The Brahmanical Critique of Buddhism A Sociological and Historical Perspective

The aim of my dissertation is to trace the lines of the Buddhist-Briihmatta philosophical debate and 10shy

cate it in its social and historical context as clearly as I can The debate between exponents of Buddhdarshy

sana and upholders of Brahmanical orthodoxy has been presented almost entirely in both Indian and

Western histories of Indian philosophy as a matter of doctrines and arguments divested of their social reshy

lations This debate is immensely interesting in itself representing as it does one of the great achieveshy

ments of sustained human inluiry remarkable in its ingenuity subtlety and depth A good part of my

work will involve simply unfolding it It is evident however that this debate also has a social signifishy

cance a contour and direction shaped by the course of South Asian history This social economic and

political shaping can be delineated in a way that illuminates an important and neglected aspect of the

meaning of these doctrines and arguments After surveying in more precise detail the field of the Budshy

dhist-Brahmava debate its chronology periodization affiliations and oppositions the point and countershy

point of argumentation and the threads of similarity and divergence I will then try to map the field of the

debate onto politico-economic changes to determine to what extent it can be seen to track them

My dissertation is therefore intended as a contribution to the sociology of knowledge in India and an

effort at historicization that begins with the question what was the ideological function and significance

of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate the social dynamic at work in it the materiality of intellectual proshy

duction supporting it and the reasons why the Buddhists appear to have lost it

I will look at several kinds of texts a preliminary survey of reports by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims to

the Holy Land literary and dramatic descriptions of Buddhists mostly of a critical and often satiric nashy

ture and smarta references that give us a vivid picture of Buddhism in practice how Buddhists were acshy

tually living and how they were viewed by their critics but primarily through the most important iistika

refutations of Buddhist ideas in Sanskrit This will be the centerpiece of my dissertation presenting a deshy

tailed critical analysis of the main lines of sastric argumentation outlining its dialogical interaction with

Buddhist thought I will translate the essential sections of the relevant Nyilya Silmkhya Yoga Mimilmsil

and Vedilntic texts sticking to the big names among siitrakaras bha~akaras varttikakaras and samgrashy

hakaras These texts will be discussed together with the relevant Buddhist texts and a wide range of hisshy

torical and cultural evidence to socially and historically contextualize the symbolic-ideational contest as it

develops between the Buddhists and their Brahmanical critics

The period from Nilgarjuna in the second century CB to Silntarak~ita in the 8th century CE is the

greatest age of philosophical creativity in Indian philosophy The only comparable one is the ferment of

the sramana movement of 700-400 BCE out of which emerged the sages of the Upanishads the Budshy

dhists the Jains and the Ajrvikas After 200 CE we see the crystallization ofthe sutras concentrated texshy

tual production in the commentarial form and the appearance on the scene of named personalities The

reason for this is clearly the expanding use and standardizing effect of writing and large-scale manuscript

production and dissemination which was superceding oral transmission The circulation of manuscripts

gives rise to a symbiotic attention space of shared protocols codes of discourse and problems in which

intellectual exchange and argument is carried on The language of this discursive space is Sanskrit A

classical Sanskritic education becomes the price of entry The material bases that support this space of

intellectual activity are laid down during the Gupta era The Hindul challenge to Buddhist thought and the

Buddhist response is the energizing stimulus driving the burst of creativity that follows from 400-800 CB

The problem with the standard histories of Indian philosophy is that they are not sufficiently historical

This is mainly due to the poor documentation and lack of evidence for the lives and times of Indian phishy

losophers We simply dont have the sources of information------letters memoirs and biographies-to reshy

construct the intellectual history of early India in the depth and detail possible for many philosophers

from Plato to Wittgenstein What we do have are mostly fragments of anecdotal lore and the legends of

iconic figures The personal lives and affiliations of Indian philosophers are almost completely lost to us

We know little of the personal relations of and the influences on writers of sastras how their texts are

produced and consumed the public fora and schools vihtlras tlsramas and ghatikas in which they studshy

ied taught and debated the social status and reputation of pandits the forms of patronage and remunerashy

tion and the whole social milieux in which the Brahmin intelligentsia moved and interacted

Compounding the difficulties all of these social forms were changing over the 2000 years of Indian

intellectual life Some figures are clustered together in time and place and seem to have personal contact

most are separated by decades if not centuries and linked only by textual traditions Texts circulate in

different channels of transmission and a pan-Indian synoptic encyclopedic view of all darsanas alshy

though anticipated by Bhavaviveka 5th cen CB and Haribhadra 8th cen CB comes very late with Madshy

hava 15th century CB and other compilers ofsamgrahaktiras The period from the 14th century to 18th censhy

turies understudied because regarded as stagnant and derivative in fact sees the greatest outpouring of

Sanskrit textual production

Neat paradigms such as the six darsanas became popular during the later scholastic period of handshy

books and compendia when the long tangled grow of sastric traditions is compacted into discrete and

static forms for students Indian philosophic traditions have passed through several periods of retroactive

reformulation and reformation that can obscure or erase the earlier phases Following the model of six

darsanas standard accounts of Indian philosophy have tended until very recently to split up developshy

ments treating each system or school separately as a self-contained entity This approach misses the inshy

terplay of social networks and the intertextuality that invigorates creative thought

The symbiotic development of Buddhist-Brahmanical thought has been particularly ill-served by this

compartmentalized treatment by lifting it out of the field of oppositional interaction that generated it and

this lack of narrative histories that chart the evolving sequence of argument and recover the earlier phases

overlaid by subsequent systematization Partial sketches of dynamics and interactions among schools are

to be found in older masters such as Theodore Stcherbats~ and Erich Frauwallner3 and more recently in

Stephen Phillips exposition of the interactions of Nyaya and Advaita4 and in Richard Kings thematic

approach to Buddhist-Hindu thought5 My study of the Brahmanical-Buddhist debate is meant as a contrishy

bution to these efforts

More work needs to be done to recover the materiality of intellectual production in the first millenshy

nium CB Ancient Indian producers of philosophic texts were almost exclusively members of educated

elites Even the Buddhists are largely Brahmins or of well-born ~atriya origins Far too little attention

has been paid to this fact Brahmin intellectuals may not have conceived their work in terms of the sharp

demarcation modern philosophers make between the religious and the philosophic (although Neo-Nyaya

began to resemble Logical Positivism in its rigorous technical and unmetaphysical character) but they did

not regard their work as having any more to do with the impure realms of the social or political than a

modern academic philosopher does Indeed that ideas have a social or historical dimension fell largely

outside of their conceptual horizon notwithstanding that the Buddha had much to say about Brahmans

and other social and political matters and Buddhists were palpably seen by Brahmans as a challenge to the

varntisrama social order legitimated by Vedic tradition and ~tika metaphysics Modern philosophers

have mostly treated Buddhadarsana and Brahmanical counter-arguments as pure philosophy and thus

have colluded with and subscribed old Brahmin gurus in the occlusion of the social-symbolic significashy

tion of their texts It is therefore a useful and interesting endeavor to recover this social dimension For it

is also true to say that Buddhism as a religion apart from the state society or economy is another of

2 Th Stcherbatsky 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta 3 Erich Frauwallner 1974 History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press 4 Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refotations ofRealism and the Emergence of New LoJjc Chicago Open Court

I will look at several kinds of texts a preliminary survey of reports by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims to

the Holy Land literary and dramatic descriptions of Buddhists mostly of a critical and often satiric nashy

ture and smarta references that give us a vivid picture of Buddhism in practice how Buddhists were acshy

tually living and how they were viewed by their critics but primarily through the most important iistika

refutations of Buddhist ideas in Sanskrit This will be the centerpiece of my dissertation presenting a deshy

tailed critical analysis of the main lines of sastric argumentation outlining its dialogical interaction with

Buddhist thought I will translate the essential sections of the relevant Nyilya Silmkhya Yoga Mimilmsil

and Vedilntic texts sticking to the big names among siitrakaras bha~akaras varttikakaras and samgrashy

hakaras These texts will be discussed together with the relevant Buddhist texts and a wide range of hisshy

torical and cultural evidence to socially and historically contextualize the symbolic-ideational contest as it

develops between the Buddhists and their Brahmanical critics

The period from Nilgarjuna in the second century CB to Silntarak~ita in the 8th century CE is the

greatest age of philosophical creativity in Indian philosophy The only comparable one is the ferment of

the sramana movement of 700-400 BCE out of which emerged the sages of the Upanishads the Budshy

dhists the Jains and the Ajrvikas After 200 CE we see the crystallization ofthe sutras concentrated texshy

tual production in the commentarial form and the appearance on the scene of named personalities The

reason for this is clearly the expanding use and standardizing effect of writing and large-scale manuscript

production and dissemination which was superceding oral transmission The circulation of manuscripts

gives rise to a symbiotic attention space of shared protocols codes of discourse and problems in which

intellectual exchange and argument is carried on The language of this discursive space is Sanskrit A

classical Sanskritic education becomes the price of entry The material bases that support this space of

intellectual activity are laid down during the Gupta era The Hindul challenge to Buddhist thought and the

