Budhy Munawar-Rachman - Islam and Liberalism (Working Translation)

Note: This document is a working translation and should not be quoted without the explicit permission of the author or the Friedrich Naumann Foundation for Freedom in

Indonesia when used as a reference.

WORKING TRANSLATION

ISLAM AND LIBERALISM

Budhy Munawar-Rachman

Editor: Moh. Shofan



WORKING TRANSLATION

ISLAM AND LIBERALISM

Budhy Munawar-Rachman

Editor: Moh. Shofan

First Edition, August 2011

Published by

Friedrich Naumann Stiftung

Jl. Rajasa II No. 7

Kebayoran Baru, Senopati

Jakarta Selatan 12110

Phone. + 62 21 725 6012/13

Fax. +62 21 720 3868

Email: [email protected]

All rights reserved

Cover & Content: mps creativa

ISBN: 978-979-1157-31-5



WORKING TRANSLATION

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Preface and Acknowledgements -----------ix

Chapter I

Introduction -----------1

Liberalism -------2

Liberalism and Human Rights -----3

Liberal Islamic Thought in Indonesia -----11

NU and Liberal Islam ------15

Muhammadiyah and Liberal Islam ----21

Chapter II

Liberal Islam ----25

Discourse on Liberal Islam in Indonesia ----55

Chapter III

Ethical and Methodical Principles in Liberal Islam ---69

Ethical Principles in Liberal Islam ------69

Ethics of Justice ------70

Ethics of Welfare ------76



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Ethics of Liberation ------82

Ethics of Freedom -------88

Ethics of Brotherhood ------96

Ethics of Peace ---------101

Ethics of Compassion -----104

Liberal Islamic Method of Thinking -------108

The Impact of Textual Interpretation ------110

Asbb al-Nuzul --------114

Nasikh-Mansukh -------117

Makkiyah and Madaniyah -----------119

Ta’wil Theory -----------121

Mukhamat and Mutasyabihat -----------124

Hermeneutics ---------126

Chapter IV

Against the Idea of an Islamic State ---------129

Secularism in Indonesia -------138

Debates on Secularism in Indonesia: Nurcholish Madjid-------144

Reponses to Nurcholish Madjid ---------- 151

Secularism in Indonesia Today ---------167



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Chapter V

Assuring Gender Equality ---------167

The Mission of Liberal Muslims: Equality ----------169

Efforts Toward a Liberal Interpretation of Islam ---------175

The Use of Postmodern Hermeneutics ----------180

Closing -------184

Chapter VI

Promoting Pluralism ---------187

Exclusivism, Inclusivism, Pluralism ----------200

Pluralism in Islam --------213

Chapter VII

Theology of Religions: the Liberal Islam Perspective --------229

Salvation in Islam ----------229

The Concept of Ahl al-Kitab ---------239

Religious Freedom -----------248

Freedom of Non-Muslim Minorities ---------254

Jihad and Peace ------------260

Intersection of Religions ------------267

Exemplars of Thoughts on Pluralism in Religions: Interfaith Fiqih ---------275



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Giving Greetings to Non-Muslims -------279

Saying “Merry Christmas” ---------281

Allowing Non-Muslims to Enter Mosques --------282

Building Synergy Among Religions -----------284

The Concept of Ahl al-Dzimmah (Non-Muslim Minorities) ------286

The Concept of Jizyah (Non-Muslim Tax)

Interfaith Marriage --------287

The Issue of “Uniformity” in Religions -----288

Chapter VIII

Closing ----------301

About the Author -----------321



WORKING TRANSLATION

Preface and Acknowledgements

Islam and Liberalism throws light on the most recent developments in global Islamic

thought and Islamic thought in Indonesia. As a means of discourse, liberalism is not

a novelty in the history of Islamic thought. Since the classical period, Muslim

intellectuals have came up with notably liberal and open ideas inspired by Greek

philosophical traditions, Persian science, and Indian mysticism during the

development of their time. For this reason, if today Muslim intellectuals once again

develop liberal traditions inspired from the development of modern thought, this

phenomenon is evidently not ground-breaking—given that terminologically speaking,

Islam and Liberalism do not contradict one another. In any event, Islam is

surpassingly open in reviving its substance through modern perspectives.

This book touches on the most prevailing issues of present day. How Islam

positively responds to new ideas, such as democracy, human rights and notions of

freedom, including religious freedom and freedom of expression. This book talks of

the most recent debates on Islam and the state, particularly the compulsion to

embrace the notion of a secular state rather than an Islamic state. Developments on

ideas related to gender and pluralism are also discussed. This book elaborates how

liberal Islamic intellectuals develop their method of thinking, including their efforts to

establish a theology of religions substantial for the foundation of total compliance in

pluralism, democracy and human rights.

I would like to express my gratitude to Friedrich Naumann Stiftung especially

Rainer Heufers, Project Director of Friedrich-Naumann-Stiftung fur die Freiheit, and

Muhammad Husni Thamrin, Programme Officer Friedrich-Naumann-Stiftung fur die

Freiheit that have made publication of this edition possible and made it known

throughout Indonesia.

Jakarta, 22 June 2011

BMR



WORKING TRANSLATION

Chapter I

INTRODUCTION

With no holds barred, I strongly object MUI’s perspective that has a tendency

to be exclusive and judgmental. In translating Islam that is kaffah

(comprehensive), they have proven themselves incapable of accommodating

the different faces of Islam, let alone talk of liberalism.

Siti Ruhaini Dzuhayatin1

MUI’s fatwa issued on July 2005 affirmed that the forbiddance of liberalism was due

to the limitless use of the mind (ratio) in religious thought (Islam).2 KH. Ma’ruf Amin,

Chairman of MUI’s Fatwa Commission—now the Chairman of MUI’s National Sharia

Council—explains how liberalism is an attempt to provide interpretation of religious

teaching (Islam) out of the corridors of the established convention (qawa’id al-tafsir

al-nushush).3 He goes on to say how such illimitable use of the mind is generated

from hermeneutics, a method used by liberalism to interpret nash. According to

him—and this is why MUI forbids liberalism—the use of hermeneutics is estranged in

Islamic thought.

To begin with, hermeneutics is nothing like takwil. Takwil attempts to provide

interpretation of nash (religious texts) in cases when nash cannot be corporeally

understood. Takwil is customarily used to interpret verses that are zhanni (multi-

interpretation) and not qath’i (evident). This is because verses that are qath’i must

not and cannot be interpreted.

1 Interview with Siti Ruhaini Dzuhayatin, Yogyakarta, October 2006. Siti Ruhaini is a

feminist and a senior lecturer at UIN Sunan Kalijaga, Yogyakarta.

2 Fatwa Decision of the Indonesian Ulema Council No: 7/MUNAS VII/MUI/II/2005

concerning pluralism, liberalism and secularism, dated 29 July 2005.

3 Interview with KH. Ma’ruf Amin, Jakarta, 30 April 2008.



WORKING TRANSLATION

In addition, according to Ma’ruf Amin, interpretation of nash in Islam must

dearly hold the sacredness of nash and the divinity of He who reveals the Koran.

This signifies that the “divinity” of the Koran and the “prophecy” of Hadith may not be

compromised. Hermeneutics, on the other hand, believes that the Koran and Hadith

are regular books. Thus, they may be interpreted. What is more, according to Ma’ruf

Amin, many of the interpretations lead to “amendments” to nash. For this reason, he

demurs the use of hermeneutics, which is more often than not used as a Liberal

Islamic approach.

Based on such grounds, according to Ma’ruf Amin and MUI, liberalistic

approaches toward religion are considered astray. Ma’ruf Amin believes that liberal

interpretation often result in discrepancies from the established convention of

interpretation. According to him, liberal interpretation that draws on hermeneutics as

an approach is inapt to the Koran.4

The following are remarks by Liberal Muslim intellectuals regarding MUI’s

fatwa on the forbiddance of liberalism. Starting off with the philosophical meaning of

liberalism, continued with the liberal approaches in Islamic thoughts, and closing off

with their responses to the forbiddance of the concept of liberalism.

Liberalism

Before we go any further on the meaning of liberalism, the following is the definition

of liberalism as given in a dictionary or encyclopedia.

Liberalism refers to a broad array of related ideas and theories on government

that consider individual liberty to be the most important political goal. Modern

liberalism has its roots in the Age of Enlightenment. Broadly speaking,

liberalism emphasizes individual rights and equality of results. Different forms

of liberalism may propose very different policies, but they are generally united

by their support for a number of principles, including extensive freedom of

thought and speech, limitations on the power of governments, the rule of law,

4 Interview with KH. Ma’ruf Amin, Jakarta, 30 April 2008.



WORKING TRANSLATION

free exchange of ideas, a market or mixed economy, and a transparent

system of government. All liberals—as well as some adherents of other

political ideologies—support some variant of the form of government known

as liberal democracy, with open and fair elections, where all citizens have

equal rights by law.

There are many disagreements within liberalism, especially when

economic freedom and social justice come into conflict. The movement called

classical liberalism asserts that the only real freedom is freedom from

coercion.5

From the definition, we may conclude that liberalism is a notion that attempts

to enlarge the sphere of individual freedom and advance social progress. Liberalism

is a notion of freedom. This means that humans are entitled to freedom. From a

philosophical perspective, liberalism subsists as a school of thought established on

the concept of free humans. Free, as humans can think and act according to their

own will. Liberalism is a notion of thinking that sheds optimistic light on humans.6

The principles of liberalism are freedom and responsibility. Without responsibility,

social order within a liberal community can by no means be achieved.7 However, this

does not mean that liberalism is free of criticism. Yet, it remains the most logical

option in the political context of present day. One of the agendas of liberalism is to

rely on the ratio and social awareness of individuals in completing their duties. In

addition, it relies on the community’s independent development without excessive

intervention from the state.

5 Take a look at, “Liberalism”, Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia. See, Michael W.

Strasser, “Liberalism” in Paul Edwards (ed.), The Encyclopedia of Philosophy (New

York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc & The Free Press, 1967), p. 548-461

6 Rizal Mallarangeng, “Demokrasi dan Liberalisme”, in, Hamid Basyaib (ed.),

Membela Kebebasan Percakapan tentang Demokrasi Liberal (Jakarta: Freedom

Institute, 2006), p. 136-136

7 Frits Bolkestein, Liberalisme dalam Dunia yang Tengah Berubah (Jakarta: Sumatra

Institute, 2006), p. 54



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According to Bolkestein, liberals must determine the course of future debates

by emphasizing on freedom as the highest notion in the hierarchy of liberal values,

giving priority to competitive culture, taking the bottom-up approach for radical

decentralization, maintaining the pattern of diversity, and bringing decision-making

policy as close to the people as possible. Based on present day’s reality in which

many ideologies adhere to liberal ideas, Bolkestein gave one very important advice

to the supporters of liberalism: “If it is liberalism that you desire, do not opt for

ideologies that parrot the implementation of liberal ideas; instead refer to the true

liberalism.”

Liberalism is acknowledgement of civil rights. For

this reason, liberalism always goes together with

the rule of law; in view of the fact that freedom will

not transpire in the absence of legal regulations.

In reality, a person’s freedom is always limited by

other people’s rights. One’s freedom cannot be

exercised at the expense of other people’s

freedom. Freedom applies for each and every

human being.

(Rachman 2009: 13)

M. Dawam Rahardjo, Chair of the Foundation of Religious and Philosophical

Studies. Former Director of LP3ES. Once the Chief of Prisma magazine (1980-1986)

and Chair of ICMI Centre (1995-2000). He is now Rector of Proklamasi 45

University, Yogyakarta.

In liberalism, law enforcement is something fundamental. Constraints on civil

order and security defy freedom. As John Locke states: “The death of the function of

the law is not by getting rid or taking into custody those who are alleged to have

violated it, but by preserving and expanding freedom.”8 According to John Locke, the

state was founded to protect personal property rights. Not to create uniformity, or to

8 Frits Bolkestein, Liberalisme dalam Dunia yang Tengah Berubah, p. 46.



WORKING TRANSLATION

control imbalanced growth of personal property, but to maintain the entirety of

personal property that increasingly differs in amounts. When talking about property, it

does not only refer to estates, but also lives and liberties. They are inalienable rights

and, in point of fact, the state was established to protect them.9

The impact of Locke’s teaching of the state is in general huge, particularly in

the United Kingdom, France, and the United States. It would not be an

overstatement to say that the constitution of the United States was composed with

Locke in mind. Concepts, such as government by consent of the people and the

people’s trust in the government as the legitimate basis, are the foundation of

modern politics. The head of state cannot avoid liability by arguing that one is only

responsible to God as the authority was initially bestowed by humans through

original compact. Locke once again correlates the government’s authority and

delegation; the bestowal of authority by those governed. Locke uproots the

sovereign’s claim that authority is absolute and illimitable.

In view of that, the state can only exercise its authority for purposes delegated

through original compact. The state’s duty is therefore limited by its purpose that is

understood as servitude to the people’s needs. The state has no right to exercise its

sovereignty to intervene in all sectors of the people’s life. The state does not have

legitimacy to govern all matters. Thus, the core of liberal notion on the subject of the

state is that the state’s authority must be minimized. The principle that the state’s

authority must be limited to what needs to be done to run the essential function is a

very important and fundamental definition.

Limitation of authority is based on the belief that as a human each and every

person has equal position. No person, or no group has the right to order something

to be done to another person. So, first of all, it is our individual right for freedom; the

right to determine how one would like to live and what one would like to do; while the

second is limitation of freedom. Human’s freedom is indeed not illimitable. The rights

of other people over the same freedom and the rights of the society over the sacrifice

9 Franz Magnis Suseno, Etika Politik: Prinsip-prinisp Moral Dasar Keagamaan

Modern (Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 1999), p. 221.



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by each of its members for the sake of mutual interest essentially limit individual

freedom.10

John Locke’s biggest contribution toward modern awareness on matters

pertaining to the state is that limitation of the state’s authority must be put in the form

of demands in which the government must act based on the constitution. Demands

that the government must be run based on the constitution have become a modern

state awareness. In such a condition, citizens must be able to formulate and make

their decisions without the state’s intervention. In liberalism, political stability

extensively depends on the government’s ability to respond to the people’s

aspiration. Law supremacy is one of the pillars of individual freedom and democracy.

For this reason, efforts to put aside procedural and legal structures based on claims

of ‘national interests’ or irresponsible demands from the people must not be viewed

as democratic efforts. As stated by Aristoteles, the best government involves “law

supremacy and not people supremacy”.11 Democracy and freedom are two very

essential concepts in politics. Freedom or civil rights can be illustrated as a

supposition in which the state has a positive role in securing legal protection and

equal opportunities for each and every citizen regardless of the race, religion, and

gender. Civil rights include freedom of mind, freedom of opinion, freedom of

assembly and association, freedom of religion and freedom of the press. If they fail

to be acknowledged and enforced by state regulations, the state cannot be called

democratic.

Civil rights also call for protection, as they are very important for a person, for

example, the right to have or not have a religion. Civil rights must serve as an

important parameter to measure whether a state is democratic or not. In the case of

civil rights, democracy itself requires liberalism. If these rights do not exist, there is

10 Franz Magnis Suseno, Etika Politik: Prinsip-prinsip Moral Dasar Kenegaraan

Modern, p. 230.

11 David Beetham and Kevin Boyle, Demokrasi 80 Tanya Jawab (Yogyakarta:

Kanisius, 1995), p. 110-111.



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no democracy.12 It would not be an exaggeration to say that support for democracy

almost cannot be compromised in present day. Even liberal constitutionalists, such

as Bruce Ackerman, agree that under important times during the formation and

amendment of the constitution, a popular democratic legitimation is required, if the

results are to be legitimate. The same goes for Robert Dahl, who reminds us that

substantial political freedom is better valued in a democratic system compared to a

non-democratic one. In states where freedom to give opinion and associate are

recognized, personal properties are acknowledged, torture is restricted, equality

before the law is guaranteed, a democratic political system prevails.13

For this reason, Bolkestein imparts the following fine perspective on

liberalism.

In the past fifteen years, the world has looked toward the power of

liberalization, both in the economy sector and politics. Such power has

brought profound changes in attitude and appearance. It has opened a new

horizon and has gone beyond what was envisioned several decades ago. The

power of liberalization has increased the standard of living and enlarged the

sphere of freedom for billions of humans throughout the world. The potential

of this power will never reach a saturation point. Nearing the upcoming

Millennium, it gives us greater prospects of progress and supports us to be

able to strengthen and expand our liberalization authority that has in the past

proven to generate welfare.14

Liberalism sees individual freedom as an absolute value. They see Human

Rights (HR) as something that is fundamental and universal. For this reason,

12 R. William Liddle, “Demokrasi dalam Kebebasan Sipil”, in Hamid Basyaib (ed.),

Membela Kebebasan: Percakapan Tentang Demokrasi Liberal, p. 146-147.

13 Ian Shapiro, Asas Moral dalam Politik, p. 232. Also see, John Gray, Two Faces of

Liberalism (New York: The New Press, 2000)

14 Frits Bolkestein, Liberalisme dalam Dunia yang Tengah Berubah, p. 84.



WORKING TRANSLATION

enforcement of HR becomes the official purpose of foreign affair policies.15 Respect

for HR can be enforced through economic development. The most prosperous states

are democratic states and vice versa.

Liberalism and Human Rights

Liberalism is very much related to Human Rights (HR). When talking about HR, one

should adhere to the law on International Human Rights. The law was established by

the UN through international participation and universal aspiration. It defies local

particularism and different traditions based on the standard HR (UDHR [the

Universal Declaration of Human Rights]) formulated in 1948—then DUHAM) put up

in the West and the non-West. The values constituted within DUHAM are set as the

general standard for the progress of nations and should be sustained by the people

of the member states as well as the people in their areas of authority.16

15 Human rights are legal rights that belong to each and every individual, rich and

poor, man and woman. These rights may be violated, but they can never be revoked.

Human rights are legal rights, and this means that they are the law. Human rights

are protected by the constitution and the national law of many states in the world.

Take a look at John Fray, Two Faces of Liberalism (New York: The New Press,

2000).

16 The principles of HR, constituted in DUHAM, basically originates from the thoughts

of 17th, 18th, and 19th century philosophers from the West, such as John Locke,

Baruch Spinoza, Montesquieu, Voltaire, Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, Jeremy

Bentham, John Smith Mill, and his son John Stuart Mill. History notes that the initial

formula of HR in the West was from the Magna Charta in 1215. From the Magna

Charta, came the documents of Rights of Man France (1789), Bill of Rights of USA

(1791) and International Bill of Rights (1966). On January 6, 1941, President

Roosevelt initiated notions of freedom of religion, freedom from fear and freedom

from wanting that became popular throughout America. From the many formulas,

came the final formula in 1948 that was released by the UN’s General Assembly

under the name DUHAM. Take a look at Tri Wahyu Hidayat, Apakah Kebebasan



WORKING TRANSLATION

By and large, DUHAM is constituted of four general ideas. Firstly, individual

rights or the rights that belong to each and every person. Second is collective rights

or the people’s rights that can only be enjoyed collectively, such as the right for

peace, the right for development and the right for a clean living environment. Third

covers civil and political rights; among them are: the right to determine one’s own

fate; the right to receive compensation for those who have their freedom violated; the

right over life, the right for freedom of thinking, the right to have a faith and a religion,

the same right for woman and man to enjoy civil and political rights, the right to be

informed on the reasons of an arrest, equality in rights and responsibilities between

husband and wife, the right for freedom to express. Fourthly, economic rights, social

and cultural rights; among them include rights to relish in freedom from fear and

poverty; restriction on race discrimination, skin color, sex, gender and religion, equal

rights between man and woman to enjoy economic, social and cultural rights; right to

protest; right for education; right to be free from hunger.17

The basic concept of Liberal Islam is faith that

there is meaning beyond the sacred text; there is

text and context. Liberal, at some point, means to

liberate religion from things outside religion, from

interpretation that crosses private borders,

especially politicization and capitalization toward

it.

(Rachman 2009: 41)

Abd A’la, Professor in the History of Political Islamic Thought at IAIN Sunan Ampel

Beragama = Bebas Pindah Agama? Perspektif Hukum Islam dan HAM (Salatiga,

STAIN Salatiga Pers, 2008), p. 7, 104 and 108.

17 Siti Musdah Mulia, “Potret Kebebasan Berkeyakinan di Indonesia—Sebuah

Refleksi Masa Depan Kebangsaan Indonesia,” in Di Sekitar Masalah Kebebasan

Beragama dan Berkeyakinan di Indonesia (Jakarta: PSIK Universitas Paramadina,

2009). Not published.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Surabaya. He received his master’s and doctoral degrees from Universitas Islam

Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.

The right for religious freedom is also stated in details in the International Covenant

concerning Civil and Political Rights article 18. The covenant was ratified by the

Indonesian government through Law No. 12 Year 2005.18 The content is as follows:

(1) Each and every person is entitled to freedom of thought and freedom of faith and

religion. This covers the freedom to follow or accept a religion or a faith based on

one’s own choice, and freedom, individually as well as collectively, in public space or

private space, to conduct the religion or faith in the form of religious activities, loyalty,

implementation and teaching; (2) No one can be forced to accept a religion or faith in

such a way so that it disturbs the person’s freedom.

DUHAM mentions the term basic human rights that is the most basic human

rights, and they are categorized as the most important rights to be prioritized in

various laws and policies, both on national and international levels. Basic human

rights are a list of rights that assure the primary material and non-material needs of

humans in order to create a holistic humanistic existence for humans, i.e. humans

with value and dignity. Even though we may not find any regulation or explanation

that explicitly states in details all of the rights that are included as basic human

18 Indonesia has in fact ratified instruments of international human rights that are

related to religious freedom, such as Declaration of Human Rights (1948),

International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights (1966), International

Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination (1965).

According to the Presidential Decree No. 40 Year 2004 on the National Action Plan

on Human Rights (RANHAM), 2004-2009, Indonesia also ratified the International

Covenant on Civil and Political Rights 1966. Take a look at Fernando J. M. M.

Karisoh, “Kebebasan Beragama Ditinjau dari Aspek Perlindungan Hak Asasi

Manusia” in Di Sekitar Masalah Kebebasan Beragama dan Berkeyakinan di

Indonesia (Jakarta: PSIK Universitas Paramadina, 2009).



WORKING TRANSLATION

rights, but in general they cover the right to live, the right to eat, medical service,

freedom from suffering, and religious freedom. These rights and also the whole

human rights are based on a fundamental base, i.e. appreciation and respect

towards human’s dignity.

These human rights cannot be revoked, as they are the very essence of man.

They continue to exist as a moral right. Respect toward human rights distinguishes

states that are humane from states that are based on pure authority.19 One cannot

deny the fact that typically the state is the perpetrator. Even in the United States, the

actor behind the violation of the black people’s civil rights is the state, and not the

civil society. The same goes for Indonesia.20 We must admit that Indonesia is not yet

experienced enough to develop democracy amidst extreme demands to present a

religious discourse in the domain of social politics.

According to John Stuart Mill, one of the theorists behind the concept of

freedom in the United Kingdom in the 19th century, with freedom and appreciation

over other people’s conduct and thoughts, the prospect of a community to develop

and engage in dialogues for better solutions widens. The space expands. This is the

key to a community’s successful growth. In a community where freedom has become

an institution, which means it has become institutionalized into conduct, a law code,

a political system, and so on, accelerated progress is evident, and in due course

transformation into developed states is achieved.21

19 Franz Magnis-Suseno, 2001, Kuasa dan Moral, (Jakarta, PT Gramedia Pustaka

Utama, 2001), p. 21. Take a look at Hikmat Budiman (ed.), Komunalisme dan

Demokrasi Negosiasi Rakyat dan Negara (Jakarta: The Japan Foundation Asia

Center, 2003), p. 51.

20 Anis Baswedan, “Kovenan Tentang Hak-hak Sipil dan Politik” in, Hamid Basyaib

(ed.), Kebebasan Percakapan Tentang Demokrasi Liberal (Jakarta: Freedom

Institute, 2006), p. 55.

21 Rizal Mallarangeng, “Sebuah Kerangka Hukum” in Hamid Basyaib (ed.),

Defending Freedom: A Conversation on Liberal Democracy, p. 13.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Liberal Islam Thought in Indonesia

Nowadays, the term “Liberal Islam” is used by the young generation of both NU and

Muhammadiyah who attempt to develop in-depth, or to be precise, more progressive

moderate ideas (“Moderate Islam”) that is the fundamental notion of NU and

Muhammadiyah. Liberal Islam hopes to drive a main emphasis on the development

of knowledge, the discourse of justice, openness, tolerance, and the need to

establish the moral integrity of Muslims in building Indonesia’s nationality. Liberal

Islam does not only comprehend Islam as a religion, but furthermore Islam as a

civilization.22

The reformed definition of liberalism requires a

methodology; the bedrock of its knowledge. Do

not become non-historical. Do not become like

Wahhabi, non-historical. Conducting reform, but

cutting away history. For this reason, liberal here

means liberation and reform. And, its translation in

Islam can be found in liberal models, such as

Iqbal and Ali Syariati.

(Rachman 2009: 67)

Abdul Hadi WM, a poet with special interests in Sufism and Indonesia’s intellectual

treasure. He teaches at the Faculty of Philosophy and Civilization of Universitas

Paramadina Jakarta and the Islamic College for Advanced Studies (ICAS) Jakarta.

22 Ahmad Gaus AF, “Islam Progresif: Wacana Pasca Arus Utama (Peta Pemikiran

dan Gerakan Islam di Indonesia)”, in Jurnal Tashwirul Afkar, Edition No. 22 Year

2007, p. 96. For example, Zuhairi Misrawi and Novriantoni, both young intellectuals

of NU who wrote the book entitled Doktrin Islam Progresif: Memahami Islam Sebagai

Ajaran Rahmat (Jakarta: LSIP, 2004), and Zuly Qodir and friends (Ed.),

Muhammadiyah Progresif: Manifesto Pemikiran Kaum Muda (Yogyakarta: Lesfi-

JIMM, 2007). Dr. Zuly Qodir is a young Muhammadiyah intellectual.



WORKING TRANSLATION

The term “Liberal Islam”, an advanced development of the thought and the

position of “Moderate Islam”, is often placed side by side with “Radical Islam”;

“Liberal Islam” being more “secular”. Even so, the notion of Liberal Islam and Liberal

Islam can at times be interchangeable.23 The first scholar to use the terms Liberal

Islam and Liberal Islam as one in Indonesia is Greg Barton. Such a term illustrates

the most recent movement in Islam in Indonesia that goes beyond the traditional

Islam movement and the modern Islam movement. The liberal progressive moment I

am referring to is the movement that Fazlur Rahman (RIP Professor at the University

of Chicago) called as “Neo-modernist Islam”—which in Indonesia was developed by

his students, i.e. Ahmad Syafii Maarif and Nurcholish Madjid. Recently,

Abdurrahman Wahid, M. Dawam Rahardjo, and Djohan Effendi have also been

included in this category.24

The Liberal Islam thought analyzed in the subsequent passage reveals

various theological interpretations related to contemporary problems, especially

issues of secularism, liberalism and pluralism. In developing Liberal Islam, the

following actions have been conducted:

First, renewal of Islamic understanding (especially fikih or Islamic law),

particularly to make religious understanding in line with today’s development. They

realize the necessity of a “new fikih” that can answer problems faced by people

today. For example, the Islamic community is required to develop a fikih that can

engage in dialogues regarding issues of democracy (fikih on democracy), pluralisme

(fikih on tolerance or interfaith fikih), liberalism (fikih on politics, fikih on human rights,

fikih on gender) and so on.25

23 Ahmad Gaus AF, “Islam Progresif: Wacana Pasca Arus Utama”, p. 96. The term

“Progressive Islam” in the context of Islamic thought, take a look at Omid Safi (ed.),

Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism (Oxford: One World, 2006).

24 Ahmad Gaus AF, “Islam Progresif: Wacana Pasca Arus Utama”, p. 97.

25 According to them, such fikih is very important to prove the relevancy of Islam in

an increasingly plural and global world. In facing the global reality, a true Islamic



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Next, dissemination of the correction information about Islam. Recently, the

voice of Islam has been represented by groups who do not signify the majority of the

Islam community—in this book these groups will be called “Fundamental and Radical

Islam”. The Islam Community receives a stigma because of the image of Radical

Islam. Instead of competing on a global stage, the Islam community is shrouded by a

bad image before the eyes of the international community with stigmas of radicalism,

and even terrorism. Islam is identified with actions that involve violence. For this

reason, Liberal Islam intellectuals work hard to put forward the face of Liberal

Islam—under Islam that is full of peace, tolerance, moderation, and is even liberal

and civilized.

The emergence of Liberal Islam intellectuals during the mid-90s has an

ideological as well as sociological continuity with previous Islam movements known

as Traditional Islam and Modern Islam that emerged at the outset of the 20th

century.26 In the course of history, traditional and modern thoughts represented by

the mainstream which are NU and Muhammadiyah27 have ignited new thoughts

intellectual should provide alternatives for the Islamic community that is not only

symbolic, but also substantive. Islam, according to them is a religion that aspires for

progress and rejects transgress. For these reasons—through their institutions, and

characteristic approaches—they develop religious perspectives that are progressive.

26 Mohamad Ali, Islam Muda Liberal, Post-Puritan, Post-Tradisional (Yogyakarta:

Apeiron Philotes, 2006), p. 33.

27 In the discourse of Islamic thought, the conflict between ideological Islam and

cultural Islam, or Literal Islam versus Liberal Islam, is written down in history. What is

unique is that both literal and liberal can be found within NU and Muhammadiyah.

Thus, we have the literal Muhammadiyah that is identical with the “Right”, and we

have liberal Muhammadiyah that is identical with the “Left”. The same goes for NU:

We have the “Right” NU and the “Left” NU. Such mapping has been put out in the

open by Indonesian Islamic experts—especially regarding the “Radical Islam”

phenomenon, such as MMI, FPI, HTI, Ikhwanul Muslimin, and many more that are

often associated with the “Right”. They have high awareness and are strongly



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through critical reading toward their own traditions: in Muhammadiyah, they criticize

the logic structure of Muhammadiyah; and in NU they also criticize the logic structure

of NU. Their criticism goes beyond the text. They interpret, and even deconstruct

thoughts. This new critical generation created progressive groups that gave birth to

reform through the 90s generation.28 In general, their ideological tendency is indeed

passionate on criticism toward religious texts, deconstructive, and in certain aspects,

characterized with the left-wing side.29

From the wombs of NU and Muhammadiyah, Liberal Islam communities with

different focuses and strategies were born, and they continue to expand their issues

along with the development of new ideas. However, they are in fact still within the

moderate tradition of these two mass organizations.30 In the post reform era, when

many Radical Islam groups surfaced, NU and Muhammadiyah were considered as

moderate groups and were believed to be the power of the civil society that could

tone down Islam radicalism and militanism that transpired with the open climate of

the social political condition of the reform era. They—NU and Muhammadiyah—

produced a more moderate Islam that is inclusive and progressive. From there, NU

and Muhammadiyah trained apprentices to enter institutions spread out within the

community, either in education, social, politics, economy or religion. Unlike the

supporters of the Islam fundamentalists or the radicals, the supporters of NU and

Muhammadiyah had a relatively high distribution potential, so they spread out

motivated in terms of ideology in strengthening themselves as people who set

straight religious practices that are considered “not Islamic.” Exclusivism and militant

sectarianism were then born.

28 Nur Khalik Ridwan, “Berharap pada Islam Muda”, epilogue in Mohamad Ali, Islam

Muda Liberal, Post-Puritan, Post-Tradisional, p. 150.

29 Nur Khalik Ridwan, Santri Baru, Pemetaan, Wacana Ideologi dan Kritik

(Yogyakarta: Gerigi Pustaka, 2004), p.24.

30 Muhamad Ali, “Gerakan Islam Moderat di Indonesia Kontemporer” in Rizal Sukma

and Clara Juwono (Ed.), Gerakan dan Pemikiran Islam di Indonesia Kontemporer

(Jakarta: CSIS, 2007), p. 211.



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throughout all areas in Indonesia, including the villages.31 This is why NU and

Muhammadiyah are expected to play an important role in the process of

democratization in Indonesia, as NU and Muhammadiyah are Islam community

organizations that have many members and can hold an important role in the

process of democratization, commitment on pluralism, fight for justice, responsive

toward the minorities and support the values of civilization and good.32

The emergence of young Indonesia Islam intellectuals together with the

reform wave of Mei 1998 must be seen as part of a new link of reform in the history

of Islam intellectualism in Indonesia. Liberal Islamists set out to renew the

perspective towards Islam in the context of a world that continues to change.

The following passage will illustrate the Liberal Islam movement from the

traditionalists represented by NU and the modern Islam movement represented by

Muhammadiyah.

NU and Liberal Islam

Among the Liberal Islam movements originating from the traditionalists, particularly

NU33 that emerged post the reform era, stands Liberal Islam Network (JIL) Jakarta,

motored by Ulil Abshar-Abdalla. They have significant contribution in fostering

Liberal Islam ideas on secularism, liberalism and pluralism through radio programs,

the media, community service advertisements, and publications of books.34 Another

movement was Institute of Islam and Social Study (LKiS) in Yogyakarta. This

31 Jamhari and Jajang Jahroni (ed.), Gerakan Salafi Radikal di Indonesia (Jakarta:

Rajawali Pers, 2004), p. 235.

32 Fuad Fachruddin, Agama dan Pendidikan Demokrasi: Pengalaman

Muhammadiyah dan Nahdlatul Ulama (Jakarta: INSEP, 2006), p.47.

33 Marzuki Wahid, “Post-Tradisionalisme Islam: Gairah Baru Pemikiran Islam di

Indonesia,” in the Tashwirul Afkar Journal, Edition No. 10 Year 2001, p. 16.

34 www.islamlib.com



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movement had its own way in packaging programs related to secularism, liberalism

and pluralism. LKiS published Islamic books that were critical and transformative,

and also conducted research and studies regularly, assisted the community,

especially university students, and published the Friday periodicals al-Ikhtilaf.

LAKPESDAM (Institute of Human Resource Study and Development) NU Jakarta

also has networks throughout Indonesia. In addition to publishing books, holding

trainings, researches and community assistance, LAKPESDAM NU also publishes

the scientific journal Tashwirul Afkar, where ideas on secularism, liberalism and

pluralism were advocated to the readers who the majority were young NU

intellectuals. United Development of Islamic Schools and Communities (P3M)

Jakarta has developed ideas of secularism, liberalism and pluralism in the language

of Islamic schools. During the course of history, P3M has a significant role in

maturing the community—especially NU members in Islamic schools—in progressive

Islamic thoughts, such as the development of Islamic arguments on secularism,

liberalism and pluralism.35

These movements are scientific movements that not only conduct studies, but

also do research on various religious, philosophical and social theory thoughts.

Issues of secularism, liberalism and pluralism have received the main attention.36

Besides bachelors, the background education of most of the people in these

movements is diplomas from salafiyah Islamic schools (traditional).37

35 Muhammad Ali, “Gerakan Islam Moderat di Indonesia Kontemporer”, p. 219-220.

Take a look at Angela Rabasa, et.all. Building Moderate Muslim Networks,

particularly the chapter “Secular Muslims: A Forgotten Dimension in the War of

Ideas” p. 121-138.

36 Muhammad Ali, “Gerakan Islam Moderat di Indonesia Kontemporer”, p. 14.

37 Before enrolling in higher education, they usually have received education in

Islamic schools in their villages. As a junior cleric, these young traditionalists

undergo two phases. In the first phase, acquaintance with an Islamic school is

established, as the school is located in their neighborhood. They are used to

studying in two places, formal school (elementary school) in the morning, and in the



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The word khilafah in the Koran is not meant to

establish khilafah Islamiyah. The concept khilafah

itself in fact did not emerge until recently. Thus,

due to political considerations and many other

factors, the concept of khilafah Islamiyah came

up. The word al-khulafa al rasyidun that is claimed

to be based on Hadith, after I checked, was never

mentioned by the Prophet, but came up, during

the era of Umar ibn Abdul Azis.

(Rachman 2009: 77)

Abdul Moqsith Ghazali, received his master and doctoral degrees from UIN Syarif

Hidayatullah Jakarta. Besides teaching at UIN Jakarta and Universitas Paramadina

Jakarta, he is a Liberal Islam Network (JIL) activist.

The process to become an “urban religious school student” begins when

these youngsters enroll in higher education. Most of them enroll in IAIN or other

religious institutions, as their main choice, besides education outside the course of

religious education. These youngsters of NU then feel that they are different from the

mid-afternoon they recite the Koran with their religion teachers, or take the formal

approach through Madrasah Ibtidaiyah. The second stage, after graduating from

elementary school, they enroll in a boarding program in certain Islamic schools for

two reasons. First, because there is a famous Islamic school in the area. Second,

because there is a certain cleric that they look up to as the Patron in the Islamic

school they study at. Take a look at Nuriyati Samatan, Dinamika Pemikiran Kalangan

Muda Nahdlatul Ulama, Dissertation for the Postgraduate Program, Universitas

Padjajaran, Bandung 2007, p. 222-223.



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others. They realize they have a bond with “Traditional Islam” (NU) after they interact

with others—especially those from the Muhammadiyah sub-culture or general. Their

background as devotees of Traditional Islam is what forms their self-identities when

they have become bachelors, and work in Islamic thinking fields in NGOs with NU

culture. They form their own image, especially in the thinking concept and the

movement developed. The basis of their student organization, besides NU, also

includes PMII (Indonesian Islamic Student Movement).

Martin van Bruinessen—an Islamic scholar in Indonesia from the

Netherlands—depicted this phenomenon as an incredible event in the phenomenon

of Islam in contemporary Indonesia, especially approaching the reform era.

“Many of the young people were experienced in various activities to develop

the community and concerned toward social and economic issues. Student

organizations that affiliated with NU, PMII, for several years have become one

of the most dynamic student organizations for intellectual debate. In contrast

with the modernist Islam students, members of PMII usually master traditional

knowledge better, but their reading is more extensive than the traditional

curriculum. Modernist students, however, are still influenced by authors, such

as [Abu A’la al-] Maududi and Sayyid Qutb. PMII students show a great

interest to more radical authors, such as Hassan Hanafi, the Egyptian

philosopher. Discussions in their forum aim at the heart of the matter of the

underdevelopment of the Third World, economic justice, and human rights,

including difficult questions about the rights of women in Islam.38

In general, the NU youth movement is liberal and open, appreciative of new

things, but remains pro-people. They have a high tolerance, respect for human

rights, and consistency on strengthening civil society. According to Djohan Effendi,

who wrote his doctoral dissertation on the development of the progressive young NU

at Deakin University in Australia—one of the interesting things of this movement is

38 Martin van Bruinessen, NU: Tradisi, Relasi-relasi Kuasa, Pencarian Wacana Baru

(Yogyakarta: LKiS, 1997), p. 233-234



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that these young clerics develop and appreciate new ideas with a foothold in a rich

intellectual tradition.39

The presence of young progressive NU intellectuals in this cultural path, is

different from the situation when Abdurrahman Wahid played a role in shifting the

structure of NU, balancing between the world of Islamic schools with their

conservative clerics and stimulating progressive thoughts. These young progressive

NU who currently reside in the cultural path are the new wave of "liberal"

development in this traditional organization.40 Perhaps these young progressive NU

intellectuals in this cultural path have an intellectual awareness so profound that

makes them unwilling to be left behind from other Islamic movements which had

already made progress in the field of intellectual property, such as young progressive

Muhammadiyah intellectuals who are now also growing like mushrooms. These

young progressive NU intellectuals rise up and seem to understand the true

message of Nurcholish Madjid, that "When a nation fails to understand the past, then

what will happen is intellectual poverty."41 According to Martin van Bruinessen, the

existence of these progressive young intellectuals who are now a new elite within NU

is not separated from the support and protection of a number of figures from the

elites of NU, such as Fahmi Syaifuddin, Mustofa Bisri and Abdurrahman Wahid.42

These young NU are referred by Ken Miichi as the urban intellectuals starting

from the important role of Abdurrahman Wahid and Masdar F. Mas'udi who are part

39 Also take a look at Marzuki Wahid, “Post-Tradisionalisme Islam: Gairah Baru

Pemikiran Islam di Indonesia,” p. 16.

40 La Ode Ida, NU Muda, Kaum Progresif dan Sekularisme Baru (Jakarta: Erlanga,

2004), p. xiv.

41 Nurcholish Madjid, “Jangan Tinggalkan Masa Lalu”, in Republika, Friday 25 June

1999, p. 8. Also take a leave at Yasmin, Modernisasi Pesantren: Kritik Nurcholis

Madjid terhadap Pendidikan Islam Tradisional (Jakarta: Quantum Teaching, 2005),

p. 128.

42 La Ode Ida, NU Muda, Kaum Progresif dan Sekularisme Baru, p. xiv.



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of the “leftist” intellectual network as well as being famous figures from NU who have

five characters.43

First, "radical" (in the "left" sense and not in the sense of "Radical Islam"

which will be discussed later on in this book). The radicalism of young NU emerged

in the early days when they took part in cultural avenues and were still students.

Stretching of thought and movement began to appear "radical" for example in the

IAIN (now UIN) Sunan Kalijaga, Yogyakarta. They were the ones who later joined

the LKiS and spread what was known in the early 1990s as "Leftist Islam ".44

Second, "critical". Critical thinking is not only directed at phenomena outside

of NU, but also at NU's objective conditions, or as a self-criticism. Criticism mostly

done by progressive young NU is criticism of discourse, especially criticism at the

yellow book and the established thinking among clerics and the Nahdliyin public

(NU).45 This activity is important because the yellow book was never questioned

before. Such critical reading seeks social relevance of this book which has for so

long been "established" for the Nahdliyin. This critical movement was once halted

due to objections among conservative clerics.46 Later on critical reading of the yellow

book was followed by Masdar F. Mas'udi through P3M since the reform era (1998),

and now it has become a tradition of liberal Muslim intellectuals a generation under

Masdar.

43 Nuriyati Samatan, Dinamika Pemikiran Kalangan Muda Nahdlatul Ulama, p. 244.

Also take a look at Ken Miichi, “Kiri Islam, Jaringan Intelektual dan Partai Politik:

Sebuah Catatan Awal”, in Jurnal Tashwirul Afkarl, Edition No. 10 Year 2001.

44 Nuriyati Samatan, Dinamika Pemikiran Kalangan Muda Nahdlatul Ulama, p. 229.

45 Andree Feillard, NU vis-à-vis Negara: Pencarian Isi, Bentuk dan Makna

(Yogyakarta: LKiS, 1999), p. 377

46 Martin van Bruinessen, NU: Tradisi, Relasi-relasi Kuasa, Pencarian Wacana Baru,

p. 221. Andree Feillard, NU vis-à-vis Negara: Pencarian Isi, Bentuk dan Makna, p.

377.



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According to me, when a person holds a religion,

he must be certain that his religion is the truest of

all. At the same time, he must also realize that

other people may have the very same certainty,

but have different religions or faiths. Such social

awareness is what I call as pluralism. Thus, as I

am a believer of Islam, I am at utmost certainty

that Islam is the truest religion. I also realize that

other people will believe that their religions are the

truest.

(Rachman 2009: 41)

Abdul Munir Mulkhan, Professor in Islamic Philosophy Education at the Tarbiyah

Faculty of UIN Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta. He became the Advisory Board of

Pusham UII and Impulse (Institute for Multiculturalism & Pluralism Studies)

Yogyakarta.

Third, this NU progressive youth movement is out of the structure of NU. The

movement which they motor is generally organized through independent non-

government organizations (NGOs). Through these organizations, creative and

enlightening thoughts are created.47

Fourth, "resistance". Resistance is put forward not only against movement

which in this book is called "Fundamental Radical Islam," but also against the

organizing board of NU.48

47 The development of discourse in NU after the reform era, take a look at, Rumadi,

Post Tradisionalisme Islam: Wacana Intelektualisme dalam Komunitas NU (Jakarta:

Fahmina Institute, 2008).

48 Resistance against the organizing members of NU was demonstrated openly

during the Musyawarah Besar of Nahdlatul Ulama Members on 8-10 October 2004

at the Islamic School of Babakan Ciwaringin, Cirebon.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Fifth, progressive young intellectual NU movement is all about openness.

Openness is demonstrated through dialogues and accommodation of contemporary

thoughts, such as contemporary Eastern thought (Middle East Islam), critical

Western thought (such as the Western social philosophy), and accommodation to

local heritage, both the locality which is the NU's tradition as well as local treasures

in the tradition of Indonesian society. Accommodation is expected to yield a unique

Indonesian Islamic thought, which is conceptually capable of bringing locality to

modernity. They aspire to globalize Indonesian Islam (globalized Islam).

The emergence of the NU Liberal Islam community today has spread widely,

from student activities on campus to the formation of new NGOs with a number of

agenda for social transformation, whether in the form of discussion of critical

discourse, social movements, cultural movements, scientific research and book

publishing. The issue of secularism, liberalism and pluralism became one of the

issues intensively explored by intellectuals as well as young activists of NU.49

Muhammadiyah and Islam Liberal

In addition to the progressive young NU intellectuals, the young intellectuals of

Muhammadiyah began to grow and produce critical discourse. Attempts to translate

back to the basic teachings of Muhammadiyah, that is the theology of al-Mā'ūn

(siding with the poor) pioneered by KH. Ahmad Dahlan50--which is in fact the

49 Very intensive and interesting development has encouraged Rumadi to write a

dissertation during his time at the Graduate School of Universitas Islam Negeri Syarif

Hidayatullah, Jakarta, 2006, which was then published as a book entitled, Post

Tradisionalisme Islam: Wacana Intelektualisme dalam Komunitas NU (Jakarta:

Fahmina Institute, 2008). Nuriyati Samatan also wrote a dissertation on the Dinamika

Pemikiran Kalangan Muda Nahdlatul Ulama (Studi Komunikasi Peradaban tentang

Transformasi Pemikiran Sosio-Kultural Keagamaan Kalangan Muda Nahdlatul

Ulama Dewaasa Ini) in the Graduate Program of Universitas Padjajaran, Bandung,

2007.

50 Mohamad Ali, Islam Muda Liberal, Post-Puritan, Post-Tradisional, p.36.



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development of Muhammadiyah's charitable efforts in order to solve real life

problems of the dlu'afā '(poor, oppressed)—became their concern. KH. Ahmad

Dahlan is known as a person who appreciates various religious groups. He is also

known as a friend among Christian pastors and Catholic priests. This is one

indication that Dahlan puts forward an inclusive and pluralistic attitude.51 Such

attitude is what became the spirit of progressive young intellectuals in

Muhammadiyah.

Compared to the young NU intellectuals, the social movements of the young

Muhammadiyah intellectuals are left behind in pioneering NGOs. NU's younger

generation has pioneered the NGO since the 1980s, while such phenomena did not

emerge in Muhammadiyah until the latter half of the 1990s. Under Syafii Maarif’s

leadership, there were at least three Muhammadiyah intellectual communities that

began to accommodate the progressive young intellectuals of Muhammadiyah. They

are the Center for the Study of Religion and Civilization (PSAP), Maarif Institute, and

the Muhammadiyah Young Intellectuals Network (jimm). The emergence of these

communities opened a new leaf of Muhammadiyah’s journey as an intellectual

movement and a new notion in Islamic thought. At the outset, these movements

were still limited in Jakarta, Yogyakarta and Malang. Although still new, bursts of

their critical thinking has been able to attract the attention of the public, especially

members of Muhammadiyah.

PSAP Muhammadiyah was initially managed by Pramono U. Tantowi and

friends, a study institute that affirm a commitment to realize a democratic and

civilized society based on religious and humane values. In the beginning, the Maarif

Institute for Culture and Humanity was a committee that would prepare for the 70th

anniversary of Ahmad Syafii Maarif by publishing his work and a number of books

about him. But given the dynamics of the nation that was leading toward

disintegration and a modernist Islamic movement that tends to be politically-

exclusive, the Maarif Institute was compelled to seek new avenues for the crisis by

developing a discourse of Muhammadiyah as "the tent of the nation", in the form of

51 Fuad Fachruddin, Agama dan Pendidikan Demokrasi: Pengalaman

Muhammadiyah dan Nahdlatul Ulama, p. 112.



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an inclusive and pluralistic consolidation of national power. The young intellectuals

who are currently developing the Maarif Institute are Raja Juli Antoni and Fajar Riza

ul-Haq.52

In addition to PSAP and Maarif Institute, a group of young intellectuals who

later associated themselves with the Muhammadiyah Young Intellectuals Network

(JIMM) broke through the stagnation or conservatism of Muhammadiyah53 out of

their audacity to reinterpret the Koran as the word of God that became the notion of

faith in a life that rapidly changes.54

Muhammadiyah’s progressive young intellectuals—that will be further

described in the passage below—develop for an ultimate goal, namely establish a

network of young Muslim intellectuals for the enlightenment of reasoning and

52 Mohamad Ali, Islam Muda Liberal, Post-Puritan, Post-Tradisional, p. 104-105.

53 Muhammadiyah’s development is interesting because it was once indicated by

Nurcholish Madjid who said that Muhammadiyah has ceased to become an

organization of renewal, while its counterpart, i.e. NU has in fact experienced

renewal. If Muhammadiyah is now progressing to a more conservative and

fundamental course, NU is undergoing a liberalization of thought. However, we

cannot disregard that the emergence of progressive young people in

Muhammadiyah is the anti-thesis of a group of older generation that are puritans and

conservative. Take a look at, M. Dawam Rahardjo, “Kata Pengantar: Membaca

Shofan, Membaca Masa Depan Muhammadiyah” in Ali Usman (ed.), Menegakkan

Pluralisme: Fundamentalisme-Konservatif di Tubuh Muhammadiyah (Yogyakarta:

Ar-Ruzzmedia-LSAF, 2008), p.15.

54 Pradana Boy ZTF and M. Hilmi Faiq (ed), Kembali ke al-Qur’an: Menafsir Makna

Zaman (Malang: UMM Press, 2004). This book contains 19 articles by JIMM activists

that wrote about new interpretations of the Islamic theology with a Hermeneutics

approach. Take a look at the Preface by Moeslim Abdurrahman, “Memperebutkan

Kebenaran Firman” in the latest book by JIMM, Zuly Qodir and friends. (ed.),

Muhammadiyah Progresif: Manifesto pemikiran Kaum Muda (Yogyakarta: Lesfi-

JIMM, 2007), p. xxii.



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conscience, liberation, realizing democracy and social transformation. Their main

program is pedagogical humanity through media campaigns, scientific pulpit,

organized street lectern; intellectual advocacy and movements for social justice;

Publication of ideas and inclusive, tolerant and multicultural Islamic discourse;

Promotion of networking among young Muslim intellectuals, across religion, ethnicity

and culture to prepare for a future of transformative leadership; and establishment of

communication and relationships with various institutions that have a similar concern

for understanding and collaboration for social change based on justice and

civilization.55 Issues of secularism, liberalism and pluralism are some of the issues

developed by these modernist Islamic institutions.

According to Zuly Qodir—one of the founders of JIMM—JIMM is a community

of young Muhammadiyah intellectuals who are no longer on the board of

Muhammadiyah but still remain a member. They have a style of thinking and

methods of interpretation of the Koran that are different from those who become

leaders on the region level, county level, as well as the central level.56 The founder

of JIMM is Zuly Qodir, Sukidi Mulyadi, and Zakiyuddin Baidhawy. Since its inception

in October 2003, with support from Moeslim Abdurrahman and Ahmad Syafii Maarif,

JIMM has done many activities regarding the dissemination of Islam, secularism,

liberalism and pluralism in Indonesia.

Senior members of Progressive Muhammadiyah who partake in the cadre of

Muhammadiyah’s young intellectuals are Syafii Maarif, M. Dawam Rahardjo,

Abdurrahman Moeslim, M. Amin Abdullah, and Abdul Munir Mulkhan. They are the

source of inspiration to many young progressive Muhammadiyah intellectuals

committed to notions of secularism, liberalism and pluralism, including ideas about

55 Ahmad Fuad Fanani, “Jihad Membumikan Pluralisme, Bersatu Menghadang

Fundamentalisme”; the paper was presented in the “Pluralism, Democracy and Civil

Society” Workshop at Puncak, Bogor, 6-8 June 2007. The event was organizaed by

PSIK Universitas Paramadina.

56 Zuly Qodir, Islam Syariah vis a vis Negara, Ideologi Gerakan Politik di Indonesia

(Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2007), p. 198.



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democracy, tolerance, human rights and religious freedom. The presence of these

young progressive Muhammadiyah intellectuals can be read as the new milestone of

revival after Muhammadiyah, though known as the tajdid (renewal) movement, went

adrift for so long in scriptural-literary tradition. By way of the young generation’s way

of thinking, that is the liberal-progressive way, these young Muhammadiyah

intellectuals—borrowing the saying of Moeslim Abdurrahman—“will reap the call of

their own history". According to Moeslim, Muhammadiyah needs something to re-

play the dynamism and reach back progress. Such hope may possibly be met if

Muhammadiyah is under the hands of these young progressive, liberal and pluralist

intellectuals.



WORKING TRANSLATION

CHAPTER II

LIBERAL ISLAM

The development of modern and contemporary Islamic thought cannot be

separated from the mainstream agenda of how Islam must endeavor amidst the

development of liberalism, or liberal democracy. The struggle between Islamic

thought and the empirical reality is on how to build a self image of Islam at the heart

of a world that is endlessly changing and developing. This state of affairs bequaths

Islamic intellectuals the perplexing task of formulating and providing intellectual

solutions. Such inevitability of solutions subsequently gives rise to various

orientations of Islamic thought, such as modernity (asraniyah, hadatsiyah),

traditionalist (salafiyah), and eclectic (tawfīqiyah).57

Even in its development, the emergence of the term "Liberal Islam" has been

widely attributed to Liberal Islamic thinkers. The term "Liberal Islam" was first used

by Western writers, such as Leonard Binder58 and Charles Kurzman59. According to

Luthfi Assyaukanie, as a global movement, Liberal Islam has in fact existed for more

than two centuries. Taking the year 1798 as the benchmark, Liberal Islam is now in

its 210th year60. According to Lutfi, 1798 is a very historical year. Bernard Lewis calls

it a watershed in history and the first shock to the Islamic complacency, the first

impulse to westernization and reform. Historians agree that the arrival of Napoleon

Bonaparte in Egypt is an important milestone for the Muslim community and also for

the Europeans.

57 Take a look at, M. Abid al-Jabiri, Post-Tradisionalisme Islam (Yogyakarta: LKiS,

2000), p. 186.

58 Take a look at, Leonard Binder, Islamic Liberalism: Critique of Development

Ideologies, Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1988.

59 Take a look at, Charles Kurzman (ed.), Liberal Islam, a Sourcebook (New York:

Oxford University Press, Inc., 1998).

60 Luthfi Assyaukanie, “Dua Abad Islam Liberal”, Bentara, Kompas March 2, 2007.



WORKING TRANSLATION

From the perspective of Liberal Muslims, "Liberal Islam"—or liberalism—is a

supplemental tool in studying Islam so that the religious teachings may live and

engage in dialogue with context and reality in a productive and progressive manner.

Islam is proposed to be interpreted and presented through a liberal-progressive

approach using hermeneutics that is a method of reading and interpreting text,

context and reality. In actual fact, the choice to go with hermeneutics was a

cognizant decision intrinsically built-in within Liberal Muslims as a method to assist

reading and interpretation. As confirmed by Charles Kurzman in Liberal Islam: A

Sourcebook, Liberal Islam is merely a supplemental tool for analysis, not an absolute

category.61

Liberal Islam defines itself to be contrastingly different with customary Islam

and revivalist Islam. Liberal Islam conjures the past for the sake of modernity. The

most fundamental element of Liberal Islam is its criticism towards tradition,

customary Islam, and revivalist Islam which the liberals call "backwardness". In their

view, it will impede the Islamic world from modernity,such as economic progress,

democracy, legal rights, and so on. In addition, liberal tradition argues that Islam,

when properly understood, is in line with—or even a "pioneer" for the course of—

Western liberalism.62

61 Charles Kurzman (ed.), Liberal Islam, a Sourcebook, p. xiii.

62 Islam’s long history is characterized by three traditions. The first tradition is

“customary Islam” denoted by a fusion of “little tradition” and “great tradition” that are

personified as “original Islam” and “pure Islam”. Islam that is fused with various little

traditions can be considered as Islam that is brimming of bid’ah and khufarat.

Departing from this, the second orientation of tradition known as Revivalist Islam

emerged adhering to fundamentalism and Wahabism. This tradition attempts to

purify Islam that is fused with little tradition and considered to be non-Islamic and a

deviation towards “the pure” doctrine of Islam with their jargon “resuming to the

Koran and Hadith”. The third orientation of tradition is known as “Liberal Islam”.

According to Kurzman, as a supporter of Revivalist, Liberal Islam defines itself to be

contrastingly different with “Customary Islam” and emphasizes on the concentration



WORKING TRANSLATION

Liberal Islam emerged amidst revivalist movements in the 18th century, a

prolific period for Islamic debate. In the context of revivalist, Liberal Islam roots back

to Syah Waliyullah (India, 1703-1762). Waliyullah saw that Islam was in danger and

sought to revitalize the Muslim community by incorporating theology reform into

socio-political organizations. He also saw customary Islam traditions to be the source

of problems in Islam. Fazlur Rahman, a liberal thinker, summarizes Waliyullah’s

approaches as follows:

Given that it remains associated to the Law, Waliyullah does not stop at

schools of medieval Islamic law, but resumes to its original source, the Koran

and the Hadith of the Prophet, and recommends ijtihad—implementation of an

independent opinions as opposed to taklid against the authorities of the

medieval century... He argues that although the fundamental sources of

religion and morality of man are the same for each age and climate, they

should be able to organize and express themselves according to the ability of

the age and certain people... to become a universal religion, Islam must find a

means to propagate itself and simultaneously bound by the color and shade

of Arabic tradition and lifestyle. However, in different cultures, such means will

definitely undergo change.63

Kurzman, identifies three main forms of Liberal Islam. This encompasses the

connection between liberalism and primary sources of Islam: the book of revelation

(the Koran) and the practices of the Prophet Muhammad (sunna) which together

of Islam during its early period to affirm the illegitimacy of religious practices today.

Liberal Islam conjures the past for the sake of modernity, while Revivalist Islam

restates modernity for the sake of the past. Although there are many versions to the

liberalism of Islam, Kurzman believes that there is a red line that connects them all,

that is his criticism towards “customary Islam” and “Revivalist Islam” traditions. Thus,

Liberal Islam is illustrated as an opposition for two orientations at the same time:

“customary Islam” and “revivalist Islam”. Take a look at, Charles Kurzman (ed.),

Liberal Islam, a Sourcebook, p. xvii

63 Charles Kurzman (ed.), Liberal Islam, a Sourcebook, p. xix-xx.



WORKING TRANSLATION

establish the basis of Islamic law (shari'a). The first form uses a liberal position or

attitude as something that is explicitly supported by the shari'a; the second form

states that Muslims are free to adopt a liberal attitude in matters left open by the

shari'a to be understood by human reasoning and intelligence; the third form gives

the impression that the divine nature of shari'a is open to a diverse range of human

interpretations. Kurzman calls these three forms liberal, silent and interpreted

shari’a.64

"Liberal shari’a" is the most influential form of Liberal Islam. There are three

explanations. First, "liberal shari'a" avoids accusations of unauthentic authenticity by

firmly basing liberal positions in the sources of orthodox Islam. Secondly, "liberal

shari'a" states that liberal positions are not merely human choices, but a

commandment from God. Third, "liberal shari'a" gives a sense of pride on new

inventions; argues that Liberal Islam is "older" than Western liberalism.

"Silent shari’a" adheres to the interpretation of the Koran in forming its main

idea. But the burden of proof is slightly lighter than that of "liberal shari'a" which only

needs to show positive commands for the ability of forming human decisions in an

abstract manner, rather than liberal practices in particular. So, he moved the whole

area of human action from the scholastic area of the Koran, where orthodox

education has distinct advantages, and to the area of public debate.

