British Council Grammar

8/12/2019 British Council Grammar

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Pronouns

Pronouns are words we use in the place of a full noun.

There are many different kinds of pronouns.

personal pronouns

it and there

you and they

possessive pronouns (see possessives:- pronouns)

this, that, these and those

one and ones

questions

reflexive pronouns

reciprocal pronouns: each other and one another

indefinite pronouns

relative pronouns

personal pronouns

HideTopic

ronouns - personal pronouns (!, me, you etc)

Pronouns are words we use in the place of a full noun."e have #oth subject and objectpronouns:

Subject Object

! me

you youhe him

she her

it it

we us
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/personal-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/it-and-therehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/you-and-theyhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/possessive-pronouns-see-possessives-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/that-these-and-thosehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/one-and-oneshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/questionshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/reflexive-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/reciprocal-pronouns-each-other-and-one-anotherhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/indefinite-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/relative-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/personal-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/personal-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/personal-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/it-and-therehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/you-and-theyhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/possessive-pronouns-see-possessives-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/that-these-and-thosehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/one-and-oneshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/questionshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/reflexive-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/reciprocal-pronouns-each-other-and-one-anotherhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/indefinite-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/relative-pronounshttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/pronouns/personal-pronouns


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Subject Object

you you

they them

"e use he/him to refer to men, and she/her to refer to women. "hen we are not sure if we are

talkin$ a#out a man or a woman we use they/them.

This is %ack. He&s my #rother. ! don&t think you have met him.This is 'n$ela. he&s my sister. Have you met her#efore

Talk to a friend. 'sk them to help you.

*ou could $o to a doctor. They mi$ht help you.

Subject pronouns

"e use su#+ect pronouns as subject of the verb:

Ilike your dress.

Youare late.

He is my friend

It is rainin$

She is on holiday

We live in n$land.

They come from ondon.

Warning

emem#er: n$lish clauses always have a su#+ect:

His father has +ust retired. "as a teacher. / He was a teacher.!&m waitin$ for my wife. !s late. / She is late.

!f there is no other su#+ect we use it or there. "e call this a dummy subject.

Object pronouns

"e use o#+ect pronouns:

0 as the o#+ect of the ver#:


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1an you help meplease

! can see you.

he doesn&t like him.! saw her in town today.

"e saw them in town yesterday, #ut they didn&t see us.

0 after prepositions:

he is waitin$ for me.!&ll $et it for you.

2ive it to him.

"hy are you lookin$ at her3on&t take it from us.

!&ll speak to them.

it and there

n$lish clauses always have a su#+ect:

His father has +ust retired. "as a teacher. / Hewas a teacher.!&m waitin$ for my wife. !s late. / Sheis late.

ook at the time4 !s half past two./ !t&s half past two.

except for the imperative see more!

"o away.

Play it a$ain please.

If we have no other su#+ect we use thereor it.

there

"e use there as a dummy subjectwith part of the ver# befollowed #y a noun phrase. (see

1lauses, sentences and phrases):

0 to introduce a new topic:

There is a meetin$ this evenin$. !t will start at seven.

There has been an accident. ! hope no one is hurt.

0 with numbers or #uantities:

There was a lot ofrain last ni$ht.

There must have been more than five hundredin the audience.

0 to say where somethin$ is:


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There used to bea play$round at the end of the street.

There are fairies at the #ottom of the $arden.

! wonder if there will be anyone at home.

0 with an indefinite pronoun or expressions of #uantity and the to-infinitive:

There isnothin$ to do in the villa$e.

There wasplenty to read in the apartment

There wasnothin$ to watch on television.

There isa lot of work to do

!f we want to show the su#+ect of the to-infinitive we usefor:

There is nothingfor the children to doin the villa$e.

There was plentyfor us to read in the apartment

There was nothingfor them to watchon television.

There is a lotof work for you to do.

0 with an indefinite pronoun or expressions of #uantity and an -ingver#:

There issomeone waitin$ to see you.

There werea lot of people shoutin$ and wavin$.

"e use a singular ver# if the noun phrase is singular:

There isa meetin$ this evenin$. !t will start at seven.There was a lot of rain last ni$ht.

There is someone waitin$ to see you.

"e use a plural ver# if the noun phrase is plural:

There are more than twenty people waitin$ to see you.There were some #iscuits in the cup#oard.

There were a lot of people shoutin$ and wavin$.

It

"e use itto talk a#out:

0 times and dates:

It&s nearly one o&clock.It&s my #irthday.

0 weather:

It&s rainin$.

It&s a lovely day.

Itwas $ettin$ cold.


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0 to $ive an opinion a#out a place:

It$s very coldin here.

It will be nicewhen we $et home.

It$s very comfortablein my new apartment.

0 to $ive an opinion followed #y to%infinitive:

It$s niceto meet you.

It will be greatto $o on holiday.

It was interestingto meet your #rother at last.

0 to $ive an opinion followed #y an -ingverb:

It$s greatlivin$ in pain.

It$s awfuldrivin$ in this heavy traffic.

It can be hard wor&lookin$ after youn$ children.

'sing (it( to tal& about people

"e use itto talk a#out ourselves:

0 on the telephone:

Hello. It&s 2eor$e.

0 when people cannot see us:

56ary knocks on door7 It&s me. It&s 6ary.

"e use it to talk a#out other people:0 when we point them out for the first time:

ook. It$sir aul 6c1artney.

"ho&s that ! think it$s%ohn&s #rother.

0 when we cannot see them and we ask them for their name:

5telephone rin$s, we pick it up7 Hello. "ho is it

5someone knocks on door. "e say:7 "ho is it

this) that) these and those

pronouns: this, that, these and those

Why do we use thisand these*


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"e use this (sin$ular) and these (plural) as pronouns:

- to talk a#out people or thin$s near us:

This is a nice cup of tea."hose shoes are these

- to introduce people:

This is %anet.

These are my friends, %ohn and 6ichael.

"'8!82:"e don&t say These are John and Michael.

"e say This is John and this is Michael.

- to introduce ourselves to #e$in a conversation on the phone:

Hello, this is 3avid, 1an ! speak to ally

Why do we use thatand those*

"e use that (sin$ular) and those (plural):

- to talk a#out thin$s that are not nearus:

"hat&s that

This is our house, and that&s e#ecca&s house over there.

Those are very expensive shoes.

- "e also use thatto refer #ack to somethin$ someone said or did:

- hall we $o to the cinema

- *es, that&s a $ood idea. - !&ve $ot a new +o#.

- That&s $reat.

- !&m very tired.

- "hy is that

this) these) that, those with nouns

"e also use this, these, that and those with nounsto show proximity

"e use this and these for people or thin$s near us:

"e have lived in this house for twenty years.Have you read all of these #ooks

9 and that and those for people or thin$s that are not near us:


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"ho lives in that house

"ho are those people

one and ones

"e use one (sin$ular)and ones (plural) to avoid unnecessary repetition.

ee those two $irls Helen is the tall one and %ane is the short one.

"hich is your car, the red one or the #lue one

6y trousers are torn. ! need some new ones.

ee those two $irls. Helen is the one on the left.et&s look at the photo$raphs. The ones you took in aris.

"e often use them after Which ... in questions:

*ou can #orrow a #ook. "hich one do you want

There are lots of #ooks here. "hich ones are yours

#uestions

Which #uestion word to use*

"e use who to ask questions a#out people:

Who is that

Who lives here

Who did you see

"e use whose to ask a#out possession:

Whose coat is this 5or7 Whose is this coat

Whose#ook is that 5or7 Whose is that #ook

Whose#a$s are those 5or7 Whose are those #a$s

"e use what to ask questions a#out things:

What is that

What do you want

"e use which to ask someone to choose somethin$:

Which came first, the chicken or the e$$

!&ve $ot two #ooks. Which do you want

"e can also use what and which with nouns:


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What subjects did you study at school

What newspaper do you read

Which newspaper do you read the Times or the 2uardian

Which boo&do you want

Which one is yours

+uestions with prepositions,

;uestions endin$ in prepositions are very common in n$lish. 'fter Who, Which or What weoften have a preposition at the end of the sentence:

Who does this #ook #elon$ to

What are you lookin$ for

Which university did you $o to

What country do you come from

refle-ive pronouns

The reflexive pronouns are:

Singular, myself - yourself - himself - herself - itself

Plural, ourselves - yourselves - themselves

When we use a refle-ive pronoun

"e use a reflexive pronoun:0 as a direct object when the object is the same as the subject of the ver#:

Iam teachin$ myself to play the piano.


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! wish the children would #ehave themselves.

=I wish the children would behave well.

He found himself lyin$ #y the side of the road.

=He was surprised when he realised that he was at the side of the road.