Buddhist response is the energizing stimulus driving the burst of creativity that follows from 400-800 CB

The problem with the standard histories of Indian philosophy is that they are not sufficiently historical

This is mainly due to the poor documentation and lack of evidence for the lives and times of Indian phishy

losophers We simply dont have the sources of information------letters memoirs and biographies-to reshy

construct the intellectual history of early India in the depth and detail possible for many philosophers

from Plato to Wittgenstein What we do have are mostly fragments of anecdotal lore and the legends of

iconic figures The personal lives and affiliations of Indian philosophers are almost completely lost to us

We know little of the personal relations of and the influences on writers of sastras how their texts are

produced and consumed the public fora and schools vihtlras tlsramas and ghatikas in which they studshy

ied taught and debated the social status and reputation of pandits the forms of patronage and remunerashy

tion and the whole social milieux in which the Brahmin intelligentsia moved and interacted

Compounding the difficulties all of these social forms were changing over the 2000 years of Indian

intellectual life Some figures are clustered together in time and place and seem to have personal contact

most are separated by decades if not centuries and linked only by textual traditions Texts circulate in

different channels of transmission and a pan-Indian synoptic encyclopedic view of all darsanas alshy

though anticipated by Bhavaviveka 5th cen CB and Haribhadra 8th cen CB comes very late with Madshy

hava 15th century CB and other compilers ofsamgrahaktiras The period from the 14th century to 18th censhy

turies understudied because regarded as stagnant and derivative in fact sees the greatest outpouring of

Sanskrit textual production

Neat paradigms such as the six darsanas became popular during the later scholastic period of handshy

books and compendia when the long tangled grow of sastric traditions is compacted into discrete and

static forms for students Indian philosophic traditions have passed through several periods of retroactive

reformulation and reformation that can obscure or erase the earlier phases Following the model of six

darsanas standard accounts of Indian philosophy have tended until very recently to split up developshy

ments treating each system or school separately as a self-contained entity This approach misses the inshy

terplay of social networks and the intertextuality that invigorates creative thought

The symbiotic development of Buddhist-Brahmanical thought has been particularly ill-served by this

compartmentalized treatment by lifting it out of the field of oppositional interaction that generated it and

this lack of narrative histories that chart the evolving sequence of argument and recover the earlier phases

overlaid by subsequent systematization Partial sketches of dynamics and interactions among schools are

to be found in older masters such as Theodore Stcherbats~ and Erich Frauwallner3 and more recently in

Stephen Phillips exposition of the interactions of Nyaya and Advaita4 and in Richard Kings thematic

approach to Buddhist-Hindu thought5 My study of the Brahmanical-Buddhist debate is meant as a contrishy

bution to these efforts

More work needs to be done to recover the materiality of intellectual production in the first millenshy

nium CB Ancient Indian producers of philosophic texts were almost exclusively members of educated

elites Even the Buddhists are largely Brahmins or of well-born ~atriya origins Far too little attention

has been paid to this fact Brahmin intellectuals may not have conceived their work in terms of the sharp

demarcation modern philosophers make between the religious and the philosophic (although Neo-Nyaya

began to resemble Logical Positivism in its rigorous technical and unmetaphysical character) but they did

not regard their work as having any more to do with the impure realms of the social or political than a

modern academic philosopher does Indeed that ideas have a social or historical dimension fell largely

outside of their conceptual horizon notwithstanding that the Buddha had much to say about Brahmans

and other social and political matters and Buddhists were palpably seen by Brahmans as a challenge to the

varntisrama social order legitimated by Vedic tradition and ~tika metaphysics Modern philosophers

have mostly treated Buddhadarsana and Brahmanical counter-arguments as pure philosophy and thus

have colluded with and subscribed old Brahmin gurus in the occlusion of the social-symbolic significashy

tion of their texts It is therefore a useful and interesting endeavor to recover this social dimension For it

is also true to say that Buddhism as a religion apart from the state society or economy is another of

2 Th Stcherbatsky 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta 3 Erich Frauwallner 1974 History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press 4 Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refotations ofRealism and the Emergence of New LoJjc Chicago Open Court

losophers We simply dont have the sources of information------letters memoirs and biographies-to reshy

construct the intellectual history of early India in the depth and detail possible for many philosophers

from Plato to Wittgenstein What we do have are mostly fragments of anecdotal lore and the legends of

iconic figures The personal lives and affiliations of Indian philosophers are almost completely lost to us

We know little of the personal relations of and the influences on writers of sastras how their texts are

produced and consumed the public fora and schools vihtlras tlsramas and ghatikas in which they studshy

ied taught and debated the social status and reputation of pandits the forms of patronage and remunerashy

tion and the whole social milieux in which the Brahmin intelligentsia moved and interacted

Compounding the difficulties all of these social forms were changing over the 2000 years of Indian

intellectual life Some figures are clustered together in time and place and seem to have personal contact

most are separated by decades if not centuries and linked only by textual traditions Texts circulate in

different channels of transmission and a pan-Indian synoptic encyclopedic view of all darsanas alshy

though anticipated by Bhavaviveka 5th cen CB and Haribhadra 8th cen CB comes very late with Madshy

hava 15th century CB and other compilers ofsamgrahaktiras The period from the 14th century to 18th censhy

turies understudied because regarded as stagnant and derivative in fact sees the greatest outpouring of

Sanskrit textual production

Neat paradigms such as the six darsanas became popular during the later scholastic period of handshy

books and compendia when the long tangled grow of sastric traditions is compacted into discrete and

static forms for students Indian philosophic traditions have passed through several periods of retroactive

reformulation and reformation that can obscure or erase the earlier phases Following the model of six

darsanas standard accounts of Indian philosophy have tended until very recently to split up developshy

ments treating each system or school separately as a self-contained entity This approach misses the inshy

terplay of social networks and the intertextuality that invigorates creative thought

The symbiotic development of Buddhist-Brahmanical thought has been particularly ill-served by this

compartmentalized treatment by lifting it out of the field of oppositional interaction that generated it and

this lack of narrative histories that chart the evolving sequence of argument and recover the earlier phases

overlaid by subsequent systematization Partial sketches of dynamics and interactions among schools are

to be found in older masters such as Theodore Stcherbats~ and Erich Frauwallner3 and more recently in

Stephen Phillips exposition of the interactions of Nyaya and Advaita4 and in Richard Kings thematic

approach to Buddhist-Hindu thought5 My study of the Brahmanical-Buddhist debate is meant as a contrishy

bution to these efforts

More work needs to be done to recover the materiality of intellectual production in the first millenshy

nium CB Ancient Indian producers of philosophic texts were almost exclusively members of educated

elites Even the Buddhists are largely Brahmins or of well-born ~atriya origins Far too little attention

has been paid to this fact Brahmin intellectuals may not have conceived their work in terms of the sharp

demarcation modern philosophers make between the religious and the philosophic (although Neo-Nyaya

began to resemble Logical Positivism in its rigorous technical and unmetaphysical character) but they did

not regard their work as having any more to do with the impure realms of the social or political than a

modern academic philosopher does Indeed that ideas have a social or historical dimension fell largely

outside of their conceptual horizon notwithstanding that the Buddha had much to say about Brahmans

and other social and political matters and Buddhists were palpably seen by Brahmans as a challenge to the

varntisrama social order legitimated by Vedic tradition and ~tika metaphysics Modern philosophers

have mostly treated Buddhadarsana and Brahmanical counter-arguments as pure philosophy and thus

have colluded with and subscribed old Brahmin gurus in the occlusion of the social-symbolic significashy

tion of their texts It is therefore a useful and interesting endeavor to recover this social dimension For it

is also true to say that Buddhism as a religion apart from the state society or economy is another of

2 Th Stcherbatsky 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta 3 Erich Frauwallner 1974 History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press 4 Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refotations ofRealism and the Emergence of New LoJjc Chicago Open Court

this lack of narrative histories that chart the evolving sequence of argument and recover the earlier phases

overlaid by subsequent systematization Partial sketches of dynamics and interactions among schools are

to be found in older masters such as Theodore Stcherbats~ and Erich Frauwallner3 and more recently in