The third form of argument of Liberal Islam, and the closest to Western liberal

senses or thoughts, states that shari'a is mediated by human interpretation. In this

view, shari’a is a divine dimension, whereas human interpretation may lead to

conflicts and errors. "Interpreted shari'a" denies the claim that orthodox knowledge

once reached its final word. "To insist on absolute uniformity of interpretation is

neither possible nor necessary. Differences of opinion whose existence is

meaningful, must be given a high positive value.65

However, of the three forms of Liberal Islam, according to Kurzman, all are

vulnerable to accusations of apostacy, and in particularly potential in the "interpreted

64 Charles Kurzman (ed.), Liberal Islam, a Sourcebook, p. xxxiii

65 Charles Kurzman (ed.), Liberal Islam, a Sourcebook, p. lx.



WORKING TRANSLATION

shari'a", given the sensitive nature of the challenge to the orthodox. Meanwhile, the

form "liberal shari'a" enters the orthodox scientific debate, and the form "silent

shari'a" attempts to spread to areas not accessible to orthodox science.

There are six notions that can be used as a benchmark on whether an Islamic

thought is considered to be "liberal" or not. First, it is against theocracy, that is ideas

aspiring to establish an Islamic state. Second, it supports of the idea of democracy.

Third, it defends the rights of women. Fourth, it defends the rights of non-Muslims.

Fifth, it defends freedom of mind.

Liberalism, both in politics and economics, is in

fact not a part of the Islamic world, but the

Western world. However, what needs to be

underlined here is that: there is no freedom

without limitation, unless of course what we want

is anarchy.

(Rachman 2009: 13)

Ahmad Syafii Maarif, Advisor PP Muhammadiyah and founder of the Maarif

Institute. He received his MA from Ohio University and his PhD from the University of

Chicago. He was once the Chairman of PP Muhammadiyah during the 2000-2004

period.

And the last, the sixth, it fosters the notion of progress. Any person who

fosters one of the six ideas above, may be referred to as a follower of Liberal Islam.

The notion of Liberal Islam endeavors in integrating Islam and modernity as

something inevitable, so that Islam remains capable of answering the social changes

that constantly occur. Islam must remain the guardian towards the ultimate historical

reality in the midst of the turbulent situation of modernity and the globalization era.

Charles Kurzman in Liberal Islam justifies the growing number of liberal

notions in the Islamic world in which they differ from the traditionalists. And this is a

fact that must be observed wisely, that traditionalism will always lie vis-à-vis with



WORKING TRANSLATION

liberalism.66 The roots of liberalism can in fact be traced back to the tradition of Islam

itself. What is meant by Islamic tradition is certainly not only the Koran and Hadith,

but also all efforts of interpretation and understanding of these two sources. He

found two sources of Islam, namely the philosophical tradition and the tradition of

Sufism. These are what Smith considers to be the roots of Islamic liberalism. They

have even been around since the early days of Islam. Thoughs or efforts to be

critical towards orthodoxy are considered to embed liberal character, both from the

66 What is meant with Islam traditionalism is understanding Islam by adhering to

tradition (turats) from the time of the prophet until today. This means that conserving

tradition set by the prophet, his companions, tabiin to jumhur ulama, and salafus

shalih must serve as the legal guideline for the sustiainability of the Muslim

community. Thus, at times, the tradition itself is more important than the

reinterpretation of the Koran. What have been covered through holy books are

considered to be sufficient and can contain all issues that develop in the community.

Tradition implies a sacral aspect, as conveyed to mankind through revelation and

development of the sacral message in the history of the man. It is sent in a way that

implies both horizontal sustainability with a vertical source or link that connects every

pulse of traditional life discussed through metahistorical transcendent reality.

According to Seyyed Hossein Nasr, tradition can mean al-din, al-sunnah and al-

silsilah. Tradition is like a tree. Its roots are planted through revelations and

throughout time from them grow a trunk and branches. At the heart of the tree of

tradition lies religion, and its essence comprise of blessings that originate from

revelation which allows the tree to live. Tradition implies a serene Truth that is

everlasting, definite, contains eternal wisdom, as well as has continuous

implementation of its everlasting principles toward various spatial situations and

time. Take a look at, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Islam Tradisi di Tengah Kancah Dunia

Modern, (Bandung, Pustaka,1994), p. 3.



WORKING TRANSLATION

discipline of philosophy, Sufism and others. And generally speaking, many liberalism

activities in Islam are derived from philosophical tradition and the Sufism theory.67

Luthfi Assyaukanie noted that throughout the 1970s and 1980s, the term

Liberal Islam could be considered virtually absent; almost no one mentioned the

term. It was not until the 1990s, Leonard Binder, a political scientist from the

University of Chicago, used it.68 However, Leonard Binder’s Islamic Liberalism and

Kurzman’s Liberal Islam are different in terms of definition and perspective. As

acknowledged by Kurzman, Binder uses the point of view that Islam is a subset of

liberalism, while Kurzman uses an antipodal approach in which liberalism is a subset

of Islam.69 Binder attempts to objectively see the dialogue between Islam and the

West and allows it to undergo a series of dialectic process of receiving and giving,

including local traditions, while Kurzman emphasizes more on the Islamic context by

examining the ideas of Muslim Liberals in the light of Islamic tradition. Kurzman’s

liberal Islamic model evidently coincides with Islamic modernism.70

Islamic modernism acknowledges the authority of the Koran. Hence, the

dynamics of Islamic thought is always within the framework of doctrine, in the sense

that the thoughts of the Muslim community are emitted or reflected from religious

doctrine, as though nothing else could affect the heritage of Islamic thought.

Though the many versions of Islamic liberalism have been acknowledged,

there is a red line that can unite them all; criticism toward traditional Islam,

67 Luthfi Assyaukanie, “Islam dan Liberalisme”, in Hamid Basyaib (ed.), Membela

Kebebasan: Percakapan tentang Demokrasi Liberal, p. 246-247.

68 Luthri Assyaukanie, “Islam dan Liberalisme”, in Hamid Basyaib (ed.), Membela

Kebebasan: Percakapan tentang Demokrasi Liberal, p. 246.

69 Charles Kurzman, Liberal Islam: a Sourcebook, the preface.

70 Take a look at, Rumadi, Post Tradisionalisme Islam: Wacana Intelektualisme

dalam Komunitas NU (Cirebon: Fahmina Institute, 2008), p. 152



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customary Islam and revivalist Islam.71 Thus, Liberal Islam still pays attention to the

pursue of authentic Islam, the "original Islam", which is the "the true Islam". Authentic

71 Charles Kurzman notes, Liberal Islam and Revivalist Islam are often involved in

clashes that protract tensely. In these clases, the liberals almost always become the

victim, especially when the state and the authority side to the revivalist. A number of

cases, for example, in Muslim states, Farag Fuda, Naguib Mahfudh, Nawal el-

Sa’dari, Fatima Mernissi, Muhammad Arkoun, and Muhammad Ahmad Khalafullah,

Mahmoud Muhamed Thaha, Maulvi Farook, Mohammad Sai’id, Subhi al-Shalih,

Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, are names who received the article on “freedom of mind”.

They received a fatwa as kaffir (infidel) as their views were considered to not be in

line with the orthodoxy of Islam. Take a look at, Kurzman, Liberal Islam: a

Sourcebook, p. xxviii-xxix.2

In Lutfu Assyaukanie’s view, manifestation of disbelief in the Western world is

said to be complete. Even if they still occur, it is a special case and it no longer

becomes the central issue. Freedom of mind and expression is truly held high. Take

a look at, Luthfi Assyaukanie, “Pengafiran di Era Pemikiran: Matinya Kebebasan dan

Akal Pikiran” in ‘Abd Hakin and Yudi Latif (ed.), Bayang-bayang Fanatisisme: Esai-

esai untuk Mengenang Nurcholish Madjid’ (Jakarta: PSIK Universitas Paramadina,

2007), p. 233-234.

In Indonesia, books with Islamic themes, written by Hartono Ahmad Jaiz,

Adian Husaini, are written with a provocative and explosive style, while astraying

other books that are written by groups with a different orientation to theirs. Hartono

Ahmad Jaiz wrote the book Ada Pemurtadan di IAIN memelesetkan IAIN menjadi

‘Ingkar Allah Ingkar Nabi’ is evidence of resistency for the liberal group. Cak Nur

(Ahmad Sahal, “Umar bin Khaththab dan Islam Liberal”, and Luthfi Assyaukanie

(ed.), Wajah Liberal Islam di Indonesia (Jakarta: Jaringan Islam Liberal, 2002), p.

405. Nurcholish Madjid) continues to receive criticism and remarks of disbelief by

Adian Husaini even after his death. The book that explains the criticism is written and

entitled Kontroversi Kematian Cak Nur. Mentalities of remarks of disbelief and

criticism did not cease in the phenomenon of contemporary Islam. It even grew. In

fact, the law of apostasy established by Islam lawmakers opposes the religious



WORKING TRANSLATION

Islam is: "The authenticity of Islam requires efforts to resume to the Koran and

Sunna. (This) is not to obtain justification, but to draw elements for renovation and

revitalization of Islamic philosophy. "

Truth is, shari’a can be defined as a broad

religious provision; but it can also be understood

by its narrow definition, i.e. a divine revelation,

particularly regarding the law. The verses of the

Koran that are related to law are shari’a, while

details are in the form of fikih. Shari’a cannot be

changed, but require details in order to be

implemented by the Muslim community. Due to

this, the verses of the Koran must be detailed in

the form of fikih.

(Rachman 2009: 205)

Azyumardi Azra, Professor of History and Director of the Postgraduate Program of

UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta. He was once the rector of the same university for

two periods (1998-2006). He received his MA and PhD in history from Columbia

University.

In Luthfi Assyaukanie’s note—an activist of the Liberal Islam Network (JIL)—

liberalism once triumphed in the history of Islam. Therefore, Islamic thinkers need to

continue working hard so that liberal traditions may revive.72 Liberal Islam has a firm

genealogy in Islam as their source of energy is the ra’y orientation that promotes

freedom of Islam. It is not a surprise that if Abu Shalih stated that at times the true

formula of religious freedom in Islam has only one meaning: freedom to enter Islam

and restriction to exit—which in fact can no longer be said to be religious freedom.

Take a look at, Ayang Utriza NWAY, “Islam dan Pluralisme di Indonesia: Pandangan

Sejarah”. In Abdul Hakim and Yudi Latief (ed.), Bayang-bayang Fanatisisme, p. 306

72 Luthfi Assyaukanie, “Islam dan Liberalisme”, in, Hamid Basyaib (ed.), Membela Kebebasan: Percakapan tentang Demokrasi Liberal, p. 251.



WORKING TRANSLATION

rational reasoning, especially whenever dealing with text (nash), particularly those

involving public life, where we are required to distinguish which is the provision

relating to a particular historical situation and which is the universal moral principle,

such as justice, equality and benefit that are becomes the spirit and purpose of nash

itself.73

The history of Islam notes a caliph who is the most inspiring caliph, compared

to the other three caliphs. He was not rigid in making laws and placed more

emphasis on the spirit and soul of the Koran and Sunna rather than the text; he is

Umar ibn Khattab. In Umar's ijtihad for example, the position of reasoning occupies

the main sphere. This makes him known as the founder of the ra’y (reasoning)

mazhab. Until today, Umar’s ijtihad is still considered quite controversial. Islam’s past

is a dynamic and progressive one.74 As an illustration of the dynamic past of Islam,

Muhammad Iqbal, in his book Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam suggests

an astonishing data: according to him, between the years 800 to 1100 no less than

one hundred systems of theology appeared in Islam.75 The Prophet Mohammed has

provided creative consciousness for creating a world of new ideas (of Islam) in facing

historical forces. This is in contrast to the Sufis who share a more mystical

dimension; while the appearance of the Prophet on the face of the earth has

incorporated elements of prophecy in the roots of early life. This means that the

reality of the Prophet’s "struggle" is more down to earth and suits the scene and

turbulent times of human history.76

73 Ahmad Sahal, “Umar bin Khaththab dan Islam Liberal”, in Luthfi Assyaukanie (ed.), Wajah Liberal Islam di Indonesia (Jakarta: Jaringan Islam Liberal, 2002), p. 4-5.

74 Umar, for example once stopped zakat (alms), for muallaf (the poor), yet textually speaking it is required by surat al-Taubah, 60;

75 Zezen Zaenal Mutaqin, “Menyegarkan Kembali Pintu Ijtihad”, www.islamlib.com

76 Take a Look at, Muhammad Iqbal, The Reconstruction of Religious Thought in Islam (Batu Caves, Selangor Darul Ehsan: Masterpiece Publication, SDN, BHD., 2006), p. 141 and so on.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Like Iqbal, Fazlur Rahman also ellaborates on how the early generation of

Muslims did not consider the teachings of the Koran and the Sunna of the Prophet

(Sunnah of the Prophet) as something static, but essentially as something that

moves creatively through different social forms. Rahman considers the actuality of

the Prophet's life as a very important tool in understanding the Koran. Within this

framework, the dynamics of the value of the Koran finds it momentum. Therefore, the

actual reduction of the Prophet's life into formulations that are considered standard

would stultify the original Holy Book. Rahman is a figure of neo-modernism Islam

and one of the main initiators who outlined Islamic values into a framework of

religious humanitarianistic understanding. The most visible outcome is the

systematization of Islamic values that although liberal, still remain orthodox.77

Both Liberal Islam and the neo-modernism paradigm78 depart from the same

background, that is Islamic modernism. Neo-modernism thought, as demonstrated

by one of the figures, Fazlur Rahman, has produced a methodology and perfect

theological concepts as well as built a theology that is more rooted to the Koran by

using a methodology that leads to liberalism.79 However, continued Rahman, the

revivalism movement—as mentioned above by Kurzman as opposed to Liberal

Islam—revives the meaning and importance of the norms of the Koran in every age.

77 Abd A’la, Dari Modernisme ke Islam Liberal: Jejak Fazlur Rahman dalam Wacana Islam di Indonesia (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2003), p. 47

78 Neo-modernism is a term proposed by Fazlur Rahman as a group that emerged as a reaction to those who criticized the weaknesses of modernity, revivalist and traditionalism. According to Fazlur Rahman, the modernist perspective believes that focusing on the existing reality and subsequently seeking the answer in the Koran is the right thing. However, due to the inability of the leaders to create a suitable and appropriate methodology has caused inconsistency in analysis. This has caused them, not only as modernists, to fall into westernism. Such event triggers reaction toward modernist, not only from the traditionalists, but also the neo-revivalists. Neo-modernism also means a concept that attempts to deconstruct an established understanding. Take a look at, M. Hasbi Amiruddin, Konsep Negara Islam Menururt Fazlur Rahman (Yogyakarta: UII Press, 2000), p. 22. Take a look also at, Ahmad Amir Aziz, Neo-Modernisme Islam di Indonesia Gagasan Sentral Nurcholish Madjid dan Abdurrahman Wahid (Jakarta: Rineka Cipta, 1999), p. 15.

79 Abd A’la, Dari Modernisme ke Islam Liberal: Jejak Fazlur Rahman dalam Wacana Islam di Indonesia, p. 226.



WORKING TRANSLATION

They are a group of pre-modern "fundamentalist-conservative-traditionalists" who

rebelled against the interpretation of the Koran that is driven by religious tradition, as

a resistance against interpretation which is propped on the intertextual hermeneutics

of the Koran.80

Rahman uses the term revival of orthodoxy to address the emergence of the

Fundamental Islamic movement. This orthodoxy movement rose to resolve religious

damage and outhrust as well as moral degeneration prevalent in Muslim

communities throughout the provinces of the Ottoman Empire (Ottoman) and in

India. He pointed to the Wahhabi movement which is a revival orthodoxy movement

as the movement that is often labeled as fundamentalism.81 Rahman called

fundamentalists "shallow and superficial people", "anti-intellectual" with thoughts that

do not "trace back to the Koran and intellectual culture of traditional Islam

intellectual." The term "fundamentalism" is used negatively to refer to extreme

Islamic movements, as seen in Libya, Algeria, Lebanon, and Iran.82

80 Take a look at, Fazlur Rahman, Gelombang Perubahan dalam Islam: Studi Tentang Fundamentalisme Islam (Jakarta: Rajawali Press, 2000), p. 14.

81 Take a look at, Fazlur Rahman, Islam (Bandung: Pustaka, 1997), p. 286. Basically, Fundamental Islam has developed into a jihad issue with an intention to fight for religion. An ideology that often has a function to stimulate militancy and radicalization of the community. In the forthcoming, fundamental Islam is realized in the context of upholding Islam shari’a that is considered to be an alternative solution towards national crisis. They intend to conduct Islam shari’a based on kaffah with a literal interpretation approach to the Koran. The underlying concept of the fundamentalists in upholding Islam shari’a is hakmiyat Allah. That is, acknowledgement on the authority of God and His shari’a on the face of the earth, and mankind’s submissal towards Him. There is no authority or shari’a except His authority and shari’a. This has an epistemology implication to all the negations of Allah and everything from Allah as polytheists, disbelievers, wicked and unjust. Take a look at Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, Kritik Wacana Keagamaan, (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2003), p. 59-61.

82 Yusril Ihza Mahendra, Modernisme dan Fundamentalisme dalam Politik Islam: Perbandingan Partai Masyumi (Indonesia) dan Partai Jama’at-i-Islami (Pakistan)

(Jakarta: Paramdina, 1999), p. 6.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Fundamentalism is a global fact and as a response to the problems of

modernization it is present in all faiths.83 The fundamentalism movement did not

merely rise as a spontaneous response to the advent of modernization, which is

considered too far out. All religious people seek to reform their traditions and

combine them with modern culture, as do Muslim reformers. When moderate ways

are found to be unsuccessful, that is when fundamentalism is born.84 According to

them, the truth is a number of doctrines and dogmas that are available in the past.

Things that emerge afterwards, being new and modern, should refer to the past. This

is one of the characteristics of the most popular Islamic thought: to see the present

through the spectacles of the past (al-fahm al-turatsi li al-‘ashr). What is more,

according to them, modernity is part of the past tradition, so what emerges is an “all

blame” and "denial of others" either from "insiders" or "outsiders". Islam then

becomes a very exclusive religion: unable to understand progress. Islam is

considered as a religion decreed to be defensive as well as offensive.

83 Karen Armstrong, Islam a Short History (Yogyakarta: Ikon Teralitera, 2002), p. 193. Talking about the term fundamentalism, many scholars acknowledge that the use of the term “fundamentalism” is problematic and inaccurate. According to William Montgomery Watt, this term is basically an old English term from the Protestants that was specifically directed to those who believed that the Koran must be accepted and interpreted literally. The closest equivalent in French is integrism that refers to the same tendency but not under the definition of the tendency among the Catholics. The Sunni fundamentalists accepted the Koran literally, even though in a number of cases it is accepted under certain prerequisites, but there was also a different side to it. The Syiah of Iran, which in a general definition are fundamentalists, is not attached to the literal interpretation of the Koran. Watt defines Muslim fundamentalists as a Muslim community who entirely embraces the conception of the traditional world and intends to maintain it holistically. Take a look at William Montgomery Watt, Fundamentalisme Islam dan Modernitas, (Jakarta: PT Raja Grafido Persada, 1997), p. 3-4. This kind of attitude has of course made the scripturalists receive a pitched disfigure that is “fundamentalists”. As often displayed, such attitude can be understood as a defensive reaction towards the confidence of the arrogant Western culture, although the heart of the matter in fact goes deeper than that. Take a look at Robert N. Bellah, Beyond Belief: Esai-esai tentang Agama di Dunia Modern (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2000), p. 226-27.

84 Karen Armstrong, Islam A Short History, p. 193.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Although not the only thing, the law must be

enforced first. This way, the order in running state

affairs can be assured. Without it, we can only

expect chaos. Freedom requires a legal basis.

Through it, the state can serve as a buffer against

conflict of interests.

(Rachman 2009: 227)

Bahtiar Effendy, Dean of FISIP UIN Jakarta. He received his MA degree in

Southeast Asian Studies from Ohio University, Athens, 1988 and his MA degree in

Political Science from Ohio State University, Colombus, 1991. His Doctor degree in

Political Science was from Ohio State University, 1994.

Departing from such understanding, the urgency to critically reinterpret

religious texts with a liberal approach echoed by Muslim intellectuals from all over

the world felt very important. To mention some of them, Fazlur Rahman (Pakistan,

once lived in the United States for a long period, known for his Double Movement

methodology), Mohammed Arkoun (Algeria, once lived in France for a long period,

known for his "Project on the Critique of Islamic Reasoning"), Mohammed Abied al-

Jabiri (Morocco, known for his as "Project on the Critique of Arabic Reasoning"),

Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd (Egypt, known for his "Project on the Critique of the Textuality

of the Koran" or the conception of text), Hassan Hanafi (Egypt, known for his "Leftist

Project on Islam" or Turāts Revolution), Farid Esack (Africa, known for his "

Hermeneutics of Liberation" Project), and Ali Harb (Lebanon, known for his "Critique

of Islamic Reasoning" Project) and so on.

There are two types of Muslim scholars who respond to modernity. On one

hand, stands those who adopt Western key ideas and their regulations, some of

which are justified by adding citations from the Koran. On the other hand, stands

those who gravely refuse modernity and propose an apologetic alternative, based on

the literal understanding of the Koran. Due to this partial understanding of the Koran,

Fazlur Rahman, in Islam and Modernity, suggested a way out through two

movements in the interpretation of the Koran—or known as the double movement.



WORKING TRANSLATION

This solution was created to resolve the classic modernists who tend to be

apologetic towards the West, and the neo-revivalists (fundamentalists) who tend to

be scripturalists, by:

First, understanding the definition or the meaning of a statement by studying

the situation or historic problem in which the statement from the Koran serves as the

answer.

According to Rahman, before studying specific verses in the light of specific

situations, a study on the macro situation regarding the social context of the society

at that time (when the Koran was revealed) must be conducted.

Second, generalizing the specific answers and stating them as statements

that have a general social moral purpose that can be filtered from specific verses in

the light of a socio-historic background and ration legis that is often stated.85

If the first step, departs from specific issues in the Koran and seeks to uncover

a systematization of general principles, values and long-term goals, the second step

must be done from a public view to a specific view that must be formulated and

related to the present moment. If these two steps can be run on this understanding,

according to Rahman, the commandments of the Qur'an will once again revive and

be effective—have meaning in a perpetually changing social-political situation.

Interestingly, although the methodological cycle of Rahman’s version of Islam

covers two stages: “the ethics of the Koran” as the first stage, and “sociological” as

the second stage—these two stages require hard work. For example, according to

Rahman, efforts to build the ethics of the Koran is more intensive than just providing

a sociological interpretation of the Koran based on contemporaty problems. This can

be read from his key book, Major Themes of the Koran (1980). Sociological

interpretation only covers micro problems of the Islamic community, such as the

85 Take a look at, Fazlur Rahman, Islam dan Modernitas: Tentang Transformasi Intelektual (Bandung: Pustaka, 1995), p. 7.



WORKING TRANSLATION

ordinance of the law for Muslim families, family planning, usury (riba) and bank

interests, zakat (alms) as tax, slaughter machines, Sunna, Hadith, and revelation.86

In the intellectual world, Rahman’s concept has started a serious study of the

Koran. For Rahman, only one-tenth of the Koran is visible to the surface while the

rest remains submerged in the surface of history. This concept is known as "the

theory of the floating tip of the iceberg".87 Rahman’s works and research results

brings him to the conclusion that there is a need for systematic reconstruction in

Islamic thought, particularly in matters relating to the field of theology, philosophy

and social sciences.88

The term liberalism in converse cannot be

detached from various contexts. People may talk

about liberalism in the context of economy…

People may also talk about liberalism in the

86 Budhy Munawar-Rachman, “Dari Tahapan Moral ke Periode Sejarah: Pemikiran Neo-Modernisme Islam di Indonesia”, in Asep Gunawan, (ed.), Artikulasi Islam Kultural dari Tahapan Moral ke Periode Sejarah (Jakarta: Srigunting, 2004), p. 460.

87 In Rahman’s perspective, sciences regarding the Koran as a disciplinary subject become important references in understanding the Koran in order to receive attention. This is because understanding the Koran without reconstructing these sciences will result in a “Koranic” understanding, but not a contextual one. This means that reading the Koran will only affirm the sacredness of the Koran, but will not add an accurate significance to the context of today. This is where the importance of hermeneutics comes in as a “way to read”, “comprehend”, “understand” and possibly “go beyond meaning”. The presence of the Koran in fact does not disregard hermeneutics. It even speaks about it. This is because most of the verses in the Koran must be approached through interpretation. Take a look at Fazlur Rahman, Metode dan Alternatif Neomodernisme Islam, (Bandung, Mizan, 1990), p. 56. Hassan Hanafi in Dialog Agama dan Revolusi states that hermeneutics is not only a science of interpretation or a theory of understanding, but also a science that explains the acceptance of revelation from word level to global level. A science about the process of revelation from letters to reality, from logos to praxsis and also the transformation of revelation from the mind of God to human life. Take a look at Hassan Hanafi, Dialog Agama dan Revolusi, (Jakarta: Pustaka FIrdaus, 1994), p.1.

88 Amin Abdullah, “Arkoun dan Kritik Nalar Islam” in “Kata Pengantar” of the book by Johan Hendrik Mouleman, (ed.), Tradisi, Kemodernan dan Metamodernisme: Memperbincangkan Pemikiran Mohammed Arkoun (Yogyakarta: LKis, 1996), p.3.



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context of politics… For example, in relation to a

democratic government that upholds the principle

of the people’s sovereignty and guarantees

freedom of thought and expression as another

option to a theocratic government… I believe, the

discourse of liberalism here is more related to the

discourse of the freedom to think, particularly in

the context of religion.

(Rachman 2009: 301)

Djohan Effendi, former Chair of the Indonesian Conference of Religion and Peace

(ICRP), Jakarta. He was once the General Secretary Staff of the Department of

Religion (1973-1978) and the State Secretary Minister (2000-2001).

Rahman implies an understanding that hermeneutics89 is a superior

methodological tool. He also explores the theories of hermeneutics when most

Muslim intellectuals were oblivious of it. Therefore, in the field of Islamic thought, he

is seen as a figure who helped pioneer the application of hermeneutics to

understand the text of the Koran. Rereading of the Koran intends to explore how the

Koran, as is the issue of hermeneutics, is approached from a disciplinary science. Its

epistemologic context is to dismantle the interpretation of the meanings of the Koran

89 Hermeneutics is basically a method or a way to interpret symbols in the form of text or something that is treated like a text in order to seek its definition and meaning. The method of hermeneutics requires an ability to interpret an unexperienced past, and bring it to the present. Hermeneutics is expected to become an ideology of the knowledge of Islam that can answer the problems of the mystery of sciences on Islam in answering the challenges of the era and humanity that is plural in terms of all religions, races and global culture. Claims of the truth of religion that tend to be exclusive to all religions are threats toward humanity. The function of hermeneutics in scientific cognition is to make humans aware that religion is not only forces of legitimation and justification, but also a power of transformation and prophetic in building the community. Take a look at Fakhruddin Faiz, Hermeneutika Qur’an: Antara Teks, Konteks dan Kontekstualisasi (Yogyakarta: Qalam, 2002), p. 9.



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that is outmoded and does not touch the problems of the social reality of Muslims.90

Rahman formulates the hermeneutics of the Koran, in which the study of history, the

sociology of the Koran and Islamic traditions of classical heritage are components

that lead to the excavation of the moral ideal of the Koran, the principle of unity in

message and its relation to the historical context of the revelation of the Koran.91

In interpreting the Koran, analysis of the context has a quite important role in

understanding the events of revelation, because the concept of "revelation" can not

be understood except by looking at the context first. This indicates that there is a

relationship between reality (the context) and the text. Therefore, asbab al-Nuzul

(events occurring and accompanying the revelation of the verses of the Koran) is

required to understand the condition. But the context here is more extensive than

asbab al-Nuzul, because asbab al-Nuzul is required only to look at special events.

Such an assumption is quite prevalent in contemporary Islamic thought, such

as Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, especially when he developed his theory of layers of

context, namely the "theory of cultural context" in understanding and interpreting the

text of the Koran.92

90 Sibawaihi, Hermeneutika al-Qur’an Fazlur Rahman (Yogyakarta: Jalasutra, 2007), p. 4.

91 Ahmad Syukri Saleh, Metodologi Tafsir Al-Qur’an Kontemporer dalam Pandangan Fazlur Rahman (Jakarta: Gaung Persada Press, 2007), p.83.

92 Abu Zayd pointed out that the status of the textuality of the Koran is affirmed by the text of the Koran. First, the word wahy in the Koran is semantically equivalent to the word of God (kalam Allah) and that the Koran is a message (risalah). As the word and message of God, the Koran must be trated as a text. Second, the order of the letters and the verses of the Koran is different from the chronological order of the revelation. The order of the revelation of the Koran (tanjim) reflects the historicity of the text of the Koran, while the structure and the order of it today reflects the textuality. Third, the Koran covers evident verses (ayat muhkamat) that are the “mother” of the text (umm al-kitab), and ambiguous verses (ayat mutasyabihat) that must be understood on their relation to the first. The presence of these two types of verses require the reader to not only identify ambiguous verses, but also determine which verses are evident and which of them are the key to explain and clarify ambiguous verses. As clarity/ambiguity are characteristics of the textuality of the Koran, then it will automatically determine the type of interpretation. According to Abu Zayd, the text of the Koran must be approached from various readings. One of it



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No text is free from historical context. As a text, the Koran is no exception,

therefore, it is always the subject of interpretation. Throughout the course of

history, the Qur'an has become the subject of various schools of

interpretation; stating that that the text of the Koran is historic does not mean

that it comes from man. However, to declare that the words of the eternal God

was revealed to the Prophet Muhammad in seventh century Arabia in a

specific region at a particular time and space, is what makes it a historical

text. Nonetheless, the words of the eternal God is beyond human knowledge;

a historic text can become a subject for historical interpretation and

understanding as well.93

According to Abu Zayd, Arabic language, like other languages, is an

instrument of communication that can not be separated from socio-historical context.

There is no sacredness in language, even when it becomes the instrument of human

communication with other agents outside the human world. With its historical bias,

the language of the Koran is subject to social prerequisites. Thus, understanding it is

also limited to the scope of the socio-human epistemology.94 Text (nash, the Koran)

is a "cultural product" (muntāj tsaqafī). This means that text is formed in reality and

culture with a long process in which the Koran is formed for 20 years. During the

long process that occurs, it is the social and cultural dialectic in a society as a reality

is by understanding the Koran as a text in the form of language. If the Koran is the language, there should be a cultural dimension included, which would allow a dialectics between text and context to take place. Abu Zayd realized that the type of interpretation, which he believes borrows the tradition of semiotics, as a “final sign” of a text is rarely used for political interests. For this reason, he finds it necessary to redefine the essence of text so that we may be more “objective” when dealing with texts. Take a look at Hilman Latief, Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd: Kritik Teks Keagaman

(Yogyakarta: Elsaq Press, 2003), p. 45.

93 Hilman Latief, Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd Kritik Teks Keagaman Text, p. 45.

94 Luthfi Assyaukanie (ed.), Wajah Liberal Islam di Indonesia (Jakarta: Jaringan Islam Liberal, 2002), p. xxi.



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that determines how the text was then addressed.95 The Koran itself qualifies as a

treatise, which represents the relationship between the sender and the receiver

through the medium or system of language. Realities that govern human movement

into the target text and the recipient of the first text (the Apostle), and culture is

manifested in the form of language. Thus, study of the text departs from empirical

reality conditions.96

Hermeneutic approach in the attempt to apply the framework objective

(mawdlū'ī) and the science to analyze and interpret religious texts, is composed of

two main elements in which between them there is a relationship between dialectics.

First, is the historical aspect in the semiologic sense which aims to place these texts

in context as an attempt to prepare the original meaning, then enter the historical

context, and furthermore the specific language context of the texts. Second, drawing

on the real meaning and bringing it into the frameworks of contemporary socio-

cultural and practical destinations (ghāyah), so that it may explain the charge of

ideological interpretation of the original historical meaning. A “productive” reading will

result in movement between the dimensions of origin (ashl) and goals (ghāyah) or

between the meaning (dalalah) and its significance (maghzā).97

Meanwhile, Mohamed Arkoun—an Islamic thinker in France—has done what

he calls a "criticism of Islamic reasoning", namely Islamic reasoning as it developed

and functioned at a certain period. Islamic reasoning, the object of Arkoun’s criticism,

can be criticized because according to him, Islamic reasoning is not the only way of

95 The Arab-Islam civilization is known as the civilization of text. It is a civilization that affirms the principles of epistemology and its tradition as a basis of attitude that does not disregard the centre of the text it contains. What Abu Zayd means by text is the Koran. In other words, the Islam civilization positions text as the pivotal center. Take a look at Ulil Abshar Abdalla, “Inter-Tekstualitas Qur’an dan Wahyu Yang Hidup: Upaya Konstruktif Menghindari “Bibiolatry”, www.islamlib.com

96 Take a look at Hilman Latief, Kritik Wacana Keagamaan Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd, p. 23. Take a look also at Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd, Hermeneutika Inklusif:Mengatasi Problematika Bacaan dan Cara-cara Penakwilan atas Diskursus Keagamaan (Jakarta: ICIP, 2004), p.9.

97 Take a look at M. Hanif A., Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd, in A. Khudhori Sholeh (ed.), Pemikiran Islam Kontemporer, (Yogyakarta: Jendela, 2003), p. 370.



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thinking and understanding in Islam. Arkoun uses a historical-critical method

(manhajiyat al-naqd al-tārīkhī) to perform criticism of Islamic reasoning. Arkoun saw

the need for a critical method for reading the history of the Arabic Islam thought. He

departed from issues regarding historical reading or problems of historicism and the

issue of interpretation (hermeneutic). With historicism, Arkoun aimed to see the

whole socio-cultural phenomena through a historical perspective in which the past

should be seen by its history.98

According to Arkoun’s perspective, data on the life of the early generation of

Islam that are presented in classical books will interject information and new

meanings when approached with new perspectives, especially when using the

historical hermeneutic method. Since every author, text, and reader can not escape

from the social, political, psychological, theological and other contexts in space and

time, in understanding history what is needed is not only a transfer of meaning, but

also a transformation of meaning. Understanding Islamic tradition is always open

and never finished, because its meaning and comprehension is always evolving as

the Muslims who are always involved in the reinterpretation from age to age. In

Arkoun’s view, at least three conclusions emerge when we approach the Koran and

98 In some of his works, among them are Berbagai Pembacaan Qur’an, Arkoun also revealted how the Koran could be read in the first place because it could be interpreter in many ways. These are what inspired Arkoun to venture on an exporation towards the many meanings of the Koran. Thus, for Arkoun, the main condition in order to reach openness (enlightenment) of Islamic though in the middle of the modern world is through deconstruction toward the episteme orthodoxy and dogmatism of the Middle Ages. In lifting the meaning of the Koran, the first thing most avoided by Arkoun is pretention to establish “a true meaning of the Koran.” This is because Arkoun did not want to standardize the meaning of the Koran in a certain way, except by presenting—in the most possible way—various meanings. For that, reading requires three moments: A linguistic moment that allows us to find a basic order under the visible order; An anthropological moment to understand the language of the Koran that has a mystical order and; A historical moment in which we establish our span and limitations of logico-lexicography interpretation and imaginative interpretations that until today have been practiced by Muslims. Take a look at Luthfi Assyaukanie, “Tipologi dan Wacana Pemikiran Arab Kontemporer”, Jurnal Pemikiran Islam Paramadina, Vol. I No. 1, July-Desember 1998, p. 77. Take a look also at Mohammed Arkoun, Berbagai Pembacaan Qur’an, (Jakarta: INIS, 1997), p. 48.



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Islamic tradition. First, the truth of the statements in the Koran will only be evident in

the future. Second, the truth in the Koran is layered or has plural dimensions, so that

plural interpretation toward the content of the Koran is common or even desired by

the Koran itself. Third, there exists a doctrine and Islamic tradition that is historical,

and requires multiple readings and creation of new tradition.99

If such an approach is developed, the implication will be quite significant, as

deconstruction (dismantling) of interpretation of the text of the Koran in which part of

its conclusions has been considered to be standard and final will take place. Arkoun

explains how although the human mind is bound by language, uncaptured by

language, dismantling is possible. Thought is still a free activity. Therefore, critical

thinking can create a way out of "confined logosentric".100

Religion should be viewed from two directions. On

one hand, religion is viewed as a standard

teaching, such as the pillars of Islam, the pillars of

faith and so on. However, religion can also be

viewed from a maximum angle, that is Islamic

teaching that includes various aspects, including

morality or akhlak. All of these can be run by the

society, and not the state. As the state is co-

99 Johan Hendrik Mouleman (ed.), Tradisi, Kemodernan dan Metamodernisme (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 1996), p. 26.

100 The term “logosentrism” was popularized by Jacques Derrida who stated that truth in this world is merely due to a logic result of two elements with binary oppositions, in which one is the alibi of the other, and the other is accepted to be more superior than the other: the soul is transcendental and true. It is proved by the existence of the body that is visible to the eye and is isleading; the man exists and he has power, the proof lies in women who are weak. Take a look at Yasraf Amir Pilliang, Sebuah Dunia Yang Dilipat, Realitas Kebudayaan Menjelang Milenium Ketiga dan Matinya Posmodernisme, p. 138. Within this binary opposition, according to the Western philosophy, the terms that were first considered superior, and according to Derrida this term contains ‘Logos’—‘truth’ or ‘truth from the truth.’ While the second term is only ‘intermediary’ or an imitated truth. Take a look at Yasraf Amir Pilliang, Hiper-realitas Kebudayaan, (Yogyakarta, LKis, 1999), p. 7



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owned.

(Rachman 2009: 13)

Abdurrahman Wahid, the late Abdurrahman Wahid is the founder of WAHID

Institute. Former President of Republic of Indonesia (1999-2001), he was once the

Honorary President at the International Islamic Christian Organization for

Reconciliation and Reconstruction (IICORR), London.

Arkoun is known as a deconstructionist thinker. Luthfi Assyaukanie,

categorized Arkoun into reformistic typology. Arkoun was influenced by the thoughts

and philosophy of French contemporary movements, especially the movement of

(post) structuralism. Arkoun believed that the problems faced by Islamic thinkers is a

problem of reading tradition, whether in the form of text and reality. According to

them, the most modern and most powerful way to read the tradition (turāts) is

deconstruction.101

Like Arkoun, Jabri stressed the necessity to repackage tradition or turāts in

order to suit modernity. Such process of repackaging was formulated in three

volumes of his monumental work, which he called a "Criticism Project of Arab

Reasoning" (al-'Aql naqd Masyr al-'Arabi). However, in his works, Jabri not address

issues such as orthodoxy, revelation, myth, imaginary, or other symbols of the

dominant theological issues, such as in the works Arkoun. Jabri departs from the

methodological question "How to interact with turāts?" To answer that question, Jabri

felt it necessary to redefine the meaning of turāts.

According to him, turāts is “something that is present and accompanies our

contemporary condition and comes from our past or the past of others. Such past is

a distant future or a near future",102 i.e. a legacy of the past in the history of a nation

that takes the form of behavior, work ethic, achievement of cultural and scientific

101 Take a look at Luthfi Assyaukani, “Tipologi dan Wacana Pemikiran Arab Kontemporer”, Journal of Islamic Thought Paramadina, Vol. 1 Number 1, July-December 1998, p. 75-80.

102 M. Abid al-Jabiri, Post Tradisionalisme Islam (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2000), p. 24.



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works. Furthermore, turāts according to Jabri is a historical problem that oscillates

among each other, complements each other, criticizes each other, and even trips

each other. Therefore, it cannot be studied with a "historical materialism" approach

as commonly used by the Orientalists, but it should be assessed with special

methods, namely: structuralist, in which review must be based on the texts as they

are; historical analysis, to see the whole scope of culture, politics and sociology;

ideological criticism, to uncover the ideological function, including political functions

contained in a text or a certain thought.103

Then the question posed by Jabri is, "How to read these texts?" According to

Jabri, in the end the issue is ultimately foundered on the question of authority

(sulthah), namely who has the authority in determining the readings; the reader or

the reading, us or the turats? According to him, turāts should be seen as a well-

established structure that is "a system of fixed relations within the framework of

change and transformation". Therefore, in the dialectic of readers and reading, and

regarding the issue of who holds the authority, there are three models of how turāts

must be addressed: first reading turāts in the framework of modernity. The second is

reading turāts in the framework of turāts; and the third is reading modernity in the

framework of turāts. Among these three options, Jabri went for the first, arguing that

if it was not decided quickly, the authority will move to the second and the third, and

that would be very dangerous. In other words, the problem of authority is not only

limited to turāts and reading of turāts, but also what is more dangerous is measuring

everything including modernity in the frame of turāts.

Therefore, in the face of both (tradition and modernity) we must take a firm

stand that is we should criticize classification of the intellectuals in relation to the

dichotomous "tradition and modernity", i.e. the classification of the modernists, the

traditionalists and the selectivists. The first, tend to deny turāts and accept modernity

at face value, the second vice versa, and the third claim to unite the two by being

103 Take a look at Luthfi Assyaukani, “Tipologi dan Wacana Pemikiran Arab Kontemporer”, Journal of Islamic Thought Paramadina, Vol. 1 Number 1, July-December 1998.



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more fair to turāts and modernity. For Jabri, tradition and modernity appear in front of

us just like that, without our power to choose so. Both come with their own power of

discourse, as an offer of idealistic authoritarian. Turāts come from the past through

hereditary succession. No one is able to reject a legacy and a past that one grew up

with. Likewise, modernity, came imposed without us being able to resist it. We are

never given the freedom to choose one from both or leave them both.

So how should we act? According to Jabri, as long as we are never asked to

choose one over the other, or refuse both, then what should be done is act critically

toward both; turats and modernity with the true meaning of criticism. Amid such

criticism did Jabri implement his deconstruction method. For him, the first thing is

deconstruction of turats as long as turats are considered to be the longest to stuck

and unite with Arabic reasoning. The method of deconstruction used by Jabiri at first

was in the form of analysis. This means that the first job that must be done by an

Arabic intellectual is to analyze the structure of a well-established building by

studying the relation among elements that create and unite the building. After

structual analysis, then change or dismantling of the structure takes place. From

here, deconstruction is intended to change the permanent and bring change, the

absolute to the relative, the a-historical to the historical.104

The methodology used by al-Jabri in reviewing the issue of tradition is through

the "objectivism" (mawdlū'iyah) approach and "rationality" (ma'qūliyah) approach.105

Objectivism means making tradition more contextual than itself, and separating itself

from our contemporary condition. This stage is deconstruction, that is liberating one-

self from a priori conditions on tradition and present desires by separating the

analyzing subject and the analyzed object. On the other hand, what is meant with

rationality is by making tradition more contextual with our contemporary condition.

The second state is reconstructing new thoughts by relating the subject and object of

analysis. What al-Jabiri means is that this in done in order to achieve a holistic

reading toward tradition.

104 Luthfi Assyaukani, “Tipologi dan Wacana Pemikiran Arab Kontemporer”.

105 M. Abid al-Jabiri, Post Tradisionalisme Islam, p. 24



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To aviod interpretations that lead to stigmatization or exclusivism, al-Jabri

raised the dimension of rationality in the Islamic tradition. He said one factor in the

slow modernization of the Muslim world is due to rationality in the Islamic tradition

that has "suspended in animation". The barrenness of ijtihad in the kalam and legal

traditions is closely related to the cessation of the rationalist movement’s step to

make sense as a demonstrative mechanism of the empirical truth. A quandary in the

mind is due to an expanding textuality that occurs in the Islamic World. For this

reason, the emphasis of this contemporary Muslim intellectual from Morrocco is the

choice of making burhani (demonstrative-rationalist method) as an alternative to

textual tendency (bayani) and gnostic ('irfani).

For al-Jabiri, historically the epistemology system indication or explication

(bayani) is the earliest epistemology system in the Arabic school of thought.106 This

system is very dominant in basic sciences, such as philology, jurisprudence (fikih),

the science of the Koran (interpretation, hermeneutics and reading), dialectic

theology (kalam), and non-philosophical literary theory. The bayani approach is a

philosophical study on the structural system of knowledge that places text (wahy) as

the absolute truth, while the mind is placed on a secondary level, and functions to

explain and defend the existing text. In other words, the bayani people only work on

text level (nizam al-kitab) above the mind level (nizham al-aql). For this reason, the

power of this approach lies in language, both on the grammatical and structural

levels (nahwu-sharaf) as well as literature (balaghah: bayan, mani and badi).

The burhani approach or the argumentative rational approach is an approach

that props on the power of ratio that is conducted through logic statements. This

approach makes the reality of the text as well as the context as the source of study.

In the burhani approach there is the ta’lili method that attempts to understand the

reality of the text based on rationality; and the method istishlahi that attempts to

approach and understand the objective reality or context based on philosophy. This

reality covers natural reality (kawniyah reality), historical reality (tarikhiyah), social

106 Take a look at Muhammed Abid al-Jabiri, Kritik Kontemporer atas Filsafat Arab-Islam (Yogyakarta: Fajar Pustaka, 2003), p. xxi.



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reality (ijtimaiyah) and cultural reality (thaqafiyah). In this approach, text and

context—as two sources of study—are located in one interrelated area. Text does

not stand alone, it is always related to the context that surrounds and creates it as

well as the context from where the text is intended to be read and interpreted, so that

understanding of bayani will strengthen. For this reason, understanding the reality of

social-religious life and social islamic life will be more sufficient when sociological

(ijtima’iyah), anthropological (antrupulujiah), cultural (tsaqafiyah) and historical

(tarikhiyah) approaches are used.

The irfani approach (implementation of the intuitive-esoteric analysis), on the

other hand, is expected to capture the essential meaning or the deepest meaning

that is hidden beneath text and context. If the basic assumption or bayani paradigm

focuses more on the text as a linguistic phenomenon, the burhani paradigm focuses

more on text as something that is related to context, and the irfani paradigm focuses

more on text as a symbol and sign (al-ramziyah wa al-ima) that requires reading and

dismantling of the deepest meaning (batin) of symbols and signs by involving

emotional, intellectual and spiritual intelligence. Within religious dialectic context and

the plurality of the tradition of arts or local culture, the irfani approach like the burhani

approach has two important tasks that is: first, reading the deepest meanings of

symbols and signs of religious texts (nushush al-diniyah); and second, reading the

deepest meanings of symbols and signs that are embedded in the form of the

tradition of arts or local culture.

The substance of new religious notions,

such as Liberal Islam or whatever they

are named, should not be trapped in the

tendency of which class we are in.

Another point that needs to be taken into

consideration is we should not waste our

energy only to be at service to clashes of

thoughts, and be indifferent and forget to

focus our energy on eradicating poverty,



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uphelding economic justice and so one;

which are more essential.

(Rachman 2009: 417)

Fachry Ali, the Director of the Institute of Studies and Develoment of Indonesian

Working Ethics (LSPEUI). He received his MA from Monash University, Australia. He

was also actively involved in LP3ES.

Based on these three approaches, it is hoped that the issue of the relation

between religion and the plurality of the art of tradition can receive comprehensive,

integral, and holistic explanation containing norms, history and spirituality, so as to

becoming the base for actual policy in developing cultural strategy and tadjid of

religious thought.107 Through bayani, burhani and irfani epistemology, al-Jabiri

affirms that Islam in its historicity definition, is not one, but is varied according to the

type of approach that is taken. The meaning embedded in the Koran is thus not final

and absolute. The historicity side of religion must be further explored so it may be

engaged in dialogue with present day reality. The tradition of epistemology criticism

opens space for “criticism” toward established knowledge, including in it

understanding on religion. Criticism on the criticism of truth must continue as there is

no absolute truth, including truth on religious knowledge.

Amin Abdullah mentions the third epistemology approach above as al-ta’wil

al-‘ilmi that attempts to make text, or to be precise individual, group, mazhab,

orientation, organization, and cultural understanding of text, an object to be analyzed

by new Islamic knowledge. Al-ta’wil al-‘ilmi makes use of classic, modern and

contemporary hermeneutic approach.108 The al-ta’wil al-‘ilmi approach as an

alternative interpretation approach for text uses the circular path of hermeneutic that

107 Muhammed Abid al-Jabiri, Kritik Kontemporer atas Filsafat Arab-Islam, p. 2-6

108 Take a look at Amin Abdullah, Islamic Studies di Perguruan Tinggi: Pendekatan Integratif Interkonektif (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2006), p. 221



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truly engages in dialogues among bayani, burhani, and irfani epistemology

paradigms in a circular motion that controls, criticizes, improves, and perfects the

disadvantages in each paradigm, especially when each stands alone, separated one

from the other.

Along with Arkoun and al-Jabiri, Ali Harb believes that reconstruction of mind

is nonsense when the deconstruction process towards the text that has produced

reasoning is not conducted.109 And from this criticism toward reasoning, it continues

to textual criticism. The reason is because these texts are the ones behind the

reasoning. Ali Harb stated that texts created in the past no longer need to be read as

it will dismantle the present. As texts are something that cause reasoning,

assessment, belief and are also understood as something that exist, then each text

has a “strategy” to maintain existence, that is by covering (hijab) other texts.

From here, openness towards texts with regard to differences and plurality

becomes possible. If the text isn’t as so, that is it is not open to possible various

readings, then the reader will not change and its significance becomes limited during

each reading. What is more, every reading towards a text is a reading within it that is

reading that is active productive, reforms the text, and produces meaning.

There are three intrinsic elements in the process of understanding texts. First,

it enters the mind of the author. In the case of the Koran, God is pictured as the

author. A Muslim needs to enter the mind of God. In the mystical tradition of Islam,

there was a methodology of piety that is combined with knowledge to produce

meaning. For this reason, God has a direct role in understanding text; this makes

Muhammad as the key to produce meaning. For Fazlur Rahman and the

traditionalists, meaning lies within a text and can be revealed by the “pure mind”.

This is known as a personal approach. The real problem is how to implement this

approach consciously in the social-political arena or to the domain of public morality

in a certain way.

109 M. Kholidul Adib, “Menggugat Teks dan Kebenaran Agama”, www.islamlib.com



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Second, the readers are humans who are “with many conditions”. The active

participation of the reader in producing meaning means receiving the text and

extracting meaning from it—in which before there was no meaning in the reader as

the previous reader. Bur receiving and reading, and meaning are always partial.

Every reader enters the interpretation prcess with pre-understanding of the issues

within the text. Meaning is always different in the structure of understanding. Thus,

there is no perfect interpretation, there is no perfect reader and there is no perfect

text. Pre-understanding is the prerequisites of living in history. We need to be able to

distinguish between self and the condition where the self is. Disregarding ambiguity

in language and history and their impacts on interpretarion will cause uniformity

among normative Islam and what the people of faith think.

Third, interpretation does not run far from language, history and tradition. The

past is the present. Whoever uses the language “having pre-understanding” are half-

conscious and those who are often not conscious on the history and the tradition of

language. We cannot run away from all of this. The meaning of a word is always in

process. Using a word means participation in the historical process of meaning that

perpetuates. The literal meaning of a saying is always problematic and is never free

from values. This is particularly related to symbolic and pure sayings. The plurality of

language and the ambiguity of history cannot be hindered in the efforts to

understand it. The problem of language is not limited only to the reader but also

expands to tradition of the text being read. The act of interpreting anyting is

participation of the linguistic-historic process. Formation of such tradition and

participation takes place in a certain space and time. Our attitude to the Koran also

occurs within these boundaries; we cannot get escape and place ourselves outside

language, culture and tradition.110

The Koran is a text. And a text cannot be separated from context. Thus, the

text of the Koran cannot be separated from the context of Saudi Arabia 14 centuries

ago, the place where the Koran was revealed. The basic context itself has preceded

110 Farid Esack, Al-Qur’an, Liberalisme, Pluralisme: Membebaskan yang Tertindas (Bandung: Mizan, 2000), p. 75-76



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the text. The text of the Koran is the result of a heterodoxy process, attitude, and the

answer of Muhammad in the context of Saudi Arabia at that time. Thus, the Koran is

designed, constructed and interpreted based on its context. This way the approach

to read the Koran must be deconstructed—borrowing Ali Harb’s words—“a creative

reading system”. A creative reading system that dismantles the meaning of truth that

has not been revealed through the text made Ali Harb question the meaning of

essence or truth. As truth or essence exists, then they must be absorbed based on

what is written in the form of texts that in fact cover the essence or other truth that is

not revealed through the text. It is from here that criticism of truth emerges. From

criticism of text (naqd al-nash), moving on to “religious truth”. The truth that all this

time has been revealed by religions as standardized in their religious texts. In the

religious truth criticism (naqd al-haqiqah al-dini), we must criticize our own religion

before criticizing others.111 Texts must be understood again on a more expanded

note in order to avoid monolithic, non-varied and lack of variety understanding. As

this will only escort us back to a theological-dogmatic thought and understanding.

Critical attitude toward religious texts is not only the agenda of Islam, but also the

agenda of all religion as religion holds universal values, such as justice, freedom,

egalitarianism, democracy and so on.

This way, a deconstruction of understanding toward the interpretation of the

Koran that is literalist-scripturalist, rigid, non-flexible, textual should be conducted

urgently. At least there are a number of reasons why we must conduct

deconstruction toward the language of religion and how we can do it. Among them

include:112

First, the Holy Book as the word of God that has been revealed through space

and time, while humans who are the purpose continue to develop in building their

civilization. Through the heritage of the culmination of civilization that has been

passed down, the modern society may develop without referring to the holy book.

111 Take a look at Ali Harb Kritik Kebenaran Agama (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2004), p.8.

112 Komaruddin Hidayat, “Melampaui Nama-nama Islam dan Postmodernisme”, www.filsafatkita.f2g.net



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Hence, the position of the holy book becomes increasingly unfamiliar although

without us knowing it, the substance of it and various of its teachings is applied by

the society.

Next, all languages, including the language of holy books, have a local

limitation as language is a cultural reality. On the other hand, the messages and the

truth of religion that are embedded within local language have universal claims.

Here, the language of religion will have its sophistication tested to contain the

messages of religion without having to undergo anomaly or be shackled by the

language it uses.

Third, when the language of religion is “made scared”, several possibilities

emerge. It is possible that the message of the religion is maintained strongly, but

there also lies a possibility that the fundamental meaning and message of the

religion is caged within the text that has been “made sacred”.

Fourth, the Holy Book—besides the codification of the law of God—is a

“record” of the dialogue of God with a history in which the presence of God is

represented by His prophet. When the dialogue is notulated, there is a big possibility

for a reduction and an impoverishment of ambiance to occur so that the dialogue

between God and humans loses it “spirit” when after hundreds of years what is left of

it is in the form of a “text”.

Fifth, when the society is faced with an epistemology crisis, returning to the

text of the Holy Book that has been “made sacred” will be more calming compared to

taking a deconstruction notion that moves toward the direction of relativism-nihilism.

Sixth, the more autonomous and developed human mind becomes, the more

autonomous humans become in following or refusing teachings of religion and the

holy book. More than that, when people read the holy book, it is possible that what is

truly happening is in fact a process of critical dialogue between two subjects. Thus,

instead of interpreting and asking for fatwa from the holy book, people tend to

position the holy book as a friend to engage in dialogue that is free from domination.



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Such are the main arguments from Liberal Islam on why liberalism is needed

for religious thinking. What have been mentioned above are only a number of

examples to show that what is the main concern of their thought is the freedom to

think. Humans are created by God with a free condition. Freedom is the largest

blessing given by God to human. Freedom of expression is an individual right that no

one can stop. Even in a verse of the Koran, God does not prevent His creations to

express their opinions (Q. 2:30). Freedom of expression is part of the requirements

for a progressed society. A society that is restricted and cannot express their opinion

is a society that is stagnant and does not have a future.113 Besides that, they also

suggest to open widely the gate of ijtihad, provide freedom to interpret religious

doctrines, and review the tradition and the variety of religions for the Muslim

community.

The red line that can be concluded from a number of Liberal Islam

intellectuals is the feeling and the passion to liberate the Islamic community from

shackles of backwardness and rigidity from the past five centuries. This shackle is

considered to be the main cause of the helplessness of the Muslim nations in front of

foreign nations that are more progressed. Only by rebuilding the perspective and

their attitude toward variety, this condition can be improved.

If we take a look at the history written by Marshall Hodgson, The Venture of

Islam, it is evidently seen how Islam once gave birth to a huge civilization. The

freedom to think and express creation in the Islamic World filled the empty spaces of

global civilization. However, today the role of Islam has been cornered and sunk in

ritual. For this reason, liberalization movement is required to make text, logic, and

civilization balanced.114 The dialectics of the three is without question. If not, then the

Islamic World will once again fall into stagnation and necrosis.

The following passage will show how the necessity of Islamic Liberal thought

in Indonesia also develops like other parts in the Islamic World.

113 Luthfi Assyaukanie, Islam Benar vs Islam Salah (Jakarta: Kata Kita, 2007), p. 69.

114 Komaruddin Hidayat, “Islam Liberal dan Masa Depannya”, Repubika, 17 July 2001.



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The Discourse of Liberal Islam in Indonesia

In Indonesia’s context, there is a special book written by Greg Barton in 1995 on the

emergence of liberal thought among Indonesian intellectuals. This book was then

translated into Indonesian language entitled The Notion of Liberal Islam in Indonesia:

Neomodernism Thoughts of Nurcholish Madjid, Djohan Effendi, Ahmad Wahib, and

Abdurrahman Wahid, published by Paramadina, in 1999.115 From a number of

modernist groups, Islamic neo-modernism was born in Indonesia and represented by

figures, such as Nurchoish Madjid and Syafii Maarif that then underwent a

metamorphosis into Liberal Islam.116 Liberal Islam thought, which is often shorten

into “Islib” and them popularized by a group of youngsters by establishing a network

of cooperation in and out of the country, which they named “Liberal Islam Network”

(JIL).

By understanding liberalism as liberation

of a person from the bars of a despotic

system, unfair and forceful, without

granting space to individuals to think

rationally, and be conscious of their

future and be responsible to their

actions.

(Rachman 2009: 447)

Faqihuddin Abdul Kodir, a teaching staff at STAIN Cirebon who was once the

Director of the Fahmina Institute, Cirebon.

115 Take a look at Greg Barton, Gagasan Islam Liberal di Indonesia: Pemikiran Neo-Modernisme Nurcholish Madjid, Djohan Effendi, Ahmad Wahib, dan Abdurrahman Wahid (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1999)

116 Take a look at Rumadi, Post Tradisionalisme Islam Wacana Intelektualisme dalam Komunitas NU, p. 141



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Liberal Islamic movement in Indonesia discovered its momentum in the early

1970s, along with the political transformation from the Soekarno era to the Soeharto

era. This movement was triggered by the emergence of a generation of new clerics

who had more opportunities to study Islam and conduct a more serious reflection on

various social-religious issues. As mentioned before, the most important figure in the

reform movement is Nurcholish Madjid, a Muslim scholar who met all the

requirements to become a reformist. Born and raised in a cleric family, Nurcholish is

a writer and an incredible public orator. He mastered Arabic and English. His fluency

talking about social science theories was as good as his elaboration on the variety of

Islam. Nurcholish is the perfect successor of the Islamic reform movement that

began in Indonesia since the 19th century.

His concern, bravery and carefulness in reading the political anthropology of

the Indonesian community in the end helped build the right cultural strategy to

change the perspective towards Islam that was sectarian, communal, traditional and

exclusive. He also became an example of how a prominent Muslim Indonesian

intellectual saw religion face to face with the challenges of modern culture.117

117 According to Luthfi, Muhammad Tahir Djalaluddin (1869-1956) is Muhammad Abduh’s most accomplished student in spreading the notion of Islamic reform in Indonesia. After he finished his study with Abduh, he left Egypt. Due to an inconvenient political situation, he did not return to Indonesia, but stopped-over at Singapore to begin spreading reform notions there. In Singapore (1906), he founded the Islamic magazine, al-Imam. This name was inspired from Abduh’s nickname. Abduh’s students are loyal and love him very much. In Egypt, they set up a discussion group known as madrasat al-imam and founded a political party known as hizb al-imam. Through Djalaluddin, the notion of reform and liberalism of Islam in the Middle East was spread in Indonesia and Malaysia. Al-Afghani and Abduh’s writings in al-Urwah al-Wutsqa and al-Manar have been translated and pubished in al-Imam. Themes on progress, freedom, and women emancipation characterize this magazine. Al-Imam became the first Islamic media to spread the notion of liberalism Islam in Indonesia.