! saw myself as a famous actor.=I imagined that I was a famous actor.

he applied herself to the +o# of mendin$ the li$hts.

= She worked very hard to mend the lights.

He #usied himself in the kitchen.

=He worked busily in the kitchen.

! had to content myself with a few uros.

=I had to be satisfied with a few uros.

"e do not use a reflexive pronoun after ver#s which descri#e thin$s people usually do forthemselves, such as wash,shave, dress:

He washed 5himself7 in cold water.

He always shaved 5himself7 #efore $oin$ out in the evenin$.

6ichael dressed 5himself7 and $ot ready for the party.

"e only use reflexives with these ver#s for emphasis:

He dressed himself in spite of his injuries.

She$s old enough to wash herself.

0 as indirect object when the indirect object is the same as the subject of the ver#:

"ould you like to pour yourself a drink."e&ve #rou$ht ourselves somethin$ to eat.

0 as the object of a preposition when the o#+ect refers to the subject of the clause:

They had to cook for themselves.

He was feelin$ very sorry for himself.

Warning


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Warning

and after withwhen it means>accompanied by>:

he had a few friends with her.

"e use a reflexive pronoun...

0 with the preposition by when we want to show that someone didsomethin$ alone and?or without any help:

He lived by himself in an enormous house.

he walked home by herself.The children $ot dressed by themselves.

! prepared the whole meal by myself.

0 to emphasise the person or thin$ we are referrin$ to:

.endal itself is quite a small town.

especially if we are talkin$ a#out someone very famous:

Sir Paul /c0artney himself san$ the final son$.

"e often put the reflexive pronoun at the end of the clause when we are usin$ it for emphasis:

I#aked the #read myself.She mended the car herself

indefinite pronouns

The indefinite pronouns are:

somebody someone something

any#ody anyone anythin$

no#ody no one nothin$

every#ody everyone everythin$


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"e use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or thin$s without sayin$ exactly who or what they

are. "e use pronouns endin$ in -bodyor -onefor people, and pronouns endin$ in -

thingfor things:

1verybody en+oyed the concert.

! opened the door #ut there was no one at home.!t was a very clear day. "e could see everything.

"e use a singular verb after an indefinite pronoun:

very#ody loves ally.verythin$ was ready for the party.

"hen we refer bac& to an indefinite pronoun we normally use a plural pronoun:

1verybody en+oyed the concert. They stood up and clapped.

! will tell somebody that dinner is ready. They have #een waitin$ a lon$ time.

"e can add -'sto an indefinite pronoun to make a possessive.

They were stayin$ in somebody$s house.

!s this anybody$s coat

"e use indefinite pronouns with no-as the subject in negative clauses (not pronouns with any.)

'ny#ody didn&t come // 2obodycame.

"e do not use another ne$ative in a clause with nobody, no one or nothing:

8o#ody came.8othin$ happened.

"e use else after indefinite pronouns to refer to people or thin$s in addition tothe ones we

already mentioned.

'll the family came, #ut no one else.!f 6ichael can&t come we&ll ask some#ody else.

o that@s e$$s, peas and chips. 3o you want anythin$ else

relative pronouns

The relative pronouns are:

Subject Object Possessive

who who(m) whose


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which which whose

that that

"e use who and whom for people, and which for thin$s.

Ar we can use that for people or thin$s."e use relative pronouns:

0 after a noun, to ma&e it clear which person or thin$ we are talkin$ a#out:

the house that %ack #uilt

the woman who discovered radiuman ei$ht-year-old #oy who attempted to ro# a sweet shop

0to tell us more a#out a person or thin$:

6y mother, who was #orn overseas, has always #een a $reat traveller.

ord Thompson, who is BC, has +ust retired."e had fish and chips, which is my favourite meal.


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! had an uncle in 2ermany who5m7 ! inherited a #it of money from.

"e #ou$ht a chainsaw, which we cut all the wood up with.

"e can use that at the #e$innin$ of the clause:

! had an uncle in 2ermany that ! inherited a #it of money from."e #ou$ht a chainsaw that we cut all the wood up with.

3eterminers and #uantifiers

2eneral and specific determiners

3eterminers are words which come at the #e$innin$ of the noun phrase.

They tell us whether the noun phrase is specific or $eneral.3eterminers are either specific or general

Specific determiners,

The specific determiners are:

the definite article: the

possessives: my,your, his, her, itsD our, their, whose

demonstratives: this, that, these, those

interro$atives: which

"e use a specific determiner when we #elieve the listener4reader &nows exactly what we are

referrin$ to:

1an you pass me the salt please

ook at those lovely flowers.

Thank you very much for your letter.

Whose coat is this

"eneral determiners,

The $eneral determiners are:

a; an; any; another; other; what

"hen we are talkin$ a#out thin$s in $eneral and the listener?reader does not know exactly whatwe are referrin$ to, we can use a uncount nounor a plural noun with no determiner:

/il& is very $ood for you. (= uncount noun)

Health and education are very important. (= E uncount nouns)

"irls normally do #etter in school than boys. (= plural nouns with no determiner)


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9 or you can use a sin$ular noun with the indefinite article a or an:

5 woman was lifted to safety #y a helicopter.

5 man clim#in$ near#y saw the accident.

"e use the $eneral determiner anywith a sin$ular noun or an uncount noun when we are talkin$a#out all of those people or thin$s:

!t&s very easy. 5ny child can do it. (= 'll children can do it)

"ith a full licence you are allowed to drive any car.

! like #eef, lam#, pork - any meat.

"e use the $eneral determiner anotherto talk a#out an additionalperson or thin$:

"ould you like another $lass of wine

The plural form of another is other:

! spoke to %ohn, Helen and a few other friends.

;uantifiers

"e use quantifiers when we want to $ive someone information a#out the num#er of somethin$:how much or how many.

interrogative determiners, which and what

"e use >which> as a determiner to ask a question a#out a specific $roup of people or thin$s:

"hich restaurant did you $o to

"hich countries in outh 'merica have you visited

"hen we are askin$ a general question we use >what> as a determiner:

"hat films do you like

"hat university did you $o to

indefinite article, a and an

F. "e use the indefinite article, a?an, with count nounswhen the hearer4reader does not

&nowexactly which one we are referrin$ to:

olice are searchin$ for aFG year-old $irl.

E. "e also use it to show the person or thin$ is one of a group:


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he is apupil at ondon oad chool.

olice have #een searchin$ for a FG year-old $irl who has #een missin$ sinceriday.

%enny


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definite article, the

The definite article the is the most frequent word in n$lish.

"e use the definite article in front of a noun when we #elieve the hearer4reader &nows exactly

what we are referrin$ to.0 #ecause there is only one:

The Popeis visitin$ ussia.

The moonis very #ri$ht toni$ht.

The Shah of Iranwas deposed in FLBL.

This is why we use the definite article with a superlative ad+ective:

He is the tallest boyin the class.

!t is the oldest buildingin the town.

0 #ecause there is only one in that placeor in those surroundin$s:

"e live in a small villa$e next to the

church.= (the church in our villa$e)

3ad, can ! #orrow the car =(the car that #elon$s to our

family)

"hen we stayed at my $randmother&s

house we went to the #each every day.=

(the #each near my

$randmother&s house)

ook at the #oy in the #lue shirt overthere. = (the #oy ! am pointin$ at)

0 #ecause we have already mentioned it:

' woman who fell FI metres from Hi$h eak was lifted to safety #y a helicopter. The

woman fell while clim#in$.

The rescue is the latest in a series of incidents on Hi$h eak. !n %anuary last year two men

walkin$ on the pea&were killed in a fall.

"e also use the definite article:0 to say somethin$ a#out all the thingsreferred to #y a noun:

The wolf is not really a dan$erous animal (= "olves are not really dan$erous animals)

The kan$aroo is found only in 'ustralia (= Nan$aroos are found only in 'ustralia)

The heart pumps #lood around the #ody. (= Hearts pump #lood around #odies)

"e use the definite article in this way to talk a#out musical instruments:


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%oe plays the piano really well.(= 2eor$e can play any piano)

he is learnin$ the $uitar.(= he is learnin$ to play any $uitar)

0 to refer to a system or service:

How lon$ does it take on the train.! heard it on the radio.

*ou should tell the police.

0 "ith adjectives like rich, poor, elderly, unemployed to talk a#out groups of people:

ife can #e very hard for the poor.! think the rich should pay more taxes.

he works for a $roup to help the disabled.

The definite article with names,

"e do not normally use the definite article with names:

"illiam hakespeare wrote Hamlet.aris is the capital of rance.

!ran is in 'sia.


