintheLanguageStructurescolumn.Thewords,sounds,andphrasescitedintheLanguageStructurescolumnarefromtheKwak’walalanguage.Theremaybedialectvariations.TheexampleusestheU’mistaOrthography,asthishasbeenadoptedbyboththeKwak’wala/Bakwamk’alaTeacherEducationProgramandSD#85.
Cultural Content Communicative Tasks Language Structures Possible Activities, Teacher Cues
Basic (ages 4-8) tides, water flows, winds: staying safe near water
understanding and speaking
words for: clothing, water, objects in
the environment, animals/birds
respect (for the environment), buddy, group, walk, come, go
understanding phrases such as “everybody be careful,” “stop and listen,” “go,”
understanding and using (repeating) command expressions or greetings used in groups (e.g., warnings, “look at what I found”)
following simple instructions using simple questions such as
“what is this [called]?” from a learned set
rituals surrounding water: expressing gratitude for the provision of food; fish, seaweed, cleansing
observing different types of water flow e.g., High tide, very low tide, ebbing, ripe tide or swift current, slow current, river, stream
recognizing and pronouncing the
distinctive sounds of Kwak’wala – e.g., m, g, gw, x, xw Tł, tł’, ‘, K , Kw
using and responding to commands with daga’ – e.g., Kwaxida ga’ “Sit down” (now) Haga “Go!”
showing respect for classmates with expressions of politeness – e.g., Gila’s wa’x a “Please come
here.” La’a ms waxida “You’ve been
most helpful” recognizing and using singular
and plural pronouns in context – e.g. a’ekak ilala “be careful!” a’ekak ilaladaxwlas “You all
be careful!” Wiksas? “How are you?” Wixsdaxwlas’? “How are you
all?” following instructions in short
phrases – e.g.,
taking students to a beach or
watercourse and playing, running, “finding,” or other games (e.g., skipping rocks, scavenger hunt) with talk about rules for games things to look for good gear (clothing) for the
situation “rules” for staying safe
pointing out natural sounds in the environment (wind, animal, bird calls) and how they are captured, imitated, or reflected in the words or speech sounds
repetition of key utterances and speech sounds
using gesture and body language to help convey and reinforce meanings
slowing down the rate of speech picture examination and
discussion of representations found item art project
discussion re; respect for the environment, leaving things the
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dialogues in Kwak’wala about water, expressing gratitude, etc.
Wa’la, hutłilala “Stop and listen.”
using and responding to learned phrases and questions – e.g., dukwałała “Look at this!” Matsałuxda? “What is that?” Matsalixda? “What is this?”
progression for types of water flow “High tide” “low tide” “Very low tide” “ebbing tide”
way you found them/where you found them
participating in or observing first salmon ceremony, cleansing ritual
dramatization of legend/story that pertains to water. Ie mink finds a wife. (married kelp woman)
In filling out the Language Structures column, our developer(s) read through the list in the Communicative Tasks column (from sample x) brainstormed a list of sentences that students would need to accomplish those tasks thought about what grammatical features (command words, singular/plural, demonstratives, etc.)
could be highlighted from those sentences organized them that way in the Language Structures column. Thewords,sounds,andphrasescitedintheLanguageStructurescolumnarefromtheSm’algyaxlanguage.ExamplesentenceshavebeenselectedoradaptedfromVisibleGrammar:Ts’msyenSm’algyaxGrammarResources,authoredbyDr.MargaretAnderson,Dr.MarianneIgnace,andmanyfluentspeakersofSm’algyax.©Ts’msyenSm’algyaxAuthority,2008.