Stephen Phillips exposition of the interactions of Nyaya and Advaita4 and in Richard Kings thematic

approach to Buddhist-Hindu thought5 My study of the Brahmanical-Buddhist debate is meant as a contrishy

bution to these efforts

More work needs to be done to recover the materiality of intellectual production in the first millenshy

nium CB Ancient Indian producers of philosophic texts were almost exclusively members of educated

elites Even the Buddhists are largely Brahmins or of well-born ~atriya origins Far too little attention

has been paid to this fact Brahmin intellectuals may not have conceived their work in terms of the sharp

demarcation modern philosophers make between the religious and the philosophic (although Neo-Nyaya

began to resemble Logical Positivism in its rigorous technical and unmetaphysical character) but they did

not regard their work as having any more to do with the impure realms of the social or political than a

modern academic philosopher does Indeed that ideas have a social or historical dimension fell largely

outside of their conceptual horizon notwithstanding that the Buddha had much to say about Brahmans

and other social and political matters and Buddhists were palpably seen by Brahmans as a challenge to the

varntisrama social order legitimated by Vedic tradition and ~tika metaphysics Modern philosophers

have mostly treated Buddhadarsana and Brahmanical counter-arguments as pure philosophy and thus

have colluded with and subscribed old Brahmin gurus in the occlusion of the social-symbolic significashy

tion of their texts It is therefore a useful and interesting endeavor to recover this social dimension For it

is also true to say that Buddhism as a religion apart from the state society or economy is another of

2 Th Stcherbatsky 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta 3 Erich Frauwallner 1974 History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press 4 Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refotations ofRealism and the Emergence of New LoJjc Chicago Open Court

those Orientalist conceptual boxes that probably have little or no correspondence to how Buddhists in 700

CE imagined themselves or actually lived their lives6

Caste is another insufficiently explored aspect of the social-symbolic of Indian Philosophy Indeed

caste might be described as the social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ1a debate Defense of the

varqasrama order is clearly a strong motivation in astika thinkers as they expound conceptions of selfand

world that authorize it The Buddhist critique of caste is a more complex case The common view that

Buddhism was a revolt against caste is highly problematic The evidence suggests that like the Jains of

today the Buddhist thinkers denied caste in theory but were or became well-integrated into the caste sysshy

tern in day-to-day life Within the vihara there was a soteriological equality that did not translate into the

outside world I wi1llook at a few of these theoretical manifestos such as the Vajrasflcf Buddhist monasshy

ticism succeeded because of its multi-functionality in Indian society mediating between resistance and

legitimation Buddhists not only lived in accord with caste they played a key role in the conception and

propagation of the ideas of karma and rebirth shaping both the problem and its solution The ideological

force of Buddhist philosophy in this regard needs more study than it has received At bottom both Budshy

dhist and Brahmanical thought were competing theorizations of how social life should be conducted The

Buddhist denial of jati in both the social and philosophic sphere is not incidental Social meaning and

practice is the real unavowed content of metaphysical ideas In actuality it is not that unavowed given

the loud and clear insistence on the astika-nastika distinction

Buddhism emerged out of the sramana movement but was co-opted and brought within the fold of

varnasrama very quickly losing whatever equalitarian edge it might have initially had Bauddhas became

a wealthy worldly elite concerned with money status and property The tables are turned Whereas

Brahmans had earlier been the objects of criticism ridicule and humor in the Suttas and Jatakas of the

PilIi Canon now Buddhist monks become the objects of satire for their vices and hypocrisy

6 The Dumontian view of both Western and Indian scholars that Indian culture has been shaped more by the religious than the Dolitical or economic ie the here of hi tOry involv man ro ems c n ver ies c nce in Orie alism and ideali

BrahmaJ)a philosophy begins in the opposition of Brahmans as lay householders serving as teachers

and ritual specialists to the consolidation of Buddhist and Jain monastic organization and patronage by

the Mauryan and Ku~ana states This opposition was based on the formation of an orthodox lay culture

from 300 BCE to 200 CE This took place by three related processes ftrst by the recuperation of Brahshy

manical education around Upanishadic traditions and the capture and control of lay education in Indian

culture second by the deftnition of a distinct social identity codifted in dharmasastric canons laying out

(

the duties and prohibitions for all social transactions var1iisrama becomes the theory if not practice at

this early stage for all social life which is increasingly ritualized with Brahman priests becoming the ofshy

ftciating links in economic and property relations third the formation of an orthodox self-identity in opshy

position to the niistika movements prompts intellectual challenge and the conftguration of philosophical

traditions through debate with the Buddhists

The early stages of this formation occurred from 200 BCE to 200 CE the Siitra period to which are

dated the founding texts of Nyaya Vaise~ika Mimamsa and Vedanta and their legendary authors Gaushy

tama Kaqada JaiminI and B1ldarayana The resistance only comes fully into view out of this opaque peshy

riod with the spread of writing In the period from 400-800 CE we see the Buddhist-Brahma1)a debate

reach its acme of sophistication and intensity The brilliant new achievements of Mahayana-based

thought Madhyamika and Yogacara are met by an equally astute orthodox response Up to this point

Buddhists in a culturally ascendant position have largely been absorbed in the inter-sectarian differences

of the nikiiyas and the refmements of Abhidharmic analysis The Sarvastivadins Sautrantikas

Mahasanghikas and Andhakas were busy with the controversies out of which Mahayana would emanate

Thereafter they begin to turn their attention to the new challengers

Nyaya logic which begins as the art of rhetoric--how to win an argument and influence people so to

speak-is the first tool invented to counter the Buddhists and remains the most impressive instrument of

contestation It is hard to underestimate the impact Nyaya has on the course of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ)a

debate as both sides adopt it Nyaya shifts the debate onto the terrain of logic and epistemology to quesshy

consequences for Buddhism as it moved the contest onto the enemies field of assumptions and probshy

lems accepting the terms of pramiirlavada7 On the other hand this led to the most celebrated accomshy

plishments in Indian philosophy The brilliant logical and epistemological advances of Dignaga and

Dharmaklrti become the main targets of attack as the debate builds to great heights of technical virtuosity

and culminates in the Advaita tipping point

In the cosmopolitan Gupta and Harsha eras 300-700 CE one interlocking philosophical field emerges

as Buddhist and Brahmatla opponents come to share the same intellectual space The great lights of

Asanga Vasubandhu Dignaga and Dharmakirti on the Buddhist side are matched in distinction by an

orthodox intelligentsia Vatsyayana Sabara Vyasa Uddyotakara and Kumarila There is much crossing

of lines by figures such as BhartJhari and GaueJapada and cross-fertilization of ideas After 700 CE

things acquire a more sectarian edge as the astika begin to direct a fierce and unrelenting attack on Budshy

dhist thought and gain the upper hand in the Mimamsa reaction of Kumarila the Advaita revolution of

Sankara and the theologies of Rarnanuja and Madhva The Madhyamika-Yogacara summa of Santa-

rak~itas Tattvasa1lgraha is a last rear-guard defense of Buddhism in retreat With the comprehensive

works of Vacaspati MiSra Jayanta Bhata Udayana and Srrdhara orthodox philosophy consolidates its

intellectual dominance 8

7 Ronald Davidson 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press pp 99-105 B A preliminary survey ofthe critique mounted by each ofthe classical schools discloses interesting features Lines ofcriticism fall into patterns that attain an almost ritual character Later Brahmanical writers frame Buddhism as a set offour vadas which attract exclusive attention V aibh~ika Sautrantika Vijfianavada and Siinyavada A subset ofBuddhist doctrines draw their fire the Sautrantika theory ofmomentariness and related problems of causality VijfilinavDda anti-realism and the apparent denial of an external world the supposed nihilism ofMlidhyamika sunyatii and the denial ofsvabhiiva and the Buddhist denial ofa self Post-Dignttga and Dhannakrrti philosophers concern themselves with the intricacies of theories ofperception cognition error negatiotl and universals Brahmana philosophers establish themselves as the champions ofrealism about the existence of the soul the external world substance universals and cognition against Buddhist anti-realism falling at points 1 will argue into a fundamental misconstrual of Buddhist phenomenalism