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0 organisations:

the Onited 8ationsD the eamen&s Onion

0 hotels, pubs and restaurantsQ:

the itPD the itP HotelD the Nin$&s HeadD the 3R+S uQ8ote: "e do not use the definite article if the name of the hotel or restaurant is the name

of the owner, e.$.,


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a couple of hundreds of thousands of etc.

ome quantifiers can #e used only with uncount nouns:

a little (not) much a #it of

'nd, particularly with abstract nounssuch as time, money, trouble, etc:, we often use:

a $reat deal of a $ood deal of

/embers of groups

*ou can put a noun after a quantifier when you are talkin$ a#out members of a group in

$eneral9

6ew snakes are dan$erous.

7oth#rothers work with their father.

! never have enough money.

9#ut if you are talkin$ a#out a specific $roup of people or thin$s, use of the as well

6ew of thesnakes are dan$erous.

5ll of the children live at home.He has spent all of his money.

8ote that, if we are talkin$ a#out twopeople or thin$s we use the

quantifiers both, either and neither:

One supermar&et Two supermar&ets8/ore than two

supermar&ets

The supermarket

was closed

The supermarketwasn@t open

! don&t think the

supermarket was


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One supermar&et Two supermar&ets8/ore than two

supermar&ets

open.

!"ouns with either and neither have a singular verb.in$ular quantifiers:

"e use every or each with a sin$ular noun to mean all:

There was a party in everystreet.

= There were parties in all the streets.

1very shop was decorated with

flowers.=

'll the shops were decorated with

flowers.

1ach child was $iven a priPe. = 'll the children were $iven a priPe.

There was a priPe in eachcompetition.

=There were priPes in all the

competitions.

"e often use every to talk a#out times like days, weeks and years:

"hen we were children we had holidays at our $randmother&s every year.

"hen we stayed at my $randmother&s house we went to the #each every day.

"e visit our dau$hter every 0hristmas.


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These are men$s shoes.

0hildren$s clothes are very expensive.

"e can use a possessive instead of a noun phrase to avoid repeatin$ words:

!s that %ohn&s car 8o, it&s 6ary&s 5car7. / 8o, it&s 6ary&s.

"hose coat is this !t&s my wife&s 5coat7. / !t&s my wife&s.

possessives, adjectives

1an you match these possessive ad+ectives to the ri$ht personal pronouns

its, your, my, their, our, her, his


! me

*ou you

He him

he her

!t it

"e us

They them

"e use possessive ad+ectives:

0 to show something belongs to some#ody:

That&s our house.

/y car is very old.

0 for relations and friends:

/y mother is a doctor.

How old is your sister

0 for parts of the #ody:


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He&s #roken his arm.

he&s washin$ her hair.

! need to clean my teeth.

possessives, pronouns

0an you match these possessive pronouns to the right personal pronouns and possessiveadjectives*

yours) mine) theirs) ours) hers) his, its

Subject Object Possessive adjectivesPossessive pronouns

! me my

*ou you your

He him his

he her her

!t it its

"e us our

They them their

"e can use a possessive pronoun instead of a noun phrase:

!s that %ohn&s car 8o, it&s 5my car7 / 8o, it&s mine."hose coat is this !s it 5your coat7 / !s it yours

Her coat is $rey, 5my coat7is

#rown Her coat is $rey, mine is #rown.

"e can use possessive pronouns after of."e can say:

usan is one of my friends.

orusan is a friend of mine.#ut not

usan is a friend of me

or! am one of Susan:s friends.

or

! am a friend of Susan:s.


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#ut not

! am a friend of usan

possessives, #uestions

"e use whose to ask questions:

Pattern 5 Pattern 7

"hose coat is this or "hose is this coat

"hose #ook is that or "hose is that #ook

"hose #a$s are those or "hose are those #a$s

5djectives

"e use ad+ectives to describe nouns.

6ost ad+ectives can #e used in frontof a noun9:

They have a beautiful house."e saw a very e-citing filmlast ni$ht.

or after a lin& verblike be, look orfeel:

Their house is beautiful.

That film loo&s interesting.

adjectives, %ed and %ing

' lot of ad+ectives are made from ver#s #y addin$ %ingor %ed:

%ing adjectives,

The commonest #ingad+ectives are:

amusin$ shockin$ surprisin$ fri$htenin$

interestin$ disappointin$ excitin$ tirin$

worryin$ #orin$ terrifyin$ annoyin$

!f you call somethin$ interesting you mean it interests you.

!f you call somethin$frightening you mean itfrightens you.


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! read a very interesting article in the newspaper today.

That 3racula film was a#solutely terrifying.

%ed adjectives,

The commonest ed ad+ectives are:

annoyed #ored fri$htened worried

tired closed excited deli$hted

disappointed

!f somethin$ annoys you, you can say you feel annoyed. !f somethin$ interests you, you can say

you are interested.

The children had nothin$ to do. They were bored.

order of adjectives

ometimes we use more than one ad+ective in front of a noun:

He was a nice intelli$ent youn$ man.

he had a small round #lack wooden #ox.

Opinion adjectives,

ome ad+ectives $ive a general opinion. "e can use these ad+ectives to descri#e almost any

noun:

$ood #ad lovely stran$e

#eautiful nice #rilliant excellent

awful important wonderful nasty

ome ad+ectives $ive a specific opinion. "e only use these ad+ectives to descri#e particular

kinds of noun:

6ood: tastyD delicious

6urniture) buildings: comforta#leD uncomforta#le

People) animals: cleverD intelli$entD friendly

"e usually put a generalopinion in front of a specificopinion:


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8ice tasty soup.

' nasty uncomforta#le armchair

' lovely intelli$ent animal

Osually we put an ad+ective that $ives an opinion in front of an ad+ective that is descriptive:

a nice red dressD a silly old manD those horri#le yellow curtains

"e often have two ad+ectives in front of a noun:

a handsome youn$ manD a #i$ #lack carD that horri#le #i$ do$

ometimes we have three ad+ectives, #ut this is unusual:

a nice handsome youn$ manDa #i$ #lack 'merican carD

that horri#le #i$ fierce do$

!t isvery unusual to have more than three ad+ectives.

'd+ectives usually come in this order:

; < = > ? @ A B

2eneral

opinion

pecific

opinioniPe hape '$e 1olour 8ationality 6aterial

"e use some ad+ectives only after a lin& verb:

afraid alive alone asleep

content $lad ill ready

sorry sure una#le well

ome of the commonest -edad+ectives are normally used only after a lin& verb:

annoyed; finished; bored; pleased; thrilled

"e say:

Aur teacher was ill.6y uncle was very $lad when he heard the news.

The policeman seemed to #e very annoyed

#ut we do not say:


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"e had an ill teacher.

"hen he heard the news he was a very $lad uncle

He seemed to #e a very annoyed policeman

' few ad+ectives are used only in front of a noun:

north

southeast

west

northern

southerneastern

western

countlessoccasional

lone

eventfulindoor

outdoor

"e say:

He lives in the eastern district.

There were countlesspro#lems with the new machinery.

#ut we do not say:

The district he lives in is easternThe pro#lems with the new machinery were countless.

Try these tasks to improve your ad+ective orderin$.

0omparative and superlative adjectives

"e use comparative adjectives to descri#e people and thin$s:

This car is certainly better#ut it&s much more e-pensive.

!&m feelin$ happier now."e need a bigger $arden

"e use than when we want to compare one thin$ with another:

he is two years older than me.

8ew *ork is much #i$$er than


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"e often use the with comparative ad+ectives to show that one thin$ depends on another:

"hen you drive faster it is more dan$erous

/ The faster you drive, the more dan$erous it is."hen they clim#ed hi$her it $ot colder

/ The hi$her they clim#ed, the colder it $ot.

Superlative adjectives,

"e use the with a superlative:

!t was the happiest dayof my life.verest is the highest mountainin the world.

That&s the best film! have seen this year.

! have three sisters, %an is the oldestand 'n$ela is the youngest.

Intensifiers

Intensifiers,

Intermediate!

"e use words like very, really and e$tremely to make ad+ectives stron$er:

It%s a very interesting story

veryone was very e$cited.It%s a really interesting story.

veryone was e"tremely e$cited

"e call these words intensifiers. Ather intensifiers are:

ama&ingly e$ceptionally incredibly

remarkably particularly unusually

"e also use enough to say more a#out an ad+ective, #ut enough comes after its ad+ective:

If you are seventeen you are old enough to drive a car.I can%t wear those shoes. They%re not big enough.

Intensifiers with strong adjectives,

tron$ ad+ectives are words like:

enormous' huge= very #i$

tiny = very small

brilliant = very clever

awful( terrible( disgusting( dreadful = very #ad
http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/node/1276/http://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/node/1276/


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certain = very sure

e$cellent( perfect( ideal( wonderful( splendid = very $ood

delicious = very tasty

"e do not normally use very with these ad+ectives. "e do not say somethin$ is >very enormous>

or someone is >very #rilliant>.