Cultural Content Communicative Tasks Language Structures Possible Activities, Teacher Cues
Advanced (ages 16 & up) tides, water flows, winds:
significant social and cultural teachings (including laws) that relate to these; as taught through stories; the water cycle (e.g., changing levels in lakes and waterways)
All the earlier level language capacities + new capacities such as the following understanding more extended
and complex discourse delivered at a normal rate of speech
using abstract and technical terms related to weather, climate, waterways
recognizing and responding to humour
performing ceremonies used to express gratitude and respect for natural bounty, including songs and ritual phrases (in the language)
dramatizing stories related to the tides, winds, waterways (involving rehearsed use of the language)
formulating a sequence of events as a narrative
using the Sm’algyax names of
communities and Houses, recognizing their meanings and how the words are constructed – e.g., Git- prefix, as in Gits’ilaasü
‘People of the canyon’ Waaps Niishaywaaxs
‘House of the North Wind’ acknowledging all chiefs and
matriarchs in the feast hall with their traditional names and House names
understanding and using Sm’algyax prayers – e.g., Gyigyinwaxl, ‘Guidance Prayer’
recognizing and using appropriate intonation patterns for prayers, storytelling, feast speeches, etc.
accurately expressing the time frame of sentences – e.g., Dm łimoomu nabiibu.
more extended presentations to
the class science experiments,
demonstrations, and explanations the carbon cycle and water
cycle weathering and erosion water chemistry and effects
of pollution on biological organisms
undertaking water ecosystem restoration or care activities
using information technology: (apps) to communicate via
text messages audio and video recording to
document and archive information, traditions, and stories from Elders re: weather, climate, and water (or to retrieve and analyse)
127
Cultural Content Communicative Tasks Language Structures Possible Activities, Teacher Cues
conversing with an Elder or non-classroom speaker
writing (composing) personal stories in their own words
I am going to help my uncle.
Łimoomu nabiibut Clarence. I helped my Uncle Clarence.
expressing weather conditions with ła – e.g., ła gyelx (‘It’s dark out.’) ła maadm (‘It’s snowing.’)
using phrases with the preposition da – e.g., Eets’da hana’a misoo. (The
woman fried the sockeye.) Dzakwdis Bernard hoon a
da gan. (Bernard killed the fish with a stick.)
using appropriate conjunctions (dis, dił) and verbal prefixes (sila) with common nouns and proper nouns to express actions done ‘together’ – e.g., Sihoon’nu dił k’abatgüüłk I went fishing with the
children. Sihoon’nu dis nabiibu. I went fishing with my Uncle. Nah sila sihoon’nmt John. We went fishing with John.
expressing actions done for someone with da / das and common or proper nouns – e.g, Dzabu łax’ask a da
k’abatgüüłk. I made seaweed for the
children. Nah güültu łax’ask das
nooyu. I harvested seaweed for my
Mother. expressing location and/or
direction with prepositions – e.g., Dm łimoomu nabiibu a lax
boot. I am going to help my uncle
on the boat. expressing reasons, introduced
with the conjunction awil – e.g, Deentga’nut Frank a na
waabu awil …sgeetga gyelx.
Frank guided me to my house …because it was dark outside.
presentation software to create image and word presentations related to language
reading adaawx (origin story) about the origin of the winds
scrambled sentence activities – putting words in the correct order
immersion activities with Elders – e.g., making nets
learning House stories and how House names are constructed
memorizing, reciting, and using prayers
reading or listening to early Sm’algyax texts or recordings, and observing: differences in style and
mood among different speakers and texts
how the language has changed over time
128
Level‐AppropriateWordsandPhrases,LanguageSkillsandPossibleLearningActivities
Level Specific Words and Phrases Broad Descriptors of Language Skill
Possible Activities
Advanced(e.g.,ages16&up)
respect yourself, respect each other, respect all things (e.g., I am proud to be a
member of… family, community, nation; this expresses my connection with… family, community, nation)
(e.g., I [welcome] thank … for wisdom/teaching etc. I/we acknowledge my/our responsibility for this wrong; I/we will make this right/make restitution by…)
(e.g., discharging responsibility: I have harvested/gathered… to share with you, …may this help your family; It is only appropriate to harvest … when… because…; our people believe that…)
You have caused harm. How can you make amends? How can you wipe away the tears of the person you have harmed?
What is the best way to make ____ feel better about this situation?
Our ancestors/Elders taught that … I have been told that…
I [we] are gathering information about [this place/activity] to ________
Are you comfortable, should we take a break, would you like…
Could you please explain [repeat]?