Each school develops distinct lines ofcritique The Nyiiyasiltras and Vatsyayana in his bh~a criticize SarvlistivDda doctrines and take note ofNttg1irjuna Uddyotakara wrote his Nyayaviirtttika it seems solely to refute Dignaga and the bad logicians He also criticizes Vijfianavlida according to the Sautrantika exposition ofVasubandhus Abhidharamkosa Uddyotakara in turn is criticized by DharmakIrti Santaraklita and Kamalasila Vacaspatl Misra in the Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatfkti and Jayanta Bhana in the Nyiiyamanjarfvindicate in magisterial style the Nyaya position and attack Sautrantika-Vijfianavada in the formidably logishycized form expounded by Dharmakirti and Dhannottara Vacaspati Misra is himself assailed by JiiiiSrimitra and RatnakIrti Fishynally Udayana is regarded as having the last word on this exchange refuting Jfianasrimitra in the Atmatattvaviveka Vaisesikas aooears not to engage with Buddhist ideas until very late when Sridhara addresses Viiiianavada as presented by

I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in

the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy

tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the

cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist

symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval

feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded

Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy

zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the

time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely

extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest

of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy

The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy

cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical

opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy

sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The

Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political

economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy

ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material

bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline

as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy

tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism

and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that

Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a

Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position

Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy

structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological

method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre

Bourdieus model of cultural production1o

Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will

elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of

affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy

ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an

unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy

tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia

as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy

dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of

trade

The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that

it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule

Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This

process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy

tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy

litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy

pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence

and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila

realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha

yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support

Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy

ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm

9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi

BrahmaJ)a philosophy begins in the opposition of Brahmans as lay householders serving as teachers

and ritual specialists to the consolidation of Buddhist and Jain monastic organization and patronage by

the Mauryan and Ku~ana states This opposition was based on the formation of an orthodox lay culture

from 300 BCE to 200 CE This took place by three related processes ftrst by the recuperation of Brahshy

manical education around Upanishadic traditions and the capture and control of lay education in Indian

culture second by the deftnition of a distinct social identity codifted in dharmasastric canons laying out

(

the duties and prohibitions for all social transactions var1iisrama becomes the theory if not practice at

this early stage for all social life which is increasingly ritualized with Brahman priests becoming the ofshy

ftciating links in economic and property relations third the formation of an orthodox self-identity in opshy

position to the niistika movements prompts intellectual challenge and the conftguration of philosophical

traditions through debate with the Buddhists

The early stages of this formation occurred from 200 BCE to 200 CE the Siitra period to which are

dated the founding texts of Nyaya Vaise~ika Mimamsa and Vedanta and their legendary authors Gaushy

tama Kaqada JaiminI and B1ldarayana The resistance only comes fully into view out of this opaque peshy

riod with the spread of writing In the period from 400-800 CE we see the Buddhist-Brahma1)a debate

reach its acme of sophistication and intensity The brilliant new achievements of Mahayana-based

thought Madhyamika and Yogacara are met by an equally astute orthodox response Up to this point

Buddhists in a culturally ascendant position have largely been absorbed in the inter-sectarian differences

of the nikiiyas and the refmements of Abhidharmic analysis The Sarvastivadins Sautrantikas

Mahasanghikas and Andhakas were busy with the controversies out of which Mahayana would emanate

Thereafter they begin to turn their attention to the new challengers

Nyaya logic which begins as the art of rhetoric--how to win an argument and influence people so to

speak-is the first tool invented to counter the Buddhists and remains the most impressive instrument of

contestation It is hard to underestimate the impact Nyaya has on the course of the Buddhist-BrahmaJ)a

debate as both sides adopt it Nyaya shifts the debate onto the terrain of logic and epistemology to quesshy

consequences for Buddhism as it moved the contest onto the enemies field of assumptions and probshy

lems accepting the terms of pramiirlavada7 On the other hand this led to the most celebrated accomshy

plishments in Indian philosophy The brilliant logical and epistemological advances of Dignaga and

Dharmaklrti become the main targets of attack as the debate builds to great heights of technical virtuosity

and culminates in the Advaita tipping point

In the cosmopolitan Gupta and Harsha eras 300-700 CE one interlocking philosophical field emerges

as Buddhist and Brahmatla opponents come to share the same intellectual space The great lights of

Asanga Vasubandhu Dignaga and Dharmakirti on the Buddhist side are matched in distinction by an

orthodox intelligentsia Vatsyayana Sabara Vyasa Uddyotakara and Kumarila There is much crossing

of lines by figures such as BhartJhari and GaueJapada and cross-fertilization of ideas After 700 CE

things acquire a more sectarian edge as the astika begin to direct a fierce and unrelenting attack on Budshy

dhist thought and gain the upper hand in the Mimamsa reaction of Kumarila the Advaita revolution of

Sankara and the theologies of Rarnanuja and Madhva The Madhyamika-Yogacara summa of Santa-

rak~itas Tattvasa1lgraha is a last rear-guard defense of Buddhism in retreat With the comprehensive

works of Vacaspati MiSra Jayanta Bhata Udayana and Srrdhara orthodox philosophy consolidates its

intellectual dominance 8

7 Ronald Davidson 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press pp 99-105 B A preliminary survey ofthe critique mounted by each ofthe classical schools discloses interesting features Lines ofcriticism fall into patterns that attain an almost ritual character Later Brahmanical writers frame Buddhism as a set offour vadas which attract exclusive attention V aibh~ika Sautrantika Vijfianavada and Siinyavada A subset ofBuddhist doctrines draw their fire the Sautrantika theory ofmomentariness and related problems of causality VijfilinavDda anti-realism and the apparent denial of an external world the supposed nihilism ofMlidhyamika sunyatii and the denial ofsvabhiiva and the Buddhist denial ofa self Post-Dignttga and Dhannakrrti philosophers concern themselves with the intricacies of theories ofperception cognition error negatiotl and universals Brahmana philosophers establish themselves as the champions ofrealism about the existence of the soul the external world substance universals and cognition against Buddhist anti-realism falling at points 1 will argue into a fundamental misconstrual of Buddhist phenomenalism

Each school develops distinct lines ofcritique The Nyiiyasiltras and Vatsyayana in his bh~a criticize SarvlistivDda doctrines and take note ofNttg1irjuna Uddyotakara wrote his Nyayaviirtttika it seems solely to refute Dignaga and the bad logicians He also criticizes Vijfianavlida according to the Sautrantika exposition ofVasubandhus Abhidharamkosa Uddyotakara in turn is criticized by DharmakIrti Santaraklita and Kamalasila Vacaspatl Misra in the Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatfkti and Jayanta Bhana in the Nyiiyamanjarfvindicate in magisterial style the Nyaya position and attack Sautrantika-Vijfianavada in the formidably logishycized form expounded by Dharmakirti and Dhannottara Vacaspati Misra is himself assailed by JiiiiSrimitra and RatnakIrti Fishynally Udayana is regarded as having the last word on this exchange refuting Jfianasrimitra in the Atmatattvaviveka Vaisesikas aooears not to engage with Buddhist ideas until very late when Sridhara addresses Viiiianavada as presented by

I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in

the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy

tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the

cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist

symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval

feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded

Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy

zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the

time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely

extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest

of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy

The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy

cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical

opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy

sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The

Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political

economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy

ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material

bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline

as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy

tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism

and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that

Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a

Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position

Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy

structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological

method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre

Bourdieus model of cultural production1o

Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will

elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of

affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy

ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an

unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy

tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia

as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy

dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of

trade

The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that

it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule

Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This

process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy

tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy

litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy

pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence

and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila

realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha

yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support

Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy

ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm

9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi

consequences for Buddhism as it moved the contest onto the enemies field of assumptions and probshy

lems accepting the terms of pramiirlavada7 On the other hand this led to the most celebrated accomshy

plishments in Indian philosophy The brilliant logical and epistemological advances of Dignaga and

Dharmaklrti become the main targets of attack as the debate builds to great heights of technical virtuosity

and culminates in the Advaita tipping point

In the cosmopolitan Gupta and Harsha eras 300-700 CE one interlocking philosophical field emerges

as Buddhist and Brahmatla opponents come to share the same intellectual space The great lights of

Asanga Vasubandhu Dignaga and Dharmakirti on the Buddhist side are matched in distinction by an

orthodox intelligentsia Vatsyayana Sabara Vyasa Uddyotakara and Kumarila There is much crossing

of lines by figures such as BhartJhari and GaueJapada and cross-fertilization of ideas After 700 CE

things acquire a more sectarian edge as the astika begin to direct a fierce and unrelenting attack on Budshy

dhist thought and gain the upper hand in the Mimamsa reaction of Kumarila the Advaita revolution of