"ith stron$ ad+ectives, we normally use intensifiers like:

absolutely completely totally utterly

really e$ceptionally particularly )uite

The film was absolutely awful.

He was an e"ceptionally brilliant child.

The food smelled really disgusting.

/itigators

6iti$ators are the opposite of intensifiers. "hen we want to make an ad+ective less strong weuse these words:fairly - rather - #uite


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"e use slightly and rather as miti$ators with comparative adjectives in front of a noun,This is a slightly more e-pensive model than that.

This is rather bigger one than that.

5djectives as intensifiers,

"e use some ad+ectives as intensifiers:

absolute

total - complete

utter - perfect

real

"e say:

He&s a complete idiot.

They were talkin$ utter nonsense.9 #ut we do not say:

The idiot was complete.

The nonsense they were talkin$ was utter.

noun modifiers

"e often use two nouns together to show that one thing is a part of something else:the village churchD the car doorD the &itchen windowD the chair legD

my coat poc&etD Condon residents

Warning

"e do not use a possessive form for these thin$s. "e do not talk a#out:

The car&s doorD the kitchen&s windowD the chair&s le$

"e can use noun modifiers to show what something is made of:

a gold watchD a leatherpurseD a metal#ox

"e often use noun modifiers with nouns endin$ in -erand -ing:

an office workerD a +ewellery makerD a potato peelerD a shoppin$ listD a swimmin$ lessonD a

walkin$ holiday.

"e use measurements, age or value as noun modifiers:

a thirty &ilogram suitcaseD a two minute restD a five thousand europlatinum watchDa fifty &ilometre+ourneyD


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"e often put two nouns to$ether and readers4listeners have wor& outwhat they mean. o:

an ice #ucket = a #ucket to keep ice in

an ice cu#e = a cu#e made of ice

an ice #reaker = a ship which #reaks ice

the ice a$e = the time when much of the arth was covered in ice.

ometimes we find more than two nounsto$ether:

ondon office workersD $rammar practice exercises

Position of noun modifiers

2oun modifiers come after adjectives,

The old newspaper seller

' tirin$ fifty kilometre +ourney

5dverbials

Why do we use adverbials?

"e use adverbs to $ive more information a#out the ver#.

"e use adverbials of mannerto say how somethin$ happens or how somethin$ is done:

The children were playin$ happily.

He was drivin$ as fast as possible.

"e use adverbials of place to say where somethin$ happens:

! saw him there.

"e met in Condon.

"e use adverbials of time to say when or how often somethin$ happens:

They start work at si- thirty.

They usually $o to work #y #us.

"e use adverbials of probability to show how certain we are a#out somethin$.

Perhaps the weather will #e fine.

He is certainlycomin$ to the party.

Try these tasks to practice your use of adver#ials.


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How we ma&e adverbials

An adverbial can be an adverb:

He spoke angrily.

They live here."e will #e #ack soon.

or an adverb with an intensifier:

He spoke really angrily.

They livejust here."e will $o #uite soon.

"e will $o as soon as possible.

or a phrase with a preposition:

He spoke in an angry voice.

They live in Condon."e will $o in a few minutes.

where they go in a sentence

Where do adverbials go in a sentence?

"e normally put adver#ials after the verb:

He spoke angrily.They livejust here.

"e will $o in a few minutes.

or after the object or complement:

He opened the door #uietly.

he left the money on the table."e saw our friends last night.

*ou are lookin$ tired tonight.


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Cast night we saw our friends.

In a few minutes we will $o.

Dery #uietly he opened the door.

!f we want to emphasise an adverb of manner we can put it in front of the main ver#:

He #uietly opened the door.

he had carefullyput the $lass on the shelf.

Try these tas adverbs of manner adv de mod !

Adverbs of manner are usually formed from adjectives by adding ly:

#ad / badlyD quiet / #uietlyD recent / recentlyD sudden / suddenly

#ut there are sometimes chan$es in spelling:

easy / easilyD $entle / gently

!f an ad+ective ends in%lywe use the phrase in a . wayto express manner:

illy / He #ehaved in a silly way.

riendly / he spoke in a friendly way.

' few adver#s of manner have the same form as the adjective:

They all worked hard.

he usually arrives late.! hate drivin$ fast.&ote* hardly and lately have different meanings:He could hardly walk = !t was difficult for him to walk.

! haven&t seen %ohn lately = ! haven&t seen %ohn recently.

"e often use phrases with like as adver#ials of manner:

he slept li&e a #a#y.He ran li&e a ra##it.

5dverbs of manner and lin& verbs

"e very often use adverbials with like after link ver#s:

Her hands felt li&e ice.

!t smells li&e fresh #read.


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They looked happily happy.

That #read smells deliciously delicious.

Try these exercises to practice your use of adver#ials of manner.

Try these tasks to practice your use of placement of adver#ials.ks to practice your use of placement of adver#ials.

adverbials of place

We use adverbials of place to describe,

Cocation

"e use prepositions to talk a#out where someone or somethin$ is.

$amples:

He was standin$ by the table.

*ou&ll find it in the cupboard.

i$n your name here at the bottom of the page.

3irection

"e use adver#ials to to talk a#out the direction where someone or somethin$ is moving.$amples:

"alk past the ban&and keep $oin$ to the end of the street.

The car door is very small so it&s difficult to $et into.

3istance

"e use adver#ials to show how far thin$s are:

$amples*


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#eside #etween #y in in #etween inside

near next to on opposite outside over

round throu$h under underneath

He was standin$ by the table.

he lives in a villa$e near "lasgow.

*ou&ll find it in the cupboard.

"e use phrases with of as prepositions:

at the #ack of at the top of at the #ottom of at the end of

on top of at the front of in front of in the middle of

There were some flowers in the middle of the table.

i$n your name here at the bottom of the page.! can&t see. *ou&re standin$ in front of me.

"e can use right as an intensifier with some of these prepositions:

He was standin$ right next to the ta#le.

There were some flowers right in the middle of the ta#le.There&s a wood right#ehind our house.

adverbials of direction

Direction

"e also use prepositional phrases to talk a#out direction:

across alon$ #ack #ack to down into

onto out of past throu$h to towards

he ran out of the house.

"alk past the ban&and keep $oin$ to the end of the street.

"e also use adver#s and adver# phrases for place and direction:

a#road away anywhere downstairs downwards


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everywhere here indoors inside nowhere

outdoors outside somewhere there upstairs

! would love to see aris. !&ve never #een there.

The #edroom is upstairs.!t was so cold that we stayed indoors.

"e often have a preposition at the end of a clause:

This is the room we have our meals in.

The car door is very small so it&s difficult to $et into.

! lifted the carpet and looked underneath

adverbials of distance

Distance

"e use adver#ials to show how far thin$s are:


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0 how often (frequency):

They usually watched television in the evenin$.

"e sometimes went to work #y car.

"e often use a noun phrase as a time adver#ial:

yesterday last week?month?year one day?week?month last aturday

tomorrownext

week?month?year

the day after

tomorrownext riday

today this week?month?year the day #efore

yesterday

the other

day?week?month

time and dates

We use phrases with prepositions as time adverbials:

0 "e use at with:

cloc& times: at seven o&clock - at nine thirty - at fifteen hundred hours

mealtimes: at #reakfast - at lunchtime - at teatime

9 and in these phrases:

at night % at the wee&end % at 0hristmas % at 1aster

0 "e use in with:

seasons of the year: in sprin$?summer?autumn?winter - in the sprin$

?summer?autumn?winter

years and centuries: in EIIL -in FLLJ - in the twentieth century

months: in %anuary?e#ruary?6arch etc.

parts of the day: in the mornin$ - in the afternoon - in the evenin$.

0 "e use on with:

days: on 6onday?Tuesday?"ednesday etc - on 1hristmas day - on my #irthday.

dates: on the thirty first of %uly - on %une FMth

8ote: "e say at nightwhen we are talkin$ a#out all of the night:

"hen there is no moon it is very dark at night.

He sleeps durin$ the day and works at night.

#ut we say in the night when we are talkin$ a#out a short time durin$ the ni$ht:


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He woke up twice in the night.

! heard a funny noise in the night.

"e use the adver# ago with the past simple to say how long before the time of speakin$somethin$ happened:

! saw %im a#out three wee&s ago.

"e arrived a few minutes ago.

"e can put time phrases to$ether:

"e will meet ne-t wee&at si- o$cloc&on /onday.! heard a funny noise at about eleven o$cloc&last night.