In 1911, another Islamic magazine, al-Munir, was published in Sumatera. The founder, Abdullah Ahmad, is a student of Ahmad Khatib, a Malay reformist who resided in Mecca. This magazine, alongwith al-Imam, became the vocal point of the young generation in spreading the notion of Islam Liberal. Entering Indonesia’s independence, movements on Islamic reform declined. Islamic figures focused their energy on achieving and characterizing Indonesia’s independence. Most were



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As an Islamic reformist who was categorized into the neo-modernist thought,

the thoughts of Nurcholish Madjid is thoroughly based on theology, that is the

theological perspective by Kurzman known as “liberal theology”. Its characteristics is

that the movement is progressive (accepts modernity); The modern West is not seen

as a threat, but as reinventing Islam to “straighten” the modernity of the West; opens

opportunities for “worldly autonomy” in living as a nation and a state; and the way of

Islamic understanding that is open, tolerant and inclusive. As a successor to his

teacher’s thoughts, Fazlur Rahman, Nurcholish Madjid, realized that an Islam that

could not provide a solution to humanitarian issue does not have a bright future.

What he has done to Islamic thought, all of them can be upheld above an academic

foundation of high quality. However, the fact that there are many people that

misunderstand his thought is another issue. Nurcholish Madjid has put forward

intellectual efforts for quite a long time.118

Nurcholish Madjid expected his people to be able to be “liberated” from

absolutism and the emergence of religious authority. He dreamt that the people

could be freed from immature attitudes in religious activities, the variety that is full of

claim of truth, plots of truth only for one’s self and one’s group, intellectual

arrogance, authority and religious institution that act as the patron of faith and

akidah, formalistic-normative religion. Departing from that Nurcholish Madjid

involved in the debate of Islamic issues in the 1930s. Agus Salim and Muhammad Natsir were absorbed in politics, actively involved in the Soekarno-Hatta government. Salim was once the Minister of Foreign Affairs; Natsir the Ministry of Information and then the Prime Minister. Probably because of their intensive involvement in the political world, the Islamic figures did not find the time to contemplate and depply reflect in issues on Islamic reform. (Take a look at Luthfie Assyaukanie, “Dua Abad Islam Liberal”, Bentara Kompas, 2 Martch 2007. Take a look also at Luthfi Assyaukanie, Islam Benar vs Islam Salah, p. 77.)

118 This group is known as neomodernist as it reformed the muslim-modernist in developing notions of Islam modernization. The figure is Fazlur Rahman. The neo-modernist group was formed as not only did they have access to the heritage of the modern Western intellectual tradition, but they also had access to the heritage of classic-Islamic school tradition. Take a look at Greg Barton, Gagasan Islam Liberal di Indonesia: Pemikiran Neo-Modernisme Nurcholish Madjid, Djohan Effendi, Ahmad Wahib, dan Abdurrahman Wahid (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1999).



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proposes an inclusive Islam, the al-hanifiyah al-samhah passion, egaliter, pluralistic

and democratic.

Nurcholish Madjid is also certain (even too certain—BMR) that in present day,

Islam compared to other religions is the one most prepared to enter the modern

world. Because the Muslim community, as proved by history “…can absorb various

positive aspects of the human civilization, as well as maintain the firmness of faith to

refuse those that are not considered good.119 The source of universalism as well as

cosmopolitanism of Islamic teaching, according to Nurcholish Madjid, is in fact

contained in the meaning of al-Islam that means “to succumb totally to God” which is

actually the religion of man for all time. By referring to this meaning, al-Islam is a

concept of unity of prophecy, and humanity, that emerges from the concept of the

unity of the oneness of God (tawhid).120

Based on such religious argument, according to Nurcholish Madjid, the social

aim of Islam is everywhere. Nurcholish Madjid believed that as the Islamic social aim

which is pure always appears as al-nashihah (message) from the divinity, then the

translation into the social system, Islam is not only good for the Islamic community,

but it also will bring welfare for everyone (rahmatan li al-alamin). In Nurcholish

Madjid’s language, it is revealed that the victory of Islam is the victory of all groups,

119 In an interview, Cak Nur, stated, “Historically speaking, the Islamic society is the society that has accomplished the most in studying pluralism. For this reason, Islamic states are averagely multi-religious, except Saudi Arabia. This country implemented political policies since Umar bin Khattab for the Hijaz area. For Hijaz, there may not be any othr religion, as it is set to be a safe homebase. Those exiting hijaz, and those willing to leave Iraq or Yemen, were given large compensation. But if we go to Egypt, Yemen, United Arab Emirates, Lebanon and many others, we can still find many Christians, Jews, etc, with their churches and synagogues. In this case, Europe is way behind. It is not until recently that Europe acknowledges and interacts with other religions. In the past, Europe did not acknowledge other religions. What is more, it was famous for how the Jews faced the extremist NAZI with the genocide and holocaust. Take a look at www.islamlib.com

120 Take a look at Nurcholish Madjid, Atas Nama Pengalaman: Beragama dan Berbangsa di Masa Transisi: Kumpulan Dialog Jum’at di Paramadina (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2002), p. 54-56.



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the victory of ideas on justice, sameness, truth that enlightens all humans.121 These

are the most important foundations from the social modern Islamic thought

established by Nurcholish Madijd in the involvement of Islam in building modern

Islam that is liberal. He says “… in today’s modern world, as long as the Muslim

community can be able to understand their religion truly, then Islam will become a

relevant religion and level up to the most recent development of today’s human.122

In its development, the neo-modernism Islam movement in Indonesia—with

its leading figure Nurcholish Madjid and Abdurrahman Wahid—experienced a

metamorphosis in Liberal Islam. On that basis, although the history of the birth and

the geneaology is slightly different, it is now often considered to be identic, both from

the epistemology aspect as well as the intellectual agenda. Greg Barton mentions

neomodernism Islam and Liberal Islam to be congruous.123

Outside whether Liberal Islam and Islam Neo-modernism have the same

intellectual agenda or not, the empirical reality is that the fresh new ideas of

Nurcholish Madjid regarding Islam, modernity and Indonesia, until today inspires and

colours the thoughts of a number of young liberal Islam generations in Indonesia.

The emergence of young Muslim intellectuals in Indonesia, both from the NU that are

united in the Liberal Islam Network (JIL) and the Muhammadiyah in the Young

Muhammadiyah Intellectual Network (JIMM), and various groups of young Muslim

Progressives, has ignited hope for once again development of the tradition of

thought of the people of Islam that is needed to answer the challenges of the era. It

can be said that the young critical generation that is more dominated by the young

intellectuals from NU and Muhammadiyah would aspire to continue the critical

intellectual tradition that has been established by their founding fathers. Such critical

tradition that has been initially developed by the “first edition” intellectual generation,

121 Take a look at Nurcholish Madjid, Pintu-pintu Menuju Tuhan (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1995), p. 279-281.

122 Nurcholish Madjid, Pintu-pintu Menuju Tuhan, p. 280.

123 According to Rumadi, until today no one has seen this as an issue. However, even so, Ahmad Baso, disagrees with the act of equalizing Liberal Islam and Neo-modernism. According to him,



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such as—borrowing the Indonesianis analysis by Greg Barton—Cak Nur, Gus Dur,

Ahmad Wahib and Djohan Effendy, and continued by the “second edition”

intellectual, for example, Azyumardi Azra, Komaruddin Hidayat, Amin Abdullah,

Bakhtiar Effendy, Moeslim Abdurrahman and Munir Mulkhan, has propelled the

young generation of NU and Muhammadiyah to set in motion their intellectual activity

to a more dynamic stage.

Freedom of thought is a prerequisite of

religious essence. The conservatives are

so enthusiastic in promoting the idea that

when a person uses his or her mind

freely, then that person will lose faith.

This is a bizzare perspective. It is in fact

the opposite. A person can experience

genuine religiousity when he or she

processes the model of diversity in his or

her own head.

(Rachman 2009: 471)

Farid Wajidi, Director of LKiS (Institute of Islamic and Social Studies) Yogyakarta.

He received his MA in the History of Islam in Indonesia from Leiden University, the

Netherlands (1999) and is now working on his dissertation entitled “Muslim Civil

Society in Transitional Indonesia: A Study on Muslim NGOs and Alternative Informal

Networks in Java” in Utrecht University, the Netherlands.

Not only that, their presence is also expected to help accelerate the paradigm

of the Islamic community that is considered to progress very slowly. They—the

young Liberal Islam group—realize that all this time the Islamic community has

experienced stagnancy due to the fading out of rationalism in Islamic thought.

The names mentioned previously can be said to have congruent intellectual

vision as a continuance of the large notions that were set off by Nurcholish Madjid in



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the 1970s. Say, for example, Amin Abdullah who is known for his weight toward

kalam and philosophy; The same goes for Jalaluddin Rahmat and Abdul Munir

Mulkhan that is more toward the tasawuf for freedom. M. Syafi’i Anwar, in his book

Islamic Thought and Action in Indonesia mentions Kuntowijoyo and Moeslim

Abdurragman, an Islamic intellectual who came up with “transformative theology”

had the same purpose that is issues of life regarding ignorance, backwardness,

social gap and defense toward the underprivileged, dlu’afa.124

The emergence of the Liberal Islam Network (JIL), as mentioned earlier

above, is mostly comprised of young clerics who are critical toward various

indoctrination of religion, conservatism and dogmatism in the study of Islam and

attempt to make the thoughts of Liberal Islam as a tool of analysis to present a

friendly, tolerant, inclusive, liberal and liberating Islam. They interpret Islam (the

Koran) as stated by Ahmad Wahib in “finding Islam”:

I do not know what Islam actually is. I only know what Islam is according to

Hamka; Islam according to Natsir; Islam according to Abduh; … Islam according to

the others. To be honest, I am not satisfied. What I am looking for has not been

found, does not exist yet, that is Islam according to Allah, the Creator. How? Straight

from the study of the Koran and al-Sunnah? I will try. But other people also assume

that what I have is Islam according to me. But let it be, what is important is my faith

in my mind that what I understand is Islam according to Allah. I must be sure of

that!125

Ahmad Wahib’s statement at least awakens the generation of young Muslims

(the liberals) on how Islam is always interpreted by humans using various readings.

“Liberal Islam” can be said to be the model of Islamic interpretation according to and

from the perspective of Liberal Muslim of course equipped with hermeneutics (the

Koran). “Liberal Islam” is the new outfit of Islam neo-modernism. If Islam neo-

124 M Syafi’I Anwar, Pemikiran dan Aksi Islam di Indonesia: Sebuah Kajian Politik tentang Cendekiawan Muslim Orde Baru, (Bandung: Mizan, 1995), p. 173

125 For details Take a Look at Ahmad Wahib, Pergolakan Pemikiran Islam, Catatan Harian Ahmad Wahib, LP3ES, Jakarta 1983.



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modernism in Indonesia used to be pioneered—borrowing Greg Barton’s term—by

Nurcholish Madjid, Abdurrahman Wahid, Djohan Effendy and Ahmad Wahib, the list

could also be added with M. Dawam Rahardko—with more weight given to the

power of reform on a personal individual level, then the Islam reform movement

generated by “Liberal Islam” is more collective. The project of religious reform of

“Liberal Islam” leans on the jargon “Taking the good from the past, and the present

becomes better” (al-muhafazhatu ‘ala al-qadim al-shalih wa al-akhdzu ‘ala al-jadid al-

ashlah).

One of the initiators of the Liberal Islam Network in Indonesia is Luthfi

Assyaukanie—a lecturer at Universitas Paramadina—who formulated four agendas

of Liberal Islam that are liberating. First, political agenda, related to the behavior of

Muslim politicians in running the political system, especially regarding the type and

the system of the government. According to him, the type of state is a human choice,

not a divine choice. Next, regarding the interfaith life of the Muslim community. With

the increasingly plural context of the communities in Muslim states, the quest of the

theology of pluralism becomes a necessity. Third, gathering Muslims to rethink a

number of religious doctrines that tend to disadvantage and discredit women. This is

because these doctrines truly contest the basic passion of Islam that acknowledges

equality and respects the rights of all sexes (Q. 33:35, 49:13, 4:1). Fourth, freedom

of expression. This becomes very important in the modern world, particularly when

the issue is strongly related to human rights (HR). If Islam is described to be a

religion that respects HR, Islam must respect freedom of expression. There is no

reason for Islam to fear freedom of expression.126

Ulil, one of the prominent intellectuals in the Liberal Islam Network (JIL),

states how one of the issues that always haunts the Muslim community throughout

history is: how we can live according to the demands of religious texts on one hand,

and placing ourselves congruently with human development on the the other hand.

How, on one hand we can adapt to changes, but on the other hand remain a good

Muslim? Or in other words, how to remain authentic, but at the same time become

126 Luthfi Assyaukanie, Islam Benar vs Islam Salah, p. 71-76



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modern? How can we change, but sill hold on faithfully to the main principles

established by religion? Or a popular saying in today’s Arabic community, how to

maintain the balance between ashlah and hadatsa (the old and the new)?127

Ulil’s anxiety has a reason. The literal approach to reading Islam—as done by

the fundamentalists, particularly the Radical Islam—that is people who loyally hold

the textuality of texts, avoids tafsir and takwil. The textualists believe that within a

text there is only the birth aspect, and that lafzah only contains one meaning.

Meaning, according to this opinion, is seen by itself, explains with expressions that

are read or written alone, and does not require comments or explanations. In brief,

according to this perspective, text explains will, has clear meaning, has fixed

expression and a clear purpose.

Over a long period of time, the Islam community has been provided with

Islamic science that is established, mu’tabar, strong and in accordance to the

consensus (mujma’alayh). Ulil illustrates this type of Islam in the form of “Isolationism

of Theology”, that is a perspective that sees Islam as a religion isolated from other

religions. Islam is the only true religion, and this way it does not foster “others”.128

Among it, discussions on the Koran has always been considered final, including

discussions regarding knowledge from the Koran. For this reason, textual reading

always triggers priblems that is the textualists propose their opinions and ijtihad to

investigate the deepst meaning, in which they consider that the meaning has been

explained (manshush ‘alayh) and does not need to be deducted or undergo a

process of understanding.129 Such reading, according to Khaled M. Abou El-Fadl—a

Muslim intellectual, a lecturer at the University of California at Los Angeles (UCLA)

127 Ulil Abshar Abdalla, “Inter-tekstualitas Qur’an dan Wahyu yang Hidup: Upaya Konstruktif Menghindari Bibiolatry”, www.islamlib.com

128 Take a look at Ulil Abshar Abdalla, Menyegarkan Kembali Pemikiran Islam: Bunga Rampai Surat-surat Tersiar’, (Jakarta: Serambi, 2004), p. 56-57

129 Khaled Aboe El-Fadl, Melawan Tentara Tuhan—Yang Berwenang dan Yang Sewenang-wenang dalam Wacana Islam (Jakarta: Serambi, 2004), p. 56-57.



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who has changed the perspective of the young Muslim Progressives in Indonesia—

has altered the text from “authoritative” to “authoritarian”.130

This way it can be assured that diversity of religious communities cannot be

detached from the influence of religious text as well as interpretation. It is not a

surprise that then the phenomenon of radicalism, fanaticism, fundamentalism, even

extremism of the religious community are allegedly believed by the Liberal Islam to

be caused initially from interpretation of text that is formalistic and symbolic making it

stiff, rigid and not flexible. The understanding that often emerges is often literal-

verbal, textual, and not contextual. As a result, religious text can only be understood

on the surficial level. While the basic (essential) thing becomes ignored.

In one of his writing, Ulil mentioned how the only way to achieve progress in

Islam is by bringing up the issue of how we interpret this religion.131 In order to go to

this direction, according to him several points are required.

First, a non-literal, substantial, contextual interpretation of Islam that is in line

to the pulse of the human civilization that is and continues to change is needed.

Second, an interpretation of Islam that can separate which elements contain local

creation, and which require fundamental values. Third, the Islam community must

not see themselves as a community or society that is separated from other groups.

130 Khaled criticized the authoritarian manner of several Muslim communities who felt they were “the most right” in interpreting the text of the Holy Koran and Hadith. They, according to Khaled, should have said that their interpretation is only one of the thousand different interpretations of the Koran that prevails in the Muslim community. Khaled emphasized more on study on criticism of fikih Islam. His comprehensive understanding on the heritage of the classic fiqih of Islam allows him to criticize the wrongdoings of the ijtihad way of a Muslim community. For example, groups that literally understand the hadith or the verses of the Holy Koran without understanding the context, meaning and moral significance. They make the verses of the Holy Koran and Hadith a project of positive law without realizing that both authoritative sources are sources of moral. As a source of moral, the Koran and the Sunna will provide enlightenment to the readers in their life. Take a look at Khaled Abou al-Fadl, Atas Nama Tuhan: dari Fikih Otoriter Ke Fikih Otoritatif (Jakarta: Serambi, 2003), p. 137.

131 Take a look at Ulil Abshar Abdalla, Menjadi Muslim Liberal (Jakarta: Nalar 2005), p. 3-4.



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Mankind is a universal family that is united through humanity itself. Humanity is a

value that is in line with Islam, and does not contest it. Fourth, we need a social

structure that clearly separates which is political authority and which is religious

authority. Religion is a personal matter; while regulating the public life is entirely the

result of an agreement in the society through the procedure of democracy.

Kuntowijoyo, in translating the progress of Islam that was also aspired by

Nurcholish Madjid and Ulil and other liberal intellectuals, has high concern on social

theories that can bridge the Islam ideal and the social reality of the people.132 In

building the Islamic social theory, he was faced with the reality that the social theory

that endures until today, particularly in the academic environment in Indonesia, is

insufficient.133 In order to achieve transformation for the Muslim community, he felt it

was necessary to establish what he calls “transformative social science” or

“prophetic social science”. The birth of prophetic social sciences departed from the

perspective that in today’s development, the Islamic community needs to change the

way of thinking and their actions, from using the ideology pattern to the science

pattern. Islam, as a normative concept can be elaborated as an ideology, as what

has been done all this time. However, Kunto suggests an alternative to elaborate

normative Islam theoretical sciences. Here, Islam is understood as and in a

framework of science. Because this framework of science, particularly the empirical,

the Islam community can further understand the reality. This way, the community can

experience transformation or change as shown by the Koran that are humanization,

liberation, and transcendence.134

In the event of recovering the aspirations of Islam that have not yet been

executed as they were distorted due to partial interpretation, a program of reform of

132 Kuntowijoyo, Paradigma Islam, Menjadi Muslim Liberal (Bandung: Mizan, 1993).

133 Take a look at Budhy Munawar-Rachman, “Dari Tahapan Moral Ke Periode Sejarah: Pemikiran Neo-Modernisme Islam di Indonesia” in Asep Gunawan (ed.), Artikulasi Islam Kultural dari Tahapan Moral ke Periode Sejarah (Jakarta: Sri Gunting, 2004), p. 475

134 Take a look at Ulumul Qur’an Journal, No. 1, Vol. 1, April-June 1989, p. 12-15.



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thought is needed for reactualization and transformation of Islam for today and the

future.135

The first program is the need to develop a structural social interpretation more

than an individual interpretation when understanding certain provisions in the Koran.

For instance, when we are prohibited to live lavishly, and that provision we respond

to as an individual, it will make us curse those who live lavishly. While a social

understanding will identify the structural causes to why the symptoms of lavish living

appear in a social and economic context. From such interpretation, the root problem

of lavish living may be found, that is capital concentration, accumulation of wealth,

and the ownership system of sources of income.

The second program is by changing the subjective way of thinking into an

objective way. For example in determining the amount of alms (zakat), subjectively

speaking it is intended for “cleansing” our wealth, and souls. However, from an

objective perspective the purpose of zakat aims to achieve social welfare.

The third program is to change Islam that is normative to theoretical. All this

time we tend to interpret the verses of the Koran on a normative level, and pay less

attention to the possibilities of developing the norms into frameworks of theoretical

sciences.

The fourth program is changing a-historical understanding into historical

understanding. All this time understanding on stories wtitten by the Koran tend to be

a-historical, while in fact the intention of the Koran is to retell the stories so that we

may think historically.

The last program, fifth, is probably the knot of the four other programs that is

how to formulate the formulas of revelation that is general into formulas that are

specific and empirical.

135 M. Fahmi, Islam Transendental: Menelusuri Jejak-jejak Pemikiran Islam Kuntowijoyo (Yogyakarta: Pilar Media, 2005), p. 6-7.



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In order to realize these five programs, Kuntowijaya introduced the term, “the

Koran as the paradigm” which means making the Koran as the framework of

epistemology and axiology for the Islam community in interpreting and transforming

reality. Uch intellectual work, according to him requires efforts free from historical

burden or bias. Kuntowijaya usually calls it transcending the Koran (liberating one’s

self from the bias of interpretations that are limited to a historical sutation, or

recovering the meaning of the text) that is often the response toward the historical

reality to the universal message and the transcendental meaning. In transcending

the Koran, Kuntowijoyo had already realized that the same efforts will remain stuck

in new bias as the system of understanding toward contemporary historical situation

formed a new perspective. However for Kuntowijoyo, the bias formed in

understanding the contemporary historical situation is a positive bias.

Why Kuntowijoyo is certain that it is necessary to build a new paradigm of

social science and that it is right for the Islam community today is because from the

very beginning he was sure that the science is relative, or in Thomas Kuhn’s words

“paradigmatic”.136 This science is also ideological (Marx), and is linguistic

(Wittgenstein). For all of these reasons, according to Kuntowijoyo building an Islamic

136 The term paradigm became very famous only when Thomas Kuhn wrote his book entitled The Structures of Scientific Revolutions. In his book, Kuhn explained the model on how an orientation of theory was born and developed. According to him, a discipline of science is born as a process of paradigm revolution, where a theoretical perspective is subverted by another new perspective. Paradigm is defined as a framework of reference or global perspective that is the basis of a faith or theory. Kuhn also believed that paradigm will always replace the position of an old paradigm, and if not, scientists will not have an established working framework. Kuhn, understood paradigm as a constellation of theory, questions, approaches as well as procedures used by a value and a theme of thought. This constellation is developed in order to understand the historical or social condition so as to provide a conception framework in providing meaning to social reality. Paradigm is where we stand within view of reality. The power of paradigm lies in its ability to form what we see, how we see something, what we consider as problems, what problems due we consider to be advantageous to be solved, as well as that method can we use to analyze and act. Paradigm, on the other hand, affects what we do not choose, what we do not want to see, and what we do not want to know. Take a look at Mansour Fakhir, Sesat Pikir Teori Pembangunan dan Globalisasi (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar dan Insist Press, 2001), p. 19.



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social science is valid. The Islam community can establish their own paradigm of

science (theory) that is in line with the sociological demands of the Islam community.

Transformative social science itself, according to Kuntowijoyo must be founded on

the paradigm of the Koran. What is meant with paradigm here is mode of thought,

mode of inquiry that are expected to be able to produce mode of knowing. Within this

paradigmatic definition, from the Koran we can expect a construction of knowledge

that allows us to understand reality, as the Koran understands it.

According to Kuntowijoyo, “Construction of knowledge (must) be founded on

the Koran, so that we may all have the moral lessons, in which on that basis we can

form behavior that is in line with the normative values of the Koran, both on a moral

level, and social level.” For Kunto, construction of knowledge is expected to

formulate the grand design of the Islamic system in relation to the theory system.137

From what is proposed by the Liberal Islam intelellectuals above, it can be

concluded that: the Muslim community that is liberal feel obliged to review the entire

classic doctrine that is not in line with the basic passion of Islam “that is liberal”. As a

religion that claims itself valid for each and every era and condition, Islam—

according to them—must be able to run along with the demands and the challenges

in each and every era and condition.

137 Kuntowijoyo, Paradigma Islam: Interpretasi untuk Aksi (Bandung: Mizan, 1991), p. 286-91.



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CHAPTER III

ETHICAL AND METHODICAL PRINCIPLES IN LIBERAL ISLAM

After the value judgement expressed by Liberal Muslim thinkers in dispraise of MUI’s

fatwa on the forbiddance of pluralism, liberalism, secularism, and the widespread

issues circulating these three concepts, this chapter will touch upon the liberalism

perspective taken by the Liberal Muslim thinkers. The ethical philosophical principles

and the methodical perspective of Islam espoused by these Liberal Muslim thinkers

will in turn be analyzed and synthesized. These aspects are the ones most contested

(implicitly) by MUI’s fatwa and the discourse of Islam fundamentalists and radicals.

MUI’s fatwa is only one tenth (1/10) of the real content, nine tenth (9/10) was

rejected by MUI and Islam fundamentalists and radicals. This chapter will proceed to

disentangle and elaborate the nine tenth of the judgement unwritten in the fatwa.

Through analysis and synthesis, this chapter will cover two main issues: First

is the ethical working principles of Liberal Muslim thinkers. Second is the method

adopted by Liberal Muslim thinkers in resolving problems on the subjects of

secularism, liberalism and pluralism that is renowned as the “method of Liberal

Islam” in setting Islamic thought into discourse. These ethical and methodical

principles of Liberal Islam have in time developed through a discourse of Islam

Liberalism.

Ethical Principles of Liberal Islam

The following is the first ethical principle or value developed by Liberal Muslims as

an ethical principle, i.e. ethics of justice.

Ethics of Justice

Liberal Muslims are well concerned on the ethics of justice. In the Islamic tradition,

particularly in the science of kalam, dialogues over God’s justice are notionally of

importance, as the principle of the ethics of justice in its many dimensions is the

zenith of hope for mankind, which is often difficult to attain. Ibnu Khaldun—a social

philosopher of classical Islam—even stated that justice is the epicenter of social



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theories regarding the society.138 It was thus not a surprise that an exceptionally

fervent phrase aspiring for justice was created, “justice must be done, even if it

means the sky falls”. Nurcholish Madjid describes the ethics of justice as cosmic law

or part of the law of nature. This way it plays an important role in the life of mankind.

Those who violate the principle of the ethics of justice thus oppose the sunna of

Allah in creating and enforcing the law of the universe.139

In relation to the exactitude of the sunna, ethics are objective and immutable.

Objective, as they exist without having to depend on the thoughts or the will of

mankind. Immutable, as they are undyingly effectual without interruption or

connection to anyone. And so, whoever comprehends and abides by them will

experience good fortune, and whoever violates them, although unaware of their

violations, will experience disfortune. Nurcholish gives an analogy of the law of

nature as the heat from fire. The ethics of justice is effective regardless of the person

abiding by them or violating them.140

The word “just” is derived from the Arabic word ‘adl. It is mentioned 14 times

in the Koran.141 Besides ‘adl and qisth, the definition of just or justice in the Koran is

expressed in a number of words,. For example, ahkam, qawam, amtsal, iqtishad,

shadaqah, shiddiq, or barr.142

138 Majid Khadduri, Teologi Keadilan Perspektif Islam (Surabaya: Risalah Gusti,

1999), p. 278.

139 Zuhairi Misrawi and Novriantoni, Doktrin Islam Progresif: Memahami Islam

sebagai Ajaran Rahmat (Jakarta: LSIP, 2004), p. 42.

140 Nurcholish Madjid, Pintu-pintu Menuju Tuhan (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1996), p. 43.

141 M. Dawam Rahardjo, Ensiklopedi al-Qur’an: Tafsir Sosial Berdasarkan Konsep-

Konsep Kunci (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1996), p. 369. Also take a look at, Munzir

Hitami, “Makna Din dan Universalitas Nilai-nilai Islam: Kendala-Kendala

Pemahaman” PSIK Paper Universitas Paramadina, 2007. Unpublished.

142 The word al-‘adl itself located in 28 places with various forms. has two original

meanings that are contradictive. They are istiwa was I’wijaj, straight and bent. The

word formed from the letters ‘ayn-dal-lam is used in the Koran with both meanings,

but what is meant with the word al-‘adl here is in the sense of al-istiwa—to act fairly



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Literally, the word ‘adl is an abstract noun that is derived from the verb ‘adala

which means: first, to straighten or sit straight, to amend or change; second, to

escape, depart or avoid from a path (the wrong path) to another path (the right path);

third, to be the same, be equivalent or level up; fourth, to balance or offset, to

compare or be in a state of equilibrium.143 ‘Adl also means to defend rights, the right

ones.144

While for Nurcholish Madjid, the true meaning of ‘adl is balance; the concept

of “in the middle.” The Koran states that the universe is governed by the law of

equilibrium, thus man is prohibited to violate the principle of equilibrium. This implies

that scales work according to the law of the universe. Whoever manipulates the

measurements of a scale is thus in fact violating the law of cosmos, the law of the

entire universe, and is breeding a large sin—the sin of injustice.145

The basic concept of the word justice is balance (al-mizan) which means

acting without overdoing it, both in the direction of the left and the right. For this

reason, the symbol of justice is depicted in the figure of a goddess with closed eyes

clutching a scale. This illustrates impartiality towards either objects being

weighed.146Balance is also one of the preconditions required in order for a person to

which means to act straight and not disadvantage or show a tendency to a certain

party by making a decision or giving the same treatment based on the size or

measurement. The word al-qisth mentioned 25 times in the Koran also has two basic

meanings that are contradictive. The word al-qisth (pronounce the first letter with

kasrah) is synonymous to the word al-‘adl. The verb used in the meaning is aqsatha-

yuqsithu, while the word al-qasth (pronounce the first letter with fathah) means al-jur.

Take a look at, Munzir Hitami, “Makna Din dan Universalitas Nilai-nilai Islam:

Kendala-Kendala Pemahaman”.

143 Majid Khadduri, Teologi Keadilan Perspektif Islam, p. 8.

144 Harun Nasution, Islam Rasional (Bandung: Mizan, 1995), p. 61.

145 Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed.), Ensiklopedi Nurcholish Madjid Volume I

(Bandung: Mizan in association with Paramadina), p. 22.


Konsep Kunci, p. 373.



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not fall when standing and particularly when moving. It is balance that brings about

an unwavered heart and robustness. Through such a balance, a person may act

justly.

In the Encyclopedia of the Koran: Social Interpretations Based on Key

Concepts, Dawam Rahardjo illustrates justice with a function that considers or

asseses actions. Every element of action, both from the positive and negative

aspect, will be considered, appreciated, and rewarded. A fair person is one who

makes calculations. God Himself in acting fair makes calculations. Within the terms,

balance (mizan) and calculation (hisab) are definitions of measurements used for

assesment. In the context of action, these measurements are values that are

needless to say set by God. Henceforward, God’s justice cannot be separated from

the morality that He set out. In this case, the measurement for justice is the law. This

value can be found among other verses in Q. 5:8.

Many definitions of justice have been developed by Liberal Muslim thinkers.

However, they believe that the definition coined by classical theologians still remains

relevant until this very day, i.e. “to occupy something in a proportional manner” (wadl’

syay’ fi mahallih). In Islam, as said by them, the ethics of justice are not only

practiced in the context of the law and the government, but also in daily life, including

in the household.147

Murtadla Muthahari—an Islamic philosopher originating from Iran who lived a

century ago and is often quoted by Liberal Muslim thinkers in Indonesia—defines the

term just in four ways: First, it is a balanced state. Second, it is an equivalence and a

disclaimer for all types of discrimination. Third, it fosters individual rights and

bestows rights to those entitled to it. Fourth, it nurtures the right for the continuance

of existence.148 Besides Muthahhari, Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyah, a theologian of

classical Islam who has strong influence in Indonesia, believes that justice is a raison

147 Masykuri Abdillah, “Makna Din dan Universalitas Nilai-nilai Islam: Kendala-

Kendala Pemahaman” PSIK Paper Universitas Paramadina, 2007. Unpublished.

148 Abdul Hakim and Yudi Latif (ed.), Bayang-bayang Fanatisisme: Esai-esai untuk

Mengenang Nurcholish Madjid (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2007), p. 356.



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d’etre for the furtherance of religion.149 In Ibn Taimiyah’s perspective—also a

theologian of classical Islam, with a strong say among Liberal Muslims—only in the

aspiration of justice can a state be expected to meet the purposes the state was

intentionally founded for.

Liberalism departs from the notion of

freedom. Again this is something very

natural, and the idea that man is a

free individual is something

irrefutable. How can we deny such a

notion? Brought into this world by its

parents with mental capacities that

already lie within it; it has a sense of

survival; it moves to save itself before

others.

(Rachman 2009: 617)

Hamid Basyaib, Program Director of the Freedom Institute, researcher at the

Aksara Foundation and the Indonesian Institute. Former Coordinator of the

Liberal Islam Network (JIL) and was once a journalist for Republika and

Ummat.

The notion of justice that Ibn Taimiyah fought for—which was a novelty concept in its

era—was set in stone within al-siyasah al-syar’iyah, political shari’a. It can be made

comparable to social justice, as both of their purposes are to serve the public’s

interests. Ibn Taimiyah believes that social justice can bridge the gap between the

149 Elaborated by Ibn Qayyim al-Jawziyyah in his book, “al-Thuruq al-Hukmiyah fi al-

Siyasah al-Syar’iyah”. Cairo. Publisher not given. Also take a look at, Farid Esack,

Al-Qur’an, Liberalisme, Pluralisme Membebaskan Yang Tertindas (Bandung: Mizan,

2000), p. 142.



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leader and the people, and in the end progresses the social conditions and

heightens the Islamic authority.150

Regarding the importance of justice in Islam, Mahmud Syaltut, an ulema at Al-

Azhar explained how the Koran’s commandment to enforce justice on earth is a

universal commandment without discrimination over another. Justice does not only

apply to one community and not to another. This is because the principle of justice is

the regulation of God that applies objectively. Humans are the subjects and creations

of God and both men and women, Muslim and non-Muslim, are all entitled to an

equivalent portion in justice.

For some time, dialogues on justice have been more oriented toward the

justice of God as practiced by many al-mutakallimun (classic theologians). The

justice of mankind on the surface of the earth has rarely been the topic. For this

reason, it is interesting to follow al-Jabiri’s perspective on the concept of justice that

is currently being developed by Liberal Muslim thinkers in Indonesia. According to

him, it is important to work on a change of paradigm from a divine justice to a

contemporary physical justice. Al-Jabiri’s invitation to a contemporary context of

Islam does find its relevancy. This world and the Islamic World, according to al-

Jabiri, need a form of real justice; no longer—what he calls—“metaphysical

justice”.151

Based on such a perspective on the ethics of justice, Sumanto al-Qurtuby, a

young intellectual from NU, observed how the struggles done to carry out

democracy, which has been the main theme of demonstrations all over the world

since the last century, reflect a strong desire for a more just social politics.152 In a

150 Elaborated by Ibn Tamiyah, Kitab al-Siyasah al-Syar’iyah fi Ishlah al-Ra’I wa al-

Ra’iyah (Cairo, 1951).

151 Zuhairi Misrawi and Novriantoni, Doktrin Islam Progresif, p.52

152 Compare this to Al-Maududi, the founder of Jama’at-e-Islami and a fanatic

supporter of a theocratic state who had an adverse perspective. Islam

fundamentalists and especially radicals strongly oppose products of modernity and

Western secularism including democracy. They believe that democracy is what they

call “product of a satanic culture”. These groups also refuse “modernization” efforts



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democratic system, struggles to achieve the dream of justice are far more

conceivable than other existing systems. According to them, democracy is one form

of a government believed to be able to attain a better and more comprehensive

justice principle. The democratic system is a system that allows the society to insist

upon Islam. For them, people who think of reform or modernization of Islam are

astray and believe that any attempts of such kind will fail. Efforts of modernization is

in fact not needed as Islam itself is already perfect and applies to each and every

age. The emergence of the idea of Islam as an ideology, including the formalization

of the shari’a as the ethical and legal foundation of Islam prevalent in many areas of

Islam was in fact born from this thought. Take a look at, Sumanto Al-Qurtuby,

Lubang Hitam Agama: Mengkritik Fundamentalisme Agama, Menggugat Islam

Tunggal (Yogyakarta: Ilham Institute and Rumah Kata, 2005), p. 123

This is why fundamentalists and radicals who oppose the idea of democracy

as the realization of the notion of justice believe that ontologically speaking, “the city

of mankind” cannot stand side by side in peace with “the city of God”. It is by this

passion that we can understand why rejectionist Islam fundamentalists and radicals

oppose democracy as the regulator of the social structure, as democracy is a

subversion or coup d’état toward the absolute authority of God replacing it with

humans’. The slogans that they promote, “Islam is the light, democracy is darkness”,

are in practice merely a tool for campaign in order to gather support from the Muslim

public which is then turned into a legitimate basis to oppress on behalf of Islam.

Oppression is not only done to non-Muslims and ethnic minorities, but also minority

sects within Islam, and Muslim women who remain marginalized within the Islamic

discourse. This a phenomenon that is often called by observers as “Islamic politics”

which is widely defined as “the mobility of the identity of Islam” (the use of Islamic

symbols) in the making of public policy that are related to the intern relation within

the Muslim community and the relation between the Muslim community with others.

Take a look at, Santoso, Kekerasan Agama Tanpa Agama, (Jakarta: Pustaka Utan

Kayu, 2002), p. 8.



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on the implementation of the principles of justice.153 The main normative function of a

democratic political system is to guarantee and protect individual freedom in which

individuals have the right to run their lives according to their choices.154

The running of a government or a state must be based on pillars of justice,

honesty, trustworthiness, assurance over the protection of essential rights, freedom

of expression and association, equal rights, and the right to opinionate. These pillars

support the founding of the state and the running of the wheels of the government

effectively. Defying or disregarding these pillars would mean making way for chaos

and anarchy, and thus allowing obstruction of the implementation of the ethical

values of religion. Thus, studying and implementing democracy is mandatory.

Moreover, according to Said Aqiel Siradj, the law to study and implement democracy

is wajib ‘ayn (very mandatory) for each and every Muslim.155

On broader terms, the Muslim community is compelled to implement justice

as the basis of socio-political life. The Koran every so often specifically states social

sectors that are at risk of falsification, such as the wealth of orphans and adopted

children (Q. 4:3; 33:5), matrimonial relationships (Q. 4: 3; 49:9), contracts (Q. 2:282),

legal matters (Q. 5: 42; 4:56), interfaith relationships (Q. 60: 8), businesses (Q.

11:65), and disputes (Q. 5:8). The Koran postulated the idea that justice is the basis

of the creation of nature. The regularity of the universe, according to the Koran, is

based on justice, and any deviations toward the law of nature, such as syirik,

although centuries old like the pre-Islam Mecca community are still considered

disturbances toward balance.156

153 Sumanto Al-Qurtuby, Lubang Hitam Agama: Mengkritik Fundamentalisme

Agama, Menggugat Islam Tunggal, p. 52-53.

154 Ulil Abshar Abdalla (ed.), Islam dan Barat: Demokrasi dalam Masyarakat Islam

(Jakarta: Paramadina, 2002), p. 112.

155 Said Aqiel Siradj, Tasawuf sebagai Kritik Sosial Mengedepankan Islam sebagai

Inspirasi Bukan Aspirasi (Bandung: Mizan, 2006), p. 221-222.

156 Take a look at, Farid Esack, Al-Qur’an, Liberalisme, Pluralisme: Membebaskan

Yang Tertindas (Bandung: Mizan, 2000), p. 142-143.



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In keeping with the paradigm of the Koran, justice and regulations based on

the Koran are values that must be upheld. The same, however, cannot be said about

the stability of socio-politics per se. In facing disturbances to the orderliness caused

by erosion of human rights (threats to the ecosystem), the Koran mandates the

faithful to defy such a system until it crashes and the orderliness recovers to its

natural state. The Koran positions itself as a dynamic compulsion for justice,

authorizes the use of an iron fist with “incredible power” as a facility to achieve and

support active struggle. The Koran continues to contest justice with oppression and

violation of the law (Q. 3:25; 6:160; 10:47; 16:111) and mandates the faithful to

eradicate the latter two and uphold the first.

Below is the second principle or value of ethics developed by the Liberal

Muslims, i.e. ethics of maslahat.

Ethics of Maslahat

Liberal Muslims are very concerned with the ethics of maslahat (ethics of goodness).

One of the characteristics that is very prominent of the message of Islam is the

necessity in which Islam is to be understood from its deepest or spiritual meaning.

The prophet’s practices in delivering the messages of Islam apprise us how they are

not only decrees to be completed, but also preceded with the process of

understanding. The messages of Islam embedded in the Koran and Hadith will need

to be probed through dialogues before they can be implemented. Through such

dialogues can understanding regarding the spiritual meaning of the messages take

place. In other words, the content of the messages are not decrees that should not

be accompanied with dialogues. Such assumption propelled many ulemas to explore

the messages of Islam in order to formulate their main ideas.157

The search of the deepest message of Islam has awakened the

consciousness of intellectuals of classical Islam in formulating the central and main

teachings of Islam (identifying which are the main ideas and which are the branches,

and how to establish a way of thinking in identifying them). From the long historical

process of Islamic thought, through the stage of reflection and debate on the

157 Zahairi Misrawi and Novriantoni, Doktrin Islam Progresif, p. 55-56.



WORKING TRANSLATION

contents of the teaching of Islam, were born theories and methods of understanding

religion that are established into concepts on istihsan (the search of goodness),

istishlah (the search of maslahat), and in this case common goodness and maslahat

(al-maslahah al-‘ammah, al-mashlahah al-mursalah) or generally known as the

necessity of the public’s interest (‘umum al-balwa).158

The rationale that forms the concept of the ethics of maslahat is the reality

that the shari’a of Islam in the form of various regulations and the law is directed to

the achievement of maslahat (what becomes the interest and what is needed by

humans to live on earth). Efforts to actualize maslahat and prevent mafsadah (things

that are damaging) are ultimately needed by each and every person. Such is clearly

stated in the shari’a revealed by Allah to all His prophets. And this serves as the

main aim of the law of Islam.159

Almost every ulema believes that there is not a single message from God that

is useless and does not contain anything on maslahat. Malahat is a vocabulary in

Arabic that literally means virtue (al-shalah) and benefit (al-manfa’ah). Maslahat is

usually defined as “everything that contains benefits”. Within the Koran, the origin of

the word maslahat and derivatives of the word can be found in 267 places. Among

these 267 places, the specific word al-shalihat or virtue appears 62 times. At times,

the word maslahat is also used together with the sentence al-naf’ or benefit.160

Take a look at Europe and the United

States. The liberalism that develops

there continues to refer to certain

bonds. What binds them is the Law or

the constitution. No matter how liberal

158 Nurcholish Madjid, Islam, Doktrin dan Peradaban: Sebuah Telaah Kritis tentang

Masalah Keimanan, Kemanusiaan, dan Kemodernan (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1992),

p. 390.

159 KH. Ali Yafie, “Konsep-konsep Istihsan, Istihlah, dan al-Mashlahah al-Ammah” in

Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed.), Kontektualisasi Doktrin Islam dalam Sejarah,

(Jakarta: Paramadina, 1995), p. 365.

160 Zuhairi Misrawi and Novriantoni, Doktrin Islam Progresif, p. 59.



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a person it, he or she remains limited

by the constitution.

(Rachman 2009: 641)

Hamka Haq, the Chair of the Religious and Spiritual Affairs of DPP PDIP and

the chairman of Baitul Muslimin Indonesia (Barmusi). He received his doctoral

degree from UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta. He is now a professor at UIN

Alauddin, Makassar.

Among others, the term maslahat according to Imam al-Ghazali (w.1111) and

Jalal al-Din al-Suyuti, dar’ al-mafasid wa jalb al-maslahih, means to gain benefit and

castoff harm (kemudaratan) in the attempt to maintain the purpose of syara’.161

Meanwhile, in order to be able to categorize something as maslahat, referring to the

classical perspective, there are five criteria in determining maslahat, that is: First, it

prioritizes the purposes of syara’ (shari’a); Second, it does not contradict the Koran;

Third, it does not contradict the sunna; Fourth, it does not contradict the Qiyas

principle; and fifth, it takes into account the more important (bigger) maslahat.162

The ethics of maslahat is the overseer of the performance of Islamic politics.

According to KH. Ali Yafie, in the study of ahl al-ijtihad, there are three categories of

maslahat:163

161 Abdul Hadi Ahumza, “Islam dan Tantangan Demokrasi di Indonesia”. PSIK Paper

Universitas Paramadina, 2007. Unpublished.

162 Amir Mu’allim and Yusdani, Konfigurasi Pemikiran Hukum Islam, (Yogyakarta: UII

Press, 1999), p. 39-41

163 KH. Ali Yafie, “Konsep-konsep Istihsan, Istislah, dan Maslahat al-Ammah,” in

Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed), Kontektualisasi Doktrin Islam dalam Sejarah, p.

366.

Liberal Muslims often make al-kulliyyat al-khams or al-daruriyyat al-khams as

the basis of acceptance of human rights (HR). They develop a program for Islam and

HR by analyzing and further developing al-kulliyyat al-khams or al-daruriyyat al-

khams. Take a look at, Najib Kailani and Muhammad Mustafied, Islam dan Politik

Kewarganegaraan—Modul Belajar Bersama (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2007), p. 40-45

(Reading Materials al-Dlaruriyyat al-Khamsah in the context of citizenship and



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First, the maslahat acknowledged by the teaching of shari’a that comprises of

three levels of human needs. They are:

(1). Dlaruriyah (absolute) is maslahat or human interests that become a necessity in

life. Such is their importance that if they is not fulfilled then the existence of man and

their life system will be defected. This form of maslahat covers five things, that is

religion (din), soul (nafs), mind (‘aql), descendant (nasl) and wealth (mal). These five

are known as al-kulliyat al-khamsah or al-dlaruriyat al-khamsah and is the foundation

of maslahat (humans’ interests and necessities).164

(2) Hajjiyah (primary needs) is human needs in order to simplify daily activities and

avoid difficulties that lead to danger or loss, for example economic activities that are

meant to support the existence of man.

(3) Tahsiniyah (complementary needs) is human needs that is a complementary

need to support the implementation of ethics and morality as a realization of a better,

orderly, comfortable life that offers physical and non-physical happiness.

Second, maslahat not acknowledged by shari’a teaching: interests that

contradict the maslahat acknowledged, especially the first category.

Third, maslahat that is not bound to the first and second category. This

category of maslahat (second and third) will not be discussed here.

Although from a legal perspective there are already specific provisions, many

ulemas have established the philosophy and morality of the Islamic law that became

human rights (HR), take a look at Muhammed Abed al-Jabiri, Syura, Tradisi,

Parikularitas, Universalitas (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2003), p. 153-162.

164 Protection of religion is defined as acknowledgement of religious rights, rights to

perform, announce and defend religion. Protection of the soul is defined as the right

to live and the right to not have life taken, to not be harmed, to not be assaulted and

many more. Protection of the mind is defined as freedom to think, the right to know

and receive education, the right to state an opinion and many more. Protection of

dignity is defined as the right to receive dignified treatment and not have dignity

tarnished. While protection of wealth is defined as acknowledgement of the rights of

ownership, the rights of wealth, the right to work, the rights to attempt and many

more.



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the general principle of the Islamic law. This is illustrated in the general purpose

(maqashid al-syari’ah) that is to realize maslahat for mankind and avoid madlarat

(danger). Maslahat here means all things that are needed and utilized to bring

goodness for humans. There are several other principles besides the principle of

maslahat. They are justice (adalah), compassion (rahmah) and wisdom (hikmah).165

The ethics of maslahat is a valuable discovery that was inherited from the

ulema of classic Islam. This theory asserts that when we are delivering the

messages of Islam, God must have certain purposes. The principle of maslahat is so

important in the religious Islamic perspective, it is not a surprise that many clerics

have tried to explain various maslahat, moral lessons, philosophies and ethics

contained in the messages of Islam in various issues.

The contents of shari’a attempt to at least attain four things. First is to be

acquainted with God (the theological aspect). Second is to have knowledge of

religious rituals (the ritual aspect). Third includes commandments to act virtuously

and prohibitions to act depravedly. Humans are incited to abide by virtuous ethics,

such as being honest, being trustworthy, being gentle, and so on. Fourth is to deter

rioters from taking over. Henceforth, shari’a sets limitations (hudud) that are required

to control the society so that the social structure does not crumble.

Discussions over classic maslahat require furtherance by putting into account

a number of aspects, such as first, the need to synchronize them with the

fundamental conception of Islamic sermons that rely on a persuasive approach. Next

is appreciation of the importance of human reasoning. Third is that the maslahat

principle can also prevent falsification and manipulative use of religion. A religious

figure who declares knowledge of the maslahat theory is thus expected to have

sufficient knowledge to explain the purpose of religious teachings.166 This way when

165 Masykuri Abdillah, “Makna Din dan Universalitas Nilai-nilai Islam”. PSIK Paper

Universitas Paramadina. Unpublished.

166 In his book Fikih al-Awlawiyah, Yusuf al-Qardlawi mentioned that it had been

agreed by ulemas that the laws of shari’a could all be explained. Behind the physical

demands of the Koran and Hadith are purposes that are the aim of shari’a. The aim

of shari’a according to al-Qardlawi could be revealed. For example, the Koran



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conversing over debatable aspects of the shari’a, one cannot simply say, “the main

thing is that God said so in the Koran!” Based on such ethics of maslahat, the gate of

authoritarianism over the name of religion is thus closed.167

mentions the reason to establish regular prayer (shalat) that is to prevent shameful

and unjust deeds (Q. 29: 45); Alms (zakat) functions to purify and clean the soul (Q.

9:103); Fasting functions to attain God-consciousness (taqwa) (Q. 2:183); and haj to

witness various advantages for those who perform it and for those who continually

chant dzikir to Allah (Q. 22:28). From this comprehension, it is explained that there is

not a even the smallest part in the Islamic shari’a that does not contain the element

of maslahat and benefit for mankind. Every message embedded in the Koran is

assumed to have maslahat and benefit for mankind. The Koran made the word

maslahat or benefit as part of God’s wisdom in allowing or prohibiting a law.

Even the experts in classical fikih, such as Ibn al-Qayyim, acknowledged the

supposition of maslahat in every part of the shari’a. Ibn al-Qayyim, asserted that the

structure and foundation of the shari’a is the maslahat of mankind, both physical life

and spiritual (ukhrawi) life. The shar’is is the elaboration of justice, blessings,

welfare, and goodness. All those that are adverse to them, such as oppression,

cruelty, crime, and absurdity, cannot be considered as the shari’a. Such is the

importance of the position of maslahat in Islam that, according to Najamuddin al-

Thufi, it must be given precedence when a contradiction occurs with text. Al-Thufi’s

notion on masalhat was slightly more advanced andmust be further considered in

creating the legislation of Islamic law, particularly amid the tendency toward a

formalistic symbolic form of diversity. According to al-Thufi, maslahat is the strongest

and most specific component of the shari’a. And thus, we must give precedence to it

before the physical text. Maslahat is the soul of the shari’a, while the physical aspect

of religious texts can be seen as the body. The basics of the theory of maslahat are

what will be further developed by Liberal Muslims, including in Indonesia. Take a

look at, Asghar Ali Engineer, Pembebasan Perempuan (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2003), p.

35. Zuhairi Misrawi and Novriantoni, Doktrin Islam Progresif, p. 65.

167 Zuhairi Misrawi and Novriantoni, Doktrin Islam Progresif, p. 62-63



WORKING TRANSLATION

For this reason, all religious laws should contain a legal basis (‘illah, ratio

legis) in which their enforcement should be in line with the public’s interest (al-

mashlahah al-ammah) and in accordance to the responsibility of a leader and the

conduct of the law in the area.168 For example, the aim of the Islamic democracy

system is the conduct of Islamic teachings that are whole and consequential so that

it creates the aspired maslahat al-siyasah al-syar’iyah.169 The test for important

concepts belonging to the modernists—such as secularism, liberalism and

pluralism—is embedded within the maslahah principle that contains an aim to

synchronize the principles of Islam with the challenges of modern life, in which

humans play a huge.170

Below is the third principle or value of ethics that is developed by Liberal

Muslims that is the ethics of liberation.

Ethics of Liberation

Liberal Muslims are very concerned about the ethics of liberation. Islamic teachings

on liberation can be traced back to the history of Arabia before Islam and

subsequently be compared to the passion of liberating Islam. Historians noted that

the city of Mecca before Islam was a prominent city of trade. Perhaps this was

because the city had no areas for plantation, ergo the economics of Mecca

depended or was supported by the trading sector. Social relations among the people

were shaped by the trading culture and were essentially established on the principle

of trade. Spiritual, religious and cultural lives were built upon the principle of buying

and selling and pure profit. The merchants truly became the master of the society.

168 Nurcholish Madjid, “Konsep Asbab al-Nuzul: Relevansinya Bagi Pandangan

Historisis Segi-segi Tertentu Ajaran Keagaman,” in Budhy-Munawar-Rachman (ed.),

Kontektualisasi Doktrin Islam dalam Sejarah, (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1999).

169 Nurcholish Madjid, Cita-cita Politik Islam Era Reformasi, (Jakarta: Paramadina,

1999).

170 Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed.), Ensiklopedi Nurcholish Madjid, volume II, p.

1735.



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They were the elites who established rules in the society and built a tradition that

protected and profited their interests in the structure of social relations.171

When Islam was born, Mecca had already become a world trade center. The

powerful merchants specialized themselves in financial operations and complex

international trade transactions that emerged in the social area of Mecca. The rich

merchants established inter-tribe corporations to engage in trade with the Byzantine

Empire and monopolize it without distributing part of their profit to the poor and those

in need in their own tribe. This violated the tribal norms and resulted in a social

bankruptcy for Mecca.172

It was under such conditions that the Prophet Muhammad came with Islam’s

passion of liberation. Many believed that if only he came with a calling for the unity of

God (tauhid) minus the social and economic systems, the equality between the free

people and the slaves, the rich and the poor, the strong and the weak, and did not

insist on having the poor to have some rights within the wealth of the rich, many

Quraishi would have embraced Muhammad’s calling easily. This was because

essentially the Quraishi did not entirely believe in their idols. They also did not truly

defend “their gods”. The Quraishi insisted in defending “their gods” just to preserve

their interests within the Arabic society. They hated Muhammad as he had a mission

to reform the existing social system and establish a form of justice that did not

support the interests of prominent figures of the Quraishi.173

The prophet presaged the rich merchants of Mecca, detained them from

hoarding their wealth, and instructed them to take care of the poor, the orphans and

the people in need. The makiyah verses that were revealed to the Prophet

condemned the hoarding of wealth and warned the merchants of Mecca of the

171 Zuhairi Misrawi and Novriantoni, Doktrin Islam Progresif, p. 70-71.

172 Asghar Ali Engineer, Islam dan Pembebasan (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 1993), p. 119-

120.

173 As a comparison, take a look at, Thaha Husein Malapetaka Terbesar dalam

Sejarah Islam (Jakarta: Pustaka Jaya, 1985), p. 22.



WORKING TRANSLATION

dangerous impacts that would materialize if they did not make use of their wealth in

the path of Allah (Q. 104: 2-9; 102: 1-8).174

The authority belonging to the leaders of Mecca was based on their wealth

and the number of children they had.175 As stated, the Koran was revealed in order

to end that authority in the society. The Koran clearly propositioned to humans that

such authority had no advantages. Except when it benefits the society. The purpose

of life should not be about winning authority by depriving facilities, but by virtuous

acts (amal saleh) that lead to a society that is healthy, just and prosper. On the other

hand, an unjust society that is based on seizure of power and sources of wealth is an

unstable society and becomes one of the causes that resuscitate opposing power

that will eventually lead to its destruction. The Koran also states that (unjust)

authority and wealth can simply not walk hand in hand with justice.

Islam began as a religious movement and because of that, these terms have

received profound religious connotation. Islam is not only about spiritual life, but also

about physical life. It intently holds a project to establish a just society on the surface

of this earth. When the Koran strongly condemns oppression and unjust acts, its

concern over virtuous social forms of an egalitarian society cannot be denied. For

that, a redefinition of the terms often used by the Koran in order to develop the

theology of liberation is required. Thus, the term kafir does not only mean religious

disbelief, as supposed by traditional theologians, but also it implies a challenge

towards a just and egalitarian society that is free from all forms of exploitation and

oppression. In the context of social ethics, kufr is understood as one of the paths

174 The Koran reveals that the prophets are saviors of the mustadh’afin (the

oppressed). Moses was the savior of Bani Israil from the oppression of Fir’aun. The

same for Jesus. Muhammad is the savior for those oppressed by the Jahiliyah social

system and by leaders of the Quraishi. Take a look at, Abad Badruzaman, Teologi

Kaum Tertindas Kajian Tematik Ayat-ayat Mustadh’afin dengan Pendekatan

Keindonesiaan (Yogyakarta, Pustaka Pelajar, 2007), p. 99.

175 Asghar Ali Engineer, Islam dan Pembebasan, p. 122.



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contradicting liberation efforts. Such a definition becomes the motor of the social

liberation movement.176

The saying “don’t think too far”, for

me, is irrelevant. Freedom cannot be

measured except by other people’s

freedom. For this reason, I believe

that you are free to think about

anything because in the end that

freedom will be limited by other

people’s freedom. Not to mention the

issue of stigmatization towards liberal

thinking. These kinds of things will kill

the creativity of Islamic thought. I

believe that thinking liberally (hurriyat

al-tafkir) is good and it is demanded

by the Koran. So, I don’t understand

why liberal thinking is seen

negatively.

(Rachman 2009: 693)

Husein Muhammad, caretaker of the Islamic School Dar al Tauhid,

Arjawinangun, Cirebon. He is the founder of Puan Amal Hayati (Jakarta), and

Fahmina Institute (Cirebon), and member of the National Board of the

International Center for Islam and Pluralism (ICIP) and the Wahid Institute.

Thus, a kafir is a person who does not believe in Allah and actively defies honest

efforts to reform the society, eradicate acts of hoarding wealth, oppression,

exploitation and all forms of injustice.177

176 Islah Gusmian, Khazanah Tafsir Indonesia Dari Hermeneutika Hingga Ideologi

(Jakarta: Teraju, 2003), p. 302.




WORKING TRANSLATION

The theology of Islam liberation was inspired from the Koran and the struggle

of the prophets. Dogma may precede praxis, but this does not apply for the theology

directed towards liberation. Theology, for the marginalized, is a result of reflection

that follows the praxis of liberation. A verse in the Koran, “And those who strive In

Our (Cause) – We will Certainly guide them To Our Paths” (Q. 29: 69) affirms the

theological perspective of this “action”.178 The quest of the hermeneutics of liberation

indicates the existence of a group of people who are determined to reconstruct the

society according to principles of justice, liberation, honesty and integrity.

Islam encourages humans to apply the principle of equality both spiritually

and socially according to the words of God as explained in Q. 3: 110. This verse

elucidates Allah’s social transformation vision that is based on the principle of

equality to achieve ethical and prophetic dreams. This vision can be found in the

words: enforce justice, prevent danger (kemungkaran) and have faith in Allah.

Kuntowijoyo interpreted these three words as humanization (amr bi al-ma’ruf),

liberation (nahy ‘an al-munkar), and transcendence (iman billah).179 Humanization

according to the ethics of prophetic is one fueled by divine values and aims for

dehumanization, aggressiveness and loneliness. The value of liberation based on

the ethics of prophetic is inspired by the liberating passion in the theology of

liberation and communism. However, liberation according to the ethics of prophetic

uses liberation in the context of knowledge, and not liberation a la ideology or a la

theology. It also bases liberation on transcendental values. The aims of liberation in

the ethics of prophetic include the system of knowledge, the social system, and the

political system that binds humans.180

178 Farid Esack, Al-Qur’an, Liberalisme, Pluralisme Membebaskan Yang Tertindas,

p. 122.

179 Fuad Fanani, “Islam, Visi Kesetaraan, dan Pembebasan Kemanusiaan” in Zuly

Qodir (ed), Muhammadiyah Progresif: Manifesto Pemikiran Kaum Muda

(Yogyakarta: JIMM-LESFI, 2007), p. 587.

180 Kuntowijoyo, Muslim Tanpa Masjid: Esai-esai Agama, Budaya dan Politik dalam

Bingkai Strukturalisme Transendental (Bandung: Mizan, 2001), p. 369. Also take a



WORKING TRANSLATION

While transcendence is the foundation of the two elements previously

mentioned in the ethics of prophetic (humanization, liberation), it has a duty to set

the directions and the purposes of humanization and liberation. These three

elements of the ethics of prophetic are a unity that cannot be separated.