I don’t understand. How do you say _______ in the
language? Who lived there? Why did they
live/go there? What did they do there? To whom did that belong? How often/when did they go there?
How did that work? Can you show me?
Is this what you meant? May I use this recorder …this
camera?
Communicative Tasks expressing negation (e.g., via
prefixes/suffixes, word order in sentences, use of specific words such as not, nor, …)
communicating ideas that involve time relationships (time words, tenses, connectives, and changes to other words in a phrase)
spontaneously using appropriate greeting & leave taking expressions (e.g., formal vs. informal)
interacting with fluent speakers (language users) to undertake recording, documenting, and archiving of their language use (includes demonstrating awareness of the courtesies and sensitivities involved)
generating and responding to humour
elaborate/extended explanations of how a creative or other process works
using language to support or provide counsel to others
discussing roles and responsibilities
modeling appropriate usage; teaching younger students
Other Aspects of Language Learning using slang and other idiomatic
expressions appropriately developing a sense of personal ability, contribution,
role, and responsibility with respect to the community’s /nation’s language revitalization effort
the parental role in language revitalization
options for advocacy re language revitalization
the distinction between acquiring the language, using the language, and learning about the language
organizing and hosting a feast fabric designs and execution
(e.g., symbols for nation, clan, crest)
regalia making plan and teach procedures or
crafts to younger students, using the language
creating contemporary songs, stories, poetry
exploring/analysing contemporary art (comparing art from differing nations and traditions such as Maori, Tsimshian, Secwepemc, …)
129
Do you want me to slow down? Could you please slow it down for me?
mourning, celebrating, Things to notice about this work
include… The meaning I take from this is… This connects with…
LateIntermediate(e.g.,ages12‐16)
words containing more complex, less commonly used sounds
“why” questions and “because” answers
respect yourself, respect each other, respect all things (e.g., look after your space,
…your belongings; get enough sleep; take responsibility… for your homework, actions, eating, etc.)
(e.g., you’ve been very helpful; let me help you/can I help? What can I bring you? Would you like some…? How can you make this better? excuse me – may I…?)
(e.g., please bless …our food, this event; if we over-harvest, then there will be…; if we don’t look after our garbage…; stewardship)
I feel embarrassed/ashamed; I apologize for making you feel …
Can you tell me about your [drawing, model, weaving,…]?
What do you think the artist might be trying to accomplish/say/communicate with this piece?
This [image, model] represents ...
The similarities [differences] in these [two] representations are…
This is interesting because… The difference between this and
a traditional [work] is…
correctly using transitive and intransitive verbs in sentence construction
distinguishing homonyms (words that sound the same, but have different meanings)
acquiring phonetic fluency: producing more complex, less commonly used sounds
deliberately using intonation (and gesture) to communicate meaning
using the language of conditionals & causality
producing written forms of simple sentences
generating (in written and oral form) nan explanatory paragraph about their painting, carving, beadwork, models, …
discussing techniques, tools, and materials associated with creative work (e.g., natural materials, pigments, carving or sewing tools; materials and techniques associated with building/fixing drums or other instruments)
naming different beats, rhythms, types of songs/music
answering the phone and having a short conversation on the phone in the language (also texting)
analysing traditional stories told by Elders or other fluent speakers
translating from English into the language
public speaking: original composed speeches
incorporation of music performance into public events (e.g., drumming)
creation of original work (music/singing, dancing, painting, carving)
outdoor activities on land, on water (e.g., camping, fire building, gathering, building, paddling)
increased involvement in planning and decision-making re events, celebrations, etc.