!t happened last wee&at seven o$cloc&on /onday night.

how long

"e usefor to say how long:

"e have #een waitin$ for twenty minutes.They lived in 6anchester for fifteen years.

"e use since with the present perfect or the past perfect to say when something started:

! have worked here since 3ecember.

They had #een watchin$ since seven o$cloc& in the morning.

"e usefrom to/untilto say when somethin$ starts and finishes:

They stayed with us from /onday to 6riday."e will #e on holiday from the si-teenth until the twentieth.

how often

The commonest adver#ials of frequency are:

always never normally occasionally often

rarely seldom sometimes usually

"e usually put adver#ials of frequency in front of the main ver#:

"e often spend 1hristmas with friends.! have never en+oyed myself so much.

#ut they usually come after the ver# be:


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He was alwaystired in the evenin$.

"e are never late for work.

"e use the adver#ial a lotto mean often or fre#uently. !t comes at the end of the clause:

"e $o to the cinema a lot.

#ut before another time adver#ial:

"e $o to the cinema a lot at the wee&end.

"e use much with a negative to mean not often:

"e don$t$o out much. (= "e don&t $o out often)

"e use how often or ever to ask questions a#out fre#uency.ow often comes at

the beginning of the clause:

How often do you $o to the cinema

How often have you #een here

ever comes before the main ver#:

3o you ever $o to the cinema at the weekend

Have you ever #een there

on$er frequency phrases, like every year or three times a dayusually come at the end of the

clause:

! have an n$lish lesson twice a wee&.

he $oes to see her mother every day.

already) still) yet and no longer

"e use still to show that somethin$ continues up to a timein the past present or future. !t $oes

in front of the main ver#:

The children still en+oyed playin$ $ames.

They are still livin$ next door."e will still#e on holiday.

9 or after the present simple or the past simple of be:

Her $randfather is stillalive.

They were stillunhappy.


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"e use already to show that somethin$ has happened sooner than it was expected to happen.

ike still, it comes #efore the main ver#:

The car is AN. !&ve already fixed it.!t was early #ut they were already sleepin$.

9 or afterthe present simple or past simple of the ver# be:

!t was early #ut we were already tired.

"e are already late.

"e useyet in a ne$ative or interro$ative clause, usually with perfective aspect (especially in


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! for$et thin$s more oftennowadays.

he #e$an to speak more #uic&ly.

They are workin$ harder now.

"e often use than with comparative adver#s

! for$et thin$s more often than ! used to.

2irls usually work harder than#oys.

Intensifiers,

"e use these words and phrases as intensifiers with these patterns:much - far - a lot - #uite a lot - a great deal - a good deal - a good bit - a fair bit

! for$et thin$s much more often nowadays.

/itigators,

"e use these words and phrases as miti$ators:a bit - $ust a bit - a little - a little bit - $ust a little bit - slightly

he #e$an to speak a bit more quickly

uncount nouns

ome nouns in n$lish are uncount nouns.

"e do not use uncount nouns in the plural and we do not use them with the indefinite article,

a?an.

"e ate a lot of foods / "e ate a lot of food

"e #ou$ht some new furnitures / "e #ou$ht some new furniture

That&s auseful information / That&s useful information

"e can use some #uantifiers with uncount nouns:

He $ave me some useful advice.They $ave us a lot of information.

Oncount nouns often refer to:

Substances: foodD waterD wineD saltD #readD iron

Human feelings or #ualities: an$erD crueltyD happinessD honestyD prideD

5ctivities: helpD sleepD travelD work

5bstract ideas: #eautyD deathD funD life

0ommon uncount nouns


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There are some common nouns in n$lish, like accommodation, which are uncount nouns even

thou$h they haveplurals in other languages:

advice #a$$a$e equipment furniture homework information

knowled$e lu$$a$e machinery money news traffic

et me $ive you some advice.

How much luggagehave you $ot

!f we want to make these thin$s counta#le, we use e-pressions like:

a piece of... pieces of... a #it of... #its of... an item of... items of...

et me $ive you a piece of advice.

That&s auseful piece of equipment."e #ou$ht a few bits offurniture for the new apartment.

he had six separate items of lu$$a$e.

#ut we do not use accommodation, money and traffic in this way.

common problems with count4uncount nouns

;, 'ncount nouns used as count nouns

'lthou$h substances are usually uncount nouns...

"ould you like some cheese

0offee keeps me awake at ni$ht.

Wine makes me sleep.

... they can #e also used as count nouns:

!&d like a coffee please. = !&d like a 5cup of7 coffee.

6ay ! have a white wine. = 6ay ! have a 5$lass of7 white wine.

They sell a lot of coffees. = They sell a lot of 5different kinds of7 coffee.

! prefer white wines to red. = ! prefer 5different kinds of7 white wine to red.

They had over twenty cheeses on sale. = They had over twenty 5types of7 cheese on sale.

This is an excellent soft cheese. = This 5kind of7 soft cheese is excellent.


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"e should always have hope.

2eor$e had hopes of promotion.

Travel is a $reat teacher."here did you $o on your travels

=, 2ouns with two meanings

ome nouns have two meanings, one count and the other non count:

His life was in danger.

There is a serious danger of fire.in$uistics is the study of language.

!s n$lish a difficult language

!t&s made of paper.The Times is an excellent paper.

Ather words like this are:

#usiness death industry marria$e power property

tax time victory use work

>, 'ncount nouns that end in #s

ome uncount nouns end in -sso they look like plurals even thou$h they are sin$ular nouns.

These nouns $enerally refer to:

Subjects of study, mathematics) physics) economics) etcG

'ctivities: $ymnastics, athletics, etc.

2ames: cards, darts, #illiards, etc.

3iseases: mumps, measles, ra#ies, etc.

conomics isa very difficult su#+ect.


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family flock $an$ $overnment $roup herd

media pu#lic re$iment staff team

"e can use these $roup nouns either as sin$ular nouns or as plural nouns:

6y family isvery dear to me.

! have a lar$e family. They arevery dear to me. (= The mem#ers of my family9)

The $overnment isvery unpopular.

The $overnment arealways chan$in$ their minds.

ometimes we think of the $roup as a sin$le thin$:

The audience always enjoysthe show.

The $roup consistsof two men and three women.

ometimes we think of the $roup as several individualsD

The audience clapped theirhands.

The lar$est $roup arethe #oys.

The names of many organisationsand teams are also $roup nouns, #ut they are usuallyplural in spoken n$lish:


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We$ve got three pairs of scissors) but they are all bluntG

I always carry two pairs of binocularsG

proper nouns2ames of people) places and organisations are called proper nounsG We spell proper nouns

with a capital letter,

6ohammed 'liD


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"e use these forms:

to talk a#out the present:

He wor&s at 6c3onald&s. He has wor&ed there for three months now.He is wor&ing at 6c3onald&s. He has been wor&ing there for three months now.

ondon is the capital of


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somethin$ that is fixed in the future.

The school term starts next week.

The train leaves at FLGM this evenin$."e fly to aris next week.

present continuous

The present continuous tense is formed from the present tense of the ver# beand the present

participle (-ingform) of a ver#:

'se

F. "e use the present continuous tense to talk a#out the present:

for somethin$ that is happenin$ at the moment of spea&ing:

!$m just leavingwork. !&ll #e home in an hour.

lease #e quiet. The children are sleeping.

for somethin$ which is happenin$ #efore and after a $iven time:

't ei$ht o&clock we are usually having#reakfast."hen ! $et home the children are doing their homework.

for somethin$ which we thin& is temporary:

6ichael is at university. He$s studyinghistory.

!$m wor&ingin ondon for the next two weeks.

for somethin$ which is new and contrasts with a previous state:

These days most people are using email instead of writin$ letters."hat sort of clothes are teenagers wearing nowadays "hat sort of music are theylistening to

to show that somethin$ is chan$in$, $rowin$ or developing:

The children are growing quickly.

The climate is changing rapidly.

*our n$lish is improving.

for somethin$ which happens again and again:

!t$s always rainingin ondon.

They are always arguing.2eor$e is $reat. He$s always laughing.

2ote: "e normally use always with this use.


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E. "e use the present continuous tense to talk a#out the future:

for somethin$ which has #een arranged or planned:

6aryis going to a new school next term.

"hat are you doing next week

K. "e can use the present continuous to talk a#out the past:

"hen we are tellin$ a story:

"hen we are summarisin$ the story from a #ook, film or play etc.:

present perfect

The present perfect is formed from the present tense of the verb haveand

the past participleof a verb:

The present perfect continuous is formed with have/has been and the -ingform of the ver#:

'se

"e use the present perfect tense:

for somethin$ that started in the past and continues in the present:

They$ve been marriedfor nearly fifty years.

he has livedin iverpool all her life.2ote,"e normally use the present perfect continuous for this:

he has been livingin iverpool all her life.