Transcendence has a critical function and serves as the benchmark of progress and

regression of humans. In the context of transcendence, Kuntowijoyo proposes

methodological objectivism as a substitute to methodological secularism and

methodological atheism.181

The three elements of the ethics of prophetic touched by the social teachings

of Islam is the result of reading the Koran using a structuralism method. Each

element of the ethics of prophetic, which constitute the verse Q. 3: 110, works as a

system that regulates itself, and as an internally whole and dynamic system (langue).

Each element of the ethics of prophetic regulates itself. For example, humanization

and liberation although inspired from anthropocentric humanism and the theology of

liberation, they still refer and move toward divine values (transcendence). Thus, the

result is a theocentric humanization and liberation a la social science.

Although in many of his writings Kuntowijoyo did not use the term social

hermeneutics in understanding the Koran, he often used the Koran’s paradigm which

would then become the hermeneutics of the Koran. Kuntowijoyo’s approach in

reading Islam more critically was to deconstruct the classical religious texts that were

more dominant in establishing a tradition of Islam that is free of criticism. He offered

a new approach that is a prophetic Islam. The social science of prophetic not only

explained and changed the social phenomenon, but also gave guidance regarding

where transformation can be done, for what and by who. Because of this, the social

science of prophetic does not merely change for change, but change for certain

ethical and prophetic aspirations.

Islam and liberation are committed to humanity, equality, and justice. Such

commitment is recurrently strengthened and maintained through acts of empathy

look at, Kuntowijoyo, Paradigma Islam: Interpretasi untuk Aksi, (Bandung, Mizan,

1991).

181 Kuntowijoyo, Muslim Tanpa Masjid, p. 373.



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emerging from their sufferings. The social justice of Islam has a purpose to liberate

the weak and the oppressed mass and reform the free society from primodialistic

interests. What must be understood is that the theology of liberation is more than a

rational theology.182 Dawam sees that the concept of fakk-u raqabah (Q. 90: 13) or

tahrir-u raqabah (Q.5: 89), which means human liberation from slavery that was

historically manifested in the struggle of the prophet Moses, as a social form of the

concept of liberation, and serves as a consequence of the doctrine of the divinity of

God and the concrete form of the meaning of Islam in a social dimension.183 Islam as

a liberating power, from both foolishness and slavery, was a symptom that was real

during the time of the prophet. According to Liberal Muslims, a liberating and

emancipating Islam is not an abstract definition as it is based on a concept in which

the society is stirred to progress toward revolutionary change.

The Koran explains how vertical dimension is related to horizontal dimension.

Belief in God has a direct consequence to the relation with humanity. The Koran also

states that if a person does not have these two “ties”, chaos is inevitable (Q. 3: 111;

4:12).

Islam as a religion that liberates moves towards the realization of a just

society that is the true aim of a tawhid society. Because of this, the theology of

liberation is contested by movements attempting to revive traditional issues, and thus

opening the sphere of life that comprises of traditional theology and contemporary

world problems, such as economic exploitation, social injustice and support toward

the fight of anti-imperialism.184 This fight can be won hand in hand as a form of

interfaith solidarity. Islam serving as the religion for mankind can provide reference to

hinder hegemony and can act as a compulsion for humane works that are

emancipatory.185


183 M. Dawam Rahardjo, Paradigma Al-Qur’an: Metodologi Tafsir dan Kritik Sosial

(Jakarta: PSAP, 2005), p. 206.

184 Asghar Ali Engineer, Islam dan Pembebasan, p. 118

185 Moeslim Abdurrahman, Islam yang Memihak (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2005), p. 106.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Islamic thought does not only converse on texts in the realm of intellectual

independence, but also on how to discover divine ideas in order to resolve the

process of dehumanization that is faced by mankind today through a theological

reflection referring to the history of daily life. A process of theologizing that revives

the different meanings of Islam based on the differences seen when humans

individually fight against anti-hegemony, or collectively counter hegemony to fight

oppression in relation to the structure of the different faces of the authority.

Below is the fourth principle or value of ethics developed by Liberal Muslims,

i.e. the ethics of freedom.

Ethics of Freedom

Liberal Muslims are very concerned about the ethics of freedom (liberty, freedom).

Zainun Kamal, a lecturer at UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta, states how Islam is

drawn to the ethics of freedom. Among all of God’s creations, humans are the most

special creation. Humans are God’s sole creation that has freedom of choice and the

mandate (amanat) of free will that could not be carried out by the sky, the earth, and

the mountain. Discussion on the teaching of freedom in Islam can be historically

traced to the discussion of classic theology. Theology began, like other Islamic

sciences, based on naqal (nash, text) and the mind. There are at least three

orientations of theologians in this case. First, those who prioritize the mind over naql.

This is the tendency of the Mu’tazilah. Second, those who opt authority over the text,

and provide no space for the mind in the text. This is the orientation of the

Hasywiyah, Zahiriyah and the kind. Third, those who to try and find a solution

between mind and text; by prioritizing the text over the mind, but allowing the mind to

enter text. This is the notion taken by Abu al-Hasan al-Asy’ari, the founder of Ahl al-

Sunnah wa al-Jamaah, who is very influential in Indonesia.186

One of the teachings of Islam on freedom can be found in (Q.2: 256). Also,

one may find many expressions commanding the use of the mind and religious

freedom in the Koran, such as la ikrah-a fi al-din (there is no compulsion in religion)

186 Zainun Kamal, “Tradisi Kalam dalam Islam”. PSIK Paper Universitas Paramadina

2007. Unpublished.



WORKING TRANSLATION

and la’allakum ta’qilun (so that you may understand). From these two forms of

fundamental freedom, that is religious freedom and freedom of the mind, transpires

other forms of freedom, such as freedom of speech, freedom to choose a job and so

on. However, there is a debate among Muslim ulemas and intellectuals on the

boundaries of this so-called freedom, particularly when that very freedom contradicts

the fundamental teachings of Islam. For Rumi, humans’ freedom to choose is real,

and not illusory. Because of this, he was strongly against the concept of Jabariyah

and thought it to be a betrayal of freedom.187

According to me, the generic

meaning of the word liberal itself is

liberation. And Islam is liberation.

Islam provides space to think freely

and differently from other

perspectives. Monotheism itself is

actually no other than liberalization

over the clutches of polytheism and

the “sacredness” of nature. This

means that liberalism has long

existed in our religion.

(Rachman 2009: 847)

Jamhari Makruf, Assistant to the Rector in the Field of Academics of UIN

Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta and former Director of the Center of Islamic and

Social Study (PPIM) UIN Jakarta.

A liberal thinker from Egypt named Ibrahim Isa, who influenced the discourse of

Liberal Muslims, inspired freedom and the need to fight for freedom as part of the

path of God. In his book al-Hurriyah fi Sabilillah (Freedom in the path of God) he

wrote a sentence that illustrates the need of freedom. “Freedom feels beautiful when

it is possible to speak. Speaking feels beautiful when it is done on the basis of

187 Mulyadhi Kertanegara, Menyelami Lubuk Tasawuf (Jakarta: Erlangga, 2006), p.

80-83.



WORKING TRANSLATION

consciousness. And, the most beautiful form of consciousness is what we believe to

be true. And, truth is most beautiful when it is allowed to be corrected when it is

proven wrong.”188

With such freedom, Liberal Muslims affirm how Islam has a strong

commitment and even provides a highly regarded position for the development of

science and technology. The coverage of Islam’s mission is “to be able to unify

freedom and regulations, individualism and collectivism, science and religion,

rationalism and effectiveness, soul and matter, revelation and reasoning, stability

and evolution, the past and the present, and the preservation and renovation of

Islam and humanity”. Freedom is the essence of the humanity of man. The

importance of freedom in Islam is clear. The Islamic modern world is the history of a

struggle for these two important values: freedom and justice.189 The dimensions of

freedom that can be understood from textual-normative Islamic documents as well

as historical documents include religious freedom, politics, mind, civil freedom, work

and residence. The many dimensions of freedom are then set in stone within Human

Rights (HR).

The principle of religious freedom has been applied in history by the leaders

of classic Islam due to the religions of the Middle East especially Christianity that is

divided into a number of sects in which each believes to be the one and only truth

and breed hate among each other. The leaders of Islam have upheld the principle in

which each sect has the right to live and proclaim themselves and is equal before the

law. Such religious freedom is relished by nations in the Middle East and Islamic

World. Normatively speaking, religious freedom receives justification from the

following indicators: first, the prohibition to compulsion other people to abandon their

religion or to embrace another faith. The teaching of religious freedom receives a

strong textual reference from the Koran and prophecies. In the Koran, for example, it

is explained that “Let there be no compulsion In religion: Truth stands out Clear from

Error” (Q. 2:256). “If it had been the Lord’s Will, They would all have believed – All

188 Zuhairi Misrawi and Novriantoni, Doktrin Islam Progresif, p. 82




WORKING TRANSLATION

who are on earth! Wilt thou then compel mankind Against their will, to believe!” (Q.

10:99)

This verse explicitly explains the concept of religious freedom in Islamic

teaching. The religion Islam should not be forced upon anyone as it cannot and it

should not. The act of forcing someone to embrace a religion is not right and it is

also not praxis. Islam does not justify this and even condemns it. A person’s religion

cannot be considered right, and cannot be accepted, except when that person

accepts it under free will. Compulsion destroys the concept of responsibility that is

based on the fact that the physical life of a human is a test in which one is given the

freedom to choose between the right and the wrong.

The individual’s success in the hereafter lies in one’s actions on earth.

Whether one will under free will embrace the truth and walk in the path of Allah, or

deny it and choose the path of the devil. Such a concept lies within the individual’s

freedom to choose among the various paths. And using compulsion will take away

this test. Islam cannot accept compulsion in spreading religion under any

circumstances, as it will destroy the philosophical purpose of life that is when a

person’s happiness lies in one’s own choice.190

Theologically, the Prophet Muhammad through the verses of the Koran invited

mankind to follow the teachings of Islam in a wise, persuasive and convincing

manner. The prophet elucidated the truth about mankind, the universe and God in

the most resounding and interesting way. His invitation was saturated with love and

compassion. It was delivered in a wise way; the best of ways and briefly (Q. 39: 53-

59). The prophet disclosed the truth to them in a clear and articulate way convoyed

with deep compassion, so that they may follow the right path for their own good.

People embraced Islam under free will after they felt assured with the truth. The

Prophet’s obligation was to only deliver the message (risala) clearly and effectively in

the best of ways so that people may understand it. It is then up to them whether they

will embrace it or deny it (Q. 3:20). A similar principle of religious freedom is also

190 Zainun Kamal, “Kebebasan Beragama dalam Islam”. PSIK Paper Universitas

Paramadina, Unpublished.



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stated in Q18: 29). Even toward non-Muslims and ahl al-kitab191, the Koran takes on

a definite perspective that is there is no element of compulsion in embracing

Islam.192

Religious freedom or freedom of faith should provide space for the emergence

of certain religious orientations and even new religions as long as they does not

disturb the public’s peace and are not involved in practices that violate the law, such

191 The concept of Ahli Kitab is basically the acknowledgement of Islam over other

religions that existed before the Prophet Muhammad. In general, the Jews and the

Christians were two religious communities mentioned in the Koran as Ahli Kitab and

have continuance with Muslims. The Koran identifies its existence as to enlighten

part of the teachings of the Torah (Old Testament) and the Gospel (Q. 3:3; Q. 5:48

and Q. 6:92). Islam is the continuation of previous religions. Such viewpoint also

existed within Christianity. The Prophet Jesus, as mentioned in the Koran, invited the

followers of Judaism to embrace the teaching that he brought with him as the

continuance of the teaching of the Prophet Moses (Q. 61:6). The discourse of the

Koran on Ahli Kitab as well as other explanations that are related to this community

shows the high level of tolerance and religious freedom consented by the Koran.

Take a look at, Abd Moqsith Ghazali, Interpretations of Ahli Kitab in the Koran PSIK

Paper Universitas Paramadina, 2007. Not published.

192 As narrated by Ibu Ishaq, an Anshar had two sons who were both Christians and

were unwilling to embrace Islam. The Anshar approached the Prophet and asked

whether or not he should force his sons to embrace Islam. This was when the verse

in which there should be no compulsion in religion (Q.S. 2:256) was revealed. In

interpreting this verse, Ibu Atsir concluded that “Do not force a person to embrace

Islam as it is a religion so real and illumined, and the arguments and thoughts that

support it are so substantial and resounding, that there is no need to force a person

to embrace it. Whoever receives guidance from Allah and opens their heart to the

truth and has the wisdom to comprehend, then they will embrace it willingly. And

when one is so blind and thus cannot see these reasons, then embracing Islam

would be of no use.” Take a look at, Zainun Kamal, “Kebebasan Beragama dalam

Islam”.



WORKING TRANSLATION

as fraud or fooling of the people, and use religion as a buffer. Such freedom applies

to those who would like to establish a group intended for health, or emotional and

spiritual intelligence based on certain religious teachings with consent of their

members as long as they do not oblige a certain religion or faith as a requirement.

The consequence is that the state cannot create a fatwa or a legal decision

that states a certain religious orientation or faith that is new is “false and

misleading.”193 Religious freedom is a human right that cannot be denied by

anyone.194 The principle of religious freedom applies not only to Muslims, but also

other religions.195 Every citizen has the same right to live and progress in the society.

The freedom to choose a religion is a blessing that is owned by every individual or

religious group through the essence of humanity.196 From there, the principle of

religious freedom is a natural tendency (fitrah) for man from God, as God

acknowledges humans’ right to choose their own path.197

Islam also values freedom of the mind. To think is one of the functions of the

mind honored by Islam. The Mu’tazilah call the mind as “the most just organ in man”

(a’dal al-assya’ qismat-an laday al-insan).198 Freedom to think requires a climate to

freely express, both verbally or in written form. Freedom of expression also requires

sufficient freedom to state opinions and reveal facts. In today’s context, it also seems

193 Musdah Mulia, “Potret Kebebasan Berkeyakinan Di Indonesia (Sebuah Refleksi

Masa Depan Kebangsaan Indonesia”. PSIK Paper Universitas Paramadina, 2007.

Unpublished.

194 Ulil Abshar Abdalla, “Islam dan Kebebasan” in Hamid Basyaib, Membela

Kebebasan Percakapan Tentang demokrasi Liberal (Jakarta: Freedom Institute,

2006), p. 223.


Konsep Kunci, p. 406

196 Zakiyuddin Baidhawi, Kredo Kebebasan Beragama (Jakarta: PSAP, 2005), p. 2-

3.

197 Nurcholish Madjid, Pintu-pintu Menuju Tuhan, p. 219.




WORKING TRANSLATION

necessary to include freedom of the press, freedom of oration, and freedom to reveal

scientific findings.

Freedom of the mind is very important. Nurcholish Madjid once said that all

forms of thoughts and ideas no matter how bizarre they may sound to the ears

should be revealed in one way or another. The chaos of the hierarchy in determining

which values are (spiritual) ukrawi and which are physical is due to the absence of

freedom of the mind. The way of thinking is still cloaked with taboo and a priori.

While the fact is that quite often these thoughts and ideas that were initially thought

to be wrong and false in the end turn out to be true. This reality is experienced by

every reform movement, individually or through an organization. For this reason, the

teachings of submission to God has a definition of submit in its dynamic meaning. In

takes the form of sincere and untainted efforts to find, and to continue to find the

truth. Submit in the Arabic language is called Islam which means to conform to Allah

that is directly taken to freedom and self-liberation from each value and norm that

grasps the sole.

On the long run, Islam essentially aspires for a free society, because it is

within freedom that humans can bask in dignity. A society that enjoys dignity, self-

respect, taqrim or honor is a society with individuals that revel in complete freedom.

This is what is truly meant by civil liberty.199 If a religion cannot solve the problems of

the global modern world, the role of religion will decline and eventually diminish.

However, if religion responds creatively, a revitalization of religion will take place, as

what happened in Latin America where the theology of liberation was born. Islam

has in fact experienced revitalization with new discourses as mentioned by Hassan

Hanafi, Asghar Ali Engineer, or Mohammed Abied al-Jabiri200 and in Indonesia

through a group of Liberal Muslims; Muslim thinkers who offer a contextualization of

an open, friendly Islam interpretation that is responsive toward humanity issues—as

199 Ulil Abshar Abdalla, “Islam dan Kebebasan” in Hamid Basyaib, Membela

Kebebasan Percakapan Tentang demokrasi Liberal, p. 227.

200 M. Dawam Rahardjo, “Hari Depan Kebebasan Beragama di Indonesia” PSIK

Paper Universitas Paramadina, 2007. Unpublished.



WORKING TRANSLATION

mentioned above—that is a variety which emphasizes on the creation of pluralism

that is socially just.201

Political freedom is also a dimension of the ethics of freedom that needs to be

fought for by the Muslim community. Freedom in politics covers two important points.

First is the freedom to participate in governance through self-election, election or a

free referendum. Second, control over the performance of the government, criticism

or providing alternative views and solutions. In Islam, political freedom becomes an

area that highly needs to be emphasized. In the issue of governance. Islam highly

emphasizes on the important of the voice of the people as the source of the

legitimacy of authority. Authority in Islam is based on authority of the people, while

leadership is based on people representatives in running the government.202 Political

freedom as a form of modern freedom is practiced in states with established

democracy. Freedom is the key word to the idea of modernity and is the fortress for

its legitimacy. However, freedom is only truly beneficial when it is realized in a

system that provides opportunity to oversee forms that tend to be uncontrolled.203

With the implementation of justice, freedom is the source of dynamic energy

for the society to encourage the growth of productive initiatives. Freedom is also the

entirety of idea on democracy that must be done through trial and error, that is

something that cannot be avoided. Freedom as the precondition for the creation of a

mechanism of social supervision is realized through political institutionalization in

which each of its components recognizes a clear working division that is inter-related

in terms of check and balance or control and balancing in relation to the issue of the

dynamics in the working relation and the authority among executive, legislative and

judicative institutions.204

201 M. Nurcholish Setiawan, Akar-akar Pemikiran Progresif dalam Kajian al-Qur’an

(Yogyakarta: Elsaq Press, 2008), p. 27.



1332.


1336-1338.



WORKING TRANSLATION

The following is the fifth principle or the value of ethics developed by Liberal

Muslims, i.e. the ethics of brotherhood.

Ethics of Brotherhood

Liberal Muslims highly pay attention to the ethics of brotherhood. This value is

contained in Q. 49: 10 that is “The believers are but A single Brotherhood”. Through

ijtihad on the relation among citizens today that has experienced development, this

brotherhood is then developed into ukhuwah basyariyah (brotherhood of humanity),

that is supported by verse Q. 49: 13 that is: “O Mankind! We created You from a

single (pair) Of a male and a female, And made you into Nations and tribes, that Ye

may know each other (Not that ye may despise Each Other). Verily The most

honoured of you In the sight of Allah Is (he who is) the most Righteous of you.” In the

context of abiding in a society and state, the value of pluralism is more developed

compared to the value of brotherhood. This is because in a world that is increasingly

individualistic, it is difficult to completely actualize the value of brotherhood.

The value or the ethics of brotherhood introduced by the Prophet Muhammad

is a brotherhood message that is universal, open and ignited by values of humanity.

The most important thing done by the Prophet in order to create a solidarity tie is by

defying fanaticism. In a very popular expression, the prophet spoke: “Those who

campaign blind fanaticism are not my followers. And, those who sacrifice their lives

for fanaticism are also not my group. And, those who die to defend fanaticism are not

my group.”205

… I find liberalism to be more of an

issue of freedom. For that, if we

consider liberalism dangerous, the

question that we need to propose is:

is this right? Or perhaps what takes

place in our mind is not always right.

Thus, liberalism is more of a phantom

than a reality.




WORKING TRANSLATION

(Rachman 2009: 857)

Kautsar Azhari Noer, Professor of Comparative Religion, Faculty of

Ushuluddin and Philosophy UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta. He teaches at

the postgraduate program at UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, Universitas Indonesia,

STF Driyakara and Universitas Muhammadiyah Jakarta. Since 2007, he was

appointed as Honorary Fellow Ibn Arabi Society centred in Oxford.

Regarding the social relations of the society, ‘ashabiyah (primordialism) quite

conversely sets the values of truth in reverse. The perspective of fanaticism is

explained by the Arab saying which affirms that the perspective of anger will always

reveal the depravity of the other party. Concretely speaking, in social relations,

fanaticism only sees the negativity in other groups. There are no efforts or ethos to

do self-introspection and correction. It turns out that the bad effects of fanaticism do

not go on other groups, but to the group itself. Blind fanaticism leads to

backwardness, and even destruction for the followers. For this reason, ulemas

created a term on brotherhood among Muslims that is known as ukhuwah Islamiyah

(Islamic brotherhood). In the Koran it is mentioned innama al-mu’minuna ikhwah

(The Believers are but A single Brotherhood) (Q. 49: 10)

The view of Islamic brotherhood has developed in the society and it has

become a mainstream perspective. In the context of a plural community and a nation

like Indonesia, according to them this perspective requires further criticism, to

eventually be given a new meaning. This is caused by several things. First, ukhuwah

Islamiyah that is deduced or concluded from the editorial of the Koran, and then

understood as a brotherhood among Muslims is false. The term ukhuwah Islamiyah

in fact cannot be referred in a straight line to the verse mentioned previously. The

literal translation of the editorial of the verse innama al-mu’minun that is more

precise is “brotherhood among the Believers”.206 The word muslimun, which means

206 The word mu’min here is interpreter as Muslims who believe in God. While when

understood linguistically, the word mu’min is derived from the base word that is

‘amana-yu’minu-imanan which means believe. Observers agree that the word

mu’min refers to each and every person who believes in the God Almighty, whether



WORKING TRANSLATION

Muslims, is absent in this verse. What is more, there is not a single verse or hadith

that begins with the editorial innama al-muslimun or ya ayyuha al-muslimun.207 For

that, if we would like to create an accurate term to the concept of brotherhood for

Islam, according to Liberal Muslims of course ukhuwah imaniyah would have to be

interfaith brotherhood. This way the type of brotherhood that would like to be

established by Islam is more open compared to the term ukhuwah Islamiyah,

especially when compared to the brotherhood based on tribes as in the context of

Arabia before Islam.

However, these two concepts of brotherhood mentioned previously, cannot

yet be claimed as the brotherhood aspired by Islam. Both the brotherhood among

he is a Christian, a Buddhist, a Hindu, a Zoroaster, a Jew, or any other name or form

of religion. The same goes out for whoever submits themselves to God Almighty

then he is entitled to being called a Muslim. In the same way as the Liberal Muslim’s

perspective, God will guarantee heaven to anyone as long as they do three things,

believe in God Almighty, believe in the Hereafter, and do virtue. These three things

are the essence of religion. Take a look at, Samsi Pomalingo, “Pluralisme Dan Ikatan

Peradaban Manusia”. PSIK Paper Universitas Paramadina, 2007. Unpublished.

207 Islam is a universal religion intended for mankind from various nations, various

states across continents. Islam is indeed sourced from the Koran and the Hadith of

the Prophet which are in Arabic, as they were revealed in Arabia in which the

majority of the people spoke Arabic. However, the verses of the Koran textually and

contextually are intended for mankind on this earth and throughout the universe. The

statements from the Koran always state Ya ayyuha al-nas (O Mankind!) or more

specifically Ya ayyuha al-ladzin-a amanu (O ye who believe!). This shows a calling

for mankind that is plural, from various tribes and nations with their own cultural

traditions. There is not a single verse in the Koran that specifically calls for the Arab

nation with the sentence Ya ayyuha al-‘Arabiyu (O Arabs!) This universal perspective

in the practice of Islamic teaching, espouses the birth of tolerance and a positive

attitude toward pluralism, so that Islam can truly “provide blessing for the entire

nature”; as the words of Allah in the Koran “wanna arsalnaka illa rahmat-an li al-

‘alamin”.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Muslims (ukhuwah Islamiyah) and the brotherhood among the believers (ikhuwah

imaniyah), are not sufficient to explain the idea of brotherhood aspired by Islam. This

is due to three things. First, this type of brotherhood is still closed and allows the

possibility to exclude one or two segments of the community that is still plural.

Second, the terms ukhuwah Islamiyah and ukhuwah Imaniyah are still built on the

basis of unitary groups. Third, the forms of brotherhood that have been mentioned

above, although they do not contest directly the practices of the prophet in fostering

a climate of brotherhood, it is still not in line to the vision of the prophet and the

mission of the teachings of Islam.208

Thus, the fourth type of brotherhood that can be witnessed in its real form in

the history of Islam is required. This brotherhood is known as “brotherhood among

the grandchildren of Adam,” the ancestor of the first man. Or to simplify such type of

brotherhood, the term ukhuwah insaniyah or brotherhood of humanity is given. From

the concept of ukhuwah insaniyah, it can truly be concluded that the form of

brotherhood idealized and wanted by Islam essentially is the type of brotherhood that

is open, universal, and does not exclude any man. All man are the “grandchildren of

Adam”, and due to that all are equal before God, the Creator; each person is created

differently so that they may understand one another and compete toward

goodness.209

The Koran (Q. 117: 70) stated that God bestows his blessings to all “the

grandchildren of Adam” no matter what innate difference they may carry. To be able

to call the entire human race as “the grandchildren of Adam” is important and

meaningful; to be able to make the entire human race descendants from the same

ancestors. In all aspects, the Koran deals with “humans” as an individual without

regarding the sex, the tribe, the faith, the community, the class or the education, in

order to build a strong foundation to communicate of interact. The Koran calls

“mankind” to be forever aware that everything is equal as it all roots back to one


209 Mohamed Fathi Osman, Islam, Pluralisme, dan Toleransi Keagamaan:

Pandangan al-Qur’an, Kemanusiaan, Sejarah, dan Peradaban (Jakarta: PSIK

Universitas Paramadina, 2006), P. 29.



WORKING TRANSLATION

origin, whether they are man or woman, or the possibilities of nationality or tribe (Q.

4:1; 49: 13). The diversity of the people and their culture should be able to direct a

person to acknowledge the presence of the other and know each other well (Q.

49:13), in order to be able to engage in a relation and cooperate for a reciprocal

advantage and for the welfare of mankind. According to Liberal Muslims, in the

teaching of Islam, equality and social justice are implemented in order to guarantee

and uplift the dignity of the extensive values of humanity. The principles of equality

and justice taught in Islam will prevent falsification and social crime.210

In the teaching of Islam, there is not a single text in the Koran or Hadith that

gives privilege to a Muslim just because he embraces Islam. The factor of akidah or

faith is not the only factor or determining factor in igniting Muslims to confront other

believers. In the course of history, that becomes the factor to determine rivalry and

conflict is sociological factors or the result of social political conditions. Islamic

teachings on brotherhood know no boundaries on religion. Throughout history, Islam

encourages its people to have a good relationship, even though with those who have

different religions or different ways of life. The role of brotherhood can be found

within the Prophet Muhammad. Within him we find a beautiful pattern for conduct (Q.

33:21) and more than that, the Holy Book specifically mentions the Prophet’s

personality being full of understanding and tolerance as well as thoughtfulness (Q. 3:

159). The footsteps of the Prophet are decorated with brotherhood spirit,

understanding, gentle acts toward one another, and take one of the most real forms

of Allah’s praise, i.e. a noble character (Q. 68: 4).

Below is the sixth principle of value of ethics developed by Liberal Muslims,

i.e. the ethics of peace.

Ethics of Peace

Liberal Muslims are very concerned on the ethics of peace. This value among others

can be found in Q. 8:61 that is “But if the enemy Incline towards peace, Do thou

(also) incline Towards peace, and trust in Allah”. This verse was revealed when the

210 Humaidy Abdussami and Masnun Tahir, Islam dan Hubungan Antar Agama

(Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2007), p. 149.



WORKING TRANSLATION

relation among groups were based on the principle of conflict. Peace among

social/tribal groups at that time only happened when there was a treaty (‘ahd) among

them. However, today relations among groups/states are based on the principle of

peace, so that ulemas and Liberal Muslim intellectuals have made the value of

peace as a basic value or ethics in living as a society and a state.

The quality of the submissiveness of a Muslim that is derived from the

meaning of Islam must be transformed into the reality of life. The quality of

submissiveness must be measured from the reality of how much does the life of the

Muslim give and guarantee peace for the sustainability of mankind. Peace is a

contented situation that is free from the interference of other parties, free from rivalry,

hate, revenge and all kinds of behavior that may create difficulty for others. Islam,

according to Liberal Muslims, is a peaceful path, the teaching of the Divine that

meets in peace. In accordance to this principle, Islam is encouraged to be forgiving,

because forgiveness is closest to righteousness (Q.2:237)

There is not a single verse in the Koran, and not a single saying the Hadith

that mentions acts to breed hatred, rivalry, conflict, or any other form of negative

actions, repressiveness that threatens the stability and the quality of a peaceful life.

Islam comes with the principle of compassion (mahabbah), togetherness

(ijtima’iyah), equality (musawah), justice (‘adalah), and brotherhood (ukhuwah), as

well as appreciation over differences.211

When liberalism is defined as the

worship of pure reasoning, humans

as the benchmark of truth, thought as

the final reference, well of course not

only Islam will oppose such a

concept. If reasoning is the

benchmark of truth, other religions,

including Christianity that develop in

Europe and America, will also oppose

211 Rumadi (ed.), Kumpulan Khutbah Berwawasan Islam dan Demokrasi (Jakarta:

PPSDM UIN Jakarta, 2003), p. 75-79.



WORKING TRANSLATION

it. All religions will oppose it. Because

when we are analyzing the area of

religion, it automatically means that

within it is an absolute source

containing truth going beyond human

thought.

(Rachman 2009: 893)

Komaruddin Hidayat, Rector of Universitas Islam Negeri (UIN), Jakarta. He

was the former Director of the Wakaf Paramadina Foundation and received

his master and doctorate degrees in Western Philosophy from Middle East

Technical University, Ankara, Turkey.

Islam exists to save, defend, and revive peace. Islam is a religion that desires

peace. In the aspect of language, Islam actually has a root language that contains

the meaning of peace, salvation, maslahat, and justice. Islam is a metamorphosis of

the root of three letters (tsulatsi) that is salima-yaslamu-salaman, which means:

salvation and peace. While Islam itself comprises of four letters (ruba’i) that is

aslama-yuslimu-islaman, which means to bring peace and safety.212

Islam roots back to the word salam which means “to be safe”, “whole”, and

“integral”. The word silm in the Koran (Q. 2:108) means “peace”, while the word

salam in the Koran (Q. 32:29) means “whole” and it is the opposite of “breaking into

several parts” even though al-salam in the Koran (Q. 4: 91) contains the meaning of

“peace”. The word salam which means peace in all forms of the words is always

mentioned repeatedly in the Koran, and more in the form of a noun than a verb (157

times: noun 79 times, adjective 50 times, and verb 28 times).213

One of the noun forms is al-silm that also means Islam which is peace (Q. 2:

108). Normatively, every Muslim is encouraged to give greetings of peace (al-salam-

212 Mun’im A. Sirry (ed.), Fiqih Lintas Agama: Membangun Masyarakat Inklusif-

Pluralis (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2003), p. 180.

213 Humaidy Abdussami and Masnun Tahir, Islam dan Hubungan Antar Agama, p.

55-56.



WORKING TRANSLATION

u ‘alaykum). Such meaning of Islam, according to the Liberal Muslims, assumes that

every Muslim must grow peace in the heart in order to bring peace to others. Islam in

order to be internalized in the soul of every Muslim, so that peace, salvation and

maslahat can become a principle and a foundation of the diversity of every human.

Thus, Islam as an active religion, requires proactive steps in order to spread peace

in the social-political area.

Also, the last raka’ah of salah in which the person turns his hed to the right

and the left serves as a strong symbol for Muslims to spread peace not only to

mankind, but also to the entire creation of God. The purpose of salah as a means to

educate character and humanity is symbolized in the saying of salam as the closing.

The saying of salam is a prayer for the salvation, welfare, and tranquility of many and

as a statement of humanity and social solidarity.214

Thus, peace is one of the main characteristics of Islam. Islam which contains

the meaning salam (peace/salvation), as explained previously encourages the

protection of harmony over the relations among people. Islam does not only prioritize

the things that are related to religious issues, but also social problems, and opens

itself by putting forward friendship among mankind.215 Peace is a communal

agreement among individuals, societies and nations to conduct the order of God and

the realization of universal peace, and not a disagreement that is based on

compulsion to not do something. Efforts to achieve peace are hard work that must be

appreciated so that sorrow or feelings of inferiority will be avoided. There is not a

single community that can be isolated due to their efforts to create peace.

Peace is everybody’s dream, and thus the Prophet Muhammad placed it in an

important position in the teachings of Islam, as observed by the brotherhood of the

Anshar and the Muhajirin (when the prophet migrated to Medina). Such passion of

brotherhood is what gave birth to peace in the heart of every Muslim and had impact

on the feelings of peace in social relations, even towards non-Muslims. Essentially,

214 Nurcholish Madjid, “Shalat” in Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed), Kontekstualsasi

Doktrin Islam dalam Sejarah, (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1995), p. 406.


60-61.



WORKING TRANSLATION

every Muslim can spread peace in a pluralistic social life. The presence of Islam

should be able to bring peace among two conflicts and dispute. The essence of a

person’s faith is determined by how far he or she can conduct acts of salvation; so

that whatever issue appears amid the society it can be resolved in a peaceful

manner (Q. 49: 9).216

The theology of peace is one of the profusion of religion that needs to be

embedded in every individual so that being Islam means living in peace and

understanding diversity. Being religious means no more conflicts, no more hatred

and no more rivalry. As long as peaceful efforts are done, that is where the essence

of religion is upheld. The spirit of peace should essentially become a form of culture

that decorates daily life. Every individual, family, and society from various ethnic

groups, tribes, race and religion should at all might bury all types of doctrines that

contradict the values of peace. Religion should be able to divulge the doctrine of

peace on earth.

Below is the seventh principle or value of ethics developed by Liberal

Muslims, i.e. the ethics of compassion.

Ethics of Compassion

Liberal Muslims pay close attention to the ethics of compassion. According to them,

Islam is a religion that is a blessing for the entire nature, and not only for mankind,

but also animals and plants. In short, Islam was revealed to become a blessing for

the entire universe.

For this reason, the religion Islam and the “shari’a” contained in it is universal.

The word rahmah is derived from the verb rahima. From this epistemology, there are

other forms of the word in the Koran. They are: rahima, arham, marhamah, rahim,

rahman, and ruhm.217 This word is repeated 114 times in various forms of words that

are more specific. The word al-rahman is repeated 57 times in the Koran, while the


Pluralis, p. 180.


81.



WORKING TRANSLATION

word al-rahim is repeated 106 times. Both words are also found in the beginning 113

letters of 114 letters in the Koran, with the sounds bism-I ‘l-Laj-I ‘l-rahman-I ‘l-rahim.

The most popular word from these forms are rahman and rahim. Both are

characteristics of Allah. The teaching of Islam and the mission of its messages

(risala) can be summarized into the following verse, “We sent thee not, but As a

mercy for all creatures” (Q. 21: 107).

The Prophet Muhammad explained that blessing is not only bestowed to his

companions, but will be spread to everyone. He also explained that whoever fails to

spread compassion to another, will not be treated with compassion. If this is then

related to the Koran (Q. 6:16), those who receive blessings are those fortunate

(fawzan), while those who commit sin and do not beg for His forgiveness, will not

receive blessings. They are those who are disadvantaged.218

According to Nurcholish Madjid, the ethics of compassion dominates all things

(Q. 7:156), thus the spirit of compassion is the main element of the moral divinity

conveyed by the Koran in Surah al-Balad (Q.7) to be upheld by mankind. In Surah

al-Balad, there is a message to uphold love and compassion among man that is the

passion of humanity in general, which is in relation to the message to hold patience.

For those blessed by Allah, differences will not become an element of contradiction.

For example, the words of God in which we are to always conduct ishlah, peace

among mankind, called blessing (Q. 49:10). The ethics of compassion serves as an

important characteristic for the believers. In the Hadith, Muslims are encouraged to

impersonate the characters of God, “Impersonate the characters of Allah”. One of

the most important characters is compassion. The only character of Allah that is

obligated on behalf of His name.

There are several interpretations that explain the meaning of al-rahman as

Most Gracious in the world and the hereafter. While al-rahim is the characteristic of

Allah that is Most Merciful in the hereafter. God’s compassion as al-rahim is the

basic consideration of faith. The believers will receive Allah’s blessing as al-rahim.

Those who receive the blessing from Allah will be humble enough to see the

218 M. Dawam Rahardjo, Ensiklopedi Al-Qur’an Tafsir Sosial Berdasarkan Konsep-

konsep Kunci, p. 215.



WORKING TRANSLATION

possibility if he or she is wrong. Because of this, every day one must read

bismillahirrahmanirrahim that is translated as, “In the name of Allah Most Gracious,

Most Merciful”. By saying basmala, Muslims realize that all of their actions are based

on their position as Allah’s representative (khalifatullah) on earth. For this reason,

whatever they do will be accounted for before Allah. Starting any job with basmala is

an affirmation that the job must be done well and with full responsibility.

The expression basmala in fact has two meanings. First, remembering the

greatness of God. This is an expression of the essence of faith. Faith presupposes

belief and faith in the divinity of God. Second, understanding the characteristics of

God as Most Gracious and Most Merciful. This means the greatness of God is

explained in His characteristics that teach compassion and blessings.219

In the Koran, Surah al-Isra’ (17) contains verses that illustrate the meaning of

rahim (Q. 17: 23-24) that is related to the relation between parent and child. The

relation between parent and child is united in a unique love that is rahim. The love

and compassion of a child toward the parents is a love closer to the love of Allah

compared to other forms of love and compassion. Particularly, the love of the

parents, especially the mother, toward the children. A sincere and pure love. That is

rahim, compassion. Teaching on compassion is then continued to Q.17: 26 through

the obligation to fulfill rights that is the rights of our family and the poor, who are part

of compassion. If we defy this right, this means we have forgotten our social

responsibility, and thus we have denied religion. As it is based on the law of silogism,

according to the Liberal Muslims, among other forms, a form of compassion is by

completing a social responsibility. This is the manifestation of our compassion to

man, especially for those in need or for those who have rights.220

Liberalism inspires the spirit of the

freedom of mind to the society to find

the best solution in facing current



konsep Kunci, p. 217.



WORKING TRANSLATION

issues. So, if there is a competition of

notions or ideas as well as a

competition of intellectual resolving

for concrete issues, they should

should be praised and recommended

in Islam.

(Rachman 2009: 1017)

M. Amien Rais, Head of the Advisory Council Center PAN (Partai Amanat

Nasional). He received his Doctorate (Political Science) from University of

Chicago. Former Chair of the People’s Assembly (MPR), he is now Member

of the Advisory Council of PP Muhammadiyah.

Manifestation of compassion or rahim is realized in a number of attitude and

important actions. First, by spending wealth for those in need, not only in spare time,

but also in tight time. Second, by retaining anger. Third, by forgiving the wrongdoings

of others. Islam is a religion that is flexible, expressed through appreciation of the

heart of faith itself. The heart of faith is compassion. Even without compassion, Islam

could not have experienced acceleration of extensive development, like now. Here,

the teaching of compassion becomes important. In order to avoid social conflicts,

any form of differences must be based on compassion. Compassion must become

an external mechanism, particularly in the relation among Muslims with other

followers. Calling people to build a tie of compassion (silat al-rahm) is the essence of

Islamic teaching.

The following passage will elaborate how the principles of ethics are

methodically developed in order to achieve an Islamic argument for secularism,

liberalism and pluralism.

The Method of Liberal Islamic Thought

Interpretation of the Koran from the Liberal Perspective

There is a common belief among Muslims that the Koran is the revelation of Allah,

the holy book and the only main source and authoritative for daily activities. The

Koran itself states itself as an explanation for all things (tibyan li kulli syay’).



WORKING TRANSLATION

However, this does not mean that the Koran explains the issues of life in details. As

in reality, it is not like that. The Koran could not possibly explain in detail all issues of

life that continue to develop and change. Because of this, the statement of the Koran

as an explanation for all things must be understood precisely. The Koran proposes

basic principles, moral values and general provisions.

The Koran resembles the tip of a floating iceberg.221 What is visible is only ten

percent, while ninety percent of it is still covered by methodological limitation and

historical reification. Reification must be deconstructed, and the new methodology

must be brought present—that is a new methodology that is expected to penetrate

the sediment of history that has been distorted to the bottom.

Liberal Muslims believe that the words of God in the Koran always create a

new message, a new law, a new community, and a new civilization. Islam could not

be understood unconnectedly from the unique power that moved it, the power of the

creative words of God. As long as the words continue to be creatively effective for

the soul, society and history of mankind, Islam will achieve progress. As a “creative

book”, the Koran is an amazing illustration of the creative dynamism of God, and His

commandments always lie within the circle of dynamism. The dynamism of the

creativity of God can be directed to humans, as God has breathed His soul to

humans, and made them caliphs on the face of this earth, and bequeaths them trust

in the form of creativity.

For this reason, with no criticism, it is impossible that the Koran can be

understood comprehensively. All this time, there has been an error in the approach

of studying Islamic studies. This error lies in the discrepancy between the teaching

and the original message of ethics of the Koran that is caused by the approach used

that in general did not pay heed to the aspect of the inter-relation of the verses and

disregard the relation among verses as well as the historical aspect of religion. For

long, intellectual Islamic debates have not been directed to attain new notions, but

221 Sibawaihi, Hermeneutika al-Qur’an Fazlur Rahman (Bandung: Jalasutra, 2007),

p. 13. Also take a look at, Ahmad Syukri Saleh, Metodologi Tafsir al-Qur’an

Kontemporer dalam Pandangan Fazlur Rahman, (Jakarta: Gaung Persada Press,

2007), p. 119.



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only to maintain the existing knowledge. Thus, in the discourse of Islamic thought,

there is a very strong tendency to intensely defend—borrowing the term of Thomas

Kuhn—normal science and not the scientific development to enter the area of

revolutionary science. Or when we use the term by Karl R. Popper, we often find

many things in the context of justification of Islamic studies and is less related to the

context of discovery.

And so, the demand to reconstruct and again critically test the existing

perspective of Muslims toward Islam in the past is palpable. It is an effort to resolve

the issues in the area of normal science, by not leaving the heuristic principle that is

the principle to conduct continual study and research in order to find new

discoveries, and remembering the method and the perspective that has been used in

Islamic study, which all this time has been the mainstream and remains in the area

of “normativity” an sich. Study and repeated tests are palpable in integral

reinterpretation.

Departing from this problem, several methods that have been generally used

will be elaborated. However, this does not take away the possibility that elaboration

requires a design to show the specialty of ontology and provide illustration on the

methodology that will be used. This is meant to liberalize or historically renew—to

not say Islam is a religion that is not historical, as there are many studies on the

discourse of Islam that uses a historical approach, one of them has been done by

Liberal Muslims, through Islamic discourse, especially what is related to the

interpretation of the Koran on secularism, liberalism and pluralism.

The Impact of Textual Interpretation

Liberal Muslims believe that in the various interpretations toward the Koran, the

model of textual interpretation that ignores the context and historicity aspect as found

among the textualists—from the conservative to the radical—on a sociological

structure rarely implicates stigmatization towards other groups, such as

stigmatization of apostate (murtad), disbelievers (kafir), and polytheists (musyrik).



WORKING TRANSLATION

An ideological and tendentious reading in the end will give birth to what is

called by Khaled Abou el-Fadl as “authoritarian hermeneutics”222 or in Nasr Hamid

Abu Zayd’s term “tendentious ideological” reading (qira’ah talwiniyah mughridlah) or

text.223 For Abou el-Fadl, and approved by Liberal Muslims, authoritarian

hermeneutics occurs when the mechanism of searching the meaning of a text is

submitted from the text into a subjective and selective reading. Subjectivity and

selectivity that is forced by disregarding the textual aim and the reality of the extra-

textual text is what makes text dominated by the perception of the reader. The text is

made to submit to the ideology of the reader, and as a result, the perception of the

reader replaces the text. The reader has not only attempted to construct the meaning

of the text, but more than that, constructed the text itself. Such reading is very

dangerous because the autonomy of the text is disregarded, and the content of the

meaning of the text is adjusted to the meaning and the will of the reader.

Thus, in the case of texts (that are considered) “pure”, authoritarian will bring

a huge impact. This is because the “pure authority” that is contained in the text—that

is presupposed by the believers as “the Divine authority”—could be easily

considered the same as the authority of the reader. Such reading would in the end

give birth to “moral authoritarian”.

Seeing this tendency, the belief that it is most dangerous when humans claim

to be able to precisely understand the will of God that is through the Holy Book is not

a surprise. What is given in the Holy Book is reflected in toto to the will of God.224

The main idea of the textualist-fundamentalists is hakimiyat Allah—that is

acknowledgement over the authority of God and His shari’a on the surface of the

222 Khaled M. Abou El-Fadl, Atas Nama Tuhan: dari Fikih Otoriter Ke Fikih Otoritatif

(Jakarta: Serambi, 2003), p. 56-57 and 96.

223 Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, Kritik Wacana Keagamaan (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2003), p.

59.

224 Ulil Abshar-Abdalla, “Fundamentalisme Agama: Mungkinkah Mendirikan ‘Kota

Tuhan’ Kembali?” “Kata Pengantar” from Sumanto Al-Qurtuby, Lubang Hitam

Agama: Mengkritik Fundamentalisme Agama, Menggugat Islam Tunggal

(Yogyakarta: Ilham Institute and Rumah Kata, 2005), p. 16-17.



WORKING TRANSLATION

earth, and the submission of humans toward Him.225 There is no authority and

shari’a except the authority and the shari’a of Allah. As a result, they become

exclusively obsessed in distinguishing diametrically between the self and the other—

borrowing the term from Hassan Hanafi. Self is the textualist-fundamentalist (the

right) and the others (the wrong) are the people outside there. In this case, religion

increasingly shows its sacredness as it has been made sacred for long by the

believers. Such a religion can no longer enlighten the crisis faced by man, because

religion is prohibited from the contemporary reality. Religion becomes speechless.

225 According to Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd, efforts to eliminate reasoning on behalf of

the text started at the mushaf event when copies of the Koran was flagged to spears.

The Holy Book of Allah was called by the Muawiyah to be the “judge” in the Battle of

Siffin. Everybody agreed that such behavior was a “falsifying” ideology on behalf of

text. Such falsification brought down the line of power of the enemy and caused

chaos among them. Such chaos in the end called of the dispute and won the

Umayyad. Falsification by making the mushaf the judge (arbitration/tahkim) brought

the falsification from the area of socio-politics to another area, that is the area of

religion and text. Thus, reasoning also shifted towards text. Its main task was limited

to only developing text to justify the reality ideologically. This attitude in the end

supported the status quo, both by government experts and the opposition, as long as

the contradiction shifted into a religious debate on the subject of textual

interpretation. Besides that, text is also a tool of arbitration in the contradicting area

of social politics, and widens the effectiveness of the text so that it reaches a

hegemonic limit in the religious discourse recently as can be seen in the principle of

al-hakimiyah in contemporary religious discourse, that is the principle that makes the

text the arbitration and causes the independence of reasoning to crumble as it shifts

into a faithful follower of text, seeks shelter and hides behind text. The reality is that

what takes place gradually in the civilization of Arabic Islam so that muktazilah was

crushed post the era of al-Makmun, and has a perpetual effect until today. Take a

look at, Nasr Hamid Abu Zayd, Kritik Wacana Keagamaan (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2003),

p. 59-61.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Religion only defends itself that is by bringing up ritualism and incredible apologetic

obedience.

If what is meant by liberalism is

individual freedom or freedom of the

mind, the Koran clearly supports or

approves of it. But if what is meant by

liberalism is freedom without paying

attention to others, the Koran does

not disapprove. Thus, our freedom

should not disturb the freedom of

others.

(Rachman 2009: 1053)

M. Quraish Shihab, Director of the Center of the Study of the Koran (PSQ).

Former Minister of Religious Affairs in the VII Development Cabinet (1998),

received his Lc degree, master, and doctorate in Interpretation and Ulum of

the Koran from the University of Al-Azhar, Egypt.

Such reality could cause a fatal impact in which religion will lose its vitality.

Diversity becomes a compulsion, and in being religious, stiff and rigid religious

doctrines are used (interpreted). Religion is forced into a public area by importing all

that is available within religion as something taken for granted. In the name of God,

religion is then considered as a sacred document that is recited (tasbih) and believed

to overcome many things, from general (al-kulliyat) issues to particular (al-juz’iyat)

issues. Islam is understood as a religion that can resolve issues from A to Z. These

holy texts that are understood stiffly and rigidly are made into reference. As if religion

speaks about many things, but in fact does not shed new light on the problem of

humanity. Liberal Muslim thinkers believe that this is a sign that diversity faces a

serious problem in which the position of religion in humanitarian issues is not how it

should be.

It is true that at a glance Islamic religiosity is total religiosity. Islam is not only

understood as a religion, but also a formal-legalistic system and regulations.

However, there is one thing that is the concern of Liberal Muslim thinkers that is



WORKING TRANSLATION

when Islamic religiosity is increasingly limited. Islam would then become a religion

that spreads compassion for itself, while provoking suspicion from other religions—

even from orientations of Islam (for example, the case of Ahmadiyah). Islam

becomes a legitimate religion for itself (shalih li-nafish), but not legitimate for other

people (ghayr shalih li-ghayrih). This is a negative impact and a misunderstanding

toward the concept of Islam as a relevancy for the entire space and time (al-Islam

shalih-un li-kulli zaman-in wa makan-in).

The conclusion is such textual-literalistic understanding will stimulate various

serious problems. First is the claim over truth. This means that Islam is perceived as

a religion that can overcome and represent the truth carried by other religions. Not

only that, Islam is even perceived as a single truth.

Second is the monopoly of interpretation. This tendency is a logic

consequence of the claim over truth that causes the sacralization toward religious

interpretation. What the ulemas came up with throughout the historical course of

Islam is a history that is reproductive and regressive and always refers back to the

past. Third is violence in the name of religion. The first and the second impacts are

characteristics of sacralization toward religious doctrines and dogmas. While

violence and radicalness are the impact of a social context that had impoverished a

certain religious community. Such reality legitimates violence as if it was justified by

religion. For example, the doctrine of jihad in the Islamic tradition is often justified by

part of the group and the sect to legitimate violence. Jihad is made sacred as a

sacrifice to God, even though violence is used. Textualists prioritize the

establishment of a religious doctrine and base on an intransingent literal attitude and

does not acknowledge compromise. Textualists with their extreme attitude clearly

does not have a prospect. Their ability in answering problems regarding real

meanings that come from today’s process of globalization is doubted.

Liberal Muslim thinkers are very aware that diversity cannot be detached from

the influence of religious texts as well as their interpretation. It is common that the

phenomena of radicalism, fanaticism, fundamentalism, even extremism of religious

groups is accused to have begun from interpretation of text that are symbolic and

formalistic so they are seemingly stiff, rigid and not flexible. The understanding that

materializes is one that is often literal-verbal, textual and not contextual. As a result,



WORKING TRANSLATION

religious text can only be understood on a surficial level. While the basic thing is

disregarded. This is why Liberal Muslims attempt to revive hermeneutics so we may

step out from an all-textual perspective by developing a liberal methodology of

Islamic thinking, in which part of it is found from the methodology of classic Islamic

thought—that is then “liberalized”.

Below are a number of methodologies that have been redeveloped liberally by

Liberal Muslims. First, asbab al-nuzul (the analysis of the causes of the revelation of

the verses).

Asbab al-Nuzul

In classic Islamic thought tradition, asbab al-nuzul is a concept, a theory, or news of

“the causes of the revelation” of a certain message of the Koran to the Prophet

Muhammad, in the form of a verse, a chain of verses, or a surah. This concept came

up because in reality, such as the history of Islam, it is known that there is of course

a certain situation or context that surrounds the revelation of a message. Knowledge

of asbab al-nuzul will help a person in understanding the context when a holy verse

was revealed. This context will provide an explanation on the implication of the

message, and add materials for interpretation and thought on how to apply the

message in a different situation.226 Thus, knowledge of asbab al-nuzul provides us

with ammunition in the form of new materials that look at a text to respond reality,

both in strengthening and refusing, and affirming a dialogic and dialectic relation with

reality.

The source of knowledge on asbab al-nuzul is obtained from the words of the

Prophet’s companion,227 and had its truth researched in the same way as the

226 Take a look at, Nurcholish Madjid, “Konsep Asbab al-Nuzul: Relevansinya Bagi

Pandangan Historisis Segi-segi Tertentu Ajaran Keagaman” in Budhy Munawar-

Rachman (ed), Kontektualisasi Doktrin Islam dalam Sejarah, (Jakarta: Paramadina,

1995), p. 24-25.

227 At times, the narration of the companions on asbab al-nuzul is so valid that it

reaches the level of Hadis musnad. While, the fact is no one realized that the

narration on asbab al-nuzul did not appear until the time of tabiin. During the time of



WORKING TRANSLATION

previous Hadith. The same thing as the issue of Hadith in general, words or news

about the causes of the revelation of a letter can be varied, along with the variety of

the source of news.228 This means, sometimes we are faced with various narrations

that mention the different causes of the revelation of a verse.

Misunderstanding of the texts of the Koran can be avoided when a person

observes each of the contexts, both the linguistic context, the context when the verse

was revealed as well as the socio cultural context that surrounds it. Ulemas who do

not acknowledge asbab al-nuzul will encounter a problem when interpreting the

words of God, because in reality the message has context that sometimes no longer

needs to wait for news, such as Hadith as the context has been contained in it. With

the concept of asbab al-nuzul, the Koran cannot be understood from its common

the companions, it was felt unnecessary to narrate the events that were behind the

revelation of the verses; verse per verse or event per event. Practical reality did not

compel those who lived during the time of the revelation of the verses to narrate the

events and the causes of the revelation in details. What was told of by the

companions were only answers toward questions in the upcoming age, that is the

time of tabiin who experienced difficulty with the meaning of some texts so that they

felt it necessary to understand the asbab al-nuzul in order to reveal these dalalah.

Take a look at, Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd, Tekstualitas Al-Qur’an Kritik Terhadap

Ulumul Qur’an, p. 144-145.

228 Take a look at, Nurcholish Madjid, “Konsep Asbab al-Nuzul: Relevansinya Bagi

Pandangan Historisis Segi-segi Tertentu Ajaran Keagaman,” p. 25. During the early

time of Islam, there was once a dispute in interpreting verses that were unknown in

terms of the causes that brought their revelation. Umar bin Khaththab questioned on

how the Muslims could be in dispute when the Prophet and the qibla are the same

(one). Abdullah bin Abbas answered him: “The Koran has been revealed to us. We

read it, and we understand how the verses are revealed. One day there will be

people like us who read the Koran and are unaware of how it was revealed. They

have opinions, they fight over them, and in this arena of dispute they kill one

another.” Take a look at, Muhammad Said Al-Asymawi, Nalar Kritis Syariat

(Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2004), p. 57.



WORKING TRANSLATION

lafadz aspect as in the kaidah, al-ibrat-u bi-‘umum-I ‘l-sabab- la bi-khushus-I l-lafzh-I.

Both have to be made as rules that complement and complete so that they can

reveal the pearls hidden in the base of the Koran.

“For those who study the Koran, knowledge of asbab al-nuzul is essential”.

Misunderstanding can lure a person into misinterpretation, difficulties, contradictions,

and dispute among humans. “In order to understand the Arabic text in which the

Koran was revealed in, knowledge of the conditions and contexts of the text is

required (muqtadlayat al-ahwal); the condition of the language (nafs al-khithab), the

context of the speaker (mukhathib) and the context of the audience (mukhathab …

and in order to understand them, more extensive external contexts are also needed

(al-umur al-kharijiyah).229

The importance of asbab al-nuzul can be seen here, “Supposing the Koran

was arranged based on the order of the revelation of the verses according to the

reference of asbab al-nuzul, it would most likely help in the formulation of various

problems in the study of the Koran in general”.230 However, asbab al-nuzul should

not be seen as a determining factor or a reason in which with its absence a verse will

not be revealed. In reality, there are not a lot of texts regarding one event. The

hypothesis that there are many texts as an answer to one event leads to the

segregation between text and misguidance (dalalah) and because of this it brings

destruction towards the concept of the text itself.

In looking at asbab al-nuzul, we always need to realize that within a text there

are always signs that when analyzed can reveal what something outside of the text.

Thus, disclosure of asbab al-nuzul can be done from within the text, similar to how

the straightening of misguidance (dalalah) can be done by understanding the

external context. For this reason, asbab al-nuzul must rely entirely on a historical

approach in order to discover the meaning of a text and also on analysis of the

sociological background—in which asbab al-nuzul is part of it—in order to

229 Zuhairi Misrawi, Al-Qur’an Kitab Toleransi: Inklusivisme, Pluralisme dan

Multikulturalisme, p. 87.

230 Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd, Menalar Firman Tuhan: Wacana Majas dalam Al-Qur’an

Menurut Mu’tazilah (Bandung: Mizan, 2003), p. 207.



WORKING TRANSLATION

understand the aim of the Koran. This is because in order to understand the Koran,

there is no better guidance than knowledge of when and in what kind of situation was

the verse of the Koran revealed in.231 That is why they still pay heed to the

methodical interpretation aspect of nasikh-mansukh (revoking or cancelling,

abrogation).

The following is the second methodology that has been liberally redeveloped

by Liberal Muslims: nasikh-mansukh.

Nasikh-Mansukh

In relation to asbab al-nuzul, another theory known as the nsakh theory

(erase/nullify) developed. It is a terminology commonly used by Koranic

commentators to show the presence of verses that nullify (nasikh) and verses that

are nullified (mansukh). This theory was developed by the majority of ulemas due to

the existence of verses with contradictive literal meanings which can no longer be

compromised. According to this theory, the verses that erase (nasikh) are verses

that were revealed later on. While the verses arased (mansukh) were verses

revealed earlier.

In the traditional study of the Koran and the shari’a of Islam, this would mean

verification and elaboration of various modes of nullification. There are cases when a

number of legal provisions that had been enforced were revoked or defunct and was

replaced with another legal provision. Things like this, when observed from a legal

science perspective is something common and often happens. That a law or legal

provision can be revoked or stated to no longer have any effects is possible. For

Liberal Muslim thinkers, the phenomenon of naskh, as acknowledged by most

ulemas, is the most concrete evidence of the existence of dialectics between

revelation and reality,232 that is the crossroads between normativity and historicity.233

231 Take a look at, Farid Esack, Al-Qur’an, Liberalisme, Pluralisme Membebaskan

Yang Tertindas, p. 89.

232 Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd, Tekstualitas Al-Qur’an Kritik Terhadap Ulumul Qur’an, p.

153.



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Evidence about this is given in the following verse, “We do not

erase/nullify/abolish from a sign/verse/evidence, or we make it forgotten, (except

that) We come/bring with better than it, or similar/equal/alike to it. Do you not know

that God (is) on every thing powerful/capable?” (Q. 2: 106)

Liberalism is not freedom without

boundaries, but an effort to

appreciate individual rights. Every

individual has basic rights, such as

the right to live, the right to express

one’s self, the right of religiosity, and

many more. If liberalism is

understood as appreciation over

basic rights, then religion becomes a

vital elan change. This is in line to a

number of verses stating that the

Prophet was sent to lighten the

burden of man.

(Rachman 2009: 1107)

Maman Imanul Haq Faqieh, Caretaker of the Islamic School al-Mizan,

Majalengka, West Java, and Member of the Syura Council of DPP Kebangitan

Bangsa Party.

In general, there are three main categories in the various discussions of

nasikh-mansukh. First is revelation that has been erased both in terms of its law as

well as its reading in the codex (mushaf) (naskh al-hukm wa al-tilawah). Second is

revelation that only been erased in terms of its law, while the text or the reading still

remains in the codex (mushaf) (naskh al-hukm duna al-tilawah). And third is

233 For a more comprehensive understanding, take a look at, M. Amin Abdullah,

Islamic Studies di Perguruan Tinggi Pendekatan Integratif Interkonektif (Yogyakarta:

Pustaka Pelajar, 2006), p. 26.