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EarlyIntermediate(e.g.,ages8‐12)
We, you, he, she, they Give it to [him, her, us, them] Who is this? Who is that? now, later, soon, after, before,
today, tomorrow, yesterday Where are [is] … This is my …mother’s mom
[step-father, sister’s husband I like [don’t like]______,
because… respect yourself (e.g., always
come to school clean), respect each other (e.g., always greet an Elder; I’ve made a mistake and I’m sorry), respect all things (e.g., don’t waste, take only what you need, express gratitude)
think about sharing, I’m [you’re] sharing with,…
It [he, she] hurt me sounds – loud, soft, high, low move to the rhythm; move
together how does this [painting, song,
carving, dance…] make you feel?
recognizing sound-letter associations as a precursor to literacy (how the alphabet captures sounds – with the emphasis on commonly used sounds)
reading age-appropriate and level-appropriate texts
distinguishing root words from prefixes and suffixes
using modifiers (prefixes, suffixes, adjectives, plurals)
using connecting words (and, or, with,…)
using basic phrases and vocabulary involving time relationships
using directional and positional vocabulary (above, below, on, beside,…)
names/rules/language of commonly played games in the community (e.g., Lahal, basketball)
discussing types, purposes of dances
creating new sentences using a few patterns
establishing themes (e.g., respect, camping, exploring different environments)
reenacting or retelling traditional stories
translating from the language into English
participating in community observances (funerals, memorials etc.)
introducing themselves, following appropriate conventions/protocols
harvesting of materials for arts and crafts; using them to create objects
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Basic(e.g.,ages4‐8)
This is my [brother, mother, auntie, jacket, family, friend, home…]
food [salmon, apple, corn, bread, berries,…] head, hands, fingers, arms, legs, knees, feet, toes stop, go, slow down, hurry up, wait, stand, sit,
crawl, get down, get up it’s time to… be careful, pay attention, listen, be quiet, respect yourself (e.g., hang your coat up), respect
each other (e.g., I’m sorry), respect all things think about sharing, I’m [you’re] sharing with,… It [he, she] hurt me What are you doing? please, thank you, [other expressions of
gratitude/appreciation] offer, offering (pay, payment) good morning, hello, good-bye (see you later) yes, no happy, sad, angry, hungry, tired (sleepy), excited Give it to me colours, number names (to 10) bigger, smaller, more, less (comparatives) compare, is like, is the same as, is different
from,… I need to…[e.g., leave to use the washroom] I can… It is [sunny, raining, cloudy, windy, snowing] walk [fly, crawl, run, swim, hop, climb] like a [bear,
fish, rabbit, eagle, hummingbird…] dance, sing, draw, paint, Say it louder, …again Say it. Say it in (speak) __________ [the language] Point to ___________ Are you ready? Let’s start. We’re finished now Whose turn is it? It’s my turn. Let’s play a game Here are the rules. That’s cheating. Are you having fun. I’m [We’re] having fun. He [she] is teasing me. Watch me. Look. Group 1 here. Group 2 there. Tell me about…
accurately repeating a phrase or word
reproducing sounds of the language (e.g., by using rhyming or memory songs that feature language sounds)
counting (to 10) talking about days of the week seasons and seasonal
activities weather clothing (including sports gear
such as shoes) celebrations (feasts,
birthdays, Christmas, seasonal, etc.)
animal sounds (like a bear, cow, horse, eagle, chicken, crow…)
names of children (traditional) crests or other significant
family/community symbols self care sports activities art activities and crafts (lines,
shapes, encouragement for creativity, attempting)
engaging in and sustaining short dialogues
following a simple short story or sequence of stories, entirely in the language, based on a picture or series of pictures
telling their own simple version of this story, also entirely in the language based on a picture or series of pictures
establishing themes (e.g., gatherings, fish, games, family, all about me)
listening to traditional stories
needs assessment (What backgrounds & prior experiences do students have? Can any special needs be identified?)
learning welcome or other songs with actions
participating in food-related ceremonial activities
involving learners in decision-making re events
try, again look for, find toward, away from and then… What is this? What do you want? How are you? [fine,…] Can you help me…? What happened? What did you do? That’s good/beautiful; Good job. You have worked very hard. What is this supposed to be? What is it? I liked how you… Could you please make me another one with… Could you add …. ; Could you try… Try it yourself. I did it myself.
Appendix5ASimpleAssessmentTest(ChiefMatthewsSchool–XaadKilGrades1and2)Note:intheexamplebelow,comprehensionandproduction(saying)ofnounwordsistested,however,thisassessmenttoolcanbesetuptobeusedwithverbs(commands,3rdperson,1stperson)orusingpossessives,andotherforms.
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