!t$s been rainingfor hours.

for somethin$ we have done several timesin the pastand continueto do:

!$ve playedthe $uitar ever since ! was a teena$er.

He has writtenthree #ooks and he is workin$ on another one.

!$ve been watchingthat pro$ramme every week.

"e often use a clause with since to show when somethin$ started in the past:

They$ve been stayingwith us since last week.! have wor&edhere since ! left school.

!$ve been watchingthat pro$ramme every week since it started.

when we are talkin$ a#out our e-perience up to the present:Note: We often use the adverb ever to talk about eperience up to the present:


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6y last #irthday was the worst day ! have ever had.

2ote: and we use never for the ne$ative form:

Have youevermet2eor$e*es, #ut I$ve never methis wife.

for somethin$ that happened in the past #ut is important at the time of speakin$:

! can&t $et in the house. !$ve lostmy keys.

Teresa isn&t at home. ! think she has goneshoppin$.!&m tired out. !$ve been wor&ingall day.

"e use the present perfect of bewhen someone has gone to a place and returned:

': "here have you been


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past tense

There are two tenses in n$lish past and present.

The past tense in n$lish is used:

to talk a#out the past

to talk a#out hypotheses thin$s that are ima$ined rather than true.

for politeness.

There are fourpast tense forms in n$lish:

Past simple, I wor&ed

ast continuous: ! was workin$

ast perfect: ! had worked

ast perfect continuous: ! had #een workin$

"e use these forms:

to talk a#out the past:

He wor&ed at 6c3onald&s. He had wor&ed there since %uly..

He was wor&ing at 6c3onald&s. He had been wor&ing since %uly.

to refer to the present or future in conditions:

He could $et a new +o# if he really tried.

!f %ack was playing they would pro#a#ly win.

and hypotheses:!t mi$ht #e dan$erous. uppose they got lost.

! would always help someone who really needed help.

and wishes:

! wish it wasn$t so cold.

!n conditions, hypotheses and wishes, if we want to talk a#out the past, we always use

the past perfect:

! would have helped him if he had as&ed.

!t was very dan$erous, "hat if you had got lost

! wish ! hadn$t spent so much money last month.

"e can use the past forms to talk a#out the present in a few polite e-pressions:


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xcuse me, ! was wondering if this was the train for *ork.

! +ust hoped you would#e a#le to help me.

ast imple

'se

"e use the past tense to talk a#out:

somethin$ that happened once in the past:

! met my wife in FLJK.

"e went to pain for our holidays.They got home very late last ni$ht.

somethin$ that happened again and again in the past:

"hen ! was a #oy ! wal&ed a mile to school every day.

"e swam a lot while we were on holiday.They always enjoyed visitin$ their friends.

somethin$ that was true for some time in the past:

! lived a#road for ten years.

He enjoyed#ein$ a student.

he played a lot of tennis when she was youn$er.

we often use phrases with ago with the past tense:

! met my wife a lon$ time ago.

past continuous

The past continuous is formed from the past tense of bewith the -ingform of theverb:

"e use the past continuous to talk a#out the past:

for somethin$ which continued before and after another action:

The children were doing their homewor&when ! $ot home.1ompare:

! $ot home. The children did their homework.

and

The children did their homework when ! $ot home.

's ! was watchin$ television the telephone ran$.


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This use of the past continuous is very common at the #e$innin$ of a story:

The other day I was waiting for a #us when 9ast week as I was driving to work 9

for somethin$ that happened before and after a particular time:

!t was ei$ht o&clock. ! was writin$ a letter.

1ompare:

't ei$ht o&clock ! wrote some letters.!n %uly she was workin$ in 6c3onald&s.

.to show that somethin$ continued for some time:

6y head was aching.veryone was shouting.

for somethin$ that was happenin$ again and again:

! was practising every day, three times a day.They were meeting secretly after school.

They were always #uarrelling.

with ver#s which show change or growth:

The children were growing upquickly.Her n$lish was improving.6y hair was going $rey.

The town was changing quickly.

past perfect

"e use the ver# hadand the past participle for the past perfect:

! had finished the work.he had gone .

The past perfect continuous is formed with had been and the %ingform of the ver#:

! had been finishingthe work

She had been$oing.

The past perfect is used in the same way as the present perfect, #ut it refers to a time in the past,not the present.


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"e use the past perfect tense:

for somethin$ that started in the past and continued up to a $iven time in the past:

"hen 2eor$e died he and 'nne had been married for nearly fifty years.

he didn&t want to move. he had lived in iverpool all her life.

"e normally use the past perfect continuous for this:

he didn&t want to move. he had been living in iverpool all her life.

verythin$ was wet. !t had been raining for hours.

for somethin$ we had done several times up to a point in the past and continued to

do after that point:

He was a wonderful $uitarist. He had been playing ever since he was a teena$er.

He had written three#ooks and he was workin$ on another one.! had been watching the pro$ramme every week, #ut ! missed the last episode.

"e often use a clause with since to show when somethin$ started in the past:

They had #een stayin$ with us since the previous week.! was sorry when the factory closed. ! had worked there since ! left school.

! had #een watchin$ that pro$ramme every week sinceit started, #ut ! missed the last

episode.

when we are reportin$ our experience and includin$ up to the (then) present:

6y ei$hteenth #irthday was the worst day ! had ever had.! was pleased to meet 2eor$e. ! hadn&t met him #efore, even thou$h ! had met his wife

several times.

for somethin$ that happened in the past #ut is important at the time of reportin$:

! couldn&t $et into the house.I had lost my keys.

Teresa wasn&t at home. She had gone shoppin$.

"e use the past perfect to talk a#out the past in conditions, hypotheses and wishes:

! would have helped him if he had as&ed.

!t was very dan$erous. "hat if you had gotlost

! wish I hadn$t spentso much money last month.

perfective aspect

"e use the present perfectto show that somethin$ has continued up to the present


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They$ve beenmarried for nearly fifty years.

he has lived in iverpool all her life.

9 or is important in the present:

!$ve lostmy keys. ! can&t $et into the house.Teresa isn&t at home. ! think she has goneshoppin$.

"e use the present perfect continuous to show that somethin$ has #een continuin$ up to the

present:

!t$s been rainingfor hours."e$ve been waitinghere since six o&clock this mornin$.

"e use the past perfectto show that somethin$ continued up to a time in the past:

"hen 2eor$e died he and 'nne had beenmarried for nearly fifty years.

... or was important at that time in the past:

! couldn&t $et into the house. ! had lostmy keys.

Teresa wasn&t at home. he had goneshoppin$.

"e use the past perfect continuous to show that somethin$ had #een continuin$ up to a time in

the past or was important at that time in the past:

verythin$ was wet. !t had been rainingfor hours.

He was a wonderful $uitarist. He had been playingever since he was a teena$er.

"e use will with the perfect to show that somethin$ will #e complete at some time in the future:

!n a few years they will have discovereda cure for the common cold.

! can come out toni$ht. !:ll have finishedmy homework #y then.

"e use would with the perfect to refer to somethin$ that did not happen in the past #ut would

have happened if the conditions had been right:

!f you had asked me ! would have helpedyou.

! would have helpedyou, #ut you didn&t ask me.*ou didn&t ask me or ! would have helpedyou.

"e use other modals with perfective aspect when we are loo&ing bac&from a point in time

when somethin$ mi$ht have happened, should have happened or would have happened.The point of time may #e in the future:


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"e&ll meet a$ain next week. "e might have finished the work #y then.

! will phone at six o&clock. He should have got home #y then.

the present:

!t&s $ettin$ late. They should have arrived#y now.He&s still not here. He must have missed his train.

or the past:

! wasn&t feelin$ well. ! must have eaten somethin$ #ad.

! checked my cell phone. he could have left a messa$e.

continuous aspect


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"e have moved from


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active passive

! $ave him a #ook for his #irthday //He was $iven a #ook for his#irthday.

omeone sent her a cheque for a

thousand euros //

he was sent a cheque for a

thousand euros.

"e can use phrasal verbs in the passive:

active passive

They called off the meetin$. // The meetin$ was called off.

His $randmother loo&edafterhim.

//He was loo&ed after#y his

$randmother.

They will send him away to

school.// He will be sent away to school.

ome ver#s very fre#uently used in the passive are followed #y the to%infinitive:

#e supposed to #e expected to #e asked to

#e scheduled to #e allowed to #e told to

%ohnhas been as&ed tomake a speech at the meetin$.

*ou are supposed towear a uniform.The meetin$ is scheduled tostart at seven.

to K infinitive

"e use the to-infinitive:

0 to express purpose(to answer >"hy...>):

He #ou$ht some flowers to giveto his wife.