WORKING TRANSLATION

revelation that has its text or reading erased, but its law remains still effective (naskh

al-tilawah duna al-hukm).234

“Naskh is something specifically given to the people in order to help simplify

things. They (the people who refused naskh) opposed the idea that Allah would

conduct the act of naskh on something after it had been revealed and practiced.”

They asserted that the establishment of naskh from the mansukh from the verses of

the Koran basically holds on to the knowledge of welfare that is concerned on asbab

al-nuzul and the chronology of the revelation of verses.235

Replacing a text with another text, with all its consequences, in the form of the

nullification of a law with another law can be studied from various angles. What is

most important, however, is to focus on the law of phasing in the process of change.

When the text in its basic concept is a revelation departing from the boundaries of

the concept of reality, then of course the development of the text should pay heed to

the reality surrounding the text. Change is a constant act that continually

accompanies reality. On condition that the text is drawn from reality, then that very

reality should be put into consideration. What is meant by replacing verses is

replacing the law, and not changing the text by nullifying the old ones with the new

ones, both on a textual level and a legal level, but more for reassurance, particularly

in the field of law.236

Understanding naskh as a total nullification towards text would contradict the

spirit of simplifying the phasing process in the formulation of shari’a (pentasyri’an).

Such thought has also been developed by a number of reformers and contemporary

thinkers, such as Sir Sayid Ahmad Khan (w. 1898) and Ismail al-Faruqi (w. 1986)

who believed that revelations that were revealed earlier in certain situations, and

those that changed or were later on improved, are not truly nullified. They believed

that instead of seeing the previous revelations to be nullified by following revelations,

234 Taufik Adnan Amal, Rekonstruksi Sejarah Al-Qur’an, p. 225.

235 Nashr Hamid Abu Zayd, Tekstualitas Al-Qur’an: Kritik Terhadap Ulumul Qur’an, p.

158-159.

236 KH. Ali Yafie, “Nasikh Mansukh dalam al-Qur’an” in Budhy-Munawar Rachman

(ed), Kontektualsasi Doktrin Islam dalam Sejarah, p. 49.



WORKING TRANSLATION

it would be more accurate if we see them to still remain effective and open to the

possibilities to be implemented in a condition similar to when the revelation was

passed down. Thus, the term naskh, erasing or nullifying is better to be understood

as a temporary suspension due to irrelevant context. For this reason, they

concentrated to other methodological aspects of the interpretation, i.e. the issue of

makkiyah and madaniyah (verses revealed in Mecca and Medina).

The following is the third methodology liberally redeveloped by Liberal

Muslims: makkiyah and madaniyah.

Makkiyah and Madaniyah

Makkiyah and madaniyah are the differences between two important phases that

contribute to the formation of text, both in terms of content and structure. This means

that the text is the fruit of a historically dynamic interaction of reality. If makkiyah

verses are the period of the establishment of the foundation for the structure of the

new society, madaniyah verses are the period of the formation. In general, makkiyah

verses emphasize more on tauhid, the values of universal humanity, such as equality

among man, justice, freedom, pluralism and appreciation over the dignity of man.237

At large, it has been agreed that during the Mecca period, the Koran contains more

religious and moral teaching, and does not state about political and legal norms in

specifically,238 also, in general, the calling of the Koran is for the entire mankind and

not, for example, for those who have already embraced another faith or religion,

such as Jewish and Christianity.239 Islam teaches universal humanity values which

also means that Islamic teaching does not only apply for the Arabic nation, but also

non-Arabic nations. Thus, the Islamic teachings that are expressed in spiritual

237 KH. Husen Muhammad and friends, Dawrah Fikih Perempuan, p. 80.

238 Abdullahi Ahmed an-Naim, Dekonstruksi Syariat Wacana Kebebasan Sipil Hak

Asasi Manusia dan Hubungan Internasional dalam Islam (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 1994),

p. 28.

239 M. Dawam Rahardjo, Ensiklopedi Al-Qur’an: Tafsir Sosial Berdasarkan Konsep-

Konsep Kunci (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1996), p. 66



WORKING TRANSLATION

religious idioms are very universal in conduct and cause radical restructuration of the

society.

While for madaniyah verses, in general they contain verses that state the

regulations of living together in an already established society. Besides that, these

verses contain messages and certain provisions regarding hypocrites and other

communities in Medina. In affirmative, madaniyah verses talk about practical

regulations for the Medina community both for the believers and those who have

embraced their own religion.240 During the Medina period, the Koran gave a remark

regarding a social-political need in a newly established community. With the freedom

to develop their institutions and implement their new religious norms, the Muslim

society needed a more detailed teaching and guidance. However, the names

makkiyah and madaniyah are not intended to indicate location only, but also both

historical phases. Makkiyah is a verse/surah revealed before the migration (hijrah),

and madani was revealed later on. Both were revealed in Mecca and Medina in the

year of liberation (Mecca) or wada’ haj or in a journey.

Other characteristics that are easily found in a number of literatures on

makkiyah and madaniyah verses among others include every surah that contains ya-

ayyuha ‘l-nas (wahai man). Every surah that contains ya-ayyuha ‘l-lazdina amanu (O

people who believe!) or about hypocrites is madaniyah. These characteristics

identified by ulemas are not yet complete and perfect. They include salient and

general characteristics, but not the final norm. In this study, time must be put under

consideration along with the size of the text, in terms of content and structure.

Segregation between makkiyah and madaniyah is of course not clear-cut.

This is because among the many madaniyah texts that exist, there are texts

containing characteristics of makkiyah texts. And vice versa, among makkiyah texts

there are texts that contain characteristics of madaniyah texts. The transition from

one phase to another—in terms of reality and text—does not happen over one jump,

but through a staging process. For this reason, the concept makkiyah and

madaniyah for Liberal Muslim thinkers has guided Muslims to “understand the Koran

as a discourse”, besides as a text. Due to this, they must pay heed to other

240 KH. Husen Muhammad and friends, Dawrah Fikih Perempuan, p. 80.



WORKING TRANSLATION

methodological aspects of interpretation, i.e. the issue of ta’wil (metaphorical

interpretation).

Next, is the fourth method liberally redeveloped by Liberal Muslims: the theory

of ta’wil.

Ta’wil Theory

According to Amin Abdullah, metaphorical interpretation or known as ta’wil is

understanding, finding meaning and interpreting241 over textual facts from holy

sources (the Koran and al-Sunnah). It is done in such a way, so that what is needed

is not the physical meaning of the words in the text, but the inward meaning242 that

covers explanations of the general meaning as well as the special meaning or

technical terms that point to an allegorical and metaphorical elucidation. For this

reason, ta’wil or tafsir bi al’ra’ay (rational interpretation) is often seen negatively as it

is not based on historical facts and the language contained in the text. The word

ta’wil appears in the Koran 17 times. Thus, this shows that it is more popular in terms

of language and text, than the word interpretation (tafsir).243

241 M. Amin Abdullah, Islamic Studies di Perguruan Tinggi: Pendekatan Integratif

Interkonektif, p. 184.

242 Nurcholish Madjid, “Masalah Takwil sebagai Metodologi Penafsiran al-Qur’an” in

Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed), Kontektualsasi Doktrin Islam dalam Sejarah, p. 11.

243 The difference between interpretation and ta’wil is reflected in the process of

interpretation that requires tafsirah that is explanations observed by musafir in order

for it to be revealed, while ta’wil is a process that does not always need this medium.

It is even sometimes based on mental movements in finding the origin of a symptom,

or in observing the results. In other words, ta’wil can be done as the foundation of a

direct relation between “the substance/subject” and “object”, while this relation in the

process of interpretation is not a direct relation but through a medium that is in the

form of language, or something that has meaning. In both of these situations, there

needs to be a medium that presents the “sign” and through this sign can the process

of understanding toward the object and the subject take place. Take a look at Nashr



WORKING TRANSLATION

However, it cannot be denied that the ta’wil method sharpens the

understanding on the interpretation of the Koran. Approaching the Koran with a

single interpretation is not sufficient enough to understand the Koran integrally—

because the Koran will lost its essence as the kalam of God that has grandeur and

specialty, both in the capacity of a theocentric book as well as an anthropocentric

book. The kalam of God must be approached with the right methodology in order to

reveal the right meaning with the aim of the text and the contextual reality.

Because of this, ta’wil is an alternative that can be used as one way to

understand verses that could generate interpretation that is not in line with the

authority of God and the spirit of humanity contained in the Koran. The ta’wil method

has given us the space to approach the Koran with a substantive approach. Ta’wil as

a method in understanding the Koran is not merely because the element of the text

that requires interpretation and penakwilan, but because there is a more realistic

element, that every man has different natures (fitrah) and abilities in understanding

the Koran.244

Because of this, the area of ta’wil covers all aspect of the text. It is not even

limited to the boundaries of the conciseness of the hidden meaning. Ta’wil can be

done after the process of tafsir, that is to dive into the depth of a text through mental

movements or ijtihad. Ijtihad is a process that is required along with the development

of reality as well as the plurality of the Muslim communities and their differences.

Ijtihad is conducting ta’wil for text and not distinguishing between fikih and law with

other areas, because ijtihad is always based on new reading. However, it is a form of

new reading that is interpretative and tries to dive into the world of the text and

understand the text comprehensively—a form of intertextuality that allows a fusion of

Horizons.245 This is a condition of possibilities that is within a text. A condition of

Hamid Abu Zayd, Tekstualitas Al-Qur’an Kritik Terhadap Ulumul Qur’an, p. 308, 316-

317.

244 Take a look at, Zuhairi Misrawi, Al-Qur'an Kitab Toleransi Inklusivisme,

Pluralisme dan Multikulturalisme (Jakarta: Fitrah, 2007), p.87.

245 When an activity to understand and interpret something takes place, what is really

taking place is a fusion among horizons that are involved in this interpretation. Those



WORKING TRANSLATION

possibilities for Liberal Muslim thinkers is the key word in understanding the text of

the Koran.

Thus, we can conclude that a person conducting ta’wil should not only master

naqliyah (rational) traditional sciences, but also modern sciences. This is a basic

precondition for a person to conduct ta’wil in order to overcome the position of

religious discourse that is full of various conflicts of interests. And so, they must pay

attention to other methodological aspects of interpretation: muhkamat and

muthasyabihat.

The following is the fifth method liberally redeveloped by Liberal Muslims:

muhkamat and muthasyabihat.

Muhkamat and Mutashabihat

One of the main dispute among Muslims that is strongly related to the issue of ta’wil

as explained previously is the holy verses of the Koran that have an evident or exact

meaning (muhkamat) and those that have unclear or unfixed meanings

(mutasyabihat), that is interpretable.246

Muhkamat verses are a group of law that is conveyed by the Prophet

Muhammad and contains the principles of human behavior, that is prayer,

muamalah, akhlaq and other things that form a message (risalah). Muhkamat verses

function as a maker between the kosher and the haram. While mutasyabihat verses

are a group of the entire essence that Allah gave to the Prophet Muhammad in which

part of it is ghaybiyah, that is things that have not yet been known by the human

awareness when the Koran was revealed. This book represents the prophecy of

at least involved include the horizon of the author, which covers the author, the

horizon of the text and horizons that surround the text, as well as the horizon of the

reader and other horizons surrounding it, for example its existence in a certain

situation, a certain country, or certain psychological state. Take a look at, Fakhruddin

Faiz, Hermeneutika Qur’ani Antara Teks, Konteks dan Kontekstualisasi (Yogyakarta,

Qalam, 2002), p. 35-36.


Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed.), Kontektualsasi Doktrin Islam dalam Sejarah, p. 12.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Muhammad and also distinguishes between the real and the absurd or pure

assumption.247

The issue of muhkamat and mutasyahbihat, causes at least three types of

differences in perspective: first is a different perspective regarding holy verses that

are muhkamat and holy verses that are mutasyahbihat. Because of this dispute,

there are holy verses that according to one Islamic group are muhkamat, but to

another Islamic group are categorized as mutasyahbihat.

Second is a difference in perspective on whether it is allowed or not to

conduct ta’wil on mutasyabihat verses. Part of the Islamic group allows it, but

another forbids it. Third, for those who allow interpretation, there is still a dispute

about who must do the interpretation. As interpretation is not an easy job, it is

understandable that those who are entitled to interpret the Koran should be limited to

those who fulfill the requirements, which include extensive knowledge and the ability

to think deeply. One of the consequences to this is segregation among members of

the community into special groups (al-khawash) and general groups (al-awam). The

first are “the experts’ and the second consists of “people in general”.248

247 Muhammad Syahrur, Prinsip dan Dasar Hermeneutika al-Qur’an Kontemporer

(Yogyakarta: Elsaq Press, 2004), p. 71-72.


Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed), Kontektualsasi Doktrin Islam dalam Sejarah, p. 12-

13.

Every form of understanding toward

the Koran based from a person or a

group’s perspective is open to be

tested by the understanding of

another. Thus, a process of selection

will occur: which is methodologically

established; which is substantively in

line with the universal principles of

Islam; and which historically gives

advantages for the people and for



WORKING TRANSLATION

A word of God that is relevant to Q. 3:7 and can represent two of the ways of

reading. First, for people in general: “It is He who has send down to you, O

Muhammad, the Book; in it are verses that are precise, they are the foundation of the

Book, and others unspecific. As for those in whose hearts is deviation from truth,

they will follow that of it which is unspecific, seeking discord and seeking an

interpretation (suitable to them). And no one knows its (true) interpretation except

Allah. But those firm in knowledge say, “We believe in it. All of it is form our Lord.”

And no one will be reminded except those of understanding”.

Second, the way of reading of the experts (philosophers): “He is the Lord that

has revealed to You Muhammad the Holy Book, and among it are muhkamat verses

that become the mother of the Book, and the others are mutasyabihat. And there are

those who in their heart contain deviation, then they follow the mutasyabihat with a

purpose to create slander and create its ta’wil. And no one shall know except the

Lord and those of knowledge. We believe in the Holy Book; all from the side of our

Lord. And they shall not be able to contemplate except those with reasoning.”249

Seeing the complexity of the issue of muhkmat and muthasyahbihat, Liberal

Muslim thinkers also consider other methodical aspects, i.e. the philosophical issue

249 Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed), Ensiklopedi Nurcholish Madjid, Volume I, p. 310

humanity. Those who can undergo

the process of selection are the

fittest. Because of this, freedom in

reading and understanding the Koran

must be accompanied with freedom

to test and be responsible over it.

(Rachman 2009: 1185)

Masdar Farid Mas’udi, former Director of P3M (Perhimpunan

Pengembangan Pesantren dan Masyarakat), Jakarta. He completed his

undergraduate degree at UIN Sunan Kalijaga, Yogyakarta and his

Postgraduate degree in Philosophy at the University of Indonesia, Jakarta. He

was once the Chair of Tanfidziyah PBNU and now.



WORKING TRANSLATION

of interpretation or known as hermeneutics. Next, the sixth methodology that was

liberally developed by Liberal Muslims: hermeneutics.

Hermeneutics

Along with the change and development of time, demands of an interpretation of the

Koran that is operationally practical as guidance in responding the challenges of the

era has also become a contest as well as a necessity for mankind. On the other

hand, related to the understanding and the interpretation of text, the basic issue is

none other than the issue of methodology. Discussions on methodology are similar

to that of the philosophy of knowledge or epistemology. A science is determined by

its object, and that object determines the method applied. Thus, for Liberal Muslim

thinkers, studies on the methodological aspect is basically a valuable contribution to

the development and the progress of the object that has been developed, including

the Koran in the aspect of understanding and interpretation.

In line with the necessity and the challenges of a method of interpretation that

is contextual, the philosophical world has developed a “method of interpretation” that

is now seen to be representative and comprehensive enough to intensively cultivate

a text in developing contextualization. As it was developed on a philosophical

basis—complete with a reflection and systematic analysis—it is not a surprise that

when developing this text, this method of interpretation is considered to have a high

value of accuracy and validity. This method is known as hermeneutics.250

The task of hermeneutics as one of the methods of interpretation is to reveal

meaning. Because of this, hermeneutics in its most simple definition is to understand

text.251 Hermeneutics can also be understood as a way to interpret symbol in the

250 Hermeneutics deals with the task of explaining words or texts that are considered

to be alien speech by the society, either because they come from God who speaks

to them the language of “the heavens” or they come from a generation in the past

who lived in an “unfamiliar” tradition and language. Take a look at, Komaruddin

Hidayat, Menafsirkan Kehendak Tuhan, (Jakarta: Teraju, 2003), p. 137-138.

251 Sahiron Syamsuddin, and friends, Hermeneutika al-Qur’an Mazhab Yogya,

(Yogyakarta: Forstudia and Islamic, 2003), p. 85.



WORKING TRANSLATION

form of a text or something that is treated like a text in order to find the definition or

meaning. The method of hermeneutics requires the ability to interpret the past that is

not experienced, and bring it into the present.252 Hermeneutics is expected to be a

method of Islamic science that can answer the problems of the mystery of Islamic

science in answering the challenge of the era and humanity that is pluralistic for

whatever religion, tribe and global culture. Religious claims of truth that tend to be

exclusive from other religions are threats toward humanity that shocks rational

humans. The function of hermeneutics in scientific awareness is to provide

awareness for man that religion is not only a power of legitimation and justification,

but also it is a power of transformation and prophetic in building the society.

The term of hermeneutics itself is in the history of Islamic science, especially

the classical interpretation of the Koran is not found. This term is popular when Islam

is sunk in backwardness. Even so, the practice of hermeneutics has in fact been

conducted Muslims for long, especially when facing the Koran. Proofs of this are

first, the problems of hermeneutics is continually experienced and studied, although

it is not presented definitively. This is proven from studies on asbab al-nuzul and

nasikh-mansukh. Second, differences among actual comments toward the Koran

(interpretation) with regulation, theory or method of interpretation has existed since

the appearance of the interpretation of literature that have been compiled in the form

of the science of interpretation (ilmu tafsir). And third, traditional tafsir is always

categorized, for example Syi’ah interpretation, Mu’tazilah tafsir, legal tafsir,

philosophical tafsir, and many more. This shows the presence of certain groups,

certain ideologies, and social horizons of tafsir.

Henceforward, hermeneutics does not only develop in the Western world. It

spreads and penetrates the borders of religion and culture. Islam in which all this

time has established itself on interpretation known as the science of interpretation

(ilmu tafsir) can also be penetrated by hermeneutics.253 A number of experts on

252 Take a look at Fakhruddin Faiz, Hermeneutika Qur’ani Antara Teks, Konteks dan

Kontekstualisasi, p. 126-127.

253 Sibawaihi, Hermeneutika al-Qur’an Fazlur Rahman (Yogyakarta: Jalasutra,

2007), p. 11



WORKING TRANSLATION

modern Islam observed the significance of hermeneutics, particularly in

understanding the Koran. For example, Fazlur Rahman, Farid Esack, Hassan

Hanafi, Nashr Hamid, Abu Zayd and many more. They observed how the science of

interpretation that has been used as a reference in understanding the Koran had its

limitations. For this reason, sciences regarding the Koran as a disciplinary approach

which serve as an important reference in understanding the Koran need serious

attention. This is because understanding the Koran without reconstructing the

sciences, will only give birth to a Koranic meaning but not a contextual one. Thus,

reading the Koran will only fortify the sacredness of the Koran, but will not have any

apt significance to today’s context.

Hermeneutics does not only provide a science of interpretation or a

comprehension theory, but also a science that elucidates the revelation of the verses

from word level to global level. The science on the process of revelation: from a letter

to reality, from logos to praxis, and also transformation of the revelation from the

mind of God to the life of humans.254 This is in fact the importance of hermeneutics

as a “way to read”, “comprehend”, “understand”, and possibly even “transcend

beyond meaning” that have been provided textually. The presence of the Koran does

not disregard hermeneutics, and even voices it out for the reason that most of the

verses in the Koran must be approached by interpretation. This is also why entirely

accepting hermeneutics that was later on personally developed as a Liberal Islam

method of interpretation for Liberal Muslims comprehensible.

254 Take a look at, Hassan Hanafi, Dialog Agama dan Revolusi (Jakarta: Pustaka

Firdaus, 1994), p. 1.



WORKING TRANSLATION

CHAPTER IV

AGAINST THE IDEA OF AN ISLAMIC STATE

A palpable form of the discourse on secularization and secularism in Islam is

manifested through the discourse on the relation between Islam and the state. This

chapter will further elaborate the relation between Islam and the state—which has

now become a thought-provoking topic among Liberal Muslim intellectuals

throughout the Islamic World.255

Harun Nasution, a specialist in Islamic philosophy, asserted that the issue

which triggered the first intellectual conflict in the history of Islam was the issue of the

relation between religion and the state. Discussions over this matter are more

focused on whether or not a well-defined borderline between the religious domain

and the state was required. From the relation between the state and religion, the

issue stretched out as far as to whether or not it was necessary to formulate and

enforce what is later on called an “Islamic state”.256

255 Take a look at, Charles Kurzman (ed.), Liberal Islam (Oxford: Oxford University

Press, 1998), specifically Part I “Against Theocracy”. Several Liberal Muslim thinkers

whom Kurzman call as supporters of the segregation between religion and the state

include: ‘Ali Abd al-Raziq (Egypt), Muhammad Khalaf-Allah (Egypt), Mahmud

Taleqani (Iran), and Muhammad Sa’id al-Ashmawi (Egypt). At present, so many

Liberal Muslim thinkers support secularism—or segregation between religion and the

state in the Islamic World, take a look at, Samsu Rizal Panggabean, “Din, Dunya and

Dawlah” Ensiklopedi Tematis Dunia Islam, Volume 6 (Jakarta: Ichtiar Baru van

Hoeve, 2002), p. 45-81.

256 Rusli Karim, Negara dan Peminggiran Islam Politik (Yogyakarta: Tiarawa

Wacana, 1999) p. ix. Recently, there have been talks over a book which punitively

criticizes the notion of an Islamic state based on the review of the history of the

Islamic caliphates from the perspective of Farag Fouda, an Egyptian thinker. Fouda

affirmed that there was no element of idealism in the Islamic caliphates—which is

claimed to be the concrete form of an Islamic state in the past. He further stated that



WORKING TRANSLATION

In fact, the correlation between religion and the state in the past and today is

not a novelty, and it is certainly not something only associated with Islam.257

However, one could say that discussions over the relation between religion and the

state in Islam are the most impressive, expressive and complex ones in the history of

mankind—particularly at present day in which discussions have developed so

dynamically.258 Throughout the course of history, the relation between Muslims and

Western non-Muslims (European Christians) has been intense. Set off by the

military-political expansion of classic Islam which demerited the Christians, the

relation topped with the release of Constantinopel and later the Crucifix War. It

retaliated with the development of the global structure that was increasingly

dominated by the imperialistic-colonialistic West wherein the Islamic World was most

wounded. The traumatic relation between Islam and the West instigated the

resentment embedded in the Islamic discourse concerning the state in which the

“West” is seen as “the enemy.”259

the conception of a secular modern state is far more constructive than the

caliphates, which is no different than the feudal monarchy in Europe during the

Middle Ages. The book prompted a convoluted debate in Egypt in 1992 and caused

Fouda to be shot to death by a fanatic from Jamaah Islamiyah. Take a look at, Farag

Fouda, Kebenaran yang Hilang: Sisi Kelam Praktik Politik dan Kekuasaan dalam

Sejarah Kaum Muslim (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2008), translation by Novriantoni.

257 Take a look at the scheme problem between religion and the state that is well

elaborated by Franz Magnis-Suseno in Etika Politik: Prinsip-prinsip Moral Dasar

Kenegaraan Modern (Jakarta: Gramedia, 2003), p. 355-366.

258 Nurcholish Madjid, “Agama dan Negara dalam Islam: Telaah atas Fikih Siyasi

Sunni” in Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed.), Kontektualsasi Doktrin Islam dalam

Sejarah(Jakarta: Paramadina, 1995), p. 588.

259 Nurcholish Madjid, “Agama dan Negara dalam Islam: Telaah atas Fikih Siyasi

Sunni”, p. 588. “Although sharing the same theological roots, and interaction has

been established for centuries, the relation between Islam and the West is often

characterized by mutual ignorance, stereotyping, mockery and conflict” (John L.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Islam’s ironic experience regarding the relation between religion and the state

in the modern age is symbolized by self-accusations among Muslims using various

theological stigmas, such as infidel (kafir), apostate (murtad), and shirk (syirik), as

witnessed from the incidents between the goverments of the Kingdom of Saudi

Arabia and the Republic Islam of Iran during the early 1980s. Saudi Arabia, as the

successor of the Wahabi orientation in the Hanbali school of Sunni Islam, directed

harsh rhetorics towards Iran as the successor of Syiah Islam which has throughout

history relentlessly been its political archenemy.

Outside the complexity and the dynamic thought that “split” Muslim thinkers

into two categories, i.e. those who “agree” on an Islamic state, and those who

“disagree” on an Islamic state, the relation between religion and the state in Islam

has been elucidated through the example given by the Prophet Peace Be Upon

Him—heedless of the meaning hoped to be ascertained through it. Nurcholish, a

Muslim intellectual who has recently influenced the Islamic perspective regarding the

concept of state in Indonesia, for example interpreted that after the migration from

Mecca to Medina (madinah: city, civilization), the name chosen by the Prophet to

replace (the previous name) Yatsrib revealed the Prophet’s plan in carrying out his

holy purpose which is to foster a high-cultured and civilized society, and later on a

social-political entity based on the definition of nation-state in which the state is for

everyone or for every citizen and is also designed for a common maslahat.260 The

state of Medina under Muhammad serves as a “prototype for the relation between

religion and the state in Islam”.261

Esposito)—quoted by Abdul Rohim Ghazali, “Hubungan Islam—Barat dan Prospek-

prospeknya” in Hery Sucipto (ed.), Islam Mahzab Tengah: Persembahan 70 Tahun

Tarmizi Taher (Jakarta: Grafindo, 2007), p. 406.

260 Take a look at Nurcholish Madjid, Indonesia Kita (Jakarta: Gramedia and

Universitas Paramadina, 2003), p. 48.

261 Muhammad Arkoun calls it the “Medina Experiment”. According to Nurcholish, the

Medina experiment serves as an example of a social-political structure associated to

the delegation of authorities—particularly authorities or power that are not under the



WORKING TRANSLATION

The debate on the relation between religion and the state—between those

who agree of an “Islamic state” and those who oppose it—transpired in relation to

the differences in interpreting the Koran and Hadith. Such differences occurred due

to the multi-interpretative approach, and not a monolithic approach, used in viewing

these two sources of Islamic teaching. In Islamic teaching, doctrines on the

segregation of religion and the state remain debatable. This is not the same as, for

example in Christianity, in which due to the reform movement that gave birth to

Protestant Christianity, a strict doctrine on the segregation of religion and the state—

or secularism—was established. The doctrine on the segregation of religion and the

state among Christians is final. This issue, however, continues to be a long and

arduous debate that continues until today among Muslim thinkers. What is more, the

control of one hand, unlike the dictatorship system, but are delegated through

discussions—and a constitutional life. This means that the chief constituent of

authority and power does not lie within personal interests and decisions, but within a

written document that contains principles that are jointly agreed on. The main idea of

the Prophet’s Medina Experiment is a social-political structure that is not governed

by personal interests, but jointly governed; not by ad hoc principles that may change

from time to time depending on the leader’s will, but by principles that have been

institutionalized in a document containing the basic agreement of all members of the

society or known as the “constitution”. Arkoun’s and Nurcholish’s perspectives are

characteristically similar to the perspective of Liberal Islam, and it will be further

elaborated in this chapter. Take a look at, Nurcholish Madjid, “Agama dan Negara”.

In-depth elaboration on the Medina Experiment and how it inspired the

governing system in Indonesia has been proposed by Deddy Ismatullah, Gagasan

Pemerintahan Modern dalam Konstitusi Madinah (Bandung: SAHIFA, 2006). This

book was initially a dissertation in the Doctorate Program of Faculty of Law

University Padjajaran (2003).



WORKING TRANSLATION

debate on the problems of the relation between religion and the state during the 20th

century has increasingly intricated and stirred conflicts.262

In contemporary Islamic political thought, particularly regarding the study of

religion and the state, there are at least three schools of thought: “secularists”,

“traditionalists” and “reformists”. The “secularists” believe that Islam only regulates

the relation between human and God, and thus state affairs are entirely under the

authority of humans. From this perspective, the secular thought that diametrically

segregated political affairs and religion was born. This is because if these two

authorities unify, absolutism will arise. Such unification would allow the state to

intervene in religious matters, including making sure that religious rituals abide by

the consent of the religious authority. On the other hand, religion will grant legitimacy

to the ruling party and may even consent to the state’s use of religion for the

legitimacy of power. In practice, religion will compel the state to exercise a certain

wisdom. For this reason, a secular government aims to moderate reliance between

the government and religion, and replace religious law with civil law, as well as

eliminate unjust differences that could emerge due to religion.

According to this school of thought, the processes of secularization and even

secularism can no longer be prevented no matter how much they are defied in

discourse. Donald Eugene Smith, a theorist on modernization, asserted how

secularization is an inevitable process. This means that the process of segregating

the domestic sphere and the public sphere within Muslim communities can no longer

be barred. It is bound to take place. It goes together with the processes of

modernization and industrialization that will also transpire in developing states

inhabited by Muslim citizens. When modernization transpires in these Muslim-

populated states, that is when secularization will too transpire.

Although not based on the doctrine of

Islam, the disposition to segregate

262 Take a look at Asghar Ali Engineer, The Islamic State (NY: Advent Books, 1980),

particularly Chapter 6, “The Resurgence of Islamic State”, p. 147-198.



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religion and the state in Islam is

inevitable. Religion simply cannot

cover all aspects of human life.

(Rachman 2009: 7910

Jajat Burhanudin, former Director of the Center of the Study of Islam and

Society (PPIM) UIN Jakarta. He is a Lecturer of the Faculty of Adab and

Humanities at UIN Jakarta where he is currently completing his

undergraduate degree. He received his MA and Doctoral degree from Leiden

University, the Netherlands.

In the Islamic World, the pioneer of this paradigm is ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Rziq, an

ulema and thinker from Egypt. In his well-known book entitled al-Islam wa Ushul al-

Hukm, he proposed that the shari’a of Islam is simply spiritually characterized and

has no relations to the law and the practices of the physical world; Islam had no

correlation whatsoever to the governing system during the time of the Prophet and

al-Khulafa al-Rasyidun; The caliphates was not a religious or Islamic political system,

but a system based on worldliness; It was not estabished on either the Koran or

Hadith. ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Raziq strongly opposed the opinion that the Prophet once

founded an Islamic state.263 His thesis liberated political institutions and many social,

legal and political practices from the margins of the shari’a.264

263 Lili Romli, Islam Yes, Partai IslamYes: Sejarah Perkembangan Partai-partai Islam

di Indonesia (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 2006) p. 25. ‘Ali ‘Abd al-Raziq’s book

entitled al-Islam was Ushul al-Hukm (Cairo: Matba’ah Mishr Syirkah Musahamah

Mishriyah, 1925).

264 Antony Black, Pemikiran Politik Islam: Dari Masa Nabi Hingga Masa Kini (Jakarta:

Serambi, 2006), p. 572-573. Regarding the thoughts of ‘Ali ‘Abd. Al-Raziq, take a

look at “Message Not Government, Religion Not State” in Charles Kurzman, Liberal

Islam.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Abdullah-I Ahmed an-Naim, a contemporary Muslim thinker born of Sudan,

stated that the idea of a Muslim community abiding in a secular-liberal state is not a

novelty; it is even a necessity. Throughout the course of history: from the early

period of Islam during the time of the Prophet Muhammad, the fourth Caliph

Rasyidun, the Ummayad Dynasty, the Abbasid Dynasty, the Ottoman Dynasty to the

21st century all refered to the securlar oder. And so, the principle of shari’a will be

bereaved of its authority and religious value when it is forced upon by the state.

Thus, a utilitarian segregation between Islam and the state is highly necessary so as

to maintain the positive role of the shari’a in enlightening the Muslim community. The

shari’a will remain important in shaping the attitude and behavior of the Muslim

community, though not serving as the state’s public law.265 An-Naim calls this as

“the state’s neutrality toward religion”. In the context of Indonesia, in which the

majority are Muslims, the state is “neutral” to all religions, and thus an-Naim’s

thought becomes higly relevant and contextual.266

Such secular perspective also received verification from Abied al-Jabiri, a

thinker from Morocco. His book entitled al-Din wa al-Dawlah wa Tathbiq al-Syari’ah

illustrates on what would happen if Islam established a fixed formula for the

governing systems, why the Prophet’s companions were left in uncertainty after the

Prophet’s death, and how the problem was resolved through an agreement at

Tsaqifah Bani Sa’idah. This not only proves, but also indicates that the government

prototype post the Prophet was a form of reasoning or a result of negotiation

(secular), and not a part of the divine law. For this reason, according to this “secular”

group, the state’s authority must be limited in order to prevent the state’s intervention

265 Abdullah-I Ahmed an-Na’im, Dekonstruksi Syariat: Wacana Kebebasan Sipil, Hak


p. 84.

266 Abdullah-I Ahmed an-Na’im in his research in Indonesia developed a solution on

the relation between the Islamic shari’a and the state. Take a look at his latest book

entitled Syariat, Negara dan Sekularisme (Jakarta: CSRC UIN Jakarta, 2007).



WORKING TRANSLATION

in nonnegotiable matters of akidah (the foundation of belief), religious rituals and

shari’a.267

Conversely, the “traditionalist-revivalist” believed that Islam is not only a

system of belief and rituals, but also a system of society and nation. Thus, it is more

apt to be called a way of life. Islam does not differentiate sacred things with secular

things.268 For this reason, it is the Muslim community’s obligation to establish an

Islamic state and apply the shari’a of Islam in a comprehensive (kaffah) manner

through the formalization of the Islamic law. Run the state based on a theocratic

system—and not democracy—wherein sovereignty of the law is in God’s hand, and it

is a teaching that has received legitimacy from the Koran.269

According to them, the appropriate law to govern humans is the law of God

(the shari’a of Islam). The only legitimate authority is that of God’s (theocracy). This

implies that the law or regulations that must be applied in the society are the

regulations of God, and not those created by humans. In today’s contemporary age,

such theocratic perspective, was followed by Imam Khomeini, an ulema and leader

of the Iran Revolution in 1979. Khomeini—an example of an ulema who established

an Islamic state in Iran in the form of a Republic Islam of Iran—noted, “In an Islamic

state, the authority to establish the law lies in God. No one else has the right to

267 Imam Wahyudin, “Syariat sebagai Hukum Sekular”, www.web.uct.ac.za

268 From the results of the survey conducted by Sukron Kamil, “There is not a single

specialist in the theory of classic and middle age Islamic politics who believes that

Islam and the state are two separate entities” Take a look at Sukron Kamil,

“Pemikiran Politik Islam Klasik dan Pertengahan: Tinjauan terhadap Konsep

Hubungan Agama dan Negara” in Refleksi, Journal of Religious and Philosophical

Studies, Vol. VII, No. 2. 2005. P. 138.

269 Besides Sayyid Quthb, among the Sunnis, the figure who promoted the idea of an

Islamic state is Abdul A’la al-Maududi. Take a look at Zafaryab Ahmed, “Maudoodi’s

Islamic State” in Asghar Khan (ed.), Islam, Politics and the State (Petaling Jaya,

Selangor: Ikraq, 1987), p. 55-57. A more moderate perspective can be seen in,

Rifyal Ka’bah, Penegakan Syariat Islam di Indonesia (Jakarta: Khairul Bayan, 2004).



WORKING TRANSLATION

establish a law. And what is legitimate is only the law from God.”270 Thus, according

to this “traditionalist-revivalist” group, Islamic teaching includes religious and state

affairs (al-Islam din wa dawlah) because Islam does not recognize a segregation

between religion and state. Islam does not recognize secularism.

Data reveals that there isn’t a single

country that virginally applies

secularization. This is because

secularization is in fact a process of

negotiation between two domains:

religion and the state. This case is

similar to the negotiation process in

legal issues, between religious law

and positive law.

(Rachman 2009: 993)

Luthfi Assyaukanie, Koordinator of the Liberal Islam Network (JIL) and

Executive Director of the Religious Reform Project (Repro) Jakarta. He

completed his Undergraduate degree at Jordan University, Amman, Jordan,

his Master’s degree at the International Institute of Islamic Thought and

Civilization (ISTAC), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, and his Doctoral degree in

Islamic Studies at the University of Melbourne, Australia.

Furthermore, Khomeini states that humans are part of the universe; the law

that governs humans is not any different with the law that governs the universe. God

is the Creator of the universe and humans. He is behind the creation of the universe

and humans; humans’ obedience towards the law that governs the universe; the

270 M. Din Syamsuddin, Etika Agama dalam Membangun Masyarakat Madani

(Jakarta: Logos, 2000), p. 59. Also take a look at, Khomeini, Sistem Pemerintahan

Islam (Jakarta: Pustaka Zahra, 2002), p. 47.



WORKING TRANSLATION

establishment of the shari’a for human actions. Observing Khomeini’s and this

traditionalist-revivalist group’s statement, we can conclude that they have a

unanimous opinion regarding Islam governing all aspects, including the choice of the

governing system. Besides Khomeini, Sayyid Quthb, from the “revivalist Islam”,

believed that a state that does not establish its existence on the law of the shari’a of

Islam cannot be called an Islamic government.271 Quthb believed and was assured

that Islam is a comprehensive way of life that departs from the principle of tauhid and

religious rituals to Allah.272

From the spectacles of traditionalist-revivalists, the theocratic system is the

most apt system legitimized by the Koran. The democratic system is considered to

be troubled, as democracy is not an Islamic concept, but a secular product. The

concept of the sovereignty of the people is against the concept of the sovereignty of

the shari’a; Democracy’s collective leadership contests the concept of sole

leadership in Islam; Freedom in democracy opposes the concept of bound to the

shari’a law.273

The “reformists” affirmed that although Islam is not merely a religion that

regulates the relation between humans and God, it is also not a all-inclusive religion

that covers all aspects of regulations in a detailed manner, including regulations on

statehood. According to this group, there are no theological arguments both in the

Koran and the Sunna that obliges a state to implement a certain form of governance.

Matters of the state and governance, as stated by this group, is delegated to the

271 Munawir Sjadzali, Islam dan Tata Negara: Ajaran, Sejarah dan Pemikiran

(Jakarta: UI Press, 1993), p. 150-151.

272 John L. Esposito, Islam dan Politik (Jakarta: Bulan Bintang, 1990), p. 187.

273 This sharp perspective is represented by Radical Muslims in Indonesia, take a

look at, Jamhari and Jajang Jahrowi (ed.), Gerakan Salafi Radikal di Indonesia

(Jakarta: Rajawali Pers, 2004). For a more moderate perspective, take a look at,

Mohammad Natsir, Islam sebagai Dasar Negara: Pidato di Depan Sidang Majelis

Konstituante untuk Menentukan Dasar Negara RI (1957-1959) (Bandung: Sega

Arsy, 2004), editor: Kholid O. Santosa.



WORKING TRANSLATION

ijtihad of humans. However, the structure of ethical values sourcing from the

guidance of the Koran can be made as a foundation of the practices in society and

nation life. The structure values mentioned here include honesty and responsibility

(al-amanah), justice (al-adalah), brotherhood (al-ukhuwah), pluralism (al-ta

addudiyah), equality (al-musawah), discussion (al-syuwa), peace (al-silm), freedom

(al-hurriyah), and social control (amr ma’ruf nahy munkar). Those who abide by

these thoughts feel it is unnecessary to establish an Islamic state, or even formalize

the shari’a of Islam into a positive law. As mentioned by Safii Maarif, the most

important purpose of the Koran is so that the values and ethical commandments are

held high and bind socio-political activities of mankind. These values are tied to one

another organically by principles of justice, equality and independence that also

occupy the central position in the moral teaching of the Koran.274

Secularism in Indonesia

Summarizing the three types mentioned previously, there are at least two typologies

that will be used in this analysis. We will proceed to classify the Muslim thinkers in

the discourse of the relation between religion and the state. First, the “organic

intellectuals” or “revivalists” or now better known as “Islamists”, and even “radicals”.

274 A. Syafii Maarif, Islam dan Pancasila sebagai Dasar Negara: Studi tentang

Perdebatan dalam Konstituante (Jakarta: LP3ES, 1996) p. 16. These thoughts were

also developed by Abdurrahman Wahid, Mengurai Hubungan Agama dan Negara

(Jakarta: Grasindo, 1999). “Reform” thoughts regarding religion and the state

through the perspective of Muhammadiyah and NU. In NU, particularly, the debate

over this issue has ended, after the issuance of the “Declaration of the Relation

Between Islam and Pancasila” in NU’s 26th Congress in 1984 which stated that the

“Acceptance and the Practice of Pancasila is a realization of the efforts of the Muslim

community in Indonesia to be able to implement the shari’a of religion.” Take a look

at, Marzuki and Abd Moqsith Ghazali, “Relasi Agama: Perspektif Pemikiran

Nahdlatul Ulama” in Istiqro’ Research Journal of the Directorate of Higher Islamic

Education, The Ministry of Religious Affairs of Indonesia, Volume 04, Number 1,

2005, p. 148-175.



WORKING TRANSLATION

They are those who claim on the need to unify divine dimensions and politics, as

according to their opinion, Islam has an extensive coverage and includes all

spectrums of life. According to this organic exponent, Islam is the unification of

religion and the state. These organic intellectuals are represented by Sayyid Quthb,

Rasyid Ridla and al-Maududi from the Islam Sunni, and Khomeini from the Islam

Syiah.275

Next is “secular intellectuals” who are those who claim the need to segregate

religion and the state. The purpose is to protect and preserve the eternality and

perfection of religion (Islam). This perspective is expressively represented by Ali Abd

al-Raziq, who was mentioned previously, and also all Liberal Muslim thinkers.276

Within the Muslim community, the idea to segregate religion and the state was

first proposed by Ali Abd al-Raziq in his book, al-Islam wa Ushul al-Hukm, while the

first person to put the concept into practice was Kemal Attaturk in Turkey in 1924.

Recently, the names of progressive thinkers who proposed ideas of secularism, such

as Thoha Husein, Mohammed Arkoun, Abdullahi Ahmad an-Naim, Asghar Ali

Engineer, Mohammad Abied al-Jabiri, Abdul Karim Soroush and many others

emerged. They believed that state regulations should be made based on rational

consideration. Involvement of the religion is only acceptable as a moral source.

On the other hand, Radicals, Islamists, Revivalists, or Organic Intellectuals,

are actively involved in guiding the community, particularly on matters of how to

position the teaching of Islam as the center of social, political and economic life.

These theorists have an Islamic thought, which means that they are against

separating religion and the state, and such thought has developed along with the

belief that Islam is a comprehensive religion that also covers the governing system.

The Islamic governing system that is refered to as a prototype for the Muslim

community is the system under al-Khulafa al-Rasyudun (the fourth caliph). Al-

275 Asghar Ali Engineer, The Islamic State, p. 122-148 (on Abdul A’la Al-Maududi

and Jama’at-e Islamic), p. 180-198 (Khomeini and Iran)

276Debate on the Islamic state and Liberal Muslim thoughts in the modern age, take

a look at, Asghar Ali Engineer, The Islamic State, p. 87-121.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Maududi portrayed the social and nation life during the time as congruent, orderly

and harmonious, and characterized by the spirit of unison and brotherhood, both in

the body of the government and components of the society. However, this pretty

picture is unfortunately not supported by the reality of history.277

In the development of Islamic political thought in Indonesia, both the Islamist

or radical wing and the secularist or Liberal Islam wing, have attempted to influence

the Muslim community.278 The first wing was roused by Agus Salim and Mohammad

Natsir, while the second wing transpired from the thought of Soekarno.279 The issue

of the relation between religion and the state first entered debate regarding

weltanschauung (the foundation of the state) in the sessions of BPUPKI (Business

Investigation Agency Preparation of Indonesian Independence). In the sessions,

277 Munawir Sjadzali, Islam dan Tata Negara, p. 32. Farag Fouda criticized the

romanticizing of the history of the Islamic caliph regime or the Islamic state idealized

as well as emphasize on the importance of secularism. Take a look at, Farag Fouda,

Kebenaran yang Hilang, p. 185-187.

278 M. Din Syamsuddin, “Beberapa Catatan Problematika Politik Islam di Indonesia”

in Abuddin Nata (ed.), Problematika Politik Islam di Indonesia (Jakarta: Grasindo,

2002), p. 22-29. According to Din Syamsuddin, “The presence of Islamic politics in

Indonesia’s political arena is the continuance of the white and red (santri-abangan)

dichotomy in the Muslim community” (p. 23).

279 The prototype of the pro-contra polemic of the idea of an Islamic state is reflected

in the debate between Soekarno (those contra to an Islamic state) and M. Natsir

(those pro to an Islamic state), and again reflected in the recent debate—known as

“Liberal Islam” (those contra to an Islamic state) and “Literal Islam” (those pro to an

Islamic state). Documentation on the prototype of this polemic, take a look at, Ahmad

Suhelmi, Polemik Negara Islam, Soekarno versus Natsir (Jakarta: Teraju, 2002).

Chapter 5 of this book covers the development of the history of Indonesia until today

from the successors of Soekarno and Natsir, and those who are still in debate, as if

there are no new substances in the debate between Islamic issues and the state in

Indonesia.



WORKING TRANSLATION

there was a debate on the type of foundation for the state. A lengthy debate on this

issue eventually gave birth to two large groups in BPUPKI; the “secular nationalists”

and “Islam nationalists”. The first group aspired for a national ideology for the state.

While the second group aspired for a religious ideology, i.e. Islam. In the debate, it is

interesting to note that, as written by Ahmad Syafii Maarif, only 20% or around 15

members of BPUPKI that proposed Islam as the foundation of the state. For this

reason, it is not a surprise that BPUPKI’s decision regarding the foundation of

Indonesia is a national ideology and not Islam.280

The lengthy quandary between secular nationalists and Islam nationalists

serves as an empirical proof that the tension between the two continued long after

the debate of the founding fathers. In his book at the University of Chicago that has

been published in Indonesian with the title Islam and State Matters, Syafii explained

how the ideas of the Muslim group was refused by non-Muslim groups that were in

favor of Pancasila. In this debate, the Muslim group criticized Pancasila as it was

considered as a secular ideology and opposed the soul of the Muslim community.

During this debate, the Masyumi group favored Islam as the basis of the state.281

However, over time, the Muslim community representing the Muslim

nationalists failed to make Islam as the foundation of the state after the 1945

Constitution was officialized in 1945, the Jakarta Charter was revoked and Pancasila

was declared as the foundation of the state. It did not end there. The Muslim

community was once again involved in conflicts as reflected from Constituante

assemblies. The Muslim community also began to be involved in the constitutional

struggle during the debate on the draft design of the 1945 Constitution. This time, the

Muslim community who represented the Islam nationalist group united and fought for

280 A. Syafii Marif, Islam dan Pancasila, p. 109.

281 M. Syafi’I Anwar, “Agama, Negara, dan Dinamika Civil Islam di Indonesia:

Pelajaran dari Sejarah”, Journal Al-Wasathiyyah, Vol. I. No. 3. 2006, p. 12.

Regarding Masyumi who defended an Islamic state, take a look at Yusril Ihza

Mahendra, Modernisme dan Fundamentalisme dalam Politik Islam: Perbandingan

Partai Masyumi (Indonesia) dan Partai Jamaat-i-Islami (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1999).



WORKING TRANSLATION

their aspiration to make Islam as the foundation of the state. Nationalists and non-

Muslims criticized this Muslim group due to their over-determinant attitude as well as

their scripturalist and formal approach to Islam politics. When the debate rolled

without an agreement, Soekarno proposed to return to the 1945 Constitution. The

Constituante Assembly initially refused Soekarno’s proposition. However, with

support from the military, Soekarno issued a Presidential Decree on July 5 1959 to

return to the 1945 Constitution, and ended the second wave of the demands of the

Islamic group to make Islam as the foundation of the state.

With the issuance of the Decree of July 5 1959, Soekarno evidently

demonstrated his power. Soekarno declared the importance of an implemented

“Guided Democracy”. Systematically, the idea of Pancasila was coined by Soekarno

in his speech on June 1, 1945. Soekarno proclaimed Indonesia’s Five State

Principles: The nationhood of Indonesia, a just and civilized humanity, unanimity or

democracy, social welfare and belief in the one and only God. From previous

explanation, we see how the principle related to religion is placed as number five,

while the principle of nationality is placed as number one.282 As it is further

developed, the order of Pancasila became: Belief in the one and only God,

Humanity, Unity, Democracy and Justice. Regarding the concept of Pancasila,

Soekarno once stated his view that Pancasila could be summarized into one

principle and that is mutual aid (gotong royong). According to him, the principle on

God could even be eliminated. From the very beginning, Soekarno had always

resisted attempts from Islamic groups to make Islam as the fighting spirit and the

principle of the state. In his speech in Amuntai, South Kalimantan, January 27, 1953,

he asked the people to refuse any invitations in making Islam as the state principle

as it would make those who are non-Muslims detach themselves from Indonesia.283

This shows the strong influence secular thoughts have among nationalists. However,

what is interesting is no matter how secular a thought is, for Soekarno, for example,

it will always contain traces of Islamic inspiration. Ridwan Lubis, in his dissertation,

282 A. Syafii Maarif, Islam dan Pancasila, p. 179

283 Rusli Karim, Negara dan Peminggiran, p. 171.



WORKING TRANSLATION

for example, explained that the concept of Soekarno’s Pancasila was inspired by his

view on Islam, particularly on nationalism in relation to the act of defending rights

and truth, internasionalism with the Islamic brotherhood (ukhuwah Islamiyah),

unanimity through shura, and social welfare with orders to act justly and under one

god.284

Kuntowijoyo—a Muslim thinker and historian from Universitas Gadjah Mada—

believed that Pancasila as an ideology is an “objectivication” of religions. Pancasila

is the objectivication of Islam, so Pancasila receives double support: that is ideology

with a categorical imperative in which through an internalization process it can

penetrate the area of religion285--no matter what the religion is.

Furthermore, it is interesting to observe the thought of M. Dawam Rahardjo—

a Muslim thinker who entirely supported secularism in Indonesia— which stated that

Pancasila contains elements of “secularism”. This means that the Republic of

Indonesia is not a theocractic state under the leadership of a religious leader, but a

state based on Belief of the One and Only God in which the state guarantees

religious freedom—the state does not intervene in religious matters, but protects and

fosters them; The state absorbs the virtuous values of religion; and the state gives

way for religious activities.286

The acceptance of Pancasila as a principle and as a state ideology is the

climax of conflict as well as the result of the negtiation among various schools of

thought in Indonesia at that time. The most important function in relation to the

284 Ridwan Lubis, Pemikiran Soekarno tentang Islam (Jakarta: CV. Haji Masagung,

1992), p. 111.

285 Kuntowijoyo, Muslim Tanpa Masjid: Esai-esai Agama, Budaya dan Politik dalam

Bingkai Strukturalisme Transendental (Bandung: Mizan, 2001) p. 140

286 M. Dawam Rahardjo, Intelektual, Intelegensia dan Perilaku Politik Bangsa

(Bandung: Mizan, 1999), p. 480



WORKING TRANSLATION

acceptance of the Pancasila principles is to encourage Islam as the majority religion

to be tolerant towards other religions.287

In the Indonesian sphere, Pancasila, refering to the term by Robert N. Bellah,

can be called as a civil religion. The same goes for the word religion, in Bellah’s

proposition, the principle “Belief in the One and Only God” does not serve as a

defense for a certain religion. However, it aims to affirm that the religions in

Indonesia essentially circle around one God, that is the One and Only God. This is

proven from the nullification of the “controversial” seven words in the Jakarta Charter

which is the raw material of Pancasila. However, as indicated by A. R. Zainuddin, the

principle Belief in the One and Only god in Pancasila is one principle that inspires

other principles, in which the other principles halve also absorbed it.288

During the New Order, the position of Pancasila as the state principle and

ideology strengthened. This was fortified by the establishment of October 1 as

“Pancasila Sanctity Day”. However, as in the era of Soekarno, tension and conflict

transpired between the supporters of Islamic politics and those refusing it. It

worsened due to anti-Islam attiudes by the elites of the New Order. In the era of the

New Order, Soeharto had also predicted Islam would be a dangerous threat to his

authority in terms of ideology and politics. At the outset of his governance, Soeharto

treated Islam as his second political “enemy” after communist and was condemned

as a “right wing extrimist”. This situation politically developed into a crisis of trust

between Islamic groups and the New Order. However, slowly Soeharto’s political

stance toward Islam in certain phases changed. This change of political landscape in

fact relied on the political attitude of Soeharto. Nevertheless, in the late 1970s,

287 One of the highest peaks of the acceptance of Pancasila is the thought of KH.

Ahmad Siddiq who proposed the statement that Pancasila is final for the Muslim

community. Regarding this, take a look at Munawar Fuad Noeh and Mastuki HS

(ed.), Menghidupkan Ruh Pemikiran KH. Ahmad Siddiq (Jakarta: Gramedia, 2002),

p. 126-145.

288 A. R. Zainuddin, Pemikiran Politik Islam, Islam, Timur Tengah dan Benturan

Ideologi (Jakarta: Grafika Indah, 2004), p. 39



WORKING TRANSLATION

disregarding the hegemonic approach, Soeharto began to accommodate a number

of regio-politic aspirations of Muslims.

The decade between 1960s and 1970s is a period where the Muslim

community, particularly the thinkers and the activists, felt a heavy burden due to a

difficult synthesis between Islam and the state. The most crucial point at that time

was the frequency of Islam becoming a target of ideological suspicion and positioned

in a marginal place within national political processes.289

In such social-political situations, Nurchlish Madjid proposed the idea of

secularization, which we will further discuss in the following passage.

The Debate of Secularism in Indonesia: Nurcholish Madjid

Aware that the issues mentioned before did not only have political dimensions, but

also theological aspects, Nurcholish tried to provide an alternative resolution that is

particularly related to the theological aspects.290 Nurcholish believed that the source

of the issue faced by the Muslim community at that time was the lost of a

psychological striking force which is clearly attained from religion.291 This was

289 M. Syafi’I Anwar, Agama, Negara, p. 13. Also take a look at, B. J. Boland, The

Struggle of Islam in Modern Indonesia (The Hague: Martinus Nijhoff, 1971).

290 Nurcholish, as narrated by his close friend, Eki Syachrudin, is one of the best

examples in terms of organization and politics. He is a democrat who is consequent

in his words and actions. He positioned himself toward true aspiration, i.e. attaining a

healthy and clean community. For more details, take a look at, Eki Syachrudin, Moral

Politik sebuah Refleksi (Jakarta: LP3ES, 2006), p. 503-506.

291 Nurcholish proposed the idea of the need of freedom of the mind and triggered

fresh ideas that had a psychological striking force that quickly responded to many

claims due to the growth of the society in economics, politics and social aspects. In

other words, the Muslim community must be able to take up initiatives in building a

society based on worldliness. Thus, the gate of ijtihad for Nurcholish remains open,

and the society must understand the religion. What is more, according to Nurcholish,

if you want to be consistent with the religious teachings, a Muslim must be opened to



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marked by the inability of the Muslim community, represented by their leaders, to

distinguish between transcendental and temporal values. For this reason, Nurcholish

suggested the Muslim community to liberate itself from the tendency to position

things that are meant for the physical sphere into the physical sphere, and things

that are meant for the spiritual sphere into the spiritual sphere (the hereafter).

From here came the notion of “secularization” which served as a response to

the social political phenonmenon that developed at the outset of the New Order,

which was the implementation of the notion and thought of Nurcholish regarding

Islam as an open religion that fosters the idea of profress. Nurcholish invited the

Muslim community to not develop a phobia against the phenomenon of

modernization wherein one of the implications is the acceptance of secularization.292

In the world of thought, the notion of secularization is unseparable from the

ijtihad of Nurcholish. Secularization is defined as a physical process in the sense that

it places knowledge as the main role. Thus, the main definition on secularization is

acknowledgement of the authority of knowledge and implementation in guiding the

physical world in which that very knowledge will continue to proceed and develop

toward perfection.

I believe that we do not need to be

afraid in losing revelations. Because

future technology will progress and

advance and will always be able to

ideas of progress and is willing to listen to the development of humanitarian ideas in

an extensive spectrum, and then choose among them that according to objective

measurements contain universal truth.

292 Ann Kull, Piety and Politics, Nurcholish Madjid and His Interpretation of Islam in

Modern Indonesia (Lund: Lund University, 2005).



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assist and present all things that we

considered lost before. Technology

will never retreat backwards, it will

always progress further than before,

so there is a possibility that one day

technology will help us understand

the forms of writings in the Koran in

the past.

(Rachman 2009: 1247)

Moch. Qasim Mathar, Professor of the Faculty of Ushuluddin Universitas

Islam Negeri (UIN) Alauddin Makassar. He received his master’s and

doctorate’s degree from IAIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta.

In Nurcholish’s perspective, secularization is strongly related to

desacralization, as both contain elements of liberation. Secularization means the

detachment or the liberation of the world from religious definition. The same goes for

desacralization, in which it is meant as nullification or liberation from sacred

legitimacy. Absolute transcendence to God should in fact give birth to

“desacralization” of thought other than God; as sacralization to something besides

God is essentially considered to be shirk—which is the opposite of tauhid. Thus, all

objects that are believed to be sacred must be desacralized.293

Through liberation, humans direct their lives toward their natural state (fitrah),

in harmony with their existence, and liberate the self from physical aspirations that

tend to be secular. Islam does not provide a sacred meaning to nature and its

content, to the sky, the earth, the stars, the mountains, the rivers, the trees, the

293 Greg Barton, Gagasan Islam Liberal di Indonesia: Pemikiran Neo-Modernisme

Nurcholish Madjid, Djohan Effendi, Ahmad Wahib dan Abdurrahman Wahid (Jakarta:

Paramadina, 1995), p. 108-109.



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stones, the seas and all found in nature. Islam sees them all as creation of God, as

the verses of God that must not be sacralized. What is more, it is these verses or

signs that must be revealed, investigated, and used for the benefit of humans. The

surplus that has been given by God in the form of mind should be used to reveal the

secret of nature in the form of fundamental components in the development of

knowledge.

With its elaboration on secularization, Nurcholish intends to distinguish and

not differentiate physical and spiritual issues. This differentiation was brought about

as the Muslim community could not see and understand issues proportionally. The

parameter to asess “Islamic” values is related to an established tradition. Thus, Islam

is placed side by side with tradition, and being Islamic is equalized to being

traditionalist. Thus, defending Islam is the same as defending tradition, so there is

the impression that the strength of Islam is a reactive traditional power. These

perspectives of Islamic leaders, as according to Nurcholish, have caused them to not

give sufficient reponse toward the development of thought in today’s present time.

With an intention to affirm what is meant as secularization, Nurcholish once

again states that his ideal concept of secularization does not intend to implement

secularization and change Muslims into seculars. “But it is meant to transform

pysical values that should be physical, and liberate the Muslim community from the

tendency to spiritualize it.” Through this type of definition, the Muslim community will

be accustomed to the mental attitude to always test the truth of a value before

material, moral and historical realities.

According to Nurcholish, secularization is not secularism, and not even

identical to secularism as a closed belief. It remains as its own ideology that is

detached from religion. Secularism in such a contect is not a process but a closed

ideology that functions closely with religion.294

The notion of secularization that is meant by Nurcholish is not the secularism

known in the West (Europe), but secularization as one of the forms of “liberalization”

294 Nurcholish Madjid, Islam, Kemodernan, dan Keindonesiaan, p. 218-219.



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or liberation of false established perspectives. In its elaboration, Nurcholish openly

proposed that he did not intend to implement secularism. It was even consistent with

the perspective that he wrote two years ago. He strongly opposed secularism.

Nurcholish explained:

What is meant by secularization here is not implementation of secularism,

because secularism is the name of an ideology, a new closed world view which

functions very much like a new religion. In this case, what is meant is every form of

liberating development. This exemption process is required because the Muslims,

due to their own historical journey, are no longer able to distinguish which are

temporal and transcendental values of presumable Islamic values.295

According to Nurcholish, a linguistic approach will help in understanding the

meaning of a term. Regarding the etymology of secularization, he believed that: “The

words ‘secular’ and ‘secularization’ are derived from Western language (English,

Dutch and many more). However, these words are in fact originally from Latin, that is

saeculum which means today. And the word saeculum is actually one of two Latin

words which means world. The other word is mundus. However, if saeculum is the

word for time, mundus is the word for space. This is why from the linguistic aspect,

the term secular does not invite any objections. Quite the opposite, it is not only

correct based on terminology, but also true based on reality. Thus, etymologically,

according to Nurcholish, it is not a problem to use the word secular for Islam, as

“humans are secular beings”.