Sankara and the theologies of Rarnanuja and Madhva The Madhyamika-Yogacara summa of Santa-

rak~itas Tattvasa1lgraha is a last rear-guard defense of Buddhism in retreat With the comprehensive

works of Vacaspati MiSra Jayanta Bhata Udayana and Srrdhara orthodox philosophy consolidates its

intellectual dominance 8

7 Ronald Davidson 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press pp 99-105 B A preliminary survey ofthe critique mounted by each ofthe classical schools discloses interesting features Lines ofcriticism fall into patterns that attain an almost ritual character Later Brahmanical writers frame Buddhism as a set offour vadas which attract exclusive attention V aibh~ika Sautrantika Vijfianavada and Siinyavada A subset ofBuddhist doctrines draw their fire the Sautrantika theory ofmomentariness and related problems of causality VijfilinavDda anti-realism and the apparent denial of an external world the supposed nihilism ofMlidhyamika sunyatii and the denial ofsvabhiiva and the Buddhist denial ofa self Post-Dignttga and Dhannakrrti philosophers concern themselves with the intricacies of theories ofperception cognition error negatiotl and universals Brahmana philosophers establish themselves as the champions ofrealism about the existence of the soul the external world substance universals and cognition against Buddhist anti-realism falling at points 1 will argue into a fundamental misconstrual of Buddhist phenomenalism

Each school develops distinct lines ofcritique The Nyiiyasiltras and Vatsyayana in his bh~a criticize SarvlistivDda doctrines and take note ofNttg1irjuna Uddyotakara wrote his Nyayaviirtttika it seems solely to refute Dignaga and the bad logicians He also criticizes Vijfianavlida according to the Sautrantika exposition ofVasubandhus Abhidharamkosa Uddyotakara in turn is criticized by DharmakIrti Santaraklita and Kamalasila Vacaspatl Misra in the Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatfkti and Jayanta Bhana in the Nyiiyamanjarfvindicate in magisterial style the Nyaya position and attack Sautrantika-Vijfianavada in the formidably logishycized form expounded by Dharmakirti and Dhannottara Vacaspati Misra is himself assailed by JiiiiSrimitra and RatnakIrti Fishynally Udayana is regarded as having the last word on this exchange refuting Jfianasrimitra in the Atmatattvaviveka Vaisesikas aooears not to engage with Buddhist ideas until very late when Sridhara addresses Viiiianavada as presented by

I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in

the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy

tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the

cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist

symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval

feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded

Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy

zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the

time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely

extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest

of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy

The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy

cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical

opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy

sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The

Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political

economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy

ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material

bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline

as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy

tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism

and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that

Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a

Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position

Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy

structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological

method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre

Bourdieus model of cultural production1o

Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will

elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of

affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy

ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an

unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy

tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia

as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy

dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of

trade

The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that

it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule

Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This

process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy

tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy

litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy

pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence

and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila

realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha

yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support

Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy

ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm

9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi

I want to show how these intellectual events are not just happening in a vacuum but reflect changes in

the balance of social forces underwriting them Roughly sketched the Buddhists move from the intellecshy

tual ascendancy they enjoyed under themiddot internationalizing empires of the Mauryans and Kuampanas into the

cosmopolitan world of the Gupta-Harsha eras where Buddhists still receive state patronage and exist

symbiotically with an orthodoxy revitalizing with Saivism and Viampnuism then into a period ofmedieval

feudalization 700-1200 CE when the independent political-economic bases of Buddhism were eroded

Medieval is in scare quotes because I will question the appropriateness of such historiographic periodishy

zation After 1200 Vedantists sparring now with the Naiyayikas of Mithila will continue to deploy the

time-tested refutations against the ghosts of a defunct Buddhadarsana although presumably it is entirely

extinct on the peninsula Madhava for instance places Bauddhamata above Carvaka as the second lowest

of 16 systems in his Vedantic hierarchy

The Buddhist-Brahman debate has been seen by scholars as one of the factors contributing to the deshy

cline of Buddhism in India insofar as the Buddhists were declared to have lost it by their Brahmanical

opponents This is putting the cart before the horse Buddhists ideas in themselves were never conclushy

sively and irrevocably refuted although subject to over a millennium of ritualized attack and defense The

Buddhist only lost the ideological struggle in India proper as shifts and displacements in the political

economy of the subcontinent eroded the material support for Buddhism and Buddhist intellectual proshy

ducion My investigation of these shifts and displacements as they impinged on the social and material

bases of Buddhadarsana will be supplemented by reassessments of the narrative of Buddhisms decline

as it has been constructed in modem historiography the changing position of South Asia in the world sysshy

tern from the Mauryan Empire to the Muslim Sultanate the imperial and international role of Buddhism

and Buddhism in the evolution of caste society The objective is a global perspective that understands that

Indian philosophical ideas cannot simply be reduced to the social or the ideological they develop within a

Regarding Yoga some ofPataiijalis siitras appear to be referring to Buddhism and again in many respects to have been influshyenced by or co-developed with it Vyllsas bhaya makes brief but interesting references to Buddhism In the Tattvavaisiiradr of the polymath Vacasapati Misra we get a fuller discussion ofBuddhamata from the Yoga position

Sankhya criti ue as we find it in Ka ilas siitras the authorless Yuktidr ikii Aniruddha in the San asutravrtti and Vrfianabshy

structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological

method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre

Bourdieus model of cultural production1o

Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will

elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of

affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy

ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an

unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy

tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia

as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy

dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of

trade

The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that

it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule

Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This

process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy

tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy

litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy

pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence

and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila

realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha

yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support

Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy

ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm

9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi

structured autonomy as a sovereign self-regulating domain of cultural production My sociological

method is much indebted to Randall Collins Weberian conflict theory of philosophy and Pierre

Bourdieus model of cultural production1o

Regarding the question of the disappearance of Buddhavacana in India itself the view which I will

elaborate is that the overwhelmingly most important factor was the changed politico-economic state of

affairs in the subcontinent between 1200-1800 CE brought about by Muslim conquest and rule The inshy

ternational interconnections in which Buddhism has always flourished were cut off and suppressed in an

unprecedented way Once these conditions changed again and international networks and cultural circulashy

tion were restored there was a brilliant resurgence Islam supplanted Buddhism in South and Central Asia

as the international imperial religion and dominant cultural force playing the hegemonic role that Budshy

dhism had formerly played from Asoka to Harsha as the ideological currency of expanding empires of

trade

The role of caste absorption and religious assimilation must be considered in this regard I believe that

it had the effect that it did mainly in conjunction with the coup de grace of Muslim conquest and rule

Bauddhas had gradually been coalescing with Brahmava society since the Guptas That was not new This

process was intensified from 700 -1200 CE by the pressures of feudalization and the consequent tantrizashy

tion and bhaktization of the cultural landscape It was Muslim domination and the response of Hindu poshy

litical retrenchment and caste consolidation that almost completely eliminated the social space for indeshy

pendent Buddhist institution and thought in the sub-continent Buddhists found a submerged existence

and sheltering niche within the encompassing edifices of emergent Hinduism especially in the fomier Piila

realms as Tantric Siddhas Sahajiyas Vai~ava worshippers of Buddha the ninth avatar of Vi~u Niitha

yogis and devotees ofDharma-Cult In the absence ofroyal patronage the life-blood of religious support

Buddhists were not in a position to recover and sustain their unique cultural institutions-viharas and inshy

ternational universities-in the face of Muslim devastation and iconoclasm

9 Randall Collins 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybride Mass Belknao Press ofHarvard Universi

Buddhist thought has survived repeated ups and downs peaks and troughs of efflorescence and deshy

cline Mauryan Ku~ana Gupta Harsha and Pala The post-Pala interruption by the Sultanate and Mughal

Empire was only the longest and most devastating before its current world-wide renaissance Without the

swathe of destruction wrought by the iconoclastic fury of her rival Buddhism would no doubt have pershy

sisted in the form it had assumed under the Palas and continued to have in Nepal a stable Buddhist-Hindu

Tantric syncretism11 In the 19th and 20th centuries transmission to Euro-America and the interest of West-

em scholars archaeologists and spiritual seekers has led to renewal in its homeland Ironically