He locked the door to &eep everyone out.

"e sometimes say in order to or in order not to:

"e set off early in order toavoid the traffic.

They spoke quietly in order not towake the children

9 or we can say so as to or so as not to:


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"e set off early so as toavoid the traffic.

They spoke quietly so as not towake the children.

0 after certain verbs (seever#s followed #y infinitive), particularly ver#sof thin&ing and feeling:

choose, decide, e"pect, forget, hate, hope, intend, learn, like,

love, mean, plan, prefer, remember, want, would like, would love

9 and ver#s of saying:

agree, promise, refuse

They decided tostart a #usiness to$ether.

emember to turn the li$hts out.

ome ver#s are followed #y a direct objectand the infinitive(see ver#s followed #y infinitive):

advise, ask, encourage, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell, warn,

e"pect, intend, would prefer, want, would like

he remindedme to turn the li$hts out.

He encouragedhis friends to vote for him.

0 after certain adjectives.

ometimes the to-infinitive $ives a reason for the ad+ective:

disappointed

$lad

sad

happy

anxious

pleased

surprised

proud

unhappy

"e were happy to come to the end of our +ourney

= "e were happy #ecause we had come to the end of our +ourney

%ohn was surprised to see me= He was surprised #ecause he saw me

Other adjectives with the to-infinitive are:
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a#le

una#le

due

ea$er

keen

likely

unlikely

ready

prepared

unwillin$

willin$

Onfortunately ! was unable to wor& for over a week.

! am really tired. !&m ready to go to #ed.

"e often use the to-infinitive with these ad+ectives after it to give opinions:

difficult

easy

possi#le

impossi#le

hard

ri$ht

wron$

kind

nice

clever

silly

foolish

!t&s easy to play the piano, #ut it&s very difficult to play well.

He spoke so quickly it was impossible to understand him.


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"e use the prepositionfor to show who these ad+ectives refer to:

difficult

easy

possi#le

impossi#le

hard

!t was difficult for us to hear what she was sayin$.

!t is easy for you to criticise other people.

"e use the preposition of with other ad+ectives:

!t&s &ind of youto help.

!t would #e silly of him to spend all his money.

0 's a postmodifier (see noun phrases) after a#stract nouns like:

a#ility

desire

need

wish

attempt

failure

opportunity

chance

intention

! have no desire to be rich.

They $ave him an opportunity to escape.he was annoyed #y her failure to answer the #uestion correctly.

0 "e often use a to-infinitive as a postmodifier after an indefinite pronoun (ee indefinite

pronouns):

"hen ! am travellin$ ! always take something to read.

! was all alone. ! had no one to talk to.There is hardly anything to do in most of these small towns.
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admit like hate start avoid

su$$est en+oy dislike #e$in finish

as the o#+ect of a preposition

ome people are not interested in learningn$lish.

The -ingad+ective can come:

in front of a noun:

! read an interesting article in the newspaper today."e saw a really e-citing match on unday.

The commonest in$ ad+ectives used in front of the noun are

amusin$ interestin$ worryin$ shockin$ disappointin$

#orin$ surprisin$ excitin$ terrifyin$ fri$htenin$

tirin$ annoyin$

after a noun:

"ho is that man standing over there

The boy tal&ing to 'n$ela is her youn$er #rother.

and especially after ver#s like see, watch, hear, smell etc.

! heard someone playing the piano.

! can smell somethin$ burning.

tal&ing about the present

;G We use the present simple,

to talk a#out somethin$ happenin$ regularly in the present:

The children come home from school at a#out four."e often see your #rother at work.

to talk a#out somethin$ happenin$ continually in the present:


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They live next door to us.

He wor&s for the ost Affice.

to talk a#out thin$s which are generally true:

"ater boils at FII de$rees 1elsius.The 8ile is the lon$est river in 'frica.


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very#ody wor&ed hard throu$h the winter.

"e stayed with our friends in ondon.

"hen we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ that happened several times in the past we use

the past simple:

6ost evenin$s we stayed at home and watched 33s.

ometimes they went out for a meal.

9 or used to

6ost evenin$s we used to stay at home and watch 33s.

"e used to $o for a swim every mornin$.

... or would

6ost evenin$s he would ta&e the do$ for a walk.

They would often visit friends in urope.

"'8!82: "e do not normally use would with stative verbs.

"e use the past continuous:

when we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ which happened before and after a $iven time in

the past

!t was +ust after ten. ! was watching the news on T.

't half-time we were losing F-I.

when we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ happenin$ before and after another action in the

past:

He #roke his le$ when he was playing ru$#y.

he saw %im as he was driving away.

< The past in the past

"hen we are loo&ing bac& from a point in the past to somethin$ earlier in the past we use

the past perfect:

Helen suddenly remem#ered she had left her keys in the car.

"hen we had done all our shoppin$ we cau$ht the #us home.

They wanted to #uy a new computer, #ut they hadn$t saved enou$h money.They would have #ou$ht a new computer if they had saved enou$h money.

= The past and the present,


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"e use the present perfect:

when we are talkin$ a#out the effects in the present of somethin$ that happened in the

past:

! can&t open the door. !$ve leftmy keys in the car.%enny has found a new +o#. he works in a supermarket now.

"hen we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ that startedin the past and still $oes on:

"e have lived here since EIIB. (and we still live here)

! have been wor&ing at the university for over ten years.

> The future in the past

"hen we talk a#out the future from a time in the past we use:

would as the past tense of will

He thou$ht he would buy one the next day.

veryone was excited. The party would be fun.

was4were going to

%ohn was going to drive and 6ary was going to follow on her #icycle.

!t was riday. "e were going to set off the next day.

the past continuous:

!t was eptem#er. 6ary was starting school the next week.

"e were very #usy. The shop was opening in two weeks time.

tal&ing about the future

F. "hen we &now a#out the future we normally use the present tense.

"e use the present simplefor somethin$ scheduled or arran$ed:

We have a lesson next 6onday.The train arrives at C.KI in the mornin$.

The holidays start next week.

!t is my birthday tomorrow.

"e can use the present continuousfor plans or arran$ements:


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I$m playing football tomorrow.

They are coming to see us tomorrow.

We$re having a party at 1hristmas.

E. "e use will to talk a#out the future:

"hen we make predictions:

It will be a nice day tomorrow.

! think 7rail will win the "orld 1up.

!&m sure you will enjoy the film.

To mean want to or be willing to:

! hope you will come to my party.

2eor$e says he will help us.

To make offers and promises:

I:ll seeyou tomorrow.

We:ll sendyou an email.

To talk a#out offers and promises:

Tim will be at the meetin$.

/ary will help with the cookin$.

K. "e use (be) going to:

To talk a#out plans and intentions:

I$m going to drive to work today.

They are going to move to 6anchester.

"hen we can see that somethin$ is li&ely to happen:


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I might stay at home toni$ht, or I might go to the cinema.

We could see 6ary at the meetin$. he sometimes $oes.

C. "e can use should if we think somethin$ is li&ely to happen:

We should be home in time for tea.The game should be over #y ei$ht o&clock.

B. 1lauses with time words:

!n clauses with time words like when, after, and until we often use a present tense formto talk

a#out the future:

!&ll come home when I finish work.

*ou must wait here until your father comes.

They are comin$ after they have had dinner.

J. 1lauses with if:!n clauses with ifwe often use a present tense form to talk a#out the future:

"e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it rains.

If 7arcelona win tomorrow they will #e champions.

W52I2": "e do not normally use will in clauses with ifor withtime words:

!&ll come home when I willfinish wor&."e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it will rainrains.

7ut we can use will if it means a promise or offer:

! will #e very happy if you will come to my party.

"e should finish the +o# early if "eorge will help us.

L. "e can use the future continuous instead of the present continuous or $oin$ to for

emphasis when we are talkin$ a#out plans, arran$ements and intentions:

They$ll be coming to see us next week.

I will be drivingto work tomorrow.

verbs in time clauses and if clauses

er#s in time clauses and conditionals follow the same patterns as in other clauses e-cept:

!n clauses with time words like when, after, until we often use the present tense forms

to talk a#out the future:


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!&ll come home when I finishwork.

*ou must wait here until your father comes.

They are comin$ after they have haddinner.

in conditional clauses with if or unless we often use the present tense forms to talk

a#out the future:

"e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it is raining.

If 7arcelona wintomorrow they will #e champions.! will come tomorrow unless I have to loo& after the children.

"e do not normally use will in clauses with if or with time words:

!&ll come home when ! will finishwork.

"e won&t #e a#le to $o out if it will rain. rains.

!t will #e nice to see eter when he will $et home gets home.