Furthermore, Nurcholish explains about this by stating how the difference

between “secularization” and “secularism” can be better grasped when analogusly

compared to the differentiation between rationalization and rationalism. A Muslim

must act rationally, but must not be a believer of rationalism. Rationalization is a

method to obtain an accurate definition and assessment on an issue and its

resolution. He recommends every Muslim to act rationally and forbid them to become

rationalists. Being a rationalist would mean supporting rationalism, while rationalism

according to Nurcholish is a notion that contradicts Islam. Rationalism denies the

295 Greg Barton, Gagasan Islam Liberal di Indonesia, p. 207.



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existence of revelations as a media to discover the truth, and only acknowledges

revelations. Thus, rationalization has a wide meaning as it is a process, while

rationalism has a closed meaning as it is an ideological notion.296

The central aspect of secularization is that secularization is a process in the

sense that it undergoes change and develops toward process and the aim of the

process. In this case, as the definition of secular refers to worldliness, the

understanding of secularization is often understood as a worldly process. With a

worldly process that attempts to harmonize it with the development of the day, this

process is also threatened by degradation of exisiting values, particularly those who

have become the victims of the value of religion. The definiton of secularization

refers more to the erosion of the religious values of the personalities of humans.

Thus, people tend to set aside religious affairs from physical affairs. Religious affairs

must become personal isseus that are separated from state affairs, such as the

political arena, social, economic, cultural, education and other worldly affairs.

Nurcholish also stated that his ideal concept of secularization is one that

makes more use of the worldly mission of humans, and not one without a basis.

According to him, the teachings of the Koran which revolves around the position of

humans as the servant of Allah and His representatives on earth serve as the

foundation of Islam doctrines on secularization. In other words, Nurcholish

understood the process of secularization as “earthing” the teachings of Islam in order

to be inherent with the mission of humans as caliphates. In the Koran, there are a

number of verses that affirms the position of man as the servant and representative

of Allah on earth. According to him, this attitude is a logic consequence from the

conception of Islam tauhid which is basically about the confinement of

transcendence only to God.297

Unfortunately, based on Nurcholish’s observation, there is an absence of

fresh thoughts from the Muslim community. Due to the absence of an institution that

can think freely and focuses its attention on historical claims from the society as well

296 Greg Barton, Gagasan Islam Liberal di Indonesia, p. 219.

297 Fachry Ali and Bachtiar Effendi, Merambah Jalan Baru Islam, p. 130.



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as the dynamics of economic, political and social development, the Muslim

community loses—what was mentioned previously as—a psychological striking

force. This condition implicates the Muslim community and sets the impression that

they have lost creativity, are defensive, apologetic in responding “global” big ideas,

such as democracy, social justice, socialism, and many more. As a result, “the

initiative is always taken by other parties and the same goes out for strategic

positions in the field of thought and the idea; while the Muslim community is

excluded.”298

However, recently, the movement of Islamic reform motored by Nurcholish in

the 1970s has indirectly strengthened the process of secularization by supporting

Islam’s commandment to strip itself free from political claims in order to focus on

ethical and spiritual imperatives. Nurcholish’s most popular Dictum, “Islam, Yes;

Islamic Party, No”, and Abdurrahman Wahid’s statement several days after

Nurcholish, that “Islam is not a political ideology” is the culmination of the project—

borrowing the term by Yudi Latif—“Polity-Separation Secularization” in Indonesia. It

was not until lately did the process of secularization proposed by Nurcholish in the

1970s finally found its resonance among Liberal Muslim intellectuals.

As a Muslim reformist categorized into a neo-Modernist, Nurcholish’s thoughts

were essentially based on theology, that is the theological perspective of Charles

Kurzman called “Liberal Islam”299 in which its characteristics are progressive

movement (accepts modernity); does not see the modern West as a threat; Opens

opportunity for various forms of “physical autonomy” in nation and state; and an

open, tolerant, inclusive-pluralist way of understanding Islam. As stated by

298 For discussion regarding this, take a look at, M. Syafi’i Anwar, Pemikiran dan Aksi

Islam Indonesia: Sebuah Kajian Politik tentang Cendekiawan Musim Orde Baru

(Jakarta: Paramadina, 1995), p. 50-53.

299 Charles Kurzman, Liberal Islam, Also Greg Barton, “Indonesia’s Nurcholish

Madjid and Abdurrahman Wahid as Intellectual ‘Ulama’: The Meeting of Islamic

Traditionalism and Modernism in Neo-Modernist Thought”, in Studi Islamika:

Indonesian Journal for Islamic Studies, Vol 4 (I), 1997, p. 29-82.



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Rahman,300 the most real characteristic from the challenge of modernity; secularism

being the most dominant. Liberal Islam is in fact related to the main issue of

secularism in which the definition of it continues to develop.301

As a successor to his teacher, Fazlur Rahman, Nurcholish realized that the

idea of Islam not providing a solution to the issues of humanity will not have a bright

future. What has been done to Islamic thought, particularly social-political-religious

issues, such as secularization, Islam Yes, Islamic Party No, is part of Nurcholish’s

long intellectual ijtihad, even though at the beginning the notions stirred a debate

from the pro and the cons. However, recently, these notions have found their most

illuminated form and received appreciation from many intellectuals. The emergence

of the Liberal Islam Network (JIL) motored by young progressive NU intellectuals is a

concrete form of the continuance of the thought of Nurcholish.302

300 Taufik Adnan Amal, Islam dan Tantangan Modernitas: Studi atas Pemikiran

Hukum Fazlur Rahman (Bandung: Mizan, 1989), p. 187.

301 Take a look at, Arskal Salim and Azyumardi Azra, “Negara dan Syariat dalam

Perspektif Politik Hukum Indonesia” in Syariat Islam: Pandangan Muslim Liberal

(Jakarta: Liberal Islam Network, 2003), p. 53-81. In relation to the development of

this secular notion, the question such as, “Will Indonesia be more inclined to adopt

the concept of an Islamic state?” becomes important and needs to be observed in

terms of its social political development. Liberal Muslims—or another term used in

this writing, Liberal Islam—is very aware on the possibility of Indonesia’s inclination

toward an Islamic state, because the issue of an Islamic state—as proposed

previously—undergoes a process of contestation in a debate regarding the Islamic

political system, internally among Muslims. However, above all, looking at the

tendency today, wherein all aspirations of the implementation of the Islamic shari’a

formally does not receive positive response, thus the transformation of Indonesia into

an Islamic state, according to them remains “far from the flames of fire”, ibid, p.80.

302 MUI’s Fatwa is a criticism toward the development of the thought of JIL.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Reponse towards Nurcholish Madjid

The notions of secularization and secularism in Indonesia cannot be separated from

the name Nurcholish Madjid. On January 3, 1970, Nurcholish presented his notion in

a discussion held by HMI, PII, GPI and Persami, in Menteng Raya 58. At that time,

Nurcholish released his paper entitled “The Necessity of Reform in Islamic Thought

and the Issue of Integrity of Mankind”—that contained notions on secularization and

liberalization of Islam. 22 years later, the notion was strengthened with his speech at

Ismail Marzuki (TIM) Jakarta, on October 21, 1992, entitled “A Number of

Contemplations on Religious Living in Indonesia”—containing the foundation of

Islamic pluralism.303 These two papers have established the discourse of

secularization (secularism), liberalization (liberalism), and pluralism in Indonesia,

until the issuance of MUI’s fatwa on the forbiddance of secularism, liberalism and

pluralism in 2005.

The controversy of Nurcholish’s ideas triggered a huge and lengthy polemic

among Muslim intellectuals and initiators of Islamic reform in Indonesia. The trigger

is the semantic controversy used by Nurcholish around rationalization, secularization

and desacralization. Nurcholis’s thesis that the Muslim community needs to be

liberated by an apparent sacredess and religious ideologies that ties the potential

intelligence and become “thick and high walls” that hinder the rate and the progress

of civilization.304

303 M. Dawam Rahardjo, “Sekularisme and Sekularisasi”, Media Indonesia.

304 Nurcholish’s concern was further developed by M. Dawam Rahardjo—as well as

criticizing the conservative tendency of MUI and the Muslim community—in “the

Speech of Culture” at Universitas Paramadina, Jakarta 30 December 2006. In his

speech, Dawam asserted that “Nurcholish Madjid’s thought regarding Islamic

civilization is in fact still oriented to the past, that is the Middle Ages, during the

golden age of Islam, and even on occassion to the time of the Prophet and the

Salafiyah generation. Gus Dur looked to the future. And the same goes out for the

young Liberal group of Ulil Abshar. Its characteristic is affirmation of secularism and

more further pluralism. What makes it different is that Gus Dur is more inclined to



WORKING TRANSLATION

The main ideas of Nurcholish’s view is in his paper written in 1970 that is the

need to have a way to understand religious teachings of Islam that is more

progressed by not getting stuck in traditionalism, that is the concept of secularization

that according to his explanation dies not direct toward secularism; and the need of

the freedom to think, the idea of progress and an open attitude. In the mind of

Nurcholish, the Muslim community today can no longer distinguish which are truly

stated in religion and which are only understanding and opinion of an ulema. For

that, the people need to conduct a profanitation of physical issues in which the

approach requires an objective-rational attitude from issues of faith, belief and

religious rituals that are spiritual.

According to me, the state of Medina

is not a model of an Islamic state, but

a secular state. A state that requires

between religion, religious affairs

conducted by the community, with a

communal regulation. Here we can

see that the most basic thing is

agreement. When the agreement is

violated, problem occurs.

(Rachman 2009: 1257)

Mohammad Imam Aziz, Council of the Founder of Syarikat Islam. He also

established the Forum of Brotherhood of the Believers (FPUB Yogyakarta),

notions of nationality, while Nurcholish Madjid was more into a universal Islam. It

was the task of the young liberal generation to integrate the tendency of Nurcholish

Madjid, but with a starting point that was more toward nationality, and based on a

criticism toward the Islamic civilization”. Take a look at, M. Dawam Rahardjo, “Krisis

Peradaban Islam” in Abdul Hakim and Yudi Latif, Bayang-bayang Fanatisisme: Esai-

esai untuk Mengenang Nurcholish Madjid (Jakarta: PSIK Universitas Paramadina,

2007), p. 42.



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198, and the Center of Islamic and Social Studies (LkiS Yogyakarta) where he

was once director (1996-1998).

Nurcholish hoped that the Muslim community could be “liberalized” from

absolutism and religious authority could emerge. He dreamt that the people could be

liberated from immature acts in religiosity, a diversity characterized with claims of

turth, allotments of truth only for the self and the group, intellectual arrogance,

religious authority and institution of guardian of faith and akidah, and formalistic-

normative diversity.305 Departing from that, Nurcholish in 1992 proposed the idea of

an inclusive Islam, the spirit of al-hanafiyah al-samhah, egaliter, pluralistic and

democratic.306

The polemic towards Nurcholish Madjid’s thought among Muslim intellectuals

has resulted in two dicotomic groups: those who strongly oppose and those who

support it. The first group is often known as the conservative group, a group that

strongly opposes secularization that is identic to secularism. Among the conservative

group, the idea received a negative response. They responded to the discourse with

concern that the secularism that took place in Turkey, where bid’ah in the shari’a and

belief, blindless ijtihad, and free interpretation of Islamic laws took place and would

cause pragmatism in the community.

The second group is known as the reformists who stated that secularization is

understood as efforts to liberate the community from a life of magic and superstitions

by conducting desacralization of nature.

305 This perspective was delivered in three papers on the reform of Islam in 1970—

1973, which were then compiled into a book in Nurcholish Madjid’s, Islam,

Kemodernan, dan Keindonesiaan (Bandung: Mizan, 2008 new edition).

306 Take a look at Nurcholish Madjid’s paper, “Pesan Keagamaan untuk Generasi

Muda”. This paper was presented in 1992, and caused a national controversy on

pluralism throughout 1993.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Nurcholish’s perspective was misunderstood, even by his close friends, such

as Buya Ismail Materereum, Sulastomo, Endang Saefuddin Ansori and M. Amien

Rais. The Masyumi were the ones most angry as they felt they were “cut in the

crease” when Nurcholish called for a termination of the public discourse of an Islamic

state. On the other hand, he adviced Islamic organizations to disseminate the

discourse on social justice as the realization of Pancasila. Those who harshly

criticized Nurcholish was his own seniors: M. Natsir and M. Rasjidi. Rasjidi wrote a

book which contained pure rejections of Nurcholish’s notion of secularization. His

rejection was fundamental because this leader of Muhammadiyah believed that

secularism will diminish the role of religion as witnessed in other states. For Rasjidi,

Nurcholish had once again explained that what is meant by secularism is

secularization as proposed by the theologian Kristen Harvey Cox. Rasjidi rejected

the concept of secularization as according to him in the end secularization will result

in secularism.307 On the other hand, later on M. Dawam Rahardjo—and many Liberal

Muslim thinkers who will be elaborated below—realize that the struggle for

secularization, is no different with secularism. And—this is the most important and

newest point—that secularism does not have to mean a decline of religion.308

In general, Rasjidi’s perspective on secularism was a response and even the

most extreme form of condemnation toward Nurcholish’s thought on secularization.

According to Rasjidi, there has not been any notes in history in which the term

secularism or secularization does not contain the principle of the separation between

worldly issues and religion. Secularization, according to Rasjidi, could bring a

disadvantegeous influence for Islam and the people. For this reason, both

(secularization and secularism) must be eliminated.309

307 Ahmad A. Sofyan, Gagasan Cak Nur tentang Negara dan Islam (Yogyakarta:

Titian Ilahi Press, 2003), p. 100.

308 Interview with M. Dawam Rahardjo, October 2006.

309 HM. Rasjidi, Koreksi terhadap Nurcholish Madjid tentang Sekularisasi (Jakarta:

Bulan Bintang, 1977). Also take a look at Nurcholish Madjid, Sekitar Usaha

Membangkitkan Etos Intelektualisme Islam di Indonesia, in, Endang Basri Ananda



WORKING TRANSLATION

Rasjidi who has long dwelled in scientific research, and is a professor of

philosophy, spoke in sarcasm toward young Nurcholish with sharp words:

Even though I myself understood English since 40 years ago and I once

taught in a University in English, I did not dare insist on a term that had been

acceptly worldwide in the area of knowledge. For Nurcholish, secularization means

considering the world as the arena of human activities, nothing is taboo, nothing is

sacred. This notion is the wrong one and it will cause huge impacts; those we don’t

expect of.

Rasjidi concluded that young Nurcholish’s thought at that time was not mature

yet, was raw and did not fulfill the requirements of reform in Islam. Not only that, his

thoughts were very dangerous and must be put at precaution.

I am a type of person who does not

want to insist on having all Islamic

teachings included into the state

legislation. For me, the law of Islam

that needs to be included into the

(ed.), 70 Tahun Prof. Dr. H. M. Rasjidi (Jakarta: Harian Umum Pelita, 1985), p. 217-

218. In this book, Nurcholish explained in the footnotes how “the use of the word

‘secularization’ in sociology means liberation, that is liberation from acts of sacrading

what should not be sacred. If projecting this into the modern situation of Islam today,

then Robert N. Bellah’s ‘secularization’ will take the form of eradication of bid’ah,

khufarat and other shirk practices, in which all of them occur under the motto return

to the holy book and the sunna in attempt to purify religion. And so, I once proposed

an argument that such form of secularization is a consequence of tauhid… but

although the sociological understanding of secularization has often been used by

many social science specialists, it must be admitted that there is still a controversy

around the term… due to such controversy on the terms ‘secular’, ‘secularization’

and ‘secularism’, it is wise to not use these terms and replace them with other

technical terms that are more accurate and neutral.”



WORKING TRANSLATION

state legislation are laws related to

the structure of the community that

are considered central, such as the

law of marriage, haj, and many more.

Not all Islamic law must be legislated.

What is more important is how Islamic

values can substantially characterize

the life of nation and state.

(Rachman 2009: 1275)

Muhammad Tholhah Hasan, former Minister of Religion of the Republic of

Indonesia Cabinet of National Unity during the era of President Abdurrahman

Wahid and was once Rector of Universitas Malang (Unisma) for two periods.

He is now Chair of the Indonesian Endowment Agency (Badan Wakaf

Indonesia).

In an event held by the Art Council of Jakarta (Dewan Kesenian Jakarta -

DKJ) in 1972, Nurcholish used this opportunity to lessen the misunderstanding over

the ideas he proposed in his previous speech. He once again explained his ideas,

among others through elaboration on the principle of faith and good deeds where he

explained that the material dimension of the physical world is knowledge, while the

dimension of spiritual life is faith, and thus the approach used must also then be

different. He acknowledged the presence of violence in his speeches, and called it

as a “big mistake that is tactic” but he did not deny the ideas that he had

expressed.310

Besides Rasjidi, Muhammad Naquib al-Attas—Professor at ISTAC,

Universitas Islam Antarbangsa (UIA), Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, who wrote Islam and

Secularism, studied the issue of secularism holistically with a desire to bridge

310 Nurcholish Madjid, Keharusan Pembaruan.., p. 484.



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Western and Muslim thinkers. According to him, Islam is not the same as

Christianity. For this reason, the secularization that occurred in the Western Christian

community is different with the one occuring in Muslims. Opening his opinion on

secularization, al-Attas distinguished the definition of secular to have a connotation

of space and time, that is refering to the definition of today. Next, secularization is

defined as liberation of humans from religion and metaphysics, or the release of

humans from religion and metaphysics, or the release of the world from religious

definition (in Weber’s term), the liberation of nature from religion. Secularism points

out to an ideology.311

Next, according to al-Atas, Islam refused to implement anything regarding

concepts of secular, secularization, and secularism. All these concepts did not

belong to Islam and opposed it in all aspects. In other words, Islam totally refuses

the manifestation and the definition of secularization both explicitly and implicitly

because secularization is a deadly poison toward the true faith. The most important

dimension of secularization, as Harvey Cox’s opinion, is the desacralization of

nature. Islam, on the other hand, embraced this definition, in the sense that it

rejected all forms of superstition, animism, magic as well as fake Gods from nature.

The definition of Islam regarding the sacredness of nature is a normal definition that

does not bring secularization along with it.

Secularization in Islam according to Nurcholish in fact does not reach the

stage where the Muslim community no longer feels tied to the basic teachings, but

only the teaching of the result of the ijtihad of ulema. Nurcholish’s recommendation

on the need of “secularization” as one form of “liberalization” or the liberation toward

misunderstood perspectives that have been established, has in fact developed into a

widened controversy. Nurcholish was then accused to have changed notions into a

secularist. What is more, M. Kamal Hassan—a prominent Malaysian intellectual—

has associated him as a “secular modernist”. Apparently, Hassan and people with

the same notion in Indonesia refuse to acknowledge that Nurcholish is opposed to

the notion on secularism, simply because he recommends a special definition of

311 Naquib al-Attas, op.cit., p. 18-19.



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secularization. However, Nurcholish chooses to hold on to ideas than public opinion.

Choosing rationalization of the route of thought than dogmatic worship.

In his speech—as stated previously—Nurcholish elaborates how his definition

of “secularization” is not about the implementation of secularism and changing

Muslims into secularists. It is meant to secularize values that should be physical, and

liberate the Muslim community from the tendency to spiritualize. Thus, mental

preparation to always test again and again the truth of a value before material, moral

and historical realities are established; characteristics of Muslims.

Clearly this illustrates Nurcholish who did not intend to accept the notion of

secularism that developed in Western social sciences, and tragically even refused

them. This is because in the tradition of Western social science, the “strong”

definition on secularization is setting aside religion from public life. Religion should

only become the personal matters of each individual; it does not have a meaningful

social message. Seeing the extending debate of the thoughts of Nurcholish both in

the 1970s and in the 1990s until today, Yudi Latif called Nurcholish as the empire of

mind.312 It is through Nurcholish’s thought that a huge transformation in Islamic and

Indonesian thought and praxis occured, beyond its time.313

Nowadays, secularism thought post MUI’s Fatwa on the forbiddance of

secularism, must be reviewed and studied in-depth. What he calls as a more

comprehensive thought on “religion and state” has been arranged in a more sharp

312 Yudi Latif, “Cak Nur, Kekuatan Satu Visi”, Republika, 30 August 2005.

313 This is admitted by Robert W. Hefner, a specialist in Islam in contemporary

Indonesia. According to him, secularism does not make Islam anti modernity. The

secularism underwent by the Western society, as illustrated by the theorists of

secularism all this time, does not apply to the Muslim society. At least the ‘hard’

theory of secularism must be revised when faced with the reality that developed in

the Muslim community. Secularism in Islam does not mean rejecting the role of

religion in the public sphere. Religion can hold a role as a source of value in the

society. Take a look at “Modernity and the Challenge of Pluralism: Some Indonesian

Lessons” in Studia Islamika, Vol. 2, No. 4, 1995, p. 21-45.



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and clear manner through various studies, and has brought about what is known as

the “Cultural Islam Movement” which will be further discussed below.

Secularism in Indonesia Today

According to Nurcholish, the social political purpose of humans should return back to

their nature that is human’s nature (fitrah) that is pure (hanif). From here, Nurcholish

established the theological foundation on Islam as the religion of humanity which will

later on become the underlying idea of Islamic political notions. These realities will

also impact the notions surrounding the adaptation between the idealism religion and

political reality. In the constellation of thought regarding the relation between Islam

and the state, Nurcholish realized that it was not easy to find a reconciliation

between the idealism of religion and political reality. When that reality was spread

out from the initial eras of political history (that is characterized by Islam), we will find

many thoughts that trigger statements and polemics that are basically ranging

between whether or not the Muslim community must establish a state, how the

composition and the type of state be, who has the rights to take the position of head

of state, how the position of shari’a is in relation to the mechanism of the government

and many more.314 Even in today’s modern time, there is an issue related to whether

the religion must unite with the state, or whether Islam governs the people to form

and establish an “Islamic state” or not.315

Based on the historical process aspect and the development of thought, the

idea of an “Islamic State” is a form of apologetic tendency. At least, according to

Nurcholish, an apolegetic attitude can be perceived from two aspects: First, its

314 For example, in the early history of Islam, it is very clear that there is not any

uniformity in electing a state leader. This proves that there is not a fixed ruling in

what is called an “Islamic State”. For a historical review on this issue, take a look at

Sirojuddin Aly, the “Paradigma Pemilihan Kepala Negara di Zaman Khulafa al-

Rasyidin” in Refleksi, Journal of Religious and Philosophical Studies, Vol. VII, No. 2.

2005. P. 109-126.

315 Nurcholish Madjid, “Harun Nasution: Tentang Islam dan Masalah Kenegaraan”, in

Refleksi Pembaruan Pemikiran Islam (Jakarta: LSAF, 1989), p. 219.



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emergence is an apology toward Western ideologies, such as democracy, socialism,

communism and many others. Cultural invasion in the form of ideologies is

responded by appreciation that is ideologically political and gave birth to a

perspective and ended in a struggle of political Islam aspiring for the formation of an

“Islamic state”, as found in democratic, socialist, commmunist states, and many

more.

Next, the current legalism perspective is the continuance of jurisprudency that

is so dominant among Muslims—made to fulfill the need of a legal system that

regulates the government and the state in the past. Such an understanding strongly

accompanies modern Islamic political discourse that assumed that in order to

enforce shari’a then it must begin from the state as being an element of authority

that can regulate and enforce it. While, according to Nurcholish, jurisprudence has

lost its relevance with today. Total modification to make it adjust to the pattern of

modern life is no longer a competence and an interest of the Muslim community, but

also others. Thus, the results does not necessarily only be in the form of Islamic law,

but a law that covers everyone, in order to regulate life together.316

From this context, it seems that Nurcholish was obsesed to explain that Islam

essentially is not purely a structure or arrangement and collection of law, that erects

upon the formalism of the state and government. However, Islam as the elaboration

of tauhid, is a form of spiritual strength that can give birth to a hanif, inclusive,

democratic soul that appreciates the pluralism of the society.

Furthermore, Nurcholish saw that a more principle act from the conception of

an Islamic state is a distortion of a proportional relation between the state and

religion. For Nurcholish, the state is one aspect of physical life, and its dimension is

rational and collective. While religion is another aspect of life that has a spiritual and

personal dimensions. Between religion and state indeed cannot be distinguished, but

both of them must still be distinguished in terms of dimensions and ways of

approach.

316 Nurcholish Madjid, Islam, Kemodernan, 2008, p. 255.



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For this reason, Liberal Muslim intellectuals—who will continue the thoughts

of Nurcholish—consistent with the perspective that secularization is an obligation for

every religious community, and more particularly the Muslim community, in the form

of the elaboration of the thesis “menduniawikan values that shhould be physical and

liberate the Muslim community from the tendency to spiritualize it”. The notion was

developed in political life with Nurcholish’s famous motto, “Islam, Yes; Islamic Party,

No”. This idea was developed again based on the inspiration of the rejection of John

Naisbitt and Patricia Aburdene toward religion, who said “Spirituality, Yes; Organized

Religion, No”. Nurcholish developed the motto “Islam, Yes; Islamic Party, No” into

(Islamic) Spirituality, Yes; Organized Religion, Yes” By this, the most important thing

in religious life is substance, more in-depth and more spiritual—not formalism,

particularly only shari’a formalism.

When we compare the Middle East as

the place of birth of Islam, we see

that until today it is in the form of a

kingdom. Do not dream to become a

president if you are not a descendant

of blue blood. Kuwait is a rich

country, but it has a kingdom system.

The kingdom system in fact goes

back to the qabilah leadership, and

not ummah. Indonesia is a prototype

ummah.

(Rachman 2009: 1305)

Nasaruddin Umar, Professor in Ilmu Tafsir, Fakultas Ushuluddin, Universitas

Islam Negeri Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta. He is now Director General of

Counseling for Muslim Community, Ministry of Religious Affairs.



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Efforts to discover the conception of the state in the history of Islamic political

thought of course contains a certain aim and intention. They can be observed from

two things. First, in order to find an ideal Islam regarding the state by emphasizing

on the theoretical and formal aspects, begins with the conceptual question “What is

the form of a state in Islam?”, and this departed from the assumption that Islam has

a certain concept regarding the state. Second, in order to idealize from the Islamic

perspective toward the process of state governance by adding emphasis on praxis

and substantial aspects. This second aspect attempts to answer the conceptual

question “What should a state contain of according to Islam?” This departed from the

assumption that Islam does not carry a certain concept on the state but it offers basic

principles in the form of ethical and moral foundations.

Although both aims are different in approach, but both have the same

intentions, that is to find a reconciliation between the idealism of religion and political

or state reality.317

Reconciliation between religious aspiration and political or state reality

becomes the main task of Islamic political thought because the idealism of religion

and political reality in the history of Islam often displays a phenomenon of disparity

and conflict. This phenomenon at least originates from two causes, that is: First,

there is conceptual difference between “religion” and “the state” that causes difficulty

in bringing them together in practice; and second, there is a deviation of political

practices from the ethics and morality of religion. This means that even though the

entire Muslim community has the same faith, in terms of the implementation of ethics

and morality of religion in the political and state dimension, it is diametral different

between one group and another. This reality implicated in the issue of finding a

solution that can be negotiated in the attempt to mediate the disparity of the relation

between religion and the state, that results in two schools of thought—which are in

this book called as Radical Islam and Liberal Islam.318

317 Din Syamsuddin, Etika Agama, p. 41.

318 Din Syamsuddin, Etika Agama, p. 42. Din Syamsuddin divided three schools of

Islam and politics, that is formalistic, substantivistic, and fundamentalistic. Take a



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The notions of Nurcholish above have left a mark on the influence toward the

thought of the next Liberal Islam generation.319 Nurcholish himself believed that he

has passed “times cloaked with misunderstanding and suspicion in attempt to spread

ideas.”320 This can be understood that the notion today is relatively more accepted

by various communities compared to before in which they tend to be limited to the

“elites” both from the intellectual-religious aspect and economic aspect.321

Although the development of Islam in politics is less pleasing due to a chain of

policies issued by the New Order, but in ritual and social (a more formalist Islam)

dimensions it has developed quickly. This can been seen from the prevalence of

religious life, such as the increase of people leaving on haj from priyayi people, the

number of mosques, the number of Islamic study groups; thus, due to the

look at “Islamic Political Thought and Cultural Revival in Modern Indonesia” in Studia

Islamika, Vol 2, No. 4, 1995, p. 47-68. In line with the development of Islam in

Indonesia post the reform era, I divided the development of thought (discourse) on

Islam and the state into two schools, that is progressive and radical. Liberal Islam is

derived from substantivistic thoughts, while Radical Muslims, are derived from

formalistic and fundamentalistic thoughts, in the term Din.

319 Thoughts like the one of Nurcholish became more expressive, and have an

ambiance of motion through thoughts on religion and the state under Abdurrahman

Wahid. For example, take a look at Abdurrahman Wahid, Mengurai Hubungan

Agama dan Negara (Jakarta: Grasindo, 1999). The thoughts of Abdurrahman Wahid

were once implemented in a short period. 19 months of his presidentship (20

October 1999 – 23 July 2001). Regarding this, take a look at, Rumadi, “Dinamika

Keagamaan dalam Pemerintahan Gus Dur” in Khamami Zada (ed.), Neraca Gus Dur

di Panggung Kekuasaan (Jakarta: LAKPESDAM, 2002), p. 119-154.

320 Nurcholish Madjid, Dialog Keterbukaan: Artikulasi Nilai Islam dalam Wacana

Sosial-Politik Kontemporer (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1998), p. 333.

321 This notion is often called “Neo-Modernism”. Take a look at Greg Barton, “Neo-

Modernism: A Vital Synthesis of Traditionalist and Modernist Islamic Thought in

Indonesia” in Studia Islamica, Vol. 2., No. 3, 1995, p. 1-75.



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development of religious activities, there has been a convergence among ulema and

the abandan, between traditionalists and modernists.322

The reinterpretation of Liberal Muslim intellectuals toward Islamic notions on

politics and state has formed the image of Islam as inclusive, friendly and scientific

before the government. This encouraged the realization of a conducive situation in

order to attain a friendly relation between the Muslim community and the New Order

government. It is not an overstatement to say that the New Order—whether realized

or not—has a contribution in changing the image of Islam from “traditional” toward

“modern” religious values. What is most prominent is reform in education provided by

the government that is IAIN.323

For the young middle class Muslim intellectuals, the thoughts of popular

Muslim intellectuals are read extensively, and uses a contextual approach to enrich

the intellectual horizon as well as the analysis capacity toward issues of the society

in the Islamic perspective. For the middle class Muslim intellectuals, particularly

those in the bureaucracy, the thoughts of Muslim intellectuals have prepared them

mentally and intellectually to participate in the process of modernization and

development. While for those outside the bureaucracy, the thought of political

Muslim intellectuals inspires movements and social-economic activities in order to

overcome concrete issues of the community, such as poverty, backwardness,

injustice and many more.

Secularization does not mean a

person must leave a religious

teaching. It means that a certain

religious teaching does not disturb

the convenience of other believers.

322 Lili Romli, Islam Yes, Partai Islam Yes, p. 85.

323 Saiful Mujani, “Agama, Intelektual, dan Legitimasi Politik dalam Indonesia Orde

Baru,” in, Kebebasan Cendekiawan: Refleksi Kaum Muda (Yogyakarta: Bentang,

1996), p. 163



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Secularization does not mean not

upholding values of virtue. They

highly appreciate values of virtues

and hold them. We can witness these

in a number of countries who are

proud to speak themselve as secular

and have a low level of corruption

and have a clean government, such

as Finland, Sweden, New Zealand,

and many more.

(Rachman 2009: 1319)

Neng Dara Affiah, Commisioner and Chair of the Sub Commission of

Education and Research of Women Komnas. She is also the Chair of PP

Fatayat NU and a Consultant for the Women Empowerment Moslem Context

(WEMC) program.

Social dynamics and interaction has caused the process of a loss of culture

where a process of satiating among variants takes place, and thus diminishes

cultural limitations among them. This is one of the success stories of the modernist

Islam movement. Since its establishment, it has provided various modern education

institutions, that is the appearance of a new generation of Muslims with modern

education as well as built a way into modern norms.

The transformation movement of Islamic thought and political practices

started since the 1970s until a certain time when it was capable of toning down the

political tension between Islam and the state.324 They believe that although the

324 Pramono U. Tanthowi, Kebangkitan Politik Kaum Santri: Islam dan Demokrasi di

Indonesia, 1999-2000 (Jakarta: PSAP, 2005), p. 75. The stage of Islamic politics in

Indonesia provides a good example of an uneasy synthesis over the problems of



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struggle takes the forms of political roots, the issue becomes theological in the sense

that the interpretation toward Islam influences and forms political thoughts and

activism in the Muslim community. These efforts are done particularly through

various statements regarding political ideas and actions that are believed to be more

in accordance to the reality of socio-cultural and religious diversity in Indonesia.

In such a framework, a transformation of political thought and practices in

Indonesia, according to Bachtiar Effendy, ranges on three important areas.325 First,

theological reform that focuses on the discovery of new theological foundations that

allows the creation of a possible synthesis between Islam and the state. Nurcholish

Madjid, Harun Nasution, Abdurrahman Wahid and Munawir Sjazali are the backbone

of this orientation. Second, political/bureaucratic reform that intends to bridge the

relation between Muslims and the government so that political suspicion and ideolgy

can be eroded. Mintaredja, Sulastomo, Akbar Tandjung, Bintoro Tjokroamidjojo,

Mar’ie Muhammad, Sa’dillah Mursyid is part of he activity in this lane. Third, this

orientation of social-economy transformation with a main concern, both in the

villages as well as cities. It must be acknowledged that social-economic

transformation amonf Muslims since several decades ago had become a quite

Islam and the state. Bahtiar Effendy affirms that there are three periods. The first is

1945-1970, the inimical period—that is the fight between Islam and state

construction, or national ideology. Second is 1970-1990s, that is the complementary

period (Abdurrahman Wahid’s term) between Islam and the state. And third, the

reform period, 1998-now, that is the competitive period, which caused a fight

between Liberal Muslims and Radical Muslims in interpreting the problem of Islam

and the state. Take a look at Bachtiar Effendi, “Problematika Politik Islam: Refleksi

Tiga Periode” in Abuddin Nata (ed.), Problematika Politik Islam di Indonesia (Jakarta:

Grasindo, 2002), p. 155-160.

325 Take a look at Bachtiar Effendy, “Islam and the State in Indonesia: Munawir

Sjadzali and the Development of a New Theological Underpinning of Political Islam”

Studia Islamika, Vol. 2, No. 2, 1995.



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significant political factor. Sudjoko Prasodjo, M. Dawam Rahardjo, Tawang Alun,

Utomo Danandjaja and Adi Sasono are pioneers of this movement.

From these three movements of reform, the first issue, that is the relation

between religion and politics is the most important part of efforts to find a solution

over the issue of tension between Islam and the state. For this reason, they believe

that the relation between Pancasila and Islam must be clarified first in the public

dicourse as it is strongly related to the problem of motivation in moving a person into

the process of social change and religious responsibility. Thus, on behalf of the

Liberal Muslim intellectuals, it is not a surprise if an Indonesianist Robert W. Hefner

said that:

It is true that a number of observers have assessed the ability to contextualize

the message of Islam in the modern world as a phenomenon that occurs in the

history of Islam throughout the world. Revivalist Muslims and reformists have truly

emerged across the globe. Even so, there is a certain characteristic for Indonesia. It

is not only a fact that Indonesia has brought up Muslim thinkers, but also their ideas

and notions of thought have received a warm reception from a wide segment of the

Indonesian community. The result, part of the idea and notion of intellectual thought

is followed by a wide public, and even used as a tool to enhance the dynamics of the

intellectual of the Indonesian Muslim community.326

Whatever the reason may be, fact points out that during the 1990s and until

today, Indonesia has witnessed a revival of a very progressive Islam, and has so

much in its future. This was initiated and resulted by the attitude of Soeharto who

disregarded the Muslim groups to be directly involved in political parties and the

process of democracy. Thus, when Islam is not involved in the political parties of the

New Order, more opportunities and cultural paths are opened. This before the eye of

the community is considered a change of form from a catastrophe to a blessing, and

not due to efforts based on the principle of benefit but through a deep innovation of

thinking on the best ways for Islam to influence and guide the society, among others

326 Robert W. Hefner, op.cit.



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on the thoughts regarding the form of secularism in the Muslim community in

Indonesia.327

327 A comprehensive illustration of Islam and the State during the New Order and its

development until today has been mapped out by Bachtiar Effendy in Islam and the

State in Indonesia (Singapore: ISEAS, 2003).



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CHAPTER V

DEFENDING GENDER EQUALITY

Some interpretations of holy scriptures have become a concern for Liberal

Muslims in Indonesia, particularly those who seek justice for women’s rights in terms

of gender. The most important one is related to the deconstruction of the

interpretations of verses which position men as the center of life for women. Liberal

Muslims’ great effort in actualizing women rights is often called the “Islamic feminist”

movement.

In essence, [Islamic feminism is] … “Awareness of the oppression and

extortion toward women in the society, the working place, and the family, as

well as the conscious acts done by women and men to change this condition

… [by referring to sacred scriptures as their supporting structure]. According

to this definition, it is thus insufficient to call a person a feminist just because

he or she is able to diagnose discrimination based on the sexes and the

domination of men and the patriarchal system. One must be able to act. In

other words, diagnosis must be followed by acts to change the conditions that

devalue women. Patriarchy, one of the main problems faced by Islamic

feminists, is believed to be the source of misogini … The intendment of

feminist struggle … is to achieve equality, self-worth, and freedom for women

to be able to choose and control their life and body, both within the household

and outside it… The purpose is to establish a just social structure for women

and men that is free from predisposition, discrimination based on class and

caste, and prejudice related to the sexes… Islamic feminists demand an equal

position between men and women as citizens in the public sphere, and a

complementary role in the domestic area (the household).328

For this reason, these Liberal Muslims critically debate religious scriptures

that do not support the notion of equality between men and women as citizens of a

public sphere and a complementary role in the domestic area. For example, a classic

holy manuscript used in Islamic schools in Java, written by Imam Nawawi al-Bantany

328 Nurul Agustina, “Islam dan Feminisme”, paper unpublished.



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entitled, ‘Uqud-u ‘l-Lujain fi Bayan Huquq-I ‘l-Zawjayn. This prominent manuscript—

which is a free adaptation of the manuscript entitled Ihya’ ‘Ulumuddin, by Imam al-

Ghazali—illustrates the different obligations and rights of men and women as

husbands and wives. According to this book, a women’s obedience to her husband

is almost absolute. By referring to many holy scriptures, this Sheikh from Banten

points out to the readers that men have rights that are more superior than women, or

their wives. The basis of this preeminence is the Koran’s statement; a husband has

the obligation to provide a livelihood.329

“Men are in charge of women by right of what Allah has given one over the

other and what they spend for maintenance from their wealth. So righteous

women are devoutly obedient, guarding in the husband’s absence what Allah

would have them guard. But those wives from whom you fear arrogance – first

advise them, and then if they persist, forsake them in bed, and finally strike

them. But if they obey you once more, seek no means against them. Indeed,

Allah is ever Exalted and Grand.” (QS., al-Nisa’ / 4:34).

On account of this verse, Sheikh Nawawi al-Bantany, inferred that religion

allows men to “seek other pleasures,” (by polygamy), while women are not.

At times, regarding these functional issues (wherein the verse mentions who

should provide a livelihood), the readers reign and invade other subjects, for

example in interpreting the safety of women to rely on men. A Hadith quoted by this

Sheikh, “Verily, a wife does not yet fulfill the rights from Allah SWT, therefore she is

to fulfill the rights of her husband.”

“Allah proclaimed ‘Men are in charge of women’ in the sense that men lead

women when they astray; as a leader, an official, a judge, and an educator.

‘As Allah has given one over the other’, because men are the main subjects

compared to women, and men are better than women. This is why prophecies

are specified for men. The same applies to the highest authority. Based on

329 Various interpretations that strengthen the supremacy over women are based on

this verse, take a look at Didin Syafruddin, “Argumen Supremsi atas Perempuan:

Penafsiran Klasik Q.S. al-Nisa’: 34, Journal Ulumul Qur’an Special Edition No. 5 & 6,

1994, p. 4 - 9



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the words of the Prophet Peace Be Upon Him, ‘Fortune will be far from those

who bestow their leadership to women’ Hadith Bukhari from Abd al-Rahman

bin Abi Bakrah from his father. The same also applies to the position of a

judge and many more. ‘And because they spend for maintenance from their

wealth’, in the form of mahr, livelihood, expenditure, obliged by Allah in the

Koran and the Sunna of the Prophet Peace Be Upon Him to men on behalf of

women. For this reason, men are main subjects compared to women, and

must share with her. Therefore, it is true if they became the leader for women,

as stated in the words of Allah SWT, ‘For men their degree is above

women’”.330

Many verses from the Koran and Hadith are often used and referred to as a

legitimate basis for gender inequality between men and women, and they also serve

as a theological basis of women’s reliance to men regarding their safety.331

The Mission of Liberal Islam: Equality

Observing this lopsided interpretation—which places men’s self-worth above

women’s—to achieve gender equality based on the spirit of the equality of rights and

obligations which Liberal Muslims consider to be the basic message of the Koran,

efforts were directed to question those related to the sociological term, i.e.

interpretation of the existence of a ”central structure”, in this case, the theological

perspective of men in Islam.

Men in Islam are often interpreted by traditionalists to have rights that are a

level above women. The verse in the Koran that underlies this is as mentioned

previously: “Men are in charge of women…” (Q. 4:34). Such gender inequality is

often justified in Islamic interpretation from the perspective of traditionalists due to

the presence of this verse.

330 Quoted from Tasfeer Ibn Katsir I: 608, by Jalaluddin Rakhmat, “Pandangan Tafsir

Modern tentang Perempuan,” paper unpublished.

331 This issue has been discussed for some time by Asghar Ali Engineer, Hak-hak

Perempuan dalam Islam, translated by Farid Wajidi and Cici Farkha Assegaf

(Yogyakarta: Yayasan Bentang Budaya, 1994).



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The question is: how do Liberal Muslims react toward this? Riff’at Hasan,

whose writings influenced the theological feminist perspective in Indonesia,

attempted to further trace this to the Islamic perspective on the creation of Adam and

Eve: Was is it true that Eve was created from a piece of Adam’s ribs, and thus

making Eve the secondary creation (after Adam). If so, based on this cosmology, the

argument of the supremacy over women can be justified. And in the subsequent

stems, the gender inequality in controversial issues that have become a discussion

and polemic among Liberal Muslims in Indonesia: regarding the apportioning of

inheritance, witness, marriage—including in it women’s sexual rights over their

body—polygamy, divorce, and women’s leadership in prayer, and in social-political

life, and so on, can also be justified.332

From the readings of Islamic traditional scriptures, it is believed that the

function of women in the life of men is principally as men’s sexual partner, although

this in fact has nothing to do with taqwa. As in the end, the measurement of taqwa

before God is not related to the role of gender in social life, but how much both—

men and women—are faithful and conducted good deeds. Or the language of the

Koran which directly points out the religious obligations of men and women.

“For Muslim men and women, for believing men and women, for devout men

and women, for true men and women, for men and women who are patient

and constant, for men and women who humble themselves, for men and

women who give in charity, for men and women who fast (and deny

themselves), for men and women who guard their chastity, and for men and

women who engage much in Allah’s praise, for them has Allah prepared

forgiveness and great reward.“” (Q. 33:35)

Islam believes that women need to be

protected and appreciated, but not by

332 Riff’at Hassa, “Isu Kesetaraan Laki-laki dan Perempuan dalam Tradisi Islam”, in

Fatima Mernissi and Riff’at Hassan, Setara Dihadapan Allah, Relasi Laki-laki dan

Perempuan dalam Tradisi Islam Pasca Patriarkhi (Yogyakarta: Yayasan Prakrsa,

1995), p. 33-65.



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confining their freedom as a human

being who is equal to men, but by

creating a system that in one hand

provides safety, and on the other

hand implements a heavy sanction

for those who violate the regulation

and the system.

(Rachman 2010: 249)

Badriyah Faymi, member of the House of Representatives of the Republic of

Indonesia and Vice Chair of FKB DPR RI; with Puan Amal Hayati studies

Islamic literature sources that are gender biased.

It is interesting to read a long comment from Abdullah Yusuf Ali, a traveler

who is known to be liberal, which reveals that all of these values are the submission

of our will—men and women—to the will of Allah,

“A number of obligations a Muslim has are elaborated in this verse, but the

main emphasis lies in the reality that all virtues are highly entailed for men and

women. Their rights and the obligations, in terms of spiritual and humanitarian

aspects, are of the same level, and their rewards in the hereafter, which is

spiritual happiness, is granted equally to each of them. These values are: (1)

faith, hope and tawakkul to Allah and His regulations that are good for this

world; (2) devoted and perform prayer in daily life; (3) compassionate and

honest in the sense of the mind and the heart, the words and the actions; (4)

patient and steadfast in facing suffering and in attempting to do the righteous;

(5) humble, avoids arrogance and feelings of superiority; (6) giving alms by

helping the poor and those underprivileged, particularly obligations that are

propelled by the obligation to perform prayer and dedication to one another;

(7) sacrifice one’s personal interests, to eat in a certain manner, but in general

according to taste; (8) a pure sexual life, a pure heart, mind, words and

actions; and (9) always pays heed to religious teachings and embed a longing

to always be closer to Allah.”



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Thus, the issue of gender inequality in traditional interpretation is a matter of

social life that is not related to spirituality. However, sometimes, the readers, due to a

misogynies (hatred toward women) tendency and prejudice, often exaggerate what

is literally affirmed by the Koran regarding this issue of equality. The issue of gender

inequality is only a functional issue in social life that must be understood in a

framework process where the Koran is reforming the society toward equality, in

which time is required. Unfortunately, these traditionalist readers often see the

concept of equality in the Koran as part of the Koran’s perspective. It is this very

point that makes the issue of gender inequality socially a question among Liberal

Muslims—particularly those defending women’s rights before men: “If women and

men are equal before God, why are they the opposite before man?”

For Liberal Muslims, this question animates deconstruction attempts to obtain

a new perspective (a reconstruction process for) a more just Islamic interpretation in

terms of gender. For this reason, the origin and the processes of global

(weltanschauung) perspectives that have caused such social injustice of gender

have been sought. As known in sociology, it all began from a misogynist prejudice

and a global patriarchal perspective that then became a general vision of society life.

Such misogynist act and patriarchal perspective then, consciously or unconsciously,

entered religious interpretation.333 It is interesting to notice the works of Fatima

Mernissi who deeply influenced the perspective of Liberal Islam in Indonesia. After

analyzing the patriarchal forms in religious interpretation that have been fostered and

legitimized for centuries, interpretation of traditional scriptures that position women in

inequality must be suspected, and later on deconstructed. From here, they departed

to build a future filled with a just gender relation.

The answer is of course to be found in the mirror of time, where Muslims can

see themselves in order to predict the future. The image of women will

change if she emphasizes on the need to determine her future on the memory

of freedom. Perhaps women should help to emphasize on equality in daily life

that will take them to a fascinating present time. And the present is always

333 Ibid.



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fascinating, as it is there that everything is possible, the end of the past and

the beginning of faith in enjoying the harmony of the times that we have.334

Deconstruction of textual interpretation is so important for these Liberal

Muslims. It is the acts of reconstruction of the equality of rights between women and

men that become their serious attention. Deconstruction of the interpretation of

Islamic scriptures related to women is so important as a term of Hermeneutics by

Paul Ricoer, that is “exercise of suspicion”, in observing the way Islamic scriptures

have been interpreted by traditionalists for centuries. Exercise of suspicion should be

implemented in all forms of methodologies applied in sciences of interpretation,

social sciences, and philosophy. The main thing is that deconstruction needs to be

done. From here, a new interpretation is developed based on the vision of gender

equality. All arguments on the supremacy over women must be suspected, even

though they are holy scriptures that literally reveal inequality. And regarding efforts

related to this new interpretation, a new reading of the verses of the Koran is also in

need.

Fazlur Rahman’s thought on “the Way to Read the Koran”, influences the

methodology of Liberal Muslims in Indonesia, which is formulated into two cycles:

First is the double methodology cycle in understanding the Koran. In this

cycle, we must first understand the meaning or connotation of a statement by

studying its historical and sociological situations in which the statements of the Koran

serve as an answer. According to Rahman, before studying the specific verses in

light of specific situations, a study on the macro situation of the social context of the

society when the Koran was revealed must be done.

Second is generalizing the specific answers, and declaring them as

statements with general moral-social purposes filtered from the specific verses in

light of the socio-historic background and the logic ratio that are often presented.

From Rahman’s formula, these two steps were palpably simplified by Liberal

Muslims by first seeking the ethical foundation of a verse through historical-

contextual analysis of the verse (which in the science of interpretation is known as

asbab al-nuzul, but can be enriched by new sciences, such as history, sociology,

334 Ibid, p. 248.



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hermeneutics, and many more). Such morality within the Koran is expected to justify

the social condition of today shined by the spirit of the Koran.

Among the thoughts of Indonesian Liberal Muslims, Nurcholish Madjid could

be called as one of the thinkers who dealt with the ethics of the Koran in a way that

Fazlur Rahman did, to seek a modern Indonesian Muslim community. Regarding the

way to respond to the challenge of Muslims today, Nurcholish asserts,

[In order to]… respond to the challenges of present day, we need to first

capture the message within the Holy Book. Because [as asserted by]… Fazlur

Rahman, we have certain criteria before stepping forward, and these criteria

must be derived from the Koran. First, we must scrutinize our Islamic tradition

under the limelight of these criteria and principles, and then critically study the

knowledge produced by modernity. We must also remember that science in

Islam is formed to allow us to act, to change the state of the world. We must

truly develop this method and first of all assess our own tradition, the rights

and the wrongs. Then we must also assess the Western tradition. The level of

creative knowledge will only surface when inspired by an attitude that the

Koran aims to embed within us. Only then can we express appreciations and

sit during assessments of both our tradition and the Western tradition. Even

then, assessments and criticism are not the final destination; they are just the

first step in discovering new knowledge, which is the true aim of Islamic

intellectuals.335

335 Quoted by Nurcholish Madjid, from Fazlur Rahman, “Islamization of Knowledge:

A Response,” in The American Journal of Islamic Social Science, (Herndon, VA,

USA), Vol. 5, 1 September 1988, p. 11. Take a look at Nurcholish Madjid, “Ajaran

Nilai Etis dalam Kitab Suci dan Relevansinya bagi Kehidupan Modern,” in Islam

Doktrin dan Peradaban, (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1992), p. 485-486.



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Efforts Toward a Liberal Islamic Interpretation

In reality, the use of Liberal Islamic interpretation to understand the issue of gender

equality has a spectrum.336 I will summarize in general a number of notable things

among Muslim intellectuals, such as the English essays that influenced the

discourse of Liberal Islam in Indonesia, and from the Islamic thinkers in Indonesia

themselves.

Initial Efforts of Liberal Islamic Interpretation. We have seen how the

apologetics (the thought that will be deconstructed by Liberal Muslims) support the

traditional interpretation mentioned previously. Principally, the apologetics

differentiate authoritative texts from cultural practices. This difference is important, as

later on it is through these authoritative texts that religious culture in the society will

be assessed. A number of thinkers have begun with a more liberal effort compared

to the traditional perspective of the apologetics. They were more concerned on the

differences between authoritative texts and their interpretation.

Initial efforts to make a more liberal Islamic interpretation began by opening a

space known as “textual interpretation”. Religious authoritative scriptures alone

cannot assist in the direct capturing of meaning, without an interpretation. Thus, it is

the discourse of interpretation that needs to be observed, whether or not it is

sufficient in a certain vision as contained in these authoritative texts. And so the

agenda of hermeneutics was made to open the issue of gender. They prioritized—

just like the traditionalists/apologetics—philological analysis, and contextual

arguments (sabab nuzul), under the pressure that such analysis is a process of

interpretation, unlike the apologetic who made use of the element of context to justify

a literal aspect of a verse. These liberals often question the results of traditional

interpretation. However, they—like the apologetics—believe that the Koran is as

literal as the kalam of God. But not only that, a new awareness was established, in

which the same text can produce differences in interpretation regarding an issue. In

this context, moderate figures, such as Prof. Quraish Shihab, and lecturers of

336 Take a look at Ghazala Anwar, “Muslim Feminist Discourses” in Concilium,

1991/1, p. 55-61



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interpretation at IAIN (State Institute of Islam Religion) in general, adopted this

perspective.337

Different interpretations between travelers and Muslim feminists occur due to

the different backgrounds behind each thought. Muslim feminists interpreted

the verses of the Koran through a feminism perspective, while the travelers

did the opposite. Another cause is the aspect of methodology. The travelers

did not use a contextual approach unlike the Muslim feminists. And they too

are different in assessing the quality of Hadith, even though both

acknowledge Hadith as bayan [explanation] of the Koran.338

From a thought that began to open this discourse of interpretation, more

efforts liberally developed in attempt to transform tradition, but by still using the

methodology of classic Islamic hermeneutics known in the discourse of classic

Liberal Islam. These liberal bases referred to by specialists of Islam are taken from

the discourse of classic Liberal Islam. In conducting interpretation of the Koran, for

example, they use a distinction that has for long been accepted by specialists of the

Koran, i.e. the presence of muhkamat (evident and exact) verses, and mutasyabihat

(difficult to directly capture their meaning). These two types of verses need to be well

defined. This hermeneutic methodology was supported by the Koran itself that

stated, “He it is who has revealed to you the Scripture whereof some verses are

muhkamat (decisive in meaning), these are the mother of the scripture, the others

are mutasyabihat… ” (Q. 3:7.)

From the interpretation of these Liberal Muslims, the differentiation between

(1) the mother or the foundation of the Scripture—“the Mother of the Scripture”—,

and (2), the part that is connotative and tamsil becomes important. In the latter, room

for interpretation is opened widely which then led to the madhabs in Islam. In fact,

interpretation of these mutasyabihat verses trained these Liberal Muslims to sharpen

their abilities in revealing the inner meaning of the Koran. However, there is a basic

337 Take a look at M. Quraish Shihab, Wawasan al-Qur’an: Tafsir Maudhu ‘I atas

Pelbagai Persoalan Umat, (Bandung: Mizan, 1997), p. 296-318

338 Yunahar Ilyas, Feminisme dalam Kajian Tafsir al-Qur’an, Klasik dan Kontemporer

(Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 1997), p. 151



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problem that surfaces here that is the problem in determining which verses are

muhkamat and which are mutasyabihat. Abdullah Yusuf Ali, commented on the

previous verse, “Specialists in interpretation usually define the verses “that have a

decisive meaning” (muhkan) into categories of legal shari’a regulations, that has a

clear meaning for everyone. However, this meaning can no longer expand: “the

Mother of Scripture” must cover the most basic, the place where all laws rest and

become the main teaching of Allah that is different to all kinds of images, symbols,

connotations and regulations.”

Some concluded that the movement

of Muslim women in Indonesia was

much better compated to the feminist

groups in other Muslim-populated

countries. In a number of ways, I

agree with this opinion. First,

Indonesian Islam is a peripheral Islam

far from the center. Second, culturally

we have the same culture that can

absorb Islamic teachings and no

longer separate them. Third, we have

a tradition of Islamic schools that

does not only take the form of

physical buildings where men and

women are educated and raised

together, but also theological

buildings that are derived from the

classic scriptures open to

reinterpretation for the sake of the

enforcement of women’s rights.

(Rachman 2010: 943)

Lies Macoes-Natsir, a woman activist who graduated from the State Institute

of Islam Religion (IAIN) Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta (now UIN).



WORKING TRANSLATION

This hermeneutic prototype evidently has further implications and has

provided a wide possibility for Liberal Muslims to reinterpret the verses of the Koran

in transforming the traditional interpretation that appeared “sexist”. Literal reading of

the verses of the Koran that differentiated the rights of women was transformed

toward equality, which means that the gender bias was transformed into a more

equal meaning in terms of gender.

In this context, the Sudanese thinker, Mahmud Muhammad Thaha, gave a

more liberal hermeneutic framework, by adding elements of differentiation between

Makkiyah and Madaniah verses. The verses revealed in Mecca that were poetic,

prophetic, egalitarian and visionary had served as a basis of an ethical vision that

became the foundation of the reading of the verses revealed in Medina, which were

more about regulating the social life. This approach clearly assisted Liberal Muslim

thinkers in reading the verses of the Koran regarding gender equality. Abdullahi An-

Naim—a student of Mahmud Muhammad Thaha—used this hermeneutic way in his

liberal agendas, and more or less had come to enliven the Islamic discourse in

Indonesia, as one of his books had been translated. And as they used a hermeneutic

framework with traditional liberal roots, they were more easily accepted, appreciated

and developed by Muslim thinkers.

From the liberal basics that were pioneered by Islam thinkers all this time, a

par excellence model of interpretation developed, or now known as “Liberal Muslim

thinkers”. All this time, they have been called by various names in the Islamic

discourse. At times neo-modernist Muslims, at other times, Rationalist Muslims,

feminists and many more.

This Liberal Islam hermeneutic prototype departs from a faith that the basic

vision of the Koran is justice. All the verses in the Koran essentially bring about the

discourse of justice, which means a vision of gender equality. However, justice and

the idea of gender equality are not abstract concepts. Justice and gender equality

often appear in the elimination of a problem. For this reason, many verses on gender

justice are contextual. But many verses also talk about justice in a philosophical

sense—as ethical norms. Thus, the way to use a hermeneutic method is by reading

contextual verses and by facing this problem in light of other verses that voiced out

this vision of ethics. Many of Riffat Hassan’s books voiced out this vision. He himself



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admitted to be influenced by Fazlur Rahman in interpreting the Koran. We know that

Fazlur Rahman is a great Islamic thinker who created a very liberal method of

interpretation, known as “the double hermeneutic cycle”, which was mentioned

previously. In a verse that has context—in this case verses related to women—we

formulate the vision of justice and gender equality in it. This vision of abstract ethics

brings us to the issue of today, we place it within discourse, and we create new

interpretations that are in line with today’s spirit, but are still loyal to the moral

messages of the Koran.

We obtain a new theoretical working framework in interpreting legal verses, in

which part of them are about the relation between men and women. In the

Indonesian version of Asghar Ali Engineer’s book, and even more in Fatima

Mernissi’s book, the best examples of how the theoretical working framework of

interpretation of the Koran is liberally implemented. In addition, Fatimah Mernissi

also gave a highly qualified criticism of Hadith. In her book Women in Islam,

(Bandung: Pustaka, 1994), she rivetingly made us conscious of the many problems

of the use of Hadith that were turned into the foundation of gender inequality in

Islam. And it turned out that the Hadith that were used to legitimize gender

inequality, were those included into the category of weak Hadith (dla’if). And for that

very reason we must refuse them. I myself believe that if these Hadith were true,

they are highly unlikely to be sexist and misogynic. However, it is true that—as

believed by many rationalist Muslims, for example Fazlur Rahman—the issue is not

only that these Hadith are weak and cannot be accounted for in terms of their

authenticity, but also because they are different compared to the Koran; which has

its authenticity guaranteed. The use of Hadith themselves as the legal basis of

religiosity is problematic! This is due to a search method for the authenticity of Hadith

that that has its accuracy called into doubt, which was pioneered by Imam Syafi’I

from the spectacles of modern criticism.

Departing from this context, many Indonesian Muslim thinkers can be

categorized as liberal thinkers. Regarding the senior figures, we have Prof. Harun



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Nasution, Prof. Nurcholish Madjid, Prof. Munawir Sjadzali,339 and many among the

younger generation who will eventually develop liberal notions from these seniors,

such as Wardah Hafidz, Lies Marcoes-Natsier, Masdar F. Mas’udi,340 Siti Ruhaini

Dzuhayatin, Nazaruddin Umar341 and many more. They have become the

provocateurs for ideas on gender equality in Indonesia.