Buddhasasanas capacity for cultural adaptation which has made it so extraordinarily successful around

the world contributed heavily to disabling it for five centuries in the land of its birth

lOne might consider the fact that even in the supposed dark age of Buddhism 1200 to 1700 CE Buddhasiisana lived on in the nearby peripheries of Himachal Pradesh Ladakh Bhutan Sikkim Nepal Tibet Ceylon and Burma Diplomatic and trade misshysions were exchanged pilgrims holy men and travelers from these countries still continued to visit and revere the holy places of the Buddha and had contact with Buddhist teachers there Buddhist siddhas like Buddhagupta in the 16th century were still wanshydering around South Asia just as missionaries and pravriijakas had before him for centuries Although it is commonly believed that after the sack of NaIanda Buddhism was totally eradicated and nothing of its religious

traditions survived in the Indian sub-continent there is an increasing body of evidence to show that this was not the case In cershytain areas in Bengal Assam Orissa the Northeast territories the Western Himalayas Lahul Spiti and the areas adjoining Ladakh Buddhism survived in fact at late as the 17th century Caste identity ethnic resistance and the simple facts of geoshygraphical remoteness and inaccessibility oxygenated these survivals as must have ongoing cultural contacts with Buddhists in Tibet Nepal Ceylon and Burma The Hindu-Mahayana-Tantra of the Nepalese Newari within access of these remnant Bauddhas and Tibetan Vajrayana exerting its influence on the cultures of the Himalayan kingdoms were a continuing living presences for North Indians as was Theravada of Ce Ion for the South It does not make sense to s eak of the total demise of

Outline of Topics Covered and Tentative Table of Contents

I Introduction The Brahmanical critique ofBuddhavacana historicized

II Review of the Scholarship

III Cultural Contestation

A The Buddhists lose the ideological battle

B Smiirta Bauddhas Buddhists in Dharrnasastra Pural)a and Epic

C What literary satire tells us about Buddhists

1 Selected translations and studies of texts

a BhavabhUti Malatlm1idhava

b Dal)Qin Dasakumiiracarita

c Kr~narnisra Prabodhacandrodaya

d Caturbh(ini or Sringarahata

e Ksemendra Narma-Miilii

f Kaviraja Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka

g Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana

h Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam

i Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra

D Observations of Buddhists in India by Chinese and Tibetan pilgrims Fa-Xien Xuan-Zang I-tsing Bu-ston Tiiraniitha Dharmasvarnin Buddhagupta

IV Philosophical Counterattack and Co-option

A Discussion and translation of relevant passages

1 Nyaya critique ofBauddhamata

a Vatsyayana Nyayabhallya

b Uddyotakara Nyiiyaviirtika

c Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamanjari

d Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyayatrkii

e Udayana Atmatattvaviveka

a Sabara SabarabhC4ya

b Kumari1a Slokavarttika

c Prabhakara Brhatf

3 Vedantic critique ofBauddhamata

a Badarayana Brahmasiitras

b Sankara Brahmasiitrabh~ya

4 Sankhya-Yoga critique ofBauddhamata

a Patafijali Yogasiitras

b Vyasa YogabhC4ya

c Vacaspati Misra TattvavaiSaradi

d Yuktidrpikii

e Vijflinabhik~u SiinkhyaprCIVacanabhiiflya

B The problem-space and trajectory of the Buddhist-Brahmanical debate

V The Buddhist-Brahmanical Controversy as Ideology and Ritual

A The defensive synthesis ofBuddhist thought

1 The dialectic of philosophical networls from Nagiirjuna to Santarak~ita

B Erosion and collapse of the political-economic base of Buddhist philosophy

C Materiality of Buddhist intellectuaYproduction monasteries universities libraries state subsidy and patronage

D Tantrization and feudalization oflate Buddhism

E Brahmanical thought caste and feudalization

VI Buddhist Thought and Caste

A The Buddhist critique of Brahmanism

1 Suttanipata Vaseltha Sutta Madhura Sutta

2 Siirdulakarfiivadiina

3 Vajrasiicf

4 Kiilachakratantra Vimalaprabhii Paramiirthasevii

C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna

1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists

D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate

V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift

1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade

2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo

3 Buddhism as ideological currency

VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought

A Loss ofan independent social space

B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital

VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo

1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism

A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege

B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas

C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized

VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy

IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750

A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation

B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell

1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism

Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought

Bibliography

Sanskrit Indic and Tibetan Texts

Achutananda Dasa Sunya Samhita

Asvaghosa Vajrasuci

Badarayana Brahmasiltras

Bhavabhilti MiilatImadhava

Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam

Caturbhijni or Sringarahata

DaI)Qin Dasakumiiracarita

Drgha Nikiiya 1890-1911 3 vols ed TW Rhys Davids and JE Carpenter Pali Text Society Lonshydon Luzac

Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamafijarf

Kiilachakratantra with the Paramiirthasevii and Vishymalaprabhii

Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra

Kaviriija Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka

Ktnamisra Prabodhacandrodaya

Ksemendra Narma-Miilii

Kumiirila Slokaviirttika

The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya by Maurice Walsh Boston Mass Wisdom Books 1995

Madhurli Sutta in the Majjhima Nikiiya 1951 3 vo1s ed Lord Robert Charlmes Pali Text Society London Oxford University Press

Madhavavacrya SarvadarSanasamgraha

Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana

Patafijali Yogasiltras

Prabhakara Brhan

Sabara SabarabhiiSiya

Sankara BrahmasutrabhiiSfYa

Siirdulakarllavadiina in the Divyiivadlina A Collecshytion ofEarly Buddhist Legends ed Edward B Cowshyell and Robert A Neil Amsterdam Philo Press Pubshylishers 1970 XXXIII pp 625-630

Sutta-Niplita 1985 tr H Saddhatissa London Curshyzon

Press

Udayana Atmatattvaviveka

U ddyotakara Nyiiyavlirttika

Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatrkii

Viicaspati Misra Tattvavaisiiradi

Vatsyayana NyayabhaVa

Vijiliinabhi~u SlinkhyapravacanabhiiSf)Ja

Vyasa YogabhiiSya

Yuktidfpikii

Secondary Sources

Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications

Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~

sity Press

Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press

Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213

Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press

Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press

Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House

1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi

Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University

Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper

---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press

Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251

Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd

Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press

Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press

Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press

Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute

Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

sityPress

Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press

Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble

Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press

Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan

Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge

Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books

Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press

--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press

---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press

Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49

--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49

Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers

Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press

Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press

--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press

Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society

Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal

Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press

---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press

Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins

Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications

King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press

--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press

--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge

Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene

Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press

--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press

Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press

Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375

Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press

Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas

--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press

--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press

Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati

Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press

-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan

OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press

Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press

Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications

Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co

Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court

--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall

Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press

Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press

Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications

Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP

Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften

Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University

Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press

Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell

Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press

Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University

---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan

Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press

Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press

Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930

--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta

Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications

Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas

Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)

Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books

Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian

Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House

Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association

Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL

Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press

Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill

Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill

---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge

C Brahmanical reaction and the defense ofvantasrarna

1 Evidence for the caste subordination ofremnant and assimilated Buddhists

D The social unconscious of the Buddhist-BrahmaIa debate

V World System and Socio-Econornic Shift

1 Islam displaces Buddhism in the international networks of trade

2 Charkravartin The wheel-turning monarch and the withering ofBuddhisms imperial and internashytional role 700-1200 CEo

3 Buddhism as ideological currency

VI Under the Crescent Moon The Impact of Muslim Conquest and Occupation on HindushyBuddhist Thought

A Loss ofan independent social space

B Expropriation ofBuddhist cultural capital

VII The Disappearance of Buddhism and the Making of Mystical India 1500-1900 CEo

1 Retrenchment of orthodox darSanas in the space vacated by Buddhism

A Madhava and Vijayanagara Brahmanism under siege

B The analytic philosophy of the Mithila Naiyayikas

C Vedanta bhaktized and bhakti vedantized

VIII The Relics of the Buddha Bauddhamata the Six dadanas and Late Brllhmava Philosophy

IX The Buddhas Footprints The Survivals of Buddhamata after the Sack of Nlilandli 1200-1750

A Siddha Dharma Cult Sahajiya and assimilation

B Buddhist communities in Bengal Orissa Northeast India and the Western Himalayas up to the 18th cell

1 Achyutananda the Sunya Purii1Ja and VaiQava-Buddhist syncretism

Coda The Death and Rebirth of Buddhist Thought

Bibliography

Sanskrit Indic and Tibetan Texts

Achutananda Dasa Sunya Samhita

Asvaghosa Vajrasuci

Badarayana Brahmasiltras

Bhavabhilti MiilatImadhava

Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam

Caturbhijni or Sringarahata

DaI)Qin Dasakumiiracarita

Drgha Nikiiya 1890-1911 3 vols ed TW Rhys Davids and JE Carpenter Pali Text Society Lonshydon Luzac

Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamafijarf

Kiilachakratantra with the Paramiirthasevii and Vishymalaprabhii

Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra

Kaviriija Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka

Ktnamisra Prabodhacandrodaya

Ksemendra Narma-Miilii

Kumiirila Slokaviirttika

The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya by Maurice Walsh Boston Mass Wisdom Books 1995