*ou must wait here until you father will come comes.

#ut we can use will if it means a promise or offer:

! will #e very happy if you will come to my party.

"e should finish the +o# early if 2eor$e will help us.

(if( clauses and hypotheses

ome clauses with if are like hypotheses so we use past tenseforms to talk a#out the present and

future."e use the past tense forms to talk a#out the present in clauses with if :

for somethin$ that has not happened or is not happening:

He could $et a new +o# if he

really tried=

He cannot $et a +o# #ecause he has

not tried.

!f %ack wasplayin$ they would

pro#a#ly win=

%ack is not playin$ so they will

pro#a#ly not win.

!f ! had his address ! could write

to him =

! do not have his address so ! cannot

write to him.

"e use the past tense forms to talk a#out the future in clauses with if:

for somethin$ that we #elieve or know will not happen:

"e would $o #y train if it wasn$t so = "e won&t $o #y train #ecause it is


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expensive too expensive.

! would look after the children for

you at the weekend if !was at home=

! can&t look after the children

#ecause ! will not #e at home.

to make su$$estions a#out what might happen:

!f he came tomorrow we could #orrow his car.!f we invited %ohn, 6ary would #rin$ 'n$ela.

"hen we are talkin$ a#out somethin$ which did not happen in the past we use the past

perfect in the if clause and amodal ver# in the main clause:

!f you had seen him you could

have spoken to him=

*ou did not see him so you could not

speak to him

*ou could have stayed with us if

you had come to ondon

=*ou couldn&t stay with us #ecause you

didn&t come to ondon.!f we hadn&t spent all our money

we could take a holiday.=

"e have spent all our money so we

can&t take a holiday

!f ! had $ot the +o# we would #e

livin$ in aris=

! did not $et the +o# so we are not

livin$ in aris.

!f the main clause is a#out the past we use a modal with have:

!f you had seen him youcould have spoken to him.

=*ou did not see him so you couldnot speak to him.

*ou could have stayed with us ifyou had come to ondon.

=*ou couldn&t stay with us #ecauseyou didn&t come to ondon.

!f you had invited me !mi$ht have come.

=*ou didn&t invite me so ! didn&tcome.

!f the main clause is a#out the present we use a present tense form or a modal without have:

!f ! had $ot the +o# we would belivingin aris now.

=! did not $et the +o# so we are not

livin$ in aris now.

!f you had done your homework

you would &nowthe answer.=

*ou did not do your homework so

you do not know the answer.


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wishes and hypotheses

Wishes

"e usepast tense forms to talk a#out wishes:

"e use past tense modals would and could to talk a#out wishes for the future:

! don&t like my work. I wish I could $et a #etter +o#.That&s a dreadful noise. I wish it would stop.

! always have to $et home early. I wish my parents would let me stay out later.

"e use past tense forms to talk a#out wishes for the present:

! don&t like this place. I wish I lived in somewhere more interestin$.

These seats are very uncomforta#le. I wish we were travelling first class.

1veryone wishes they had more free time.9ohn wishes he wasn$t so #usy.

I wish it wasn$t so cold.

"e use the past perfect to talk a#out wishes for the past:

I wish I had wor&ed harder when ! was at school.

/ary wishes she had listened to what her mother told her.

I wish I hadn$t spent so much money last month.

Hypotheses things that we imagine!

"hen we are talkin$ a#out hypotheses:

"e use present tense formsafter phrases like what if, in case and suppose to talk a#out

the future if we think it is li&ely to happen:

Those steps are dan$erous. Suppose someone hasan accident.

"e should leave home early in case we are late.

"e use a past tenseform to talk a#out the future after suppose and what if to su$$est

somethin$ is not li&ely to happen:

!t mi$ht #e dan$erous. Suppose they got lost.

What if he lost his +o#. "hat would happen then

"e use modals would, could for a hypothesis a#out the future:


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"e can&t all stay in a hotel. It would be very expensive.

3rive carefully. You could have an accident.

"e use would in the main clause and thepast in a su#ordinate clause to talk a#out

the imagined future:

I would always help someone who really needed help.

I would always help someone if they really needed it.

"e use modals with have to talk a#out somethin$ that did not happen in the past:

! did not see 6ary, or I might have spo&en to her.

!t&s a pity %ack wasn&t at the party. He would have enjoyed this party."hy didn&t you ask me. I could have told you the answer.

lin& verbs

ome ver#s are followed #y either a noun or an ad+ective:

he was a $ood friend. = 8 W W 8

he was very happy. = 8 W W 'd+.

He #ecame headmaster. = 8 W W 8

He #ecame an$ry. = 8 W W 'd+.

These ver#s are called lin& verbs. 1ommon ver#s like this are:

#e

#ecome

appear

feel

look

remain

seem

sound

he seemedan intelli$ent woman.he seemed intelli$ent.


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He loo&ed hun$ry.

He loo&ed a $ood player.

'fter appear and seem we often use to be:

he appeared to bean intelli$ent woman.He seemed to be an$ry.

ome link ver#s are followed #y an adjective. 1ommon ver#s like this are:

$et

$o

$row

taste

smell

He gothun$ry in the evenin$.

She grewstron$er every day.

dele-ical verbs li&e have) ta&e) ma&e and give

3ele-ical verbs,

have, take, make, give, go and do

"e often use common ver#s like have and ta&e with nouns like a shower, a drink:

I took a shower. = ! showered.She had a drink. = he drank somethin$.

"e call thesedele-ical verbs#ecause the important part of the meanin$ is taken out of

the verb and put into the noun.

"e often put adjectives in front of the noun:I took acoldshower.

She had a nice' refreshing drink.

The ver#s used most frequently in this way are:have take make give

have

"e use have with:

6ood and drin&: a meal, #reakfast, lunch, dinner, a snack, a cup of tea

Tal&ing: a chat, a conversation, a discussion, a talk

Washing: a #ath, a shower, a wash, a scru#


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esting: a #reak, a holiday, a rest

3isagreeing: an ar$ument, a dispute, a fi$ht, a quarrel

I had a good breakfast before I left home.Wehad a long talkabout the problem.

The kids shouldhave a bathbefore they go to bed.

She generallyhad a short holidayin July or /ugust.Theyhad a serious #uarrelabout their father%s will.

"e also use have with nouns formed from verbs:

I thin& you should have a loo& at thisG

She had a bite of the ca&eG

I$m thirstyG I$m going to have a drin& of waterG

I had a listen to that new 03 in the carG

They are going to have a swimG

/odal verbs

The modal ver#s are:

can could

may might

shall should

will would

"e use modal ver#s to show if we #elieve somethin$ is certain, pro#a#le or possi#le (or not). "ealso use modals to do thin$s like talkin$ a#out a#ility, askin$ permission makin$ requests and

offers, and so on.

certain, pro#a#le or possi#le

a#ility, permission, requests and advice

modals W have

can, could and could have

may, mi$ht, may have and mi$ht have

can or could

will or would

will have or would have
https://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/certain-probable-or-possiblehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/ability-permission-requests-and-advicehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/modals-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/can-could-and-could-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/may-might-may-have-and-might-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/can-or-couldhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/will-or-wouldhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/will-have-or-would-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/certain-probable-or-possiblehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/ability-permission-requests-and-advicehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/modals-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/can-could-and-could-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/may-might-may-have-and-might-havehttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/can-or-couldhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/will-or-wouldhttps://learnenglish.britishcouncil.org/en/english-grammar/verbs/modal-verbs/will-have-or-would-have


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certain) probable or possible

The modal ver#s are can, could, may, might, shall, should, will and would.

The modals are used to show that we #elieve somethin$ is certain, pro#a#le or possi#le:

Possibility,

"e use the modals could, might and may to show that somethin$ is possi#le in the future, #ut

not certain:

They might comelater. +0 1erhaps2Maybe they will come later.,

They may come#y car. +0 1erhaps2Maybe they will come by car.,!f we don&t hurry we could be late. +0 1erhaps2Maybe we will be late,

"e use could have, might have and may have to show that somethin$ was possi#le now or at

some time in the past:

!t&s ten o&clock. They might havearrived now.

They could have arrived hours a$o.

"e use the modal can to make general statements a#out what is possi#le:

!t can be very cold in winter. +0 It is sometimes very cold in winter,

*ou can easily lose your way in the dark. +0 1eople often lose their way in the dark,

"e use the modal could as the past tense of can:

!t could be very cold in winter. +0 Sometimes it was very cold in winter.,*ou could lose your way in the dark. +0 1eople often lost their way in the dark,

Impossibility,

"e use the ne$ative can!t or cannot to show that somethin$ is impossi#le:

That can$t be true.

*ou cannot be serious.

"e us

Documents

British Council Grammar