The Use of Postmodern Hermeneutics

In Paul Ricoer’s terminology, the Liberal Muslims applied a methodology of

interpretation that conducted an exercise of suspicion. However, the Muslims that

were affected by feminist thought and post-modern thoughts continued this aspect of

suspicion further than what had been done by liberal Muslim travelers. Within the

Islamic feminism discourse in Indonesia, this discourse was developed by Mansour

Fakhir342, an alumni of IAIN Jakarta who dealt with transformative methodologies in

developing the society. The international Islamic thought that entered Indonesia was

much developed by Mohammad Arkoun.

Essentially, postmodern hermeneutics departed from a perspective that there

was no grand narrative. This means that regarding the context being discussed right

now, we become authoritarian when women are placed within the “grand narrative”

of men. For this reason, the key word of the Liberal Islamic perspective that was

influenced by postmodern philosophy was the opposite: Instead of reading women

from the perspective of men, reading must be done in an ex-centralism manner that

is outside (ex) whatever tendencies that place men as the center of the social (and

339 Take a look at Munawir Sjadzali, Ijtihad Kemanusiaan, (Jakarta: Paramadina,

1997), p. 4-11

340 Take a look at Masdar F. Mas’udi, Islam & Hak-hak Reproduksi Perempuan:

Dialog Fiqih Pemberdayaan (Bandung: Mizan, 1997)

341 Take a look at Nasaruddin Umar, “Perspektif Gender dalam Islam,” this paper will

be published in the Journal of Contemporary Islamic Studies, (Jakarta: Paramadina,

1998)

342 Take a look at Mansour Fakhir, Menggeser Konsepsi Gender dan Transformasi

Sosial (Yogyakarta: Pustaka Pelajar, 1996)



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spiritual) life of women. Moreover, when they are done to place men as the

foundation of the theological existence of women, as excessively done by the

apologetic Muslims.

For Liberal Muslims who use this postmodern method as an exercise of

suspicion, all forms of centralism is totalitarianism: Reading women from the central

perspective of men is opposed to the basic message of religiosity which places men

and women equal before Allah. The way to deconstruct all of these forms of

centralism is by refusing any argument of inequality that is contained within the

Islamic discourse for the sake of an egalitarian concept that upholds the notion of

equality for men and women. The theological foundation used is equality before

Allah that is contrasted with traditional and even modern perspectives that (remain)

passionate in showing inequality.

There are two sociological key words that are very important in the process of

deconstructing this exercise of suspicion. They are the understanding of the entire

process of “representation”—a term from the philosopher Francois Lyotard—and the

linkage of “knowledge as power” by Michael Foucault.

First, is representation. This is everything that is related to idea, illustration,

image, narratives, visual and scientific products that are associated to the

interpretation of women in Islam all this time. Another word that is often used in

depicting this representation is “text”. Thus, representation is the “text” itself. While

social reality is “intertextuality”. The social reality of Muslim women is the

intertextuality from books interpreting the Koran and Hadith. All forms of their

interpretation then become the jurisprudence of women.

According to these post-modern Liberal Muslims, the reality of the existence

of women is established on the linkage of texts that live in the society. For example,

we can show how much influence is given by these traditional scriptures that are

always read in Islamic schools. This means that the interpretation regarding women

that we have accepted so far is the result of the texts that we use, or—in a more

accurate social science term—“a presented representation”. That is to say, if only we

could use another text, another representation, the reality for women today would be

different. Postmodern Muslim feminists who apply the “exercise of suspicion” are so



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convinced that the process required is one that presents a new interpretation, and by

way of presenting a new text.

If everything that is related to the reality of women is a representation, then

every representation is a text, thus when we suspect the existing representation,

what we must suspect is the text. This is the “subversive” aspect: we need to

immediately suspect the old texts, as they clearly contain a certain global

perspective and prejudice of time that is not a prejudice of our time today. According

to them, the Islamic vision of today is different than Islam in the past. We have the

right to construct another representation that is in line with the global perspective of

today, without having to consider that Holy texts are textually gender characterized.

The latter needs to be affirmed here, as they still believe that the Holy texts

essentially—using a terminology from Islamic schools, shalih li kulli zaman wa

makan (applies for every era and place). But what is shalih li kulli zaman wa makan,

if not a universal ethic perspective?

The definition of the shari’a is

reduced by the imagination of power.

The shari’a is understood as a “force”:

the requirement to wear a veil,

women must cover their private parts

(aurat), must not leave the house as it

may trigger slander and invite

adultery. This definition is only a small

part of the entire large system. If you

want to see the shari’a that is kaffah

(comprehensive), try to see the whole

picture. The mission of Islam is the

shari’a.

Lily Zakiyah Munir, Director for the Center for Pesantren and Democracy

Studies (CePDeS), Jakarta, which focuses on gender issues and human

rights from the Islamic perspective.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Fundamentally, until today all texts about women clearly have their own

representations—for example, the religious thoughts that we receive, the myths and

the images on women that are religiously officialized. These representations are then

considered to be natural and innate. It is clear that those “suspecting” refuses the

traditionalists’ assumptions. In general, the differences is not only biological, but also

has a psychological and spiritual significance.

This gender distinction according to postmodern Liberal Muslims is not

natural, because no representations are natural and innate. Every representation

(and text) is—according to Peter L. Berger—socially constructed. There is not a

single representation that is not man-made and based on prejudices of their era.

The task of the Liberal Muslim thinkers is to suspect interpretations of Islamic

texts about women—to be critical toward their own creation. For example, all

interpretations about women that we consider to be inapt with the vision of our era

that emphasizes on the principles of justice, openness and democracy. The purpose

of this is not to change part of the Koran that when literally interpreted does have

gender characteristics, but to put forward the basic spirit of the Koran regarding

equality where we completely realize that what is called as the concept of equality

has apparently existed along with the prejudices of the era. Criticism towards text

means suspicion, and furthermore deconstruction towards the text. This makes the

text—which was initially closed—opened, by refusing all norms that were considered

“the only truth” in interpreting the text, formulated by old travelers or the Islamic

apologetics.

With an open approach after suspecting a text that has been considered

established, we are introduced to the many possibilities of a text, the possibility of

representation and various possibilities of images as well as their implications. Thus,

the interpretation of plural women will be open, and alternative constructive thoughts

are introduced. Now when the key word “representation” is brought forward,

postmodern Liberal Muslims use the second key word that is:

Second, deconstruction-reconstruction, that is very important in order to

understand the relation between knowledge and power. Knowledge of text,

representation, ideas, images, imaging, narratives, visual and scientific products, is

power. No knowledge is free from power. It is the opposite. Power is always related



WORKING TRANSLATION

to knowledge, always full of interests. Thus, all interpretations contain interests. The

question is: Who is prioritized in the process of interpretation? Men? Women? Is

there domination? Or an equality that sides with justice?

Closing

The followers of Liberal Islam who emphasize on sociological reading over an

unequal gender relation in the Muslim society put great efforts to show the origins of

inequality in gender. What is most important from all of these readings of Islamic

scriptures is the issue of the interpretation of the Koran. This is why they suspect

traditional interpretations.

“…The attitude that places the position of men and women unequally must be

eliminated. I believe that morally, spiritually, and socially this will create

productivity. We need to help in order to create harmony in the relation

between the two. Evidences contained in the teachings of the Koran

strengthened this opinion, and emphasizes how in fact men and women need

one another. Regarding the issue of social justice, it becomes a necessity to

defy the patriarchy system, but of course not in order to apply the matriarchy

system, but for efficiency of cooperation and distribution of the system, which

will foster maximum participation from each member of the society. This system

will truly respect the sexes and each of their contribution as well as the tasks

they hold. This will also give birth to individual growth and development, and

also society growth and development. Thus, women will have full access to

participate in politics, economy, and the intellectual field, and be appreciated by

men. Also, men can, or there is a possibility for them to fully participate at home

and also take care of the children. This will create a society that is more equal

and just. Another principle from the Koran that I have included as the relation

between men and women is the act of respect and unanimity (syura). Usually,

syura is used to discuss and resolve problems between responsible adults.

Even so, many writers deny this in the dispute between husband and wife. The

Koran recommends men and women to marry as a form of protection toward

the moral acts of both sexes. However, the interpretations that appear

regarding the rights and obligations between the married couple confine



WORKING TRANSLATION

women, so marriage becomes an institution that oppresses women. If marriage

is a tool to reject the individuality of women, and the oppression of women who

have the same capacity with men, both in terms of humanity and spirituality,

then clearly marriage contests the aim of the Koran that aspires to create

justice and a social-moral order that recommends to do good deeds, and

prevent bad deeds. Misinterpretation of this kind must be straightened.343

To conclude, principally, the agenda of Liberal Muslims comprise of efforts to:

First, create a condition for women with freedom of choice based on the same

rights as men. This is what is what has been absent or has lacked of concern in

Islamic interpretation;

Second, women are not perpetually forced to become a housewife, in which

they are pressured to accept is as their main task (and even natural state) as

women. This is the most striking reality in books regarding the jurisprudence of

women;

Third, women should not be pushed to do “feminine” roles—based on their

feminine modesty. Realization of this agenda would mean the natural rejection of the

extreme polarizing of men and women through stereotypes that are embedded in

Islamic interpretation with men as the focal point.

According to Liberal Muslims, a deconstruction is required for imaging

(representation) of women that is established from the perspective of the interests of

men (power relation through a certain discourse, such as patriarchy) in order to

obtain a perspective from the interests of women as an autonomous subject.

Particularly, when the Koran itself states “Whoever works righteousness, Man or

woman, and has Faith, Verily to him will We give A new Life, and life That is good

and pure, and We Will bestow on such their reward According to the best of their

actions.” (Q. 16:97)

343 Amina Wadud Muhsin, Wanita di Dalam al-Qur’an (Bandung: Pustaka, 1994)



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CHAPTER VI

PROMOTING PLURALISM

As a result of the exclusive approach taken by religions for the past centuries,

pluralism or diversity has become a challenge for all religions—particularly the

monotheis religions: Judaism, Christianity and Islam.344 For example, Christianity,

which was the first religion to be aware of the theological issue of pluralism, once

believed that the number of missionaries throughout the world was sufficient enough

to engender acts of repentance and lead man to walk the path of Jesus Christ.

However, this did not take place. Today, many Christian theologians are aware that

religions, such as Judaism, Islam, Hindhu, and Buddha, did not disappear from the

surface of the earth. Quite the contrary, they have survived and continue to flourish.

And so, initially pluralism became a serious challenge for Christianity, and in due

course for all religions. In present day, there is not a single religion that does not face

the issue of religious pluralism.345

We will briefly go through the development of theological pluralism thought in

the Christian setting, which has triggered dispute between religions and pluralism,

and also observe and analyze it from its long-term perspective regarding to how

Liberal Islamic thought has also struggled with the issue of pluralism.

344 John Hick, “A Philosophy of Religious Pluralism” in Paul Badham (ed.), A John

Hick Reader (London: Macmillan, 1990), p. 161-177.

345 Take a look at Roger Haight, “On Pluralism in Christology” Budhi, 1, 1997, p. 31-

46. What is very interesting in the latest development is that the issue of pluralism

has entered today’s discussion on religious philosophy, particularly books in the past

decade. For example, Gary E. Kessner, Philosophy of Religion: Toward a Global

Perspective (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Company, 1999). In this book,

there is a part (Chapter 11, p. 529-581) entitled ‘Are All Religions True?” which

discusses the most recent debate on pluralism among prominent figures of pluralism,

such as Raimundo Panikkar, John Hick, Arvin Sharma, Frithjof Schuon, Gavin

D’Costa and Purusottama Bilimoria.



WORKING TRANSLATION

We begin with the definition of religious pluralism according to the dictionary

or encyclopedia.

Religious pluralism (re. comparative religion) is a loosely defined expression

concerning acceptance of different religions, and is used in a number of related

ways:

As the name of the worldview according to which one’s religion is not the sole

and exclusive source of truth, and thus that at least some truths and values

exist in other religions.

As acceptance of the concept that two or more religions with mutually

exclusive truth claims are equally valid. This posture often emphasizes

religion’s common aspects.

Sometimes as a synonym for ecumenism, i.e. the promotion of some level of

unity, co-operation, and improved understanding between different religions or

different denominations within a single religion.

And as a synonym for religious tolerance, which is a condition of harmonious

co-existence between adherents of different religions or religious

denominations.346

The issue of religious pluralism today has become an integral part of the

Christian thought reform. The reality and the complexity of the world at present day

has caused Christian thinkers to thoughtfully revaluate their understanding of the will

of Allah, the teaching of the Bible on Jesus, and theological doctrines regarding

Christology and proclamation of the Gospel. Many Christian theologians today

believe that theology cannot continue to be formulated separately from other

religions, and how in fact the development of Christian theology in the future will be a

direct result of a pensive dialogue with other religions.347

346 “Religious Pluralism”, Wikipedia, the Free Encyclopedia, A similar definition is

also given in Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy, in the entry “Religious

Pluralism”.

347 Terry O’ Keeffe, “Religion and Pluralism” in David Archard (ed.), Philosophy and

Pluralism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1996), p. 61-72. Harold Coward,

Pluralisme: Tantangan bagi Agama-agama (Yogyakarta: Kanisius, 1989), p. 31.



WORKING TRANSLATION

In attempt to retrieve lost contacts with the world, as a first step the church has

agreed to engage in dialogues with world communities and world religions. Part of

this is due to the development of the world’s pluralistic tendency that is caused by

globalization, particularly development of information technology and

communication. In specific context, the church aspires to share the truth with others.

This new situation forces the Christian churches to change courses from “Let us

teach you”, an all-knowing attitude, to a more attentive attitude that listens to the

wisdom and problems of other religions. This new dialogic attitude brought about an

important change to the Christians’ traditional doctrine regarding the church. A

narrow interpretation of the doctrine “There is no salvation outside the church” (extra

exclesiam nulla sallus) was left behind. The spiritual feature of other religions has

been acknowledged as the will of God on salvation that is presented in the teachings

and the practices of other religions.348

Terry O’Keeffe, “Religion and Pluralism” in David Archard (ed.), Philosophy in David

Archard (ed.), Philosophy and Pluralism (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press,

1996), p. 61-72.

348 Harold Coward, Pluralisme: Tantangan bagi Agama-agama, p. 34

“It is now customary to distinguish three main approaches to other religions

within Christian thought. Alan Race in Christians and Religious Pluralism (1983)

adopts the headings Exclusivism, Inclusivism and Pluralism. Exclusivism asserts that

only Christianity possesses the truth and that there can be no truth or salvation

outside it. It depends on the belief that the Christian revelation is true and final and

that no other revelation is possible. Inclusivism, on the other hand, suggests that

other great world religions like Islam, Hinduism or Buddhism can offer important

spiritual insights and visions of holiness, but not as alternatives to the Christian

vision. They are included in Christianity and must be regarded as partial and

incomplete articulations of the truth that can be found within Christianity. The

inclusive view, like exclusivism, only sees Christianity to be truly salvic. There is a

third approach, which is the pluralist view [pluralism]. In opposition to the absolutist

claims of exclusivism or inclusivism, a pluralist version claims that the true content of

faith can have a variety of legitimate articulations. So, for example, Gavin D’Costa



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According to thinkers of religious philosophy today, the understanding of

pluralism can only occur when the believers of every religion work to set aside their

exclusive perspective, let in the assumptions coming from others and “see” the

universe from their concepts. If these efforts develop, a reciprocal acknowledgement

will occur in which various world religions accept one another as fellow companions

hiking a mountain covered in clouds in which God who Encompasses All rests on top

of the mountain, unseen before our eyes.

From the development of Christian theology today, it has been understood that

in order to grasp a rich understanding of the traditions of other religions inclusive and

pluralist actions that embrace diversity are required. In the Christian world, the

theology of pluralism has been developed by many philosophers, theologians, and

scientists, such as John Hick, Karl Rahner, Raimundo Panikkar, Wilffred Cantwel

Smith, Rosemary Ruether, Paul F. Knitter, Gordon D. Kaufmann and many more.

The thoughts of Karl Rahner, who is known to be one of the biggest Catholic

theologians of the 20th century, has significantly influenced the theology post the

Conciliation of Vatican II (1962-1965) which predisposed the Catholic Church to

revise its perspective toward other religions. Rahner developed an inclusive theory

that is in line with the Conciliation of Vatican II, which revised the church’s

perspective on extra eclessiam nulla salus (there is no salvation outside the church).

In the long run, the theological thought of Rahner gained impact through its decisive

articulation in the interpretation of Christian doctrines. In Rahner’s perspective, the

believers of other religions have most likely discovered the blessing from Jesus

through their own religion without having to become a believer of Christianity. This is

what made Rahner well known: the term “anonymous Christian”.349 Jesus, in

argues that ‘other religions are equally salvific paths to God and Christianity’s claim

that it is the only path… or the fulfillment of other paths… should be rejected for good

theological and phenomenological grounds.” Take a look at Terry O’Keeffe, “Religion

and Pluralism”, p. 61-62.

349 Karl Rahner believed that Christians not only could, but also must consider other

religions to be “valid” and serve as “salvific paths”, because Allah offers His

blessings to the entire mankind. It is true that salvation is within Jesus Christ, and the



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Rahner’s perspective, still remains the norm in which truth is found and becomes the

path of salvation. However, people do not need to necessarily and explicitly become

a believer of Christianity in order to obtain the truth and achieve salvation.

Pluralism is respect towards diversity

by still referring to one’s own faith.

There is no need to consider all faiths

the same. For me, such values have

for long belonged to Indonesia as a

nation.

(Rachman 2009: 157)

Ahmad Suaedy, one of the founders, and since 2004, has become the

Executive Director of the Wahid Institute, Jakarta. He was once a coordinator

of the Islamic program, democracy and HR at P3M. He was also a member of

the management of LAKPESDAM NU in 2001-2003.

Rahner asserted that other religions are in fact inherent forms of Christianity.

Universal salvation is ontologically based on the creative acts of Allah and is

historically brought into being through Jesus. As explained in Rahner’s theology,

church must not condemn other religions to be false and not offer salvation. Even

though they may not be as perfect as the church, but as this blessing is universal,

then the salvation within the Christ is also present there, though not under the name

of Christ. Thus, in other religions, Christ, the savior, is also there, although not with

the name Christ. Rahner calls this anonymous Christ. For this reason, the believers

of other religions are in fact anonymous Christians. Take a look at Karl Rahner,

“Christianity and the non-Christian Religions” in Carl E. Braaten and Robert W.

Jenson, A Map of Twentieth Century Theology: Readings from Karl Bath to Radical

Pluralism (Minneapolis, Fortress Press, 1995), p. 231-246.



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Christ-centric approaches and theocentric approaches divert the attention from the

uniqueness of Christ to the universality of Allah.350

Besides Rahner, Raimundo Panikkar also developed a theology of pluralism.

Panikkar is a Spanish Catholic whose father is a Hindu. He is also a Catholic

Pasteur, who received his Doctorate degree in science, philosophy and theology.

Panikkar claimed that he lives in four worlds: Catholic where he was brought up,

Hindu, the culture and religion of his father, Buddha and the modern secular world

where he grew up and socialized intensively with the culture and tradition of Europe.

He affirmed this by asserting: “I left my Christianity, discovered myself as a Hindu,

and returned to being a Buddha, without stopping being a Christian.”351 His approach

towards other religions reflects such complexity.

In the Catholic setting, his writings pioneered efforts in the field of interfaith.

Panikkar drew together two opposite areas and poles: the West and the East. He

established a new theology of religions without having to remove the particular

identity of the religious culture and tradition of each religion. Panikkar himself

admitted that in order to reach a perspective and concept on the fusion of culture

and religious, he had to venture on a spiritual pilgrimage, an existential adventure

350 Harold Coward, Pluralisme: Tantangan bagi Agama-agama, p. 75. Also take a

look at George F. McLean and John P. Hogan (ed.), Ecumenism and Nostra Aetate

in 21st Century (Washington DC: John Paul II Cultural Center—The Council for

Research in Values and Philosophy). Karl Rahner in the issue of religious pluralism

is very much influenced by the Thomism evolution. Thomism has formed and

provided a context for Rahner’s thought and theology. Take a look at G. McCool,

From Unity to Pluralism: The Internal Evolution of Thomism (New York: Fordam

University Press, 1989)

351 Raimundo Panikkar, The Intra-Religious Dialogue (New York: Paulist Press,

1978), p. 36.



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where he explored various religious traditions that were fortified by history,

philosophy, theology and other presumptions.352

Panikkar departed from the belief that the truth proposed by the teachings of

Christianity and Hindu are universal, and he eventually considered them both to be

particular and limited establishments. While in fact, both are formulations limited by

cultural factors regarding a more universal truth.353

Panikkar’s thesis is that dialogues of particular experiences on the truth—for

example Christ for Christians, Veda for Hindus—can be extended and deepened so

as to reveal new experiences about the truth. Through dialogues, there will be an

extension and intensification of every particular experience of the Divine Truth. Inter-

religious dialogue is not assimilation, nor substitution, but “mutual enrichment”.

According to Panikkar, “exclusive and self-righteous acts are the pinnacle of

hypocrisy.”354

For this reason, in engaging in dialogues and expanding the awareness of

pluralism, as stated by Indonesia’s Christian theologian, Th. Sumartana, we should

at least cover two main things: first, animating new awareness regarding the main

faith of others; and second, fostering cooperation in order to together solve

humanitarian issues in the society.

Dialogues move toward an authentic understanding on the faith of others,

without acts of disparage, let alone distortion of noble faiths. In this relation, a truly

dialogic conversation can serve as the first step to achieve “mutual enrichment” for

352 This method of spiritual pilgrimage in the tradition of religious pluralism thought is

called “passing over” and “coming back” which—once again I quote, evidently

illustrates what was experienced by Panikkar. “I left my Christianity, discovered

myself as a Hindu, and returned to being a Buddha, without stopping being a

Christian”. Most philosophers and theologians of religions today do what is called as

“passing over” and “coming back”. Take a look at John S. Dunne, The Way of All the

Earth (London: Collier Macmillan Publisher, 1978)

353 Harold Coward, Pluralisme: Tantangan bagi Agama-agama, p. 78.

354 Raimundo Panikkar, The Intra-Religious Dialogue, p. 20.



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different faiths. We are brought to an opulent experience of faiths that is truly rich

and maintained through a long and diverse tradition.

Furthermore, a dialogic conversation is also an opportunity to establish inter-

religious cooperation in order to resolve actual humanitarian problems in the society.

The concern of these religions will serve as a new power for humanity to overcome

the escalation of inter-religious problems. The individual abilities of religions to face

the issues of humanity in this modern era are no longer sufficient. A new inter-

religious alliance is required.355

Pannikar explains that developing pluralism in religions means putting great

efforts to understand other religions, their languages and their concepts. We cannot

overcome and bridge these differences by shallowly saying that all religions are the

same or are one (as stated by MUI’s fatwa on pluralism). We also cannot disregard

what other people say (other religions). Each religion reflects, corrects, completes,

and challenges other religions in an interconnection known as “inter-religious

dialogues”. For this reason, Panikkar states that each religion expresses an

important principle of the truth. Expressions can take the form of reflection,

correction, complementary and challenge between one religion and another. This is

pluralism. Panikkar admits that the meeting of religions can only take place in the

heart of religious traditions themselves. These traditions must also be understood

from a wider perspective that goes beyond geographical and cultural boundaries.356

Another religious pluralism thought that is well known and controversial

belongs to John Hick. Hick is a contemporary religious philosopher who is concerned

355 Th. Sumartana, ‘Menuju Dialog Antariman”, in Dialog: Kritik dan Identitas Agama

(Yogyakarta: Interfidei, 1993), p. xxvi-xxvii. Regarding the reflection of theological

dialogue, take a look at Leonard Swidler, “Interreligious and Interideological

Dialogue; The Matrix for All Systematic Reflection Today” in Leonard Swidler (ed.),

Toward a Universal Theology of Religion (Maryknoll, NY: Orbish Books, 1988), p. 5-

50. Also Martin Forward, A Short Introduction Inter-Religious Dialogue (Oxford:

Onewworld, 2001).

356 Raimundo Panikkar, The Intra-Religious Dialogue, p. 67.



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on the issues of pluralism and inter-religious relations.357 In Hick’s definition and

understanding, religious pluralism should be defined by normatively avoiding the

claim of truth of one religion over another. Unlike Rahner, Hick disagrees with the

statement that Christianity holds “more” truth than other religions. For this reason,

according to Hick, in developing religious pluralism, the use of the term anonymous

Christian, anonymous Islam, anonymous Hindu, anonymous Buddha, must be

avoided. Allah, as reflected in various civilizations, in Hick’s perspective actualizes in

different revelations or religions. However, even though there are differences among

different revelations, we must be certain that God is everywhere and pressing in

upon the human spirit. According to Hick, the use of the term “God” is not to show

the personalities of God from theistic religions, but to show an infinite reality that can

be understood in a number of ways through various religious experiences.

Henceforward, as Hick sees it, a more wise way to understand the truth of

other religions is by accepting that all religions represent the many ways toward One

Single Reality, that is God who brings truth and salvation. There cannot be one way

(religion) that claims itself to be truer than another, because we (all religions) are as

close and are as far from the Single Reality. The Single Reality is the same reality

that is sought by all religions.358

In explaining this Single Reality, Hick uses the dualism of Immanuel Kant on

the Real in-it-self (an sich) and the Real as humanly thought-and-experienced. The

real-in-itself is in fact the Single Reality aimed by all religions. As the Single Reality is

Most Kind, Most Great, Most Encompassed, Most Gracious, Most Infinite and so on,

humans (who are limited) experience limitations to understand it comprehensively.

This is what according to Hick refers to the Real as humanly thought-and-

357 His famous book on pluralism, John Hick, God and the Universe of Faith

(London/NY/: 1979), God Has Many Names (London, 1980) and Problem of

Religious Pluralism (London, 1985).

358 Harold Coward, Pluralisme: Tantangan bagi Agama-agama, p. 60. Take a look at

John Hick, “Conflicting Truth Claims” in Gary E. Kessner, Philosophy of Religion:

Toward a Global Perspective, p. 537-546.



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experienced (the single reality that can only be thought and experienced by

humans). Limitations and cultural factors are what then engender humans’ response

on the illustration of the single reality that differs.

What appears next is the question how do we connect these two concepts of

Real? Or how the Real as humanly thought-and-experienced that might differ from

one religion to another take us to the same the Real in-it-self? According to Hick, all

religions with different concepts of Real move toward the same the Real in-it-self as

long as it can produce a soteriological function from religion. This means that the

religion must be able to give a good influence in terms of morality and ethics for the

followers in the social life of humans. For this reason, Hick asserts that the paths of

other religions are entitled to the same validity as our religion in the quest of truth

and salvation from the Real in-it-self.

John Hick concludes that a pluralist pattern of diversity is the most apt pattern

for today’s plural present life. A wise way, according to Hick, is to accept that all

religions represent the many ways toward One Single Reality (God) and carry the

truth and salvation.359

Islam is my way of life. As a way,

there must be a certainty in my faith.

However, a social level must always

contain a relative space, a place

where everyone meets and engages

in dialogues. For me that is pluralism.

Fuad Jabali, Assistant to the Director of the Postgraduate Program of UIN

Jakarta and Editor of the Journal Studia Islamik. Member of the Advisory

Board of PPIM UIN Jakarta who received his MA degree from the School of

Oriental and African Studies (SOAS), University of London (1992), and PhD

degree from the Institute of Islamic Studies, McGill University (1999)

359 John Hick, “Religious Pluralism and Salvation” in Phillip L. Quinn and Kevin

Meeker (ed.), The Philosophical Challenge of Religious Diversity (Oxford: Oxford

University Press, 2000), p. 54-98.



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Another figure is Wilfred Cantwell Smith. Smith is a religious historian who

has firsthand experience with various religions when he taught in India in 1941-1945.

When he returned to Canada, he was appointed as Professor of Religious

Comparative Studies at McGill University, and succeeded to organize the

establishment of McGill Institute of Islamic Studies. In 1964, Smith became the

Director of Harvard University’s Center for the Study of World Religions.

According to Smith, religious pluralism is a new phase experienced by world

religions. The main precondition to this phase is we are asked to understand other

religious traditions besides our own religious tradition. Establishing a theology within

the fort of one religion is no longer sufficient. In the past, Christian theologians felt it

was necessary to establish a theology in the light of Greek philosophy or scientific

development. The same applies to the challenges faced by Christian theologians

today—that is when they develop their theology, they should be aware of their

position as a world citizen along with other world citizens and other theologians who

are Hindu, Buddha or Islam.

Smith began his theological statement on religious pluralism by explaining the

moral implication and the implication of conceptual revelations. On a moral sense,

the revelation of God should aspire for reconciliation and a profound togetherness.

While on a conceptual revelation sense, Smith began by stating that every

formulation of the faith of a religion must cover a doctrine from another religion.

The establishment of this theology, by Smith, was inserted into the analysis of

how we use the term religion. In his classic work entitled The Meaning and End of

Religion, Smith explains that the use of exclusive theology causes other religions to

be associated with the worship of idols and equating Gods as deities. For example,

Smith quotes a statement from a Christian theologian named Emil Brunner who

asserts that the Gods in other religions are always idols. Examples of exclusive

attitudes like these are portraits of the arrogance of religion that can no longer be

accepted. All religions move toward the final destination that is God. Smith wrote,

God is the final destination of religion, in the sense that He has so openly appeared

before us, in His depths and compassion, thus other truths will not cease to fade. At



WORKING TRANSLATION

best, the decoration of religion will fall to the earth, where it should be, and the

concept of religion will “end”.360

Smith felt that his understanding of religion is required if we would like to act

justly in the world we live in, and to God as revealed by the religion we follow. All

religions, whether it is Islam, Christianity, Hindu, Buddhism and many more, must be

understood as an important and dynamic meeting between the Divine and humans.

Smith affirmed, “It is a fact that humans worship God in different ways, and captures

God in different ways; it is a fact that the most secular humans live in a society that

among others is based on various ways of worshiping and capturing God; it is a fact

that intellectual and spiritual aspects are important, and surfacing intellectual and

spiritual issues should be a concern”.361 Through this understanding, Smith hopes for

tolerance among the various religious communities. He calls his thought, “A

Universal Theology of Religion”.362

Another theologian who can also be called as the pioneer of religious

pluralism thought is Paul F. Knitter—a recommender of the soteriocentric approach

in religious theology. Knitter’s pluralism approach departs from the main concern of

how religions can engage in an open and honest dialogue so as to contribute

significantly in overcoming human suffering and severe environmental damage. It is

not of the right place in relation to other religions to express absolutist language,

such as “the one and only”, “definitive”, “superior”, “absolute”, “final”,

“unsurpassable”, and “total” to explain the truth revealed by a religion. Without

claiming that all religions are equal, the Christians with correlational mentality

360 Harold Coward, Pluralisme: Tantangan bagi Agama-agama, p. 63-64. The work

of Wilfred Cantwell Smith, The Meaning and End of Religion (NY, 1978). Reviews on

the thoughts of Smith, take a look at N. J. Woly, “The Language of Global Theology:

A Global Theology of Religions According to Wilfred Cantwell Smith” in Meeting at

the Precincts of Faith (Kampen: Drukkerij van den Berg, 1998), p. 130-164.

361 Wilfred C. Smith, Memburu Makna Agama, p. 16-17.

362 Wilfred Cantwell Smith, “Theology and the World’s Religious History” in Leonad

Swidler (ed.), Toward a Universal Theology of Religion, p. 51-72.



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believed that from the very beginning all religions must acknowledge the equality of

rights in inter-religious dialogue so that every religious follower has the right to

speak, claim and other religious believers open their hearts and minds toward this

new truth shared by their dialogue partner. This step opens the path for anyone who

is interested in inter-religious dialogues and to meet a dialogue partner who does not

only come from another religion and culture, but also from a different social-

economic condition.363

According to Knitter, dialogues will lose their moral credibility when they are

only established on an intellectual or spiritual level, and far from issues of social,

physical and psychological sufferings of millions of humans. Inter-religious dialogues

should be more than an academic intellectual interest regarding what is revealed by

Hindu or Buddha or Islam about theological and anthropological issues. Knitter

believes that political and social victims must “have special voting rights in

dialogues.”

In all religions, as said by Knitter, there is a rough parity. What he means is

not that all religions are essentially saying the same thing, but due to their difference

with Christianity, other religions may be as effective and successful in bringing their

believers to the truth, peace and welfare with Allah. In other words, with correlational

theology, the Christians hold on to the possibilities, and propel the likelihood that the

Source of Truth and Transformation whom they call Allah in Jesus Christ has more

truth and various forms of transformation that are more than what Jesus has said.

Pluralist or correlational theology does not acknowledge a distinct inter-religious

difference, let alone one that is incomparable. However, it acknowledges the value

and the validity of this world of differences. Other religions are not only different, but

they can also be very valuable.364

363 Paul F. Knitter, Satu Bumi Banyak Agama: Dialog Multi Agama dan Tanggung

Jawab Global (Jakarta: PT BPK Gunung Mulia, 2003), p. xiii.

364 Theologically, Christians say that they believe in an Allah that will truly save

everyone, that is the Allah of Jesus Christ, Allah with “a pure compassion that is

bondless”, that embraces all and aspires for life and salvation. Allah embraces every



WORKING TRANSLATION

From the explanation of the theologians aforementioned, we can conclude

that the theology of pluralism prerequisites dialogue as an important element in

interacting with other religions. Inter-religious dialogue does not intend to create one

final sole religion, but to enrich and celebrate the diversity that increasingly develops

and weighs meaning in religions. Correlational dialogues must be accompanied by

global responsibility and because of that the approach should not be ecleciocentric,

christocentric or theocentric, but soteriocentric (rotates around safety) that is based

on the same foundation that is global responsibility toward the welfare of mankind

and the environment.

The joint foundation for pluralism and inter-religious dialogue is the issue of

human suffering and ecological damage, or in other words the welfare of mankind

and the environment. This establishment of this foundation is important in order to

avoid a moral fatigue and to be able to make an ethical decision for the welfare of

mankind and Earth. A concrete innovation is the formulation of a global ethics as a

joint action. This global ethics can become a reality when a global dialogue is held

first so that in the end global responsibility can be shared.365

human being that he loves within and through the church association and

associations from the believers of all religions. Christians can and must approach

other religions not only with the hope that they can possibly find the truth and virtue,

but also because they probably will. Thus, a pluralistic theology fosters religious

communities to communicate and share the valuable content of their own religion.

Religions must engage in dialogue. The truth within every religion is not for itself and

disregards others, but to be met so that a learning process can take place in

furthering each truth. The essence of religion is relational and dialogical. And so,

religions need to speak and act together. The differences in each religion do not

obstruct the relation among those between them. Take a look at Paul F. Knitter, Satu

Bumi Banyak Agama, p. 47.

365 Paul F. Knitter, Satu Bumi Banyak Agama, p. xiv.



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Pluralism theology affirms that being religious means living a responsible life

globally. With global responsibility, as a joint ethic task, all religious communities can

mutually revive and renew one another.366

Exclusivism, Inclusivism, and Pluralism

Pluralism thoughts that are rooted to the Christian theology above have become a

global issue and caused Islamic thought to recently be cognizant of the importance

of developing a pluralist thought,367 including in Indonesia.368 When we compare

Christian theology and Islamic theology, pluralism is not a new phenomenon for

Islam. Islam, theologically and historically, cannot be detached from other

religions.369 However, the form and the characteristic of the relation transpire

according to the context of Islamic relation with other religions in a specific historical

course. At times, it took place polemically, but dialogues dominated. Yet, the

principle that underlie the relation between Islam and other religions remained the

same—as stated in the Koran and put into example by the Prophet Muhammad—

that is there is acknowledgement and respect of the existence of other religions, and

there is freedom for the followers to carry out each of their religions. In Dale F.

Eickelman’s words, a specialist in contemporary Islam, “The Koran offers a distinctly

366 Jay McDanieL, Gandhi’s Hope: Learning from Other Religions as a Path to Peace

(Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2005).

367 For example, Abdulaziz Sachedina, The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism

(New York: Oxford University Press, Inc., 2001).

368 For example, Nurcholish Madjid, “In Search of the Islamic Roots of Modern

Pluralism: the Indonesian Experience” in The True Face of Islam: Essays on Islam

and Modernity in Indonesia (Jakarta: The Voice Center, 2003), p. 156-174.

369 Asghar Ali Engineer, “Islam and Pluralism” in Paul F. Knitter (2005), The Myth of

Religious Superiority: A Multifaith Exploration, Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, p. 211-

219.



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modern perspective on the role of Islam as a force for tolerance and mutual

recognition in a multiethnic, multicommunity world.”370

There are three definitions of contemporary pluralism that have been

developed and made into the basis of analysis in theology as well as Islamic history.

The three definitions are:

First, pluralism is active involvement in diversity and its differences in order to

build a joint civilization. As seen in the Islamic history, pluralism is more than

acknowledging plurality in diversity and differences, but actively arranging diversity

and differences for a higher social cause that is togetherness in building a

civilization. In Nurcholish Madjid’s words, “Pluralism is understood as the true ties of

diversity in the bonds of civilly.”371

Second, pluralism under the first definition means to presuppose acceptance

of active tolerance toward another. However, pluralism surpasses tolerance.

Pluralism presupposes in-depth knowing over another, so that there is mutual

understanding which fosters one another to actively fill tolerance with more

constructive things for the first purpose, to together actively build a civilization.372

370 Dale F. Eickelman, “Islam and Ethical Pluralism” in Sohail H. Hashmi, Islamic

Political Ethics: Civil Society, Pluralism and Conflict (Princeton and Oxford: Princeton

University Press, 2002), p. 115.

371 “Genuine engagement of diversities within the bonds of civility”. It is emphasized

here that the issue of active involvement within diversity (differences regarding

religion, ethnicity, ideology) so that it becomes something constructive in building

civility or civilization. This definition of pluralism is strongly voiced out within the

writing of Nurcholish Madjid. Another Muslim figure who emphasized on this

definition of pluralism is Mohamed Fathi Osman, The Children of Adam: an Islamic

Perspective on Pluralism (Washington DC: Center for Muslim-Christian

Understanding, Georgetown University, 1996)

372 For further discussion on this definition of tolerance, take a look at Michael

Walzer, On Tolerance (New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 1997)



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This once happened in the history of Islam. Spain (Andalucía) is the most expressive

example.373

Third, under the second definition, pluralism is not relativism. In-depth

knowledge over another will bring the consequence of complete acknowledgement

of the values of the other group. Active tolerance refuses the notion of relativism, for

example, the simplistic statement, “that all religions are the same”. It is the

differences that are in fact the huge potential here, the commitment to together build

active tolerance in order to establish a civilization.374

373 Andalucía (711-1492) is known for its experience of tolerance among Jews,

Christians, and Muslims. Tolerance is an inherent aspect of the people of Andalucía

(Medieval Spain). Take a look at Vivian B. Mann, et.al. (ed.), Convivencia: Jews,

Muslims and Christians in Medieval Spain (New York: The Jewish Museum, 1992)

Convivencia is a Spanish word, which means “coexistence”. Coexistence among

these three religious communities is indicated by a creative mutual loan and

influence.

374 Pluralism, as said by an Indian philosopher, Raimundo Panikkar, stands between

a non-associated plurality and a monolithic unity. “Pluralism does not mean plurality

or a reduction of plurality to unity. It is a fact that there is a plurality of religions. It is

also a fact that these religions have not been reduced to any sort of unity. Pluralism

means something more than sheer acknowledgement of plurality and the mere

wishful thinking of unity; Pluralism does not consider unity indispensable ideal, even

if allowance is made for variations within that unity. Pluralism accepts the

irreconcilable aspects of religions without being blind to their common aspect.

Pluralism is not the eschatological expectation that in the end all shall be one;

Pluralism affirms neither that the truth is one nor that it is many. If truth were one, we

could not accept the positive tolerance of a pluralistic attitude and would have to

consider pluralism a connivance with error. If truth were many, we would fall into a

plain contradiction… Pluralism does not stand for plurality—a plurality of truths in this

case. Pluralism adopts a non-dualistic, atavistic, attitude that defends the pluralism

of truth because reality itself is pluralistic—that is, incommensurable with either unity



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The three definitions of pluralism theologically means that humans must

handle their differences in the best of ways (fastabiq-u ‘l-khayrat, “to compete in

goodness”, a term in the Koran), while placing the final judgment of the truth in God’s

hands. Because there is not a single method that can be used objectively to reach

an agreement on the absolute truth.375

Public religion can only happen when

there is tolerance towards another. If

we want the public expression of our

religion to be actualized, we should

also open the possibility for the public

expression of other religions. This

means, internal and external

pluralism needs to be implemented.

Ihsan Ali-Fauzi, Program Director of the Paramadina Waqf Foundation

(YWP), Jakarta. He received his MA degree from Ohio University, Athens,

US.

Mohammed Fathi Osman defined pluralism as:

A form of institutionalization where acceptance of diversity covers a certain

society of the world as whole that has a meaning, which surpasses moral

tolerance and passive co-existence. Tolerance is an issue of habit and

personal feelings, while co-existence is purely acceptance of another that

does not go beyond the absence of conflict. Pluralism, in one hand, requires

institutional and legal measurements that protect and validate equality and

develop brotherhood among humans as individuals or as a group, may these

measurements be innate or obtained. Subsequently, pluralism demands a

of plurality.” Take a look at R. Panikkar, The Intra-religious Dialogue (New York:

Paulist Press, 1978), p. xxvii-xxviii.

375 In line with Q. 2: 113; 3:55; 5:48; 6:164; 10:93; 16:92, 124; 22:69; 32:25;

39:3, 46; 45:17.



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serious approach in order to understand one another and cooperate to

construct universal goodness. All humans should be able to enjoy the same

rights and opportunities, and should in turn fulfill the same obligations as state

citizens and global citizens. Every group should have the right to associate

and develop, maintain their identities and interests, and enjoy equality of

rights and obligations within the state and the international community.376

Then again, theologically, pluralism is discoursed through hermeneutics in

which explicitly the Koran affirms that Islam is the successor (millah) of the religion of

Abraham (Q. 6:61). The consequence is that Islam does not only have a historical

connection, but also has shares a common platform with Judaism and Christianity that

both come from the same ancestors, millah Abraham.377 With this common platform,

Islam provides a theological basis for its followers to accept pluralism, that is a concept

of diversity regarding the existence of other religions, and needs to establish a good

relation with the believers.378

In a nutshell, this theological concept describes that the Koran explains how

God has sent prophets to every group (Q. 17:15), those whose names are mentioned in

the Koran and those who are not (Q. 40:78), and how every Muslim must be faithful

toward them—these prophets—without differentiating one another, as part of diversity

(Q. 3:84).

The Koran also adheres to the reality principle on religious plurality (Q. 2:62),

religious freedom (Q. 2:256), live in peace (Q. 109:1-6), and act positively in relations

and cooperation with other communities of different religions (Q. 60:8). The Koran


Pandangan al-Qur’an, Kemanusiaan, Sejarah, dan Peradaban. Translator Irfan

Abubakar (Jakarta: PSIK Universitas Paramadina, 2006), p. 2-3.

377 Olaf Schumann, “Abraham—Bapa Orang Beriman” the 124th KKA Series/Year

XII/1997.

378 Take a look at Mun’im A. Sirry, Fikih Lintas Agama: Membangun Masyarakat

Inklusif-Pluralis (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2003), particularly, p. 17-61.



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also obliges the Muslim community to behave and act just to Non-Muslim

communities (Q. 60:80) and to protect religious places for all religions (Q. 22:40).

Besides that, in the Islamic tradition there has also been developed the

concept of ahl al-kitab which provides guidance that Islam does not categorize Non-

Muslims as infidels. In the Koran, it is mentioned that Jews and Christians are

categorized as ahl al-kitab—a concept that acknowledges the followers of other

religions who have a holy book. This does not mean that all religions are the same—

which is impossible when we bear in mind the diversity of religions in many principle

elements (aspects of shari’a and faith)—but acknowledges the right of everyone to

exist with the freedom to carry out their religion and build a civilization together.379

The concept of ahl al-kitab has an impact in the development of culture and

the outstanding civilization of Islam, as the result of cosmopolitanism that is based

on an open and tolerant social structure. Among others, this is signified by notes of a

number of specialists regarding, for example, the liberation (fath) of the Spanish by

the Muslim soldiers (under the command of General Thariq ibn Ziyad whose name

was commemorated into the name of a hill near the coast of the Middle Sea, Jabal

Thariq—translated into Gibraltar) in 711 M.

For at least 500 years, the Muslims created a cosmopolite, open and tolerant

social-political structure. All religious groups, particularly the Muslims themselves,

and the Jews and Christians, supported and accompanied the development of this

brilliant civilization. Cooperation resulted in blood relations (marriages across religion

and brotherhood) without interfering in one’s religion.

Thus, the concept of ahl al-kitab—which will be further discussed—was once

developed and became one of the pillars of the spirit of cosmopolitanism Islam. With

a positive mondial perspective and orientation, the Muslims in the classic era with

379 Regarding the concept of ahl al-kitab, take a look at Cyril Glasse, “ahl ak-kitab” in

the Concise Encyclopedia of Islam (London: Stacey International, 1989), p. 27-28.

Also Ronald L. Netter, “People of the Book” in The Oxford Encyclopedia of the

Modern Islamic World (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 305-308.



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the support of all parties succeeded in creating a universal or international dimension

of knowledge.380

By a number of ulemas, for example Muhammad Rasyid Ridla (w. 1935), an

Egyptian figure of Islamic reform, the concept ahl al-kitab was extended so that it

included other religions that had holy books, such as Zoroaster, Hindu, Buddha,

Confucianism, and Shinto. The permission for Muslims to consume part of ahl al-

kitab and marry their women (Q. 4:5), as witnessed from history, indicted that in

general the social life of Muslims and non-Muslims has been amiable, and full of

tolerance, when seen from the spectacles of tolerance notions and religious

contemporary pluralism.

For this reason, as a religion and as a history, Islam—according to those who

have defended the idea of pluralism—since its establishment has contained the

reality of life in a plural setting, and has even developed pluralism within the

contextual boundaries at that time. Some are called “the roots of pluralism in Islam”.

These roots are what have been and are continued to be developed by Liberal

Muslim intellectuals so that they may transform into the Islamic perspective on

pluralism.

What has been proposed above is an intricate illustration of the theological

concept of how Islam met and engaged in dialogues with other religions. Such

380 By these interpreters with plural orientations, they affirmed how the concept of

ahlul kitab is an incredible progress in the history of religions. Cyril Glasse in “Ahlul

Kitab” Concise Encyclopedia of Islam wrote, “…the fact that one Revelation should

name others as authentic is an extraordinary event in the history of religions.” This

concept is seen by pluralist thinkers to be an incredible socio-religious and socio-

cultural impact, so that Islam is a teaching that introduces the perspective on

tolerance and religious freedom to mankind. Currently, this idea has been further

developed—including in Indonesia—in line with the development and new

challenges. For an elaboration on the challenge of Islamic pluralism and tolerance,

take a look at Yohann Friedmann, Tolerance and Coercion in Islam: Interfaith

Relations in the Muslim Tradition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2003)



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meeting was based on the ethics of social interaction—which we will discuss—

inspired by the Koran’s teaching on pluralism. In Mohamed Fathi Osman’s words:

Muslims, just like other religious followers, must live side by side with non-

Muslims in a certain state. Muslims of a state may differ in terms of their tribes

and the doctrines they uphold, or even with other Muslims throughout the

world. The Muslim unit does not precondition Muslims to form a sole state—

the caliphate… Wherever a person lives, there is a possibility that it is

determined by geographical and economic factors. A nation from the

perspective of Islam can be considered as an extended family or relative,

each having his or her own special interest that does not reduce the

togetherness and the universal solidarity demanded by Islam. Categorization

into people and groups of the same origin was proposed in the Koran (Q.

49:13), and there is nothing wrong with this as long as the categorization does

not obstruct the relation and cooperation of humans that is universally

characterized and does not cause harm through arrogance and chauvinistic

hatred. The Koran indicates that God and His teachings must be placed

above the obedience towards a certain group of area. However, as far as this

principle goes, one’s obedience towards family, a group of people and also

the homeland is permitted (Q. 9:24). As Muslims live in extended groups and

in areas where they may develop, they must live side by side with other

religions and sects. Furthermore, globalism has currently created unavoidable

dependency among mankind, regardless of their innate—natural or obtained

differences.381

But how a Muslim sees a text or the history of the diversity of these religions is

in fact determined by his or her attitude towards other religions. So far, the

development of the theory of religious pluralism has created three attitudes, which


Pandangan al-Qur’an, Kemanusiaan, Sejarah, dan Peradaban. Translator Irfan

Abubakar (Jakarta: PSIK Universitas Paramadina, 2006), p. 4.



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cover: Exclusivism, inclusivism and pluralism or parallelism.382 Elaboration of this

attitude is important, as the same text can be understood differently, in line with its

religious attitude. From the beginning, it has been emphasized that this book

defends pluralism.

Pluralism is a perspective that

believes all religions will receive

salvation. This does not directly make

it easy for a person to convert from

one religion to another. Pluralism and

religious conversion is not the same

thing. To convert has no relation with

the issue of salvation in the religious

context.

(Rachman 2009: 815)

382 The formulation of this exclusivism-inclusivism-pluralism paradigm initially came

from Alan Race, Christians and Religious Pluralism: Patterns in the Christian

Theology of Religions (London: SCM, 1983), and Gavin D’Costa, Theology and

Religious Pluralism: The Challenge of Other Religions (London: Blackwell, 1986).

Recently, this term has become popular among religious studies. However, what is

most interesting is that in 1996, one of the two people who popularized typology, that

is Gavin D’Costa, changed his mind and believed that this typology is untenable and

a faulty typology. Take a look at Gavin D’Costa, “The Impossibility of a Pluralistic

View of Religions”, Religious Studies 32 (1996), p. 233, or more elaborative in Gavin

D’Costa, The Meeting of Religions and the Trinity (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books,

2000), p. 19-52. Perry Schmidt-Leukel, “Exclusivism, Inclusivism, Pluralism: The

Tripolar Typology—Clarified and Reaffirmed”, in Paul F. Knitter, The Myth of

Religious Superiority: A Multifaith Exploration (Maryknoll, NY: Orbis Books, 2005), p.

13-27, and once again defend this exclusivism-inclusivism-pluralism typology. This

book follows and agrees with this typology, and follows R. Panikkar, The Intra-

Religious Dialogue, p. xiv-xxviii.



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Jalaluddin Rakhmat, Principle of Muthahhari Bandung High School Plus. He

is the founder as well as the Chair of the Syura Council of the Indonesian

Association of Jammah Ahlul Baikt (UABI) and also the founder of the Islamic

College for Advanced Studies (ICAS) and the Islamic Cultural Center (ICC)

Jakarta.

Exclusivism is a traditional attitude with strong influence and roots in the

Muslim community until today that believes Islam is the only path towards the truth

and salvation. Inclusivism believes that Islam completes and perfects other paths.

While pluralism believes that every religion has its own path, which are all valid, in

order to achieve salvation.

Exclusivism. This attitude is a dominant perspective from time to time and is

continuously taken up until today. In Islam, this attitude develops based on verses of

the Koran, such as Islam is the truest religion (Q. 3:19); Religions outside Islam, will

not be accepted by God in the hereafter (Q. 3:85)—including various interpretations

based on the Koran and Hadith that are related to the conflict of truth among

Muslims, Jews and Christians. One of the favorite verses among exclusive Muslims

is “Never will the Jews or the Christians be satisfied with thee unless thou follow their

form of religion. Say: ‘The guidance of Allah that is the only guidance,’ wert thou to

follow their desires after the knowledge which hath reached thee then wouldst thou

find neither protector nor helper against Allah.” (Q. 2:120). This verse has become a

strong justification to differentiate Muslims and non-Muslims.

Inclusivism. In Islamic thought, inclusivism began with the understanding of

Islam, not as an organized religion, but in its spiritual sense. Islam, which means

complete submission (to Allah), an attitude that—according to supporters of

inclusivism—became the heart of the religious teaching beside Allah. For this

reason, all religions that are true are called Islam. The Koran did in fact state that the

Prophet Noah taught Islam, and passed on the teaching to his descendants,

including the descendants of Jacob or Izrail (Q. 2:130-132). Among the children of

Jacob is Yusuf, who prayed to Allah so that he may die a Muslim (a person who is

“islamicized”) (Q. 12: 101). The Koran also spoke of Egyptians who initially

supported the Pharaoh but in the end put their faith in the Prophet Moses and also



WORKING TRANSLATION

prayed to die as Muslims (Q. 7:126). Then, the Queen Bathsheba from Yamane,

South Arabia, who was conquered by the Prophet Suleiman, was in total submission

or Islam toward God and the entire of nature (Q. 27:44). And all the prophets of the

Bani Israil (the descendants of the Prophet Jacob) as affirmed in the Koran as

people who conduct Islam to Allah (Q. 5: 44). Then Isa al-Masih (Jesus Christ) also

educated their followers (al-hawariyun) so that they became Muslims, submissive to

Allah (Q. 3: 52-53 and Q. 5: 111). Many verses in the Koran mention previous

prophets and messengers teaching al-Islam. It is thus not a surprise if today an

Inclusive Islamic theology based on the Koran is being developed. The Inclusive

Muslims affirm that the religions of all prophets are essentially different depending on

the era and time of each of the prophet.

Such inclusive perspective in its sense of openness becomes a foundation of

the development of true pluralism. Also, on the other hand, the perspective of true

pluralism could only be founded on a foundation of such inclusivism.

Pluralism. This paradigm believes that every religion has its own path to

salvation, and for this reason the claim that Islam is the only path (paradigm or

inclusivism) or what completes or fills in other paths (paradigm or inclusivism), must

be refused, or more precisely developed extensively, for theological and

phenomenological reasons.

In understanding pluralism, there are three types of models.383 First, the

Model of Physics, for example a rainbow. Different religious traditions are like infinite

colors. What is visible is the white light that falls above the prism. Every follower of a

tradition, is given the possibility to reach a destination, fulfillment and salvation with

one’s own way, but in fact at the same time every color (every religion) absorbs all

the other religions, and also hide them, because it expressively brings out a color. In

Islam, this type of philosophical perspective was developed by the classic Sufi,

Jalaluddin Rumi. Currently, the Muslim thinker who is developing the tradition of

Rumi’s pluralism thought is the Iranian intellectual, Sorous. Sorous has influenced

many Liberal Islamic thoughts in Indonesia.

383 R. Panikkar, The Intra-Religious Dialogue, p. xiv-xxviii.



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The second model is the Model of Geometry: Invariant Typology. This states

that one religion is completely different with another religion, and cannot associate in

peace, until a fixed point of an invariant typology is established. The point may be

more than one. The belief that there is a transcendent unity of religions from Frijof

Schuon and Seyyed Hossein Nasr, for example, can serve as an example for this

model. On an exoteric level, all religions are essentially different, but there is one

transcendental (exoteric) point, where all religions meet. This meeting point is God.

This perspective is strongly developed by Islamic thinkers who take on perennial

philosophy—which we will discuss in the following.

The third model is the model of language. This model believes that every

religion is a language system. Every religion, like language, is fundamentally

complete and perfect. Thus, there is no point, in saying that a language (read:

religion) states itself better than another language. For this reason, the meeting of

religions can be put into an analogy with the meeting of languages. Here, translation

can serve as a medium. The translator must become the spoke’s person of the

foreign language and foreign culture. He or she must be certain on the truth that it

carries and enter the tradition that is translated.

These three models bring us to the plural perspective that becomes the

foundation of this book. This perspective does not consider that the destination to be

achieved is uniformity of sameness of religions, because the true notion of religious

pluralism stands upon plurality that is not associated with monolithic unity.

In Islam, pluralism thought can be revealed in the following theological

formula as follows: The true form of pluralism is the regulation of God (sunnat-u ‘l-

Lah) that is permanent, so it cannot be opposed or denied. Islam is a religion that

has a holy book affirming complete acknowledgement of other rights of religions.

Acknowledgement of their rights itself is the foundation of the notion of social-cultural

and religious pluralism, as a decree from God that is permanent (Q. 5:44-50).

Awareness on the continuity of religion is also affirmed by the Koran in various

places that is accompanied with the order that Muslims must hold dearly to the

continuity of the teachings by having faith to all the prophets and messengers,

without exception, and without differentiating among them, either those mentioned in

the holy book or those not mentioned (Q. 2:136; 4:163-165; and 45: 16-18). For this



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reason, not only are religion forbidden to be forced upon (Q. 2:256; and Q. 10:99),

but also the Koran preconditions that believers of all religions will receive salvation

(Q. 2:62; and 5:16). This is the eschatological notion of Islam that serves as the

foundation of pluralism.

A number of world Muslim figures have attempted to elaborate the

perspective of religious pluralism, such as Isma’il R. al-Faruqi, M. Mahmoud Ayoub,

Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Abu Kalam Azad, Fazlur Rahman, Hasan Askari, Mohamed

Arkoun, Mohamed Talbi, Asghar Ali Engineer and many more.384 In Indonesia, we

have Nurcholish Madjid, Abdurrahman Wahid, M. Dawam Rahardjo, Djohan Effendi,

Ahmad Syafii Maarif, Kautsar Azhari Noer, Zainun Kamal, Musdah Mulia, M. Syafii

Anwar, Amin Abdullah and a group of young thinkers, such as Ulil Abshar-Abdalla,

Abdul Moqsith Ghazali, and Zuhairi Misrawi.

From such development, it can be said that before MUI’s fatwa was issued in

2005, the growth of the discourse of pluralism has been immense. One of the

indications is the publication of the book Interfaith Jurisprudence: Building an

Inclusive-Pluralist Society (2004)—which we will further discuss. This book, written

by 8 figures which are known as the defenders of Islamic pluralism in Indonesia—

among them are Nurcholish Madjid, Kautsar Azhari Noer, Komaruddin Hidayat,

Masdar F. Mas’udi, Zainun Kamal, Budhy Munawar-Rachman, Ahmad Gaus AF,

Zuhairi Musrawi, and Mun’im A. Sirry—has provided a fundamental innovation in the

issue of pluralism from the religious perspective, as they have succeeded to give a

theological argument on the Islamic perspective toward other religions, including the

practical affairs (jurisprudence), starting from the issue of communal prayer to

interfaith marriage—and since then, the argument of Islam for interfaith marriage has

384 For an elaboration of the thoughts of these religious pluralism figures, take a look

at N.J. Woly, Meeting at the Precincts of Faith (Kampen: Drukkerij van den Berg,

1998), p. 183-370.



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been established, and has also been developed, as seen from the issuance of the

Counter Legal Draft of the Compilation of the Islamic Law.385

Pluralism in Islam

What has been understood as the definition and the conception of pluralism above,

and also how the Liberal Muslim intellectuals have set it into discourse, have also

developed into an extensive and profound discourse in the Islamic World, including

in Indonesia. Even today, pluralism has developed progressively in Islamic thought,

through further understanding of hermeneutics for the Koran.386 The following

analysis will reveal the profoundness of the philosophical and theological reflections

of the Muslim intellectuals in relation to the notion of pluralism.

Islam does not defy plurality within the society. It can be said that plurality or

diversity has been considered as something—as said by Liberal Muslim


Pluralis (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2004). The argument on interfaith marriage became

popular since the launching of this book. Take a look at two articles from Zainun

Kamal and Siti Musdah Mulia in “Penafsiran Baru Islam atas Pernikahan

Antaragama” KKA 200th Series/Year. 17.2003. Also in Maria Ulfah Anshor and

Martin Lukito Sinaga (ed.), Tafsir Ulang Perkawinan Lintas Agama: Perspektif

Perempuan dan Pluralisme (Jakarta: Kapal Perempuan, 2004), particularly on p.

113-166. The book on Counter Legal Draft A Compilation of Islamic Law, take a look

at Muhammad Zain and Mukhtar Alshodiq, Building a Harmonious Family: Counter

Legal Draft A Compilation of Islamic Law that is Controversial (Jakarta: Graha Cipta,

2005).