Madhurli Sutta in the Majjhima Nikiiya 1951 3 vo1s ed Lord Robert Charlmes Pali Text Society London Oxford University Press

Madhavavacrya SarvadarSanasamgraha

Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana

Patafijali Yogasiltras

Prabhakara Brhan

Sabara SabarabhiiSiya

Sankara BrahmasutrabhiiSfYa

Siirdulakarllavadiina in the Divyiivadlina A Collecshytion ofEarly Buddhist Legends ed Edward B Cowshyell and Robert A Neil Amsterdam Philo Press Pubshylishers 1970 XXXIII pp 625-630

Sutta-Niplita 1985 tr H Saddhatissa London Curshyzon

Press

Udayana Atmatattvaviveka

U ddyotakara Nyiiyavlirttika

Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatrkii

Viicaspati Misra Tattvavaisiiradi

Vatsyayana NyayabhaVa

Vijiliinabhi~u SlinkhyapravacanabhiiSf)Ja

Vyasa YogabhiiSya

Yuktidfpikii

Secondary Sources

Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications

Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~

sity Press

Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press

Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213

Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press

Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press

Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House

1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi

Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University

Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper

---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press

Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251

Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd

Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press

Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press

Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press

Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute

Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

sityPress

Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press

Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble

Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press

Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan

Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge

Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books

Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press

--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press

---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press

Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49

--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49

Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers

Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press

Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press

--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press

Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society

Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal

Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press

---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press

Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins

Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications

King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press

--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press

--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge

Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene

Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press

--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press

Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press

Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375

Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press

Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas

--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press

--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press

Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati

Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press

-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan

OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press

Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press

Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications

Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co

Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court

--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall

Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press

Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press

Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications

Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP

Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften

Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University

Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press

Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell

Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press

Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University

---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan

Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press

Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press

Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930

--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta

Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications

Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas

Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)

Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books

Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian

Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House

Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association

Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL

Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press

Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill

Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill

---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge

Bibliography

Sanskrit Indic and Tibetan Texts

Achutananda Dasa Sunya Samhita

Asvaghosa Vajrasuci

Badarayana Brahmasiltras

Bhavabhilti MiilatImadhava

Bodhayana Bhagavadajjukam

Caturbhijni or Sringarahata

DaI)Qin Dasakumiiracarita

Drgha Nikiiya 1890-1911 3 vols ed TW Rhys Davids and JE Carpenter Pali Text Society Lonshydon Luzac

Jayanta Bhatta Nyiiyamafijarf

Kiilachakratantra with the Paramiirthasevii and Vishymalaprabhii

Kalidasa Miilavikiignimitra

Kaviriija Sankhadhara Lataka-Melaka

Ktnamisra Prabodhacandrodaya

Ksemendra Narma-Miilii

Kumiirila Slokaviirttika

The Long Discourses ofthe Buddha A Translation of the Digha Nikaya by Maurice Walsh Boston Mass Wisdom Books 1995

Madhurli Sutta in the Majjhima Nikiiya 1951 3 vo1s ed Lord Robert Charlmes Pali Text Society London Oxford University Press

Madhavavacrya SarvadarSanasamgraha

Mahendravarman I Mattaviliisaprahasana

Patafijali Yogasiltras

Prabhakara Brhan

Sabara SabarabhiiSiya

Sankara BrahmasutrabhiiSfYa

Siirdulakarllavadiina in the Divyiivadlina A Collecshytion ofEarly Buddhist Legends ed Edward B Cowshyell and Robert A Neil Amsterdam Philo Press Pubshylishers 1970 XXXIII pp 625-630

Sutta-Niplita 1985 tr H Saddhatissa London Curshyzon

Press

Udayana Atmatattvaviveka

U ddyotakara Nyiiyavlirttika

Vacaspati Misra Nyiiyaviirttikatiitparyatrkii

Viicaspati Misra Tattvavaisiiradi

Vatsyayana NyayabhaVa

Vijiliinabhi~u SlinkhyapravacanabhiiSf)Ja

Vyasa YogabhiiSya

Yuktidfpikii

Secondary Sources

Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications

Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~

sity Press

Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press

Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213

Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press

Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press

Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House

1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi

Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University

Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper

---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press

Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251

Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd

Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press

Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press

Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press

Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute

Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

sityPress

Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press

Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble

Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press

Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan

Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge

Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books

Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press

--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press

---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press

Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49

--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49

Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers

Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press

Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press

--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press

Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society

Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal

Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press

---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press

Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins

Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications

King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press

--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press

--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge

Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene

Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press

--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press

Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press

Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375

Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press

Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas

--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press

--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press

Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati

Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press

-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan

OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press

Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press

Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications

Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co

Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court

--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall

Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press

Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press

Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications

Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP

Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften

Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University

Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press

Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell

Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press

Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University

---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan

Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press

Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press

Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930

--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta

Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications

Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas

Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)

Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books

Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian

Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House

Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association

Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL

Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press

Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill

Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill

---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge

Secondary Sources

Almond Philip C 1988 The British Discovery ofBuddhism Cambridge Cambridge University Press

Ahir DC 1991 Buddhism in Modern India Delhi Sri Sat Guru Publications

Basham A L 1989 The Origins and Development ofClassical Hinduism New York Oxford Univer~

sity Press

Bailey Greg and Mabbett Ian 2003 The Sociology ofEarly Buddhism Cambridge University Press

Bechert Heinz and Gupta Amit Das and Roth Gustav 1978 Hindu Element in the Religion of the Buddhist Barnas and Chakmas in Bengal Buddhism in Ceylon and Studies on Religious Syncretism in Buddhist Countries Heinz Bechert ed Gottingen Vandenhoeck 199~213

Bourdieu Pierre 1993 The Field ofCultural Production Essays on Art and Literature ed Randal John~ son N ew York Columbia University Press

Briggs GW1982 Gorakhnath and the Kanphata Yogis Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

Chakravarti Uma 1987 The Social Dimensions ofEarly Buddhism Delhi Oxford University Press

Chattopadhyaya Debiprasad 1972 Indian Philosophy Delhi Peoples Publishing House

1979 Studies in the History ofIndian Philosophy 3 vols Calcutta KP Bagchi

Collins Randall 1998 The Sociology ofPhilosophies A Global Theory ofIntellectual Change Camshybridge Mass Belknap Press ofHarvard University

Conze Edward 1959 Buddhism Its Essence and Development New York Harper

---1962 Buddhist Thought in India Ann Arbor University ofMichigan Press

Das Rahul Peter 1987 More remarks on the Bengali deity Dharma its cult and study in Anthropos v 82 n 1-3221-251

Das Sri Paritosh 1988 Sahajiya Cult ofBengal and Pancha Sakha Cult ofOrissa Calcutta Firma KLM Private Ltd

Dasgupta Surendranath 1922-1955 History ofIndian Philosophy 5 vols Cambridge Cambridge Unishyversity Press

Davidson Ronald M 2002 Indian Esoteric Buddhism A Social History ofthe Tantric Movement New York Columbia University Press

Davies C Collin 1949 An Historical Atlas ofthe Indian Peninsula 2nd ed Oxford Oxford University Press

Dharmasvamin 1959 Biography ofDharmasvamin (Chag 10 tsa-ba Chos-Ije-dpal) a Tibetan monk pilshygrim Original Tibetan text deciphered and translated by George Roerich with a historical and critical introd by A S Altekar Historical researches series 2 Patna K P Jayaswal Research Institute

Dutt Sukumar 1988 Buddhist Monks and Monasteries ofIndia Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

sityPress

Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press

Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble

Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press

Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan

Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge

Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books

Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press

--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press

---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press

Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49

--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49

Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers

Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press

Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press

--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press

Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society

Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal

Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press

---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press

Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins

Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications

King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press

--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press

--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge

Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene

Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press

--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press

Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press

Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375

Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press

Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas

--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press

--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press

Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati

Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press

-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan

OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press

Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press

Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications

Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co

Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court

--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall

Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press

Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press

Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications

Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP

Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften

Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University

Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press

Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell

Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press

Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University

---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan

Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press

Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press

Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930

--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta

Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications

Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas

Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)

Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books

Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian

Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House

Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association

Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL

Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press

Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill

Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill

---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge

sityPress

Encyclopedia ofIndian Philosophies 1997 Vol 2 Indian Metaphysics and Epistemology The Tradition ofNyaya-Vaisesika up to Gangesa 1981 Vol 3 Advaita Vedanta up to Samkara and His Pupils 1987 Vol 4 Samkhya A Dualist Tradition in Indian Philosophy 1990 Vol 5 The Philosophy ofthe Grammarians Vol VI Indian Philosophical Analysis Nyaya-VaiSesikafrom Gangsa to Raghunatha Siromayi Vol VII Abhidharma Philosophy to 150 AD Vol VIII Buddhist Philosophy from 100 to 350 AD ed Karl Potter et al Princeton Princeton University Press

Eliot Charles 1954 Hinduism and Buddhism 3 vols New York Barnes amp Noble

Frauwallner 1974 Erich History ofIndian Philosophy intro Leo Gabriel tr VM Bedekar New York Humanities Press

Gokhale BG 1976 Buddhism in Maharashtra A History Bombay Popular Prakashan

Gombrich Richard 1988 Theravada Buddhism London Routledge

Guenther Herbert 1972 Buddhist Philosophy Baltimore Penguin Books

Halbfass Wilhelm 1988 India and Europe Albany SUNY Press

--- 1991 Tradition and Reflection Explorations in Indian Thought Albany SUNY Press

---1992 On Being and What There Is Classical Vaisesika and the History ofIndian Ontology Alshybany SUNY Press

Hallisey Charles and Reynolds Frank 1989 Buddhist Religion Culture and Civilization in Budshydhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cummings eds New York Macmillan 3-49

--- 1989 The Buddha in Buddhism and Asian History Joseph M Kitagawa and Mark D Cumshymings eds New York Macmillan 3-49

Hazra Kani Lal 1995 The Rise and Decline ofBuddhism in India New Delhi Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers

Hirakawa Akira 1990 A History ofIndian Buddhism From Sakyamuni to Early Mahayana Honolulu University Press

Isayeva Natalia 1993 Shankara and Indian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press

--- 1995 From Early Vedanta to Kashmir Shaivism Albany SUNY Press

Jacobi Hermann 1911 The Dates of the Philosophical Sutras vol 31 Journal ofthe American Oriental Society

Joshi Lal Mani 1983 Discerning the Buddha A Study ofBuddhism and the Brahmanical Hindu Attitude to It New Delhi Munishiram Manoharlal

Kalupahana David 1986 Nagarjuna The Philosophy ofthe Middle Way Albany SUNY Press

---1992 A History ofBuddhist Philosophy Honolulu University ofHawaii Press

Keay John 2001 India A History Harper Collins

Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications

King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press

--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press

--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge

Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene

Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press

--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press

Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press

Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375

Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press

Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas

--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press

--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press

Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati

Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press

-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan

OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press

Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press

Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications

Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co

Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court

--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall

Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press

Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press

Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications

Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP

Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften

Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University

Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press

Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell

Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press

Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University

---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan

Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press

Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press

Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930

--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta

Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications

Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas

Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)

Thapar Romila 1966 A History ofIndia Baltimore Penguin Books

Tucci G 1931 The Sea and Land Travels ofaBuddhist Sadhu in the Sixteenth Century in The Indian

Vasu Nagendra Nath 1986 Modern Buddhism and its Followers in Orissa Delhi Gian Publishing House

Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association

Weber Max 1996 The Religion ofIndia Delhi Munshiram ManoharlaL

Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press

Wink Andre 2002 AI-Hind The Making ofthe Indo-Islamic World 3 vol Leiden EJ Brill

Zurcher Erik 1959 The Buddhist Conquest ofChina Leiden EJ Brill

---1962 Buddhism Its Origins and Spread in Words Maps and Pictures London Routledge

Kher Chitrarekha V 1992 Buddhism As Presented by the Brahmanical Systems Delhi Sri Satguru Publications

King Richard 1995 Early Vedanta and Buddhism Albany SUNY Press

--- 1999 Indian Philosophy An Introduction to Hindu and Buddhist Philosophy Edinburgh Edinburgh Unishyversity Press

--- 1999 Orientalism and Religion Postcolonial Theory India and The Mystic East London Routledge

Kosambi DD 1986 The Decline of Buddhism in India in Exasperating Essays Exercises in the Diashylectical Method Pune RP Nene

Krishna Daya (ed) What Is Living and What Is Dead in Indian Philosophy Waltair India Andhra Unishyversity Press

--- 1991 Indian Philosophy A Counter Perspective New York Oxford University Press

Lamotte Etienne 1988 History oflndian Buddhism From the Origins to the Saka Era tr Sara WebbshyBonn Universit6 Catholique de Louvain Institute Orientaliste Louvain-Paris Peeters Press

Ling Trevor 1978 Buddhist Bengal and After in History and Society ed D Chattopaddhya 317-375

Mann Michael 1986 The Sources ofSocial Power vol 1 New York Cambridge University Press

Matilal BK 1985 Logic Language and Reality An Introduction to Indian Philosophical Studies Delhi Motilala Banarsidas

--- 1986 Perception An Essay on Classical Indian Theories ofKnowledge New York Oxford University Press

--- 1990 The Word and the World Indias Contribution to the Study ofLanguage New York Oxshyford University Press

Misra Pramatha Nath 1993 An Outline History ofMUMla Calcutta Arnar Bharati

Nakamura Hajime 1973 Religions and Philosophies ofIndia Tokyo Hokuseido Press

-- 1980 Indian Buddhism A Survey with Bibliographical Notes KUFS Publication Japan

OF1aherty Wendy Doniger 1980 Karma and Rebirth in Classical Indian Traditions Berkeley University of California Press

Oxford History ofIndia 1981 4th ed Edited by Percival Spear Oxford Oxford University Press

Omvelt Gail 2003 Buddhism in India Challenging Brahmanism and Caste New Delhi Sage Publications

Pandey Kanti Chandra 1986 An Outline ofHistory ofShaiva Philosophy Delhi Motilal Banarsidass

Patra Chittarajan 1991 Present Buddhist Tribals and Viharas in West Bengal Calcutta Sarkar amp Co

Phillips Stephen H 1995 Classical Indian Metaphysics Refutations ofRealism and the Emergence of New Logic Chicago Open Court

--- Creel Austin and Gerow Edwin 1988 Guide to Indian Philosophy Boston Mass GK Hall

Quigley Declan 1993 Interpretation ofCaste Oxford Clarendon Press

Raju PT 1985 Structural Depths ofIndian Philosophy Albany SUNY Press

Rani Vijaya 1982 The Buddhist Philosophy as Presented in Mimamsa-Sloka-Varttika Delhi Parimal Publications

Ray Himanshu 1994 The Winds ofChange Buddhism and the Maritime Links ofEarly South Asia Delhi OUP

Rubin Walter 1954 Geschichte der indischen Philosophie Berlin Deutscher Verlag der Wissenschaften

Sahu NK 1958 Buddhism in Orissa Bhubaneswar Utkal University

Sastri K AN 1999 A History ofSouth Asia From Prehistoric Times to the Fall ofVijayanagar New Delhi Oxford University Press

Searle-ChatteIje Mary and Sharma Ursula eds 1994 Contextualizing Caste Post Dumontian Approaches Oxford Blackwell

Sharma RS Indian Feudalism c 300-1200 Calcutta Calcutta University Press

Shastri Dharrnendranatha 1964 Critique ofIndian Realism Agra Agra University

---1976 ThePhilosophy ofNyaya-Vaisesika and its Conflict with the Buddhist Dignaga School Delhi Bharatiya Vidhya Prakashan

Smith Brian K 1994 Classifying the Universe The Ancient Indian Varna System and the Origins of Caste New York Oxford University Press

Staal Fritz 1988 Universals Studies in Indian Logic and Linguistics Chicago University of Chicago Press

Stch~rbatsky Th 1930 Buddhist Logic 2 vols Bibliotheca Buddhica XXVI Leningrad 1930

--- 1956 The Central Conception ofBuddhism Calcutta

Subrarnaniam V 1993 Buddhist-Hindu Interactionsfrom Sakyamuni to Sankaracarya ed V Subramaniam Delhi Ajanta Publications

Tiiraniitha s History ofBuddhism in India 1990 tr Lama Chimpa Alaka Chattopadhyaya Delhi Motilal Banarsidas

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Templeman David (1997) Buddhaguptanatha A Late Indian Siddha in Tibet In Helmut Krasser Mishychael Torsten Much Ernst Steinkellner and Helmut Tauscher (eds) Tibetan Studies Proceedings ofthe 7th Seminar ofthe International Association oTibetan Studies Graz 1995 VolIl pp955-966Wien Verlag der Dsterreichischen Akademie der Wissenschaften (Dsterreichische Akademie der Wissenshyschaften Philosophisch-Historisch Klasse Denkschriften 256 Band Beitrlige zur Kultur- und Geist esgeschichte Asiens Nr21)

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Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association

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Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press

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Walters Jonathan 1998 Finding Buddhists in Global History Washington DC American Historical Association

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Willis Janice Dean 1979 On Knowing Reality The Tattvartha Chapter ofAsanga s Bodhisattvabhumi New York Columbia University Press

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