386 For example, in Indonesia pluralism has been developed in-depth by Nurcholish

Madjid. The pluralism thought of Nurcholish Madjid was retrieved from the Koran,

take a look at Anthony H. John and Abdullah Saeed, “Nurcholish Madjid and the

Interpretation of the Koran—Religious Pluralism and Tolerance” in Suha Taji-Farouki

(ed.), Modern Muslim Intellectuals and the Koran (Melbourne: Institute of Ismaili

Studies, 2000), p. 6-96.



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intellectuals—sunnatullah (the regulations of God). Many of the verses of the Koran

contain values of plurality that have been explored in their hermeneutic sense.

Among them is Q. 49: 13, which means, “O mankind! We created you from a single

(pair) of a male and female and made you into nations and tribes that ye may know

each other” (Q. 49: 13).

Based on this verse of the Koran, we know that human beings are made into

nations and tribes with the hope that they may interact well and positively with one

another. Each is expected to appreciate difference.387 The attitude of Muslims to

387 Every human being, as an individual and as a community, they always need one

another, there is always dependence between one another. There is no single

human that can fulfill his or her life without the help of another. In such condition,

harmony and tolerance among a diverse mankind—including those with different

religion—is a necessity and even a prerequisite, something that must not be

unrealized.

Hermeneutic understanding of the Koran regarding principles of harmony and

tolerance have been done by Liberal Muslims, developed from among others:

1. “Let there be no compulsion in religion” (Q. 2: 256)

2. “To you be your religion and to me mine” (Q. 109: 6)

3. “If it had been the Lord’s will they would all have believed all who are on earth!

Wilt thou then compel mankind against their will to believe?” (Q. 10: 99)

4. “Say will ye dispute with us about Allah seeing that He is our Lord and your

Lord that we are responsible for our doings and ye for yours and that we are

sincere in our faith in Him” (Q. 2: 139)

5. “Allah forbids you not with regard to those who fight you not for your faith nor

drive you out of your homes from dealing kindly and justly with them for Allah

loveth those who are just” (Q. 60: 8)

6. “To each among you have We prescribed a law and an open way. If Allah had

so wiled, He would have made you a single people, but His plan is to test you



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believers of other religions is well defined, as stated in the Koran, that is to do good

deeds to them and not religious differences an excuse to not engage in cooperation,

or even be intolerant.388

In another verse, it was also proposed that “If thy Lord had so willed he could

have made mankind One People: but they will not cease to dispute” (Q. 11: 118).

From this verse, we can understand that if God is willing, it would be very easy to

create human beings as one group, monolithic, and one religion, but Allah does not

aspire for this.

All religions are different. No religions

are the same. They are different in

terms of doctrines, institutions,

organizations, leaderships,

communities, religious days, areas,

spaces, times that are believed to be

sacred by the followers and so on.

But amongst these differences there

contain al-maskut ‘anhu,

commonalities, common pattern that

is not externally expressed. This

in what He hath given you; so strive as in a race in all virtues. The goal of you

is Allah. It is He that will show you the truth of the matters in which ye

dispute.” (Q. 5: 48)

7. Islam obliges good deeds and respect for the rights of the neighbors, without

considering their religion. This act of respect is related to faith in Allah, and

faith in the Armageddon” (Hadith)

8. “Whoever harms the Dzimmi people (the non-Muslim minority who seek

protection under the authority of Islam) has hurt me too” (Hadith)

388 Humaidy Abdussami and Masnun Tahir, Islam dan Hubungan Antaragama

(Wawasan Untuk Para Dai) (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2007), p. 117



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means that within each religion there

are elements of similarities, for

example, their sense of humanities.

Thus, what we need now is a new

approach.

(Rachman 2009: 1037)

M. Amin Abdullah, former Rector of UIN Sunan Kalijaga. He received his

doctoral degree from the Department of Philosophy, Faculty of Arts and

Sciences, Middle East Technical University (METU), Ankara, Turkey (1990)

and took the Post-Doctoral program at McGill University, Montreal, Canada

(1997-1998).

God shows us the reality that essentially humans are different, and it is upon this

basis that humans speak of pluralism. In Q. 2: 213, it is mentioned, “Mankind was

one single nation. (After dispute emerged) Allah sent messengers with glad tidings

and warnings. And with them He sent the book in truth, to judge between people in

matters wherein they differed”.

In this verse, there are three facts that appear. They are the unity of the

people under one God; the specialty of religions brought by the prophets; and the

role of revelations (the Holy Book) in resolving the issues of differences among

various religious communities. The three facts are the fundamental conception of the

Koran regarding religious pluralism. On one hand, this conception does not deny the

specialty of various religions; on the other hand, this conception also denies the

need to acknowledge the meeting point or the unity of humans and the need to grow

a better understanding across religions. Pluralism is much appreciated in Islamic

teaching, because Islam as al-din is the religion of Allah that is in line with the natural

state of humanity. One of the natural states is pluralism that fundamentally originates

from religious teaching.389

389 Abdullah Ali, “Islam dan Kemajemukan di Indonesia: Perspektif Sosio-

Antropologis ”. Paper PSIK Universitas Paramadina. Unpublished.



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The Koran speaks explicitly regarding universality and the diversity of

revelations and the prophet in order to enlighten mankind from time to time: “To each

among you have We prescribed a law and an open way. If Allah had so willed, He

would have made you a single people, but His plan is to test you in what He hath

given you’ so strive as a race in all virtues. The goal of you all is to Allah. It is He that

will show you the truth of the matters in which ye dispute (Q. 5: 48). Mankind was but

one nation, but differed later. Had it not been for a word that went forth before from

thy Lord, their differences would have been settled between them (Q. 10: 19). To

every people was sent a messenger (Q. 10: 47)”

Humans were initially created as one mankind and given the teachings of

Allah. However, the teachings of Allah was then destroyed by egoism, and caused

differences (individual, race, nation). On the basis of the profound compassion of

Allah, Allah would always send messengers to deliver again the same teaching that

had been adjusted to the mental diversity of mankind, and at the same time test

them with His blessings, and encourage them to compete towards kindness and

obedience—and such will bring them to monotheism (tauhid) and the truth.390

If the Koran mentions many revelations and messengers as well as each of

their truth, the consequence is the entire mankind would accept it with faith. Of

course one of the chains of revelations is the Koran itself, which is a holy book that

came after a number of holy books previously, and the Koran brought peace and

justified the previous holy books (Q. 5: 48). Furthermore, the consequence spoken of

by the Koran is that Islam acknowledges the truth of other religions that have existed

before it. This—as proposed in the analysis of the thoughts of Liberal Muslim

intellectuals—means tat it serves as the foundation to the acceptance of religious

pluralism.

390 Budhy Munawar-Rachman, “Pluralisme Keagamaan: Sebuah Percobaan

Membangun Teologi Islam mengenai Agama-agama”, in Sururin (ed.), Nilai-nilai

Pluralisme dalam Islam: Bingkai Gagasan Yang Berserak (Bandung: Nuansa, 2005),

p. 114-115.



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Implication of viewing history as the underlying factor of the reason a

revelation from the heavens was passed down is that all religions, in one sense or

another, have the same destination, known as Islam, that is the teaching of complete

submission to Allah. In this case, it is not a coincidence that Islam is the last name of

the message revealed throughout the course of history. The conclusion of this

theology is that religions should not compete, but form alliance (friends) with other

religions. In Islam, the notion of the universality of the revelation of God always plays

a key role in forming the Islamic theology on religions. As a result of such faith,

Muslims are able to participate in the essence and the religious approach towards

other traditions.391

The truth in religions is spoken of in the Koran, “Those who believe, the Jews,

the Christians and the Sabians, any who believe in Allah and the last day and work

righteousness shall have their reward with their Lord on them shall be no fear not

shall they grieve”. This verse is often denied by the exclusives (Radical Islam) by

saying: First, this verse has been mansukh (cancelled) by Q. 3: 85. Second, this

verse only refers to Jews, Christians, and Sabina before the Prophet Muhammad

SAW. Third, they see Allah as the God of Islam. To answer these denials, the

vocabulary Islam in Q. 3: 85 does not appoint to Islam as the formal religion brought

by the Prophet Muhammad SAW, but it refers to Islam in the general sense, that is

submission to God, which is the mission of the messages from heaven.392 Such

definition can be read in the verse, “Behold! His Lord said to him (Abraham): Bow

(Islam) thy will to me! He (Abraham) answered: I bow (Islam) my will to the Lord and

cherisher of the universe” (Q. 2: 131).

The Koran clearly affirmed the existence of plurality and diversity of religions

(Q. 2: 62) and states the salvation promised by God for those who have faith in Him

391 Yunasril Ali, “Pluralisme Agama pada Era Global”. Paper PSIK Universitas

Paramadina, 2007. Unpublished.

392 Jalaluddin Rakhmat, Islam dan Pluralisme: Akhlak Quran Menyikapi Perbedaan

(Jakarta: Serambi, 2006), p. 32-34.



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and the Armageddon, accompanied by good deeds, regardless of the affiliation of

their formal religions.

I am confident that as a Muslim—with

the religion that I follow. However, of

course, what I believe to be true is

not the same with others. Because,

vice versa the Christians will say that

their teaching is the true one. And

that it is right according to them; For

this reason, what we must develop

here is its relation to pluralism as an

attitude of mutual appreciation and

mutual respect to each faith.

M. Syafi’I Anwar, Director of the International Center for Islam and Pluralism

(CIP), Jakarta. He was elected as an Independent Expert for the United

Nation for High Commissioner for Human Rights, representing Asia (2007-

2009). He received his Doctorate from the Melbourne University, Australia.

This statement is in line with the opinions of Rasyid Ridla and Thabathaba’i.

According to Ridla—a great thinker from the outset of last century Egypt—all those

who have faith in Allah and conduct good deeds regardless of formal religious

affiliations will receive salvation, because Allah does not prioritize one group over

another. Thabathab’i—a great thinker from last century Iran—with different words

stated, “There is no name and no characteristic that can provide goodness if not

supported by faith and good deeds. This regulation applies to the entire mankind.”

Furthermore, according to Ridla and Thabahaba’I, these texts also serve as a

response towards the exclusivism that is confined within sectarianism and

chauvinism of narrow diversity. Rasyid Ridl affirms, “Salvation cannot be found in



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religious sectarianism, but in true faith and virtue”.393 Muslims are a society of

Islam—who is obedient, submissive, with peace (salam) to God, as the faithful

believers hold complete trust in God.394

According to Nurcholish Madjid, one of the distortions of the definition of the

shari’a is the perspective of the majority in which the concept of the shari’a only lies

within the religion Islam (it can only be found in the “final version” of the religion

Islam, that is the Islam brought by the Prophet Muhammad). While in fact, all

teachings of obedience to Allah (the fundamental meaning of the Arabic phrase “din-

u ‘l-Lah”) itself contains teachings of a form of shari’a, as shari’a itself means a

“path”, and that is the path to God, by following His teachings. The equivalent

concept of shari’a in the religion Islam are concepts regarding shirath, sabil, thariqah,

minhaj, and mansak—which all have the basic meaning: path, way or method. In

other religions, these concepts are stated in their own terminologies, such as

“dharma”, “marga” and “tao”. The Prophet Isa al-Masih (Jesus Christ) calls himself

the “path” as by following His teachings humans will be on the right path to God, that

is “the path of salvation”.

Besides shari’a, the word syir’ah is also used in the Koran, as the verb

syara’a, which means to establish the sharia. (Q. 42: 13).395

393 Rohimin, “Respons al-Qur’an tentang Pluralisme Agama: Pengantar untuk

Penafsiran Perspektif Multiagama”, Paper PSIK Universitas Paramadina, 2007.

Unpublished.

394 Nurcholish Madjid, Indonesia Kita, (Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Umum, 2003), p.

42.

395 The complete verse, “The same religion has He established for you as that which

He enjoined on Noah that which we have sent by inspiration to thee and that which

we enjoined on Abraham, Moses and Jesus. Namely, that ye should remain

steadfast in religion, and make no divisions therein to those who worship other things

than Allah, hard is the way to which thou callest them. Allah chooses to Himself

those whom He pleases, and guides to Himself those who turn to Him.” (Q. 42: 13)



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According to Nurcholish, if these messages are scrutinized, it is evident that

the shari’a is the same for all religions that is in its fundamental sense that we should

not separate. And it is interesting to observe the affirmation in the message that the

calling is to unite in its fundamental sense, and we should not separate, and this

callings is so burdensome for the musyrik. This is because they do not understand,

or they cannot understand that essentially religions are one, and all prophets and

messengers of God teach the same thing, that is teaching of obedience to God (din-

u ‘l-Lah), in which the obedience must be done through a submissive and sincere

attitude, with a sense of peace (that is “al-islam” in its most basic meaning). If

obedience to God is done by force, without feelings of sincerity within the heart that

is based on faith, then the teachings of obedience or “din” will by itself not be

legitimate before God, and those associated will undergo loss. For this reason, in the

Koran—according to Nurcholish Madjid—there is a saying about nomad Arabic

people who came to the Prophet Peace be Upon Him and reported their “faith” with a

sense of pride. Thus, Allah ordered the Prophet to respond by affirming that they are

“islam” in the sense of physical obedience, while the faith has not yet entered their

hearts (Q. 49: 14).

And so, obedience or din, besides obedience to Allah with a peaceful

submission (al-islam) is not the right obedience. In the Koran, it is also affirmed that

a peaceful submission or islam to God is the teachings of all holy books, but many

followers of these holy books adopt different attitudes (3: 19). It is also explained that

a peaceful submission is the attitude of all those inhabiting heaven and earth (Q. 3:

85).396

In today’s modern era, the discourse of pluralism in Islam is developed by

contemporary Muslim thinkers, such as Fritjof Schuon, Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Hasan

Askari and Abdulaziz Sachedina. In Indonesia, we have Nurcholish Madjid,

Abdurrahman Wahid, Ahmad Syafii Maarif, and a group of younger Liberal Muslim

396 Nurcholish Madjid, Atas Nama Pengalaman: Beragama dan Berbangsa di Masa

Transisi—Kumpulan Dialog Jum’at di Paramadina (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2002), p.

54-56.



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intellectuals recently fostered by Ulil Abshar-Abdalla. Fundamentally, pluralism is an

acknowledgement of the law of God that creates humans not only from one group,

tribe, skin color, and religion. God creates humans differently so that they may learn,

socialize, and help one another. Pluralism acknowledges these differences as a

reality that surrounds us. With pluralism we may better grasp various commitments

together in order to fight for something beyond the interests of our group and

religion.

One of the main elements of religious pluralism is the awakening of an

awareness that all religions are in a parallel position and states.

The main argument of religious pluralism in the Koran is based on the relation

between personal faith and its public projection in the Muslim community. With

regard to this personal faith, the Koran takes a non-intervention approach (for

example, all forms of authorities of humans must not be disturbed by the spiritual

faith the individual). While in relation to the public projection of faith, the Koran is

based on the principle of co-existence, that is the willingness of the majority to give

freedom for other religious communities with their own regulations. These

regulations will form a way to run their affairs and to live side by side with Muslims.397

Thus, based on this principle, the Indonesian society who the majority is

Muslims can become a reflection of a society that acknowledges, respects, and

conducts religious pluralism.

I strongly believe that if Muslims realize the importance of the teaching of the

Koran on cultural and religious pluralism as a principle bestowed by God in

fostering a communal living that is harmonious among humans, Muslims can

avoid violence in opposing a repressive and inefficient government.398

It is the similar to the fact that there is not only one America, one Europe, or

one West. There is not one apt explanation that illustrates various groups and people

with the same value and meaning. There is also not a single location or a

397 Abdulaziz Sachedina, Kesetaraan Kaum Beriman: Akar Pluralisme Demokratis

dalam Islam (Jakarta: Serambi, 2002), p. 51.

398 Abdulaziz Sachedina, Kesetaraan Kaum Beriman, p. 34.



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comparable culture that is identical to Islam. And so, a monolithic Islam does not

exist.

For this reason, pluralism is “the foundation of life for religions” (ashl al-hayat-I

bayna al-adyan). Liberal Muslim thinkers have traced the verses of the Koran who

supports pluralism as an enigma from the Allah’s ocean of secrets. One them is “”. It

turns out that Allah did not aspire to unite mankind. Now, religious pluralism here is

the secret and the will of Allah. Pluralism as the foundation of religion invites us to

reveal and understand the secrets of Hod. Religious diversity as a secret of Allah

also covers other religions that are known as “Abraham’s religions”.399 Pluralism

itself acknowledges a tradition of faith and diversity that is different from one religion

to another.400

The language style of the Koran itself has a spirit of pluralism. Every word or

verse in the Koran contains possible diverse meanings and interpretations that are in

line with the spirit of the era. The birth of various interpretation books is evidence of a

399 “In the context of Judaism and Christianity, the Koran mentions them as ahl-

kitab—believers of a religion with a scripture or revelation—we will discuss this later

on. In another verse in the Surah Yunus: 99 “If it had been the Lord’s will, they would

all have believed, all who are on earth. Wilt thou then compel mankind against their

will to believe?” According to the Koran, it does not make sense to hate and force a

person to a faith. This verse is specifically directed to the Prophet Muhammad, as he

was not burdened by Allah to be responsible in assuring the entire mankind to

embrace Islam. In another verse, la ikrah fi-al-din (there is no compulsion in religion)

is mentioned. These principles show that Allah does not want compulsion in religion.

The perspective and attitude that aspires the entire mankind to have faith in Islam

contradicts Allah’s will on religious diversity.” Take a look at Abdulaziz Sachedina,

“Negara Tidak Punya Hak Mengurusi Keimanan”, take a look at www.islamlib.com.

400 Take a look at Ahmad Fuad Fanani, “Islam, Pluralisme dan Kemerdekaan

Beragama”, www.islamlib.com.



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plural understanding of the text of the Koran.401 Besides the editorial data that the

Koran is pluralist, the containments of the verses of the Koran themselves have

indicated these values of pluralism, and the Koran has even implanted essential

regulations for religious pluralism, which include:

First, religious freedom. Islam grants ever human being the freedom to

determine what religion to follow. Besides granting freedom, Islam also forbids force

in religion. This principle is the clearest statement for pluralism in Islam, and also in

many verses the Koran explains this principle intensely (Q. 2: 256; 10: 108; 17: 15;

18: 29).

Second, the Koran underlines its acceptance toward other religions beside

Islam to live side by side. Judaism, Christianity, and other religions have their

existence fully acknowledged by the Koran (Q. 2: 62).

The Koran fosters Muslims to work together with other people in order to

enforce justice and truth. The Koran and the Prophet’s example support interfaith

cooperation and solidarity for justice and truth. This solidarity is supported by the

same will for peace and harmony, as well as a fight to oppose injustice in order to

create a safe world for mankind. Islam’s attitude toward religious plurality stands on

the principle of equality, tolerance and compliance. This is the best option as

religious plurality is better than one religion. One religion will not be able to respond

to the dynamics of humanity. With one religion, the state to compete in various good

deeds will not be achieved. The tolerance acts and compliance will evidently be

better than acts of resistance from tens of religions.402

The existence of a relation created by the spirit of pluralism based on

tolerance, is a blessing and a form of perfection. This is the most authentic condition,

all religions pray to God Almighty and invite values of love, virtue and justice. Each

401 Gamal al-Banna, Doktrin Pluralisme dalam al-Qur’an (Jakarta: Menara, 2006), p.

12.

402 Farid Esack, Al-Qur’an, Liberalisme, Pluralisme: Membebaskan Yang Tertindas

(Bandung: Mizan, 2000), p. 232.



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religion, with their own advantages competes for a role in building a civilization “for

you your religion and for me my religion”.403

Acknowledgement of religious pluralism in a social community promises the

principle of inclusivity (openness)—a principle that prioritizes accommodation and

not conflict—among them. As, essentially each and every religion has various claims

of truth that they would continue to uphold, while the reality of the society that is

evidently heterogeneous culturally and religiously. For this reason, inclusivity

becomes important as a way to the growth of sensitivity towards various unique

possibilities that can enrich human efforts in discovering spiritual and moral welfare.

The reality of plurality that can propel towards cooperation and openness is clearly

proclaimed by the Koran. Plurality is the policy of God so that humans may get to

know one another and open up to cooperate,404 and cooperation is essential in

human life.405

Liberal Muslims were very aware that pluralism is part of civilization, which is

theologically based on a common platform (kalimat-un sawa) of religions. The

Islamic civilization is a pluralistic civilization that is very tolerant toward various social

403 Farid Esack, Al-Qur’an, Liberalisme, Pluralisme, p. 32.

404 According to the Koran, at the outset, man was one, but disputes emerged due to

jealousy. A number of Muslims saw this dispersion as the result of various versions

of the “one Scripture” introduced by different prophets. Why the revelations of the

prophets must serve as the dispersing power remains unanswered, except it is a

mystery that could be resolved by Allah under his will. The fact that Allah did not

resolve this is explained as the granting of various religions to compete with one

another over virtue. “If Allah had so willed He would have made you a single people,

but His plan is to test you in what He hath given you; so strive as in a race in all

virtues. The goal of you all is to Allah; It is He that will show you the truth of the

matters in which ye dispute” (Q. 5: 48) Take a look at Abdulaziz Sachedina,

Kesetaraan Kaum Beriman Akar Pluralisme Demokratis dalam Islam, p. 49.

405 Surahman Hidayat, Islam, Pluralisme, dan Perdamaian (Jakarta: Fikr, 2008), p.

43.



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and religious groups. In order to show the implications of the commitment to human

diversity, and common knowledge of the present, what is required is a moral

reflection and attention to historical situations,406 as pluralism in Cak Nur’s formula is

called as “a genuine engagement of diversities within the bounds of civility”.407

Pluralism calls for an honest and open approach in order to “understand other

parties and work together to build goodness for all”.

Pluralism is a concrete richness of Islam. There are no conflicts between

Islam and pluralism. Pluralism is not only a phenomenon in Islam, but also a global

one. Moreover, every civilization also has pluralism in the form of madhab, thought,

philosophy and political orientation.

Pluralism also contains a sense that minority groups can also have a

complete and equivalent role like the majority groups in a society, while still

remaining to their identities and characteristic differences.

… Islam teaches a set of values that

must be held high by a government,

but not “oblige” a certain government.

Even though the Prophet Muhammad

SAW practiced a certain “form” of

political governance, it is not part of a

strict “shari’a”, which must be strictly

followed by the future entire Muslim

community.

Nur Ahmad Fadhil Lubis, Professor at the Faculty of Shari’a IAIN North

Sumatera. He received his MA degree and Doctorate degree from UCLA

(University of California Los Angeles). He is the Executive Director of YPPIA

Medan.

406 Khaled Abou El-Fadl, Cita dan Fakta Toleransi Islam—Puritanisme versus

Pluralisme (Bandung: Arasy, 2003), p. 32.

407 Nurcholish Madjid, “Masyarakat Madani dan Investasi Demokrasi: Tantangan dan

Kemungkinan”, Republika, August 10, 1999.



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Pluralism must be protected by the state and the law and eventually by international

law. Muslims live together with non-Muslims in a certain country. “Muslim citizens of

a country can have tribal and doctrinal differences in their selves or with Muslims

throughout the world. The unity of Muslim does not precondition the Muslims to form

a sole state-caliphate—as it comprises of various beliefs and tribes.”408 A state from

the Islamic perspective can be considered as an extended family or relative.

Differences among Muslims, although each has special interests, should not

diminish universal togetherness and solidarity.

Fathi Osman reminds us, as preconditioned by the Koran, that “God and His

teachings must be positioned above the obedience toward a certain group or area.”

Muslims should show the attitude of the Koran before mankind by extending

their dialogues so that they reach Hindu and Buddha, Tao and other religions.

The Koran (7: 172-173) teaches human beings to have their own guidance

compass, and has been blessed by God with self-worth (17: 70). On the basis

of the same spirituality, morality and self-worth, the entire mankind could

develop a universal relation and maintain global pluralism. It is very

meaningful that the Koran mentions virtue “that is recognized by the healthy

mind” (ma’ruf) and evil “that is refused by the healthy mind” (munkar). On

such grounds, the universal relation of humans has its own moral and spiritual

foundation, where it becomes every person’s responsibility to build the world

and mankind. “H e has created you from the earth and settled you therein”

(11: 61).

All that are mentioned by Fathi Osman are called “global pluralism” and

preconditions knowledge and understanding among mankind’s diversity (Q. 49: 113).

Reciprocal appreciation prevents suspicion and helps maintain justice. The bond of

morality to justice is an underlying element for the success of every legal and

408 Mohamed Fathi Osman, Islam, Pluralisme dan Toleransi Keagamaan, p. 4-5.



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institutional mechanism. Maintaining a common understanding and justice should

direct us to world piece, which is the condition for cooperation.409

In order to actualize global pluralism, Osman continued, we need courage

from the Muslim community to engage in dialogues with the believers of other

religions. A meeting point of religion or known as a meeting point of faith does

indeed require courage, experience, self-confidence as well as personal maturity. A

productive dialogue will not be established if each participant is not willing to open

their self, not willing to voluntarily and enthusiastically give and receive.410

From the very beginning Islam has encouraged dialogues among

communities, especially Christians and Jews, or the followers of Jesus and Moses.

The Koran used the word ahl al-kitab (those who own a holy book), the users of the

word ahl, which means family, highlights intimacy and closeness. For an example,

this once happened to the followers of the Prophet Muhammad who was forced to

leave Mecca in order to avoid torture by his own nation (Arab jahiliyah) and migrate

to Ethiopia. There, he was accepted and received protection of the King Nagashi

who was a Christian. This event indicated intimacy and harmony between the two.411

In this dialogue, the commonalities among various religions, cultures and

civilizations are put forward, of course by still respecting their differences, so that

each religion, culture and civilization can build mutual understanding and respect. In

the context of Islam, this is very beneficial, as it can remove the negative image

enshrined among non-Muslims, particularly in the West who assume that Islam a

religion that is anti-peace, or a religion that opts for violence. With the formation of

409 “O ye who believe! Stand out firmly for justice as witnesses to Allah, even as

against yourselves, or your parents, or your kin… follow not the lusts of your hearts

lest ye swerve” (Q. 4: 135)“And let not the hatred of others to you make you swerve

to wrong and depart from justice. Be just that is next to piety” (Q. 5: 8)

410 Mohamed Fathi Osman, Islam, Pluralisme dan Toleransi Keagamaan, p. 117-

119.

411 Alwi Shihab, Islam Inklusif: Menuju Sikap Terbuka dalam Beragama (Bandung:

Mizan, 1999), p. 67.



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this condition of mutual understanding, interfaith, intercultural, and intercivilization

conflicts can be avoided. However, it is irrefutable that these three factors contribute

in evoking these conflicts, though only as a legitimation factor. More than that, on the

basis of these universal values, the Muslim community can respond to the system or

global ideas, such as democracy, human rights, pluralism and many more, as a

system or idea that is compatible with the teachings of Islam.412

This dialogue is not intended for a mere intellectual hobby, but a necessity.

The truest of dialogues is those conducted in equality. Within a dialogue, principles

cannot be disregarded and one should not only aim for a false sense of peace. On

the contrary, there should be witnesses in which giving and receiving is in order to

progress one another in the search and religious experienced; and at the same time

remove prejudice, intolerance and misunderstanding. If a person did repent through

dialogue, this reality should be able to be accepted by all parties in a positive and

natural manner. Dialogues precondition consistency, openness, humility and honesty

so that it can enrich and renew each party. Dialogues require equilibrium of attitude,

a firmness and refusal of indifferentism (a notion that sees all religions as the same)

and do not aspire for a universal syncretic theology.

Within a dialogue, every person must be accepted regarding how one

understands one’s self. Dialogues do not diminish the loyalty that is whole and

honest towards one’s own faith, but enriches and fortifies it. Dialogue is an essential

element in removing misunderstanding and prejudice that once emerged in the

past.413

According to Liberal Muslims, pluralism is a basic notion that needs to be

developed so that interfaith dialogues become possible and develop.

412 Masykuri Abdillah, “Makna din dan Universalitas Nilai-nilai Agama Islam”. Paper

PSIK Universitas Paramadina, 2007. Unpublished.

413 Olaf Schumann, Dialog Antar Umat Beragama, Di Manakah Kita Berada Kini?

(Jakarta: LPS DGI, 1980), h. 19. Take a look at, Munawar Ahmad Anees, Syed Z.

Abedin,Ziauddin Sardar, Dialog Muslim Kristen Dulu, Sekarang, Esok, (Yogyakarta:

Qalam,2000), h. 15.



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CHAPTER VII

THEOLOGY OF RELIGIONS

THE LIBERAL ISLAM PERSPECTIVE

In recent developments, the theology of religions serves as the “spring” of the

discourse of religious pluralism.414 Particularly when the definition of pluralism is

related to the issue of salvation. And so, we need to systematize how the

perspective of Indonesian Liberal Muslim thinkers has liberally and progressively

elaborated the issue of the theology of religions. The issues that will be analyzed in

this chapter include: the issue of salvation in Islam; the concept of ahl al-Kitab;

religious freedom; the rights of non-Muslim minorities; jihad and peace; and the issue

of the meeting point of religions. Bear in mind that MUI’s fatwa on pluralism

undeniably has implications on the issues elaborated below.

Salvation in Islam

Before we further discuss salvation in Islam, we will first quote a verse that is related

to the theology of salvation. In Q. 2: 62 it is mentioned, “Those who believe (in the

Koran), and those who follow the Jewish (scriptures), and the Christians, any who

believe in Allah and the Last Day and work righteousness shall have their reward

with their Lord on them shall be no fear, nor shall they grieve.”

This verse evidently illustrates the existence of salvation in religions (whatever

the religion is), which depends on the three universal values emphasized by the

verse. They are faith in Allah, the hereafter and good deeds. The universal values

414 William A. Bijlefeld, “Theology of Religions: A Review of Developments, Trends,

and Issues” in Christian-Muslim Dialogue: Theological & Practical Issues (Geneve:

Department for Theology & Religious Studies, The Lutheran World Federation,

1998), p. 82



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encompassed in this verse apply to all religions, and it was never abrogated

(erased).415

Jalaluddin Rakhmat more or less said the same thing. This verse affirms that

all religions offer a salvific path as long as they hold on to these three universal

values.416 Buya Hamka, a prominent and influential ulema who is known for his

exceptionally progressive-liberal thoughts, in his book of interpretation entitled al-

Azhar asserted that this verse is a guidance that uprights the soul for each and every

soul who believes in Allah, whether one is called a believer or a Muslim, a Jew, a

Christian, a Sabian, as long as one has faith in Allah, the End of Days and followed

by good deeds, one will be rewarded by Allah. These three universal values are the

absolute preconditions. However, according to Buya, although a person has

proclaimed faith in Allah and the Prophet Muhammad Peace Be Upon Him, if that

faith is not verified with good deeds, God shall not grant one the reward.417 Thus, Q.

2: 62 is a form of God’s generosity for those who have repented.418

In addition to Q. 2: 26, there is another verse that says, besides the Muslims,

the Christians, the Jews and the Sabians, the Zoroasters are also promised heaven

(Q. 22: 17). The Koran has an incredible outlook that is worth adhering to,

particularly on God’s justice in rewarding the good deeds of the people. God will not

415 Abrogation is a method that can no longer be maintained because it is impossible

for a verse to abrogate another verse. Especially when the one behind the

abrogation are human beings who do not have the capacity for this. Zuhairi Misrawi,

Al-Qur'an Kitab Toleransi: Inklusivisme, Pluralisme dan Multikulturalisme, p. 311.

416 Jalaluddin Rakhmat, Islam dan Pluralisme, Ayat Al-Qur’an Menyikapi Perbedaan

(Jakarta: Serambi, 2006), p. 23.

417 Buya Hamka, Tafsir Al-Azhar (jilid I) (Jakarta: PT. Mitra Kerjaya Indonesia, 2005),

p. 204.

418 M. Quraish Shihab, Tafsir Al-Mishbah: Pesan, Kesan dan Keserasian al-Qur’an,

vol. I (Tangerang: Lentera Hati, 2000), p. 214.



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neglect any form of goodness that has been done by the people, regardless of their

religion, tribe and race.419

From the previous explanation, we can conclude that the Koran comprehends

that all these religions are called Islam (in its generic sense), whatever the name is

(Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Sabian, Hindu, Buddha, Confucianism, Zoroaster, and

many more). The believers of any religion are entitled to heaven as long as they hold

on to the three universal values: faith in Allah, faith in the end of days, and conduct

of good deeds. Moreover, Ibn ‘Arabi—who is followed by many who adopt perennial

philosophy—has an unconventional thought in which in the end everyone (in this

world) will enter heaven.420 The Koran itself states that there was not a single

community that was not sent a prophet (messenger) (Q. 16: 36; 4: 164).

In actual fact, the number of prophets is not just 25—as memorized by school

children—but also 313. The number of messengers is even more that that and

reaches around 14.000. Many prophets are unknown, as they are not mentioned in

the Koran, but in non-Islamic scriptures. They include Isaac, Daniel and many

others. For this reason, it is interesting to pay attention to, for example, prominent

ulemas, such as Ibn Tamiyah who, in his books, when mentioning Daniel added

‘alayhi ‘l-salam (“upon him prayer and peace”). Regarding the great number of

prophets and messengers, indubitably the dispersal will not only be concentrated in

the Middle East. “If we also proclaimed the preconditions of the sending of a prophet

to a group of people, then a prophet would have also been sent to Java.”421 Though

perhaps not bearing the title prophet, but dervish or wise man.422

419 Take a look at Zuhairi Misrawi, Al-Qur'an Kitab Toleransi: Inklusivisme,

Pluralisme dan Multikulturalisme, p. 310-311.

420 Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed.), Ensiklopedi Nurcholish Madjid, volume IV, p.

3002.

421 A specialist in paleo-anthropology, Renne du Bois, “believed” that the Prophet

Adam was first placed in Java. When he found trinil (remains of pre-historic

humans), and then discovered Javanese humans, pithecanthropus erectus

wajakensis, he contemplated: when I consider the Bible, it says that Adam comes



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Based on this, Nurcholish Madjid asserted that Zoroaster is also a prophet,

and the same goes out to Buddha and Confucius. What is more, the late Buya

Hamka also stated in one of his messages that Lao-tse is too a prophet. That is why

the Muslim community is obliged to believe in all of them. All prophets and

messengers of Allah carry the message of Islam. The Koran sees all religions (the

true ones, those coming from God) as al-Islam or the teaching of submission to God.

Submission or al-Islam to God has become a mandate and an obligation since the

day of creation. This teaching has from time to time been brought by prophets and

messengers, since the Prophet Adam, the father of mankind, before the Prophet

Muhammad Peace Be Upon Him ended it.

From here, it becomes clear that religions originate from al-Islam, as they are

a continuance of the religions of the previous prophets. They believe—as in the view

of the Koran—that the heart of all true religions is al-Islam. Thus, al-Islam or

submission to God is the origin of a person’s divine guidance from God, and al-Islam

serves as the universal foundation of mankind’s life, which applies to every person,

every place and every time (Q. 3: 20). The physical manifestation of al-Islam can be

varied. One of the reasons is because it needs to be aligned with the time and place.

However, in such diversity, everyone must devote and dedicate himself or herself to

the One Form that is God and submit to Him. This is a well-founded affirmation given

in the Koran (Q. 22: 34).

In Surah 3: 67, it is mentioned, “Abraham was not a Jew, not yet a Christian,

but he was true in faith and bowed his will to Allah, and he joined not gods with

from Java, and what is known as the Garden of Eden is located in the slopes of the

river Bengawan Solo. This became the basis of du Bois’ conclusion. Take a look at

Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed.), Ensiklopedi Nurcholish Madjid, volume IV, p. 3004.

However, what is interesting is that according to the most recent research, Adam—

known as the scientific Adam—came from Africa, take a look at, The Search of

Adam, National Geographic Channel, 2007.

422 Budhy Munawar-Rachman (ed.), Ensiklopedi Nurcholish Madjid, volume IV, p.

3005.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Allah”. This means that Abraham is not connected to communal and formal religions.

The story of Abraham is an illustration of a search for the truth without communal

boundaries. The last word of the verse, hanif-an muslim-an, means a natural and

authentic spirit of truth as well as the passion to submit to the truth.

The same goes out to the meaning of Islam in Q. 3: 85 that is a “general”

Islam which includes the messages of the heaven, and not Islam in its terminology

sense, not Islam in the sense of the religion carried by the Prophet Muhammad

Peace Be Upon Hum. This is reinforced by other verses, for example (Q. 2: 131-

132): “Behold! His Lord said to him; Bow thy will to me, he said I bow my will to the

Lord and Cherisher of the universe. And this was the legacy that Abraham left to his

sons: Oh my sons, Allah hath chosen the faith for you, then die not except in the

state of submission to Allah”.

Considering all religions as the same

is not the definition of pluralism but

singularity. Pluralism is quite the

opposite. It does not consider all

religions the same. If every religion

was the same, what is the purpose of

existence of a religion for its people?

There would be no importance of God

passing down the religion Judaism,

Islam and Christianity. It is pluralism

that indicates all religions are

different.

(Rachman 2009: 1375)

Rumadi, Researcher at the Wahid Institute and PPSDM UIN Jakarta. He

completed his doctorate program at UIN Syarif Hidayatullah. He is now a

lecturer in the Faculty of Shari’a and Law at the same university.

The previous explanation confirms that the meaning of Islam in the Koran

does not employ a specific meaning that is directed for a certain religion. According

to him, Islam is the meaning that is directed to all the religions brought by the



WORKING TRANSLATION

prophets of Allah. For example, in a number of verses we notice that the Prophet

Noah said to his people, “I have been commanded to be one of those who submit to

Allah’s will”, (Q. 10: 72). The Prophets Abraham and Jacob also set a legacy for their

children: “Allah hath chosen the faith for you, then die not except in the state of

submission to Allah” (Q. 2: 132). In the following verse, it is mentioned that the

children of Jacob replied: “We shall worship thy God and the God of thy fathers, of

Abraham, Isma’il and Isaac, the One True God, to Him we bow in Islam” (Q. 2: 133).

The Prophet Moses also called out to his people, “O my people! If ye do really

believe in Allah then in Him put your trust if ye submit your will to His” (Q. 10: 84).

And the same goes out to the Hawariyun people, the companions of the Prophet

Jesus, who said to Jesus: “We believe in Allah, and do thou bear witness that we are

Muslims” (Q. 3: 52).423

423 For Liberal Muslim thinkers, since the very first prophet to the Prophet

Muhammad, their mission remains one God and one religion. The Prophet

Muhammad delivered a message to his people that he did not bring a new religion,

but continued the religion of the previous prophet. The Koran states “The same

religion has He established for you as that which He enjoined on Noah that which

We have sent by inspiration to thee and that which we enjoined on Abraham, Moses

and Jesus; Namely, that ye should remain steadfast in religion and make no

divisions therein” (Q. 42: 13). And so, the teaching carried by all the prophets,

including the Prophet Muhammad, is that mankind is one. God is one and religion is

one. This is why in the language of the Koran we can only find the term al-din

(religion) in its unitary single form, and the word adyan cannot be found in its plural

form, which means religions. However, in addition to God’s unitary religion which in

the Koran is referred to as “the King’s religion” (din al-mulk) performed by Yusuf,

religion here means the law that is made by the king (Q. 12: 76), as the Prophet

Muhammad once defied the kafir by saying “For you your religion, for me my

religion” (Q. 109: 6) Take a look at, Zainun Kamal, “Islam dan Kemajemukan” Paper




WORKING TRANSLATION

Kautsar Azhari Noer, when understanding the verse, “The religion before

Allah is Islam” (Q. 3: 19), proclaimed that this verse contained the following meaning:

“The only obedience is obedience before Him which is obedience to Him, declaring

our tongue and soul for Him through submission and humility, and submission of our

words and soul to Him with obedience on what is commanded and forbidden,

humility of our words and soul to Him without displaying arrogance before Him,

without turning away from Him, and without associating Him with any other beside

Him regarding modesty and divinity.”

Kautsar did not specifically explain the meaning of the word din424 (and also

the word Islam) in the second verse (Q. 3: 85), as it had already been explained in

424 In order to illustrate the complexity of meaning of the word din that will change the

interpretation from an exclusive notion of diversity into a pluralist-inclusive one,

below we quote a thought from Kautsar Azhari Noer.

“The meaning of din in the Koran according to Ibn ‘Arabi, a Sufi from Andalucia who

was bestowed the title the Greatest Sheik (al-Syakh al-Akbar), is that din comprises

of two types: din that came from Allah and din that came from the creation. Din that

came from Allah is din that is chosen by Allah and provided a higher position than

din of creation. Allah proclaimed, “And this was the legacy that Abraham left to his

sons, and so did Jacob “Oh my sons! Allah hath chosen the faith for you; then die

not except in the state of submission to Allah.” (Q. 2: 132), which means “those who

submit’ (munqidun) to Him. Din (which is written: al-din), with al-alif and al-lam (the

article), which is a din that is understood and known to appear in the message of

Allah, “The religion before Allah is Islam” (Q. 3: 19). Din in this verse means

submission (inqiyad). What came from Allah is syar’ (the law) in which to Him we

submit (or what you must obey). And so, din is submission, obedience and namus is

syar’ (the law) that is declared by Allah. This is din as the ideal system that is din

which is a legacy from Abraham to his children that is din which is chosen by Allah

for those mentioned in the Koran regarding the legacy of Abraham to his children (Q.

2: 132). Din in this ideal sense is one and is the same as it comes from The One

God, but it manifests itself into many forms that are aligned with the target culture of



WORKING TRANSLATION

the previous verse. This means that the meaning of these two words, din and Islam,

in the last verse, has the same meaning as the two words in the first verse that was

explained. In fact, there are five words mentioned here, din, tha’ah, islam, inqiyad,

and khusyu’, which all have a close origin of meaning that makes it difficult to

the people. However, din that comes from Allah will not mean anything when it is not

obeyed by the people. Din that comes from Allah cannot be obeyed without first

understanding or interpreting it. Human’s understanding or interpretation on din is

human actions, or human creation”.

“Din that comes from humans is the submission or obedience that they do. Din in this

sense is not a system, but is a personal din, the personal quality, the individual

quality, which is of course individualist and not collective. Din as an ideal system that

comes from Allah when responded (in the sense that it is understood, interpreted

and obeyed by humans based on their understanding and interpretation) becomes

historical din, din as a historical fact, a historical reality. Historical din is the history of

mankind because it is the history of humans that always undergoes a neverending

process. Din is understood from various interpretations that in its time will bring way

to many orientations, mazhab, and religious sects.”

“The word din in the sense of a system or institution in the Koran is found in Q. 3: 73;

5: 3, but we must not forget the word millah, a word in Arabic, that like din is

translated into the word “agama” in Indonesian (“religion” in English). The word

millah is the synonym of din, which means din (religion) as a system or as an

institution. Millah is din as a system or institution, “an institutionalized religion,” “a

reified religion,” “a formalized religion.” When din becomes a system or an institution

that is institutionalized, reified, formalized, it becomes into millah, which according to

Toshihiko Izutsu is a religion that is objective in the whole sense of the word, a

formal credo and ritual system that serves as the principle of the unity of a religious

community and applies to foundation of the social life of the community.”

This long quote is from Kautsar Azhari Noer, “Makna din dalam al-Qur’an” Paper




WORKING TRANSLATION

distinguish them one by one and how in certain contexts they become synonyms for

one another.425

The truth does not solely belong to

one religion. And so, in the Koran it is

stated innama al-mu’minum ikhwah

and not innama al-muslimun. In the

Koran, we do not read Ya ayuuha al-

ladzina aslamu, but Ya ayyuha al-

ladzina amanu. Faith is broader than

425 According to Kautsar, “What is meant with Islam is “obedience”, “self submission”

to God. And so, Islam in this sense can also be found in other religions. In the

religion Hind, for example, there is a teaching that emphasizes on self-submission to

God. Pandit Usharbudh Arya, a devoted Hindu of the Wedanta Yoga orientation,

expressed his total self-submission (Islam) to God with the following words: If I did

not seal my hands and devote myself to You, then it would be better if I had no

hands. If I see with my eyes an object and within it I do not see you directly or

indirectly, it is better than I had no eyes. If I hear with my ears a sole word that within

does not contain a hymn of praise to You, O Lord, then let my ears be no more. In

every blink of my thought You are the light of my thought, and if there is a light in my

mind that I know not to be of Yours, then thrust away my thoughts from me, O Lord,

but come and reside directly within me.” According to Kautsar, what was stated by

Usharbudh Arya, is submission, obedience and compliance to Allah SWT (Islam) as

a consequence of tauhid. This submission is also revealed in the Koran as the

following: “Say, truly my prayer and service of sacrifice, my life and my death, are all

for Allah, the Cherisher of the Worlds, no partner hath He, this am I commanded and

I am the first of those who bow to His will” (Q. 6: 162-163). Take a look at, Kautsar

Azhari Noer, “Islam dan Pluralisme: Catatan Sederhana untuk Karya Fathi Osman

Islam, Pluralisme & Toleransi Keagamaan”. PSIK Paper Universitas Paramadina,

2007. Unpublished.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Islam. Islam is the legal formality, but

what is most important is faith.

Etymologically speaking, Islam is total

submission. Who knows, there could

even be a person who is so close and

so submitted to Allah, and yet he or

she is not a Muslim.

(Rachman 2009: 1395)

Said Aqiel Siradj, the Chair of PB Nahdlatul Ulama (PBNU). He graduated

from University of King Abdul Aziz, Mecca (1982) and received his Masters

(1987) and Doctorate (1994) from the University of Umm Al-Qura Mecca.

Departing from the hermeneutic approach of the verse aforementioned, it

becomes evident that the doctrine of salvation in the Koran applies not only for the

religion Islam in its physical definition and in its terminology, but also Islam in its

general definition which includes all religions (Islam, Christianity, Judaism, Sabian,

Hindu Buddha, Confucianism, Zoroaster, Shinto, Sikh and so on). All of them are ahl

al-kutub al-mustamilah ‘ala al-tawhid ila al-an (these scriptures all contain the

Oneness of God (tauhid) until today).426 These means that people who believe in

salvation just because they are (formally) Muslims, Christians, Jewish, Sabian, Hindu

Buddhist, Confucians, Zoroaster and other (exclusive) religions are people buoyed or

deceived by a name. Their assumption of course fails to make sense—if not

impossible. The salvation that is in line with the meaning of Islam has a spiritual

profoundness beyond formality.

The formality of divine teaching of religions and the physical form of their ritual

prayers are limited compared to the true meaning that is contained within the

426 Nurcholish Madjid, Dialog Keterbukaan Artikulasi Nilai Islam dalam Wacana

Sosial Politik Kontemporer, p. 264.



WORKING TRANSLATION

spiritual aspect of religions—the more essential.427 We cannot always see which is

the essential or the true meaning from the limited, the physical form. We must view

these formal forms of religious teaching and their ritual system as symbols, which

indicate the fusion of two levels of meanings: the physical meaning and the spiritual

meaning. By looking at the actualization of faith towards the One in various forms of

religion, we can make these different formal prayers or religious teachings as the

ladder toward the Transcendence. And not the opposite that is limiting the presence

and the existence of Transcendence in one or two forms of religious symbols. For

this reason, in one of his poems, Abdul Hadi W. M., quoted Jalaluddin Rumi, who

more or less spoke:

I cannot find The One

In a temple, a shrine, synagogue, a cross, the walls of a mosque and ka’bah;

Nor in the words of Ibn Sina or Aristoteles.

If find thee in the witness of my own soul

Before the many symbols of the House of God.

From this poem, we understand that what the most important thing that is

underlined in religion is not only the symbols and the physical names, but the main

message carried by the religion. Because religiosity does not stop at these symbols,

but at the appreciation and practice of the values they encompass.

In the Koran, people hold on to salvation because names or symbols are

ridiculed by Allah as sustaining on dreams: “Not your desires, not those of the people

of the book can prevail whoever works evil will be requited accordingly not will he

find, besides Allah, any protector or helper. If any do deeds or righteousness, be

they male of female and have faith, they will enter heaven, and not the least injustice

will be done to them.”(Q. 4: 123-124).428

427 Abdul Hadi W. M., “Kebhinekaan Beragama dalam Perspektif Tasawuf” PSIK

Paper Universitas Paramadina, 2007. Unpublished.

428 Jalaluddin Rakhmat, Islam dan Pluralisme: Ayat al-Qur’an Menyikapi Perbedaan,

p. 27.



WORKING TRANSLATION

This verse explains Allah’s demeanor to the people who believe in the their

prophets and their revelations. They believe that happiness in the hereafter will be

achieved just because they are Muslims, Jews, Christians, or Sabians, for example.

While Allah has proclaimed that salvation is not due to a religious group (jinsiyah

diniyah). Salvation is achieved with the right faith that holds the soul and the deeds

that overhaul mankind. It does not become a problem whether they are Jewish,

Christians, and Sabian who do not have faith in the Prophet Peace Be Upon Him.

Salvation does not precondition faith in the Prophet Muhammad Peace Be Upon

Him. For this reason, the belief that “the decision of Allah relies on the dreams of

Muslims and ahl al-kitab” (those who have presumed so are those who will walk the

salvific path during the End of Days) is refuted. It has been established that Allah’s

decision relies on good deeds and a true faith.

The following passage will analyze the perspectives of Liberal Muslim thinkers

on other basic concepts that have formed the concept of theology of religions in

Islam. The (second) concept that will be analyzed is the concept of Ahl al-Kitab.

The Concept of Ahl al-Kitab

The Koran has repeatedly acknowledged the existence of pious men in many

people, including those called ahl al-Kitab,429 such as the Jewish, the Christians, and

429 The word ahl in the Koran is mentioned 125 times and its use is quite varied. The

word ahl refers to a specific group, such as ahl al-bayt (Q. 33: 33) which means the

family of the Prophet, it can also refer to the people (Q. 28: 45) which means family

(Q. 11: 40), the followers of a notion of a certain teaching (Q. 2: 1050, etc. Next,

regarding the term al-Kitab, in the Koran it is mentioned 319 times, and their

definitions are varied: writing, book, provision, and obligation. As for the term which

directly states ahl al-kitab, it is found 31 times in the Koran, dispersed in 9 surah, 8 of

them are Madaniyah and one is Makkiyah, which is the Surah al-Ankabut (Q. 29:

46). According to specialists of the Koran, the term ahl al-Kitab that is mentioned in

the Surah al-Ankabut refers to the Jewish and the Christians. In the Madaniyah

verses, the use of this term is more varied. Take a look at Sri Mulyati, “Ahl Al-Kitab



WORKING TRANSLATION

the Sabians, as affirmed in Q. 2: 62—which has been mentioned above—“Those

who believe in the Koran, and those who follow the Jewish, and the Christians and

the Sabians, any who believe in Allah and the last day and work righteousness shall

have their reward with their Lord, on them shall be no fear nor shall they grieve”.

However, the inclusive verses that have continuously been developed as

pluralism thought by Liberal Muslim thinkers are always claimed by exclusive

readers to be cancelled (naskh) by various verses that relate ahl al-kitab with infidels

(kekafiran). For this reason, to refute this argument of cancellation, Liberal Muslim

thinkers have developed a detailed interpretation on the reality that the Koran never

perceived ahl al-kitab as kafir. However, before we go further on to the hermeneutics

of the Liberal Muslim thinkers regarding ahl al-kitab, it is important to understand that

the term ahl al-kitab is a term from the Koran, and not less than 31 times has the

Koran mentioned this word. Although in many verses, the Koran is critical and

corrective toward ahl al-kitab, in fact the Koran’s spirit shows appreciation, and even

invites them toward the common platform of monotheism which is the basic teaching

of the Torah, the Gospel and the Koran.430 For this reason, it is natural to say that

dan Persoalan Minoritas dalam Islam Indonesia” PSIK Paper Universitas


430 There are a number of specific verses that provide a special position to ahl al-

kitab in Q. 3: 64, 113, 114 and 115. Explicitly, ahl al-kitab is also mentioned thirty

three times in the Koran. Twice in Q. 2: 105, 109; Twelve times in Q. 3: 64, 65, 69,

70, 71, 72, 75, 98, 99, 110, 113, 199; four times in Q. 4: 123, 153, 159, 171; six

times in Q. 5: 15, 19, 59, 65, 68, 77; and once each in Q. 29: 46, Q. 33: 26, Q. 57:

29, and Q. 59: 2, 11; and twice in Q. 98: 1, 6. From these thirty one verses, four of

them contained a sense of appreciation: Q. 3: 64, 110, 113 and 199, they were all

revealed in Medina. While 27 others were critical towards ahl al-kitab. There were

only three verses that were revealed in Mecca: Q. 29: 46, Q. 98: 1 and 6. Take a

look at, Tim Perumus Majelis Tarjih dan Pengembangan Pemikiran Islam Pimpinan

Pusat Muhammadiyah, Tafsir Tematik al-Qur’an tentang Hubungan Sosial Antar

Umat Beragama (Yogyakarta: Pustaka SM, 2000). P. 99. In the Koran, there are a



WORKING TRANSLATION

Islam has responded to the existence of previous religions. In this context, the

Prophet Muhammad stated that Islam is the continuity of previous religions, and that

he is only a prophet among the other prophets sent by Allah to this world.431 Thus,

number of expressions that have equal meaning with ahl al-kitab, they are al-ladzina

utu al-kitab (those we provide a book) which is mentioned 9 times, al-ladzina utu al-

kitab (those given a book) which is mentioned 21 times, al-ladzi utu nashiban min al-

kitab (those given part of a book) which is mentioned 32 times and al-ladzina

yaqra’una al-kitab min qablik (those who read the book before you) 1 time. For a

more detailed explanation on these epressions, take a look at Muhammad Ghalib M.,

Ahl al-Kitab, Makna dan Cakupannya (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1998), 38-47.

431 Islam is in fact the name that is used by the religions of Allah that were revealed

to the previous prophets, such as the Prophet Abraham, the Prophet Isma’il, the

Prophet Jacob and the Prophet Jesus. Among the verses that point out to this are Q.

3: 67. Abraham was not a Jew, not yet a Christian; But he was true in faith and

bowed his will to Allah’s and joined not gods with Allah. The words “muslim” and

‘muslimin” that are expressed have an etymological meaning that is islam which

comes from the word “aslama” that means self-submission to The One God. In

addition, islam is also derived from the word “salima” which means salvation and

safety. Allah’s message is that only the religion Islam can be accepted by Him (Inna

al-din ‘inda Allah al-Islam, Q. 3: 19) and this refers to the religious understanding that

believes in the Oneness of Allah and the revelations brought by His prophets.

Because initially, all samawi religions are the same as they theologically are the

same. And so, the Prophet Muhammad once called out to the followers of Judaism

and Christianity (called as ahl al-kitab) to put forward the same teachings (kalimah

sawa;) among them, that is the Oneness of Allah and not to associate Him with other

gods (an-la na’buda illa ‘l-Lah wa la musyrik-a bihi syay’an, Q. 3: 64). Thus,

monotheism becomes the most fundamental value in the science of theology.

However, most of them refused this call, and only a small part of them justified it.

This small group is the one promised heaved by Allah, as long as they remain

consistently faithful to Allah, the end of days, and faith to His revelations brought by

the prophets (Q. 2: 63). Take a look at Masykuri Abdillah, “Makna Din dan



WORKING TRANSLATION

we can say that one one hand the concept of Islam on ahl al-kitab is a response to

the reality of plural religiosity, and on the other hand fortification of the identity of

Islamic theology.432

There does not exist a negative

relation between the elements of

democracy and the elements of

Islam, unlike what is previously

believed. However, this finding has

Indonesian characteristic, so if we

would like to make a conclusion that

Islam is in line with democracy, we

must test it in a wider scale.

(Rachman 2009: 1431)

Saiful Mujani, the Executive Director of the Indonesian Survey Agency and

the Director of Research at the Freedom Institute. He teaches at the

Postgraduate Program in UIN Jakarta and received his Masters (1999) and

Doctorate (2003) in Political Science from Ohio State University, the United

States.

The Jewish, and the Christians, are acknowledged as religious communities

that possess scriptures that were revealed to them. The Prophet Muhammad affirms

that the previous holy scriptures are from Allah and that they who delivered these

Holy Scriptures are the prophets of Allah. This is why the Prophet Muhammad did

not doubt to acknowledge Abraham, Moses, and Jesus as prophets like him.

Although the believers of the holy scriptures (the Koran, the Torah, and the Gospel)

realize there a number of differences among them, the Koran focuses more on the

Universalitas Nilai-nilai Agama Islam” PSIK Paper Universitas Paramadina, 2007.

Unpublished.

432 Mujiburrahman, “Ahlul Kitab dan Konteks Politik di Indonesia.” PSIK Paper




WORKING TRANSLATION

commonalities compared to the differences.433 And so, principally, the common

platform of these Holy Scriptures must be sought and understood. The Koran sees

itself as a consistent continuance of the Gospel and the Torah, and even the

scriptures or the shuhuf of the previous Prophets.434 For this reason, Muhammad’s

claim that he is the final prophet and the religion he carries is the pinnacle of growth

and the development of religions is not an exclusive claim. Religions before Islam

are not positioned as “the other”. If the prophets who carry the divine teachings were

433 Islam—as proposed earlier—does not differentiate one prophet and another. The

Koran asserts that the Muslim community should declare, “We make no difference

between one and another of them and we bow to Allah” (Q. 2: 136). All prophets are

appreciated in Islam. Such appreciation is not only limited to the prophets and those

of Bani Israel, but also prophets who are non-Israel, such as Isma’il, Hoed, Saleh

and Shuaib, Every prophet who was given a revelation by Allah carries different

shari’a. The Muslim community is commanded to seek a meeting point among this

diverse community. The Muslim community is even commanded to study the shari’a

before Islam. Departing from these normative facts, enlightenment regarding the

acknowledgement of Islam upon the teachings of other religions and other religious

communities will dawn upon us.

434 The basic teaching of the request to seek a meeting point (Q. 3: 64) is a request

of tawhid to glorify the Oneness of Allah and not associate Him with others.

Furthermore, there are no contradictions among the texts of the Holy Scripture, the

Koran, the Torah, and the Gospel, as well as those belonging to other religions. The

basic message of this request for a meeting point according to them is the key

concept and ethics in religiosity. The reality of religious pluralism is not the puzzles of

religious conflict that claim truth and blame one another. Religious diversity for

Liberal Muslim thinkers contain equality among the faithful and is often referred to as

religious parallelism, that is a religious paradigm that states every religion has its

own salvific path, and has its own validity.



WORKING TRANSLATION

embraced into the brotherhood by Muhammad, the followers or believers of these

religions should also be called as ahl al-kitab.435

In general, the term ahl al-kitab refers to two big religions that existed in

Arabia before Islam; they are Judaism and Christianity. However, a number of

verses also indicate another religion that is outside the area, such as Sabian.

Departing from the extension, some ulemas extended the meaning of ahl al-kitab not

435 According to Liberal Muslim thinkers, Islam’s outlook to ahl al-kitab is quite

proportional. On one hand, the Koran does not hesitate to deliver criticism to ahl al-

kitab. On the other hand, Islam appreciates the belief and the behavior of the ahl al-

kitab. This shows the objectivity of the Prophet Muhammad in treating or behaving

towards the previous communities before Islam. If there were any ahl al-kitab that

had bad behavior then they should receive criticism. However, quite a lot of the ahl

al-kitab showed virtuous behavior that should be appreciated. When traced, many of

the Koran’s condemnation towards ahl al-kitab were directed to the Jewish than the

Christians. This is understandable because the Medina Jew were of full of deceit and

wicked acts. If to a Christian, a Muslim would show respect, then to a Medina Jew, a

Muslim would tend to be strict. While the fact is that when in Mecca, the Prophet

Muhammad did not have any bad prejudice against the Jews. Quite the opposite, the

Prophet realized that the substance of his message is essentially the same as the

one received by the Jews in Sina several centuries ago. For this reason, the choice

to condemn and fight war with the Jews in Medina was something that the Prophet

Muhammad did not want to happen. Muhammad Rasyid Ridla asserted that what is

meant with Jews and people who associate God with other gods (musyrik) who are

enemies with the Muslim community are the Hijaz Jews and the Mecca Musyrik.

Both cooperated to fight the Muslim community. Take a look at Abdul Moqsith

Ghazali, “Tafsir Atas Ahli Kitab dalam Al-Qur’an” PSIK Paper Universitas




WORKING TRANSLATION

only to Judaism and Christianity, but also religions that have or once had a holy

scripture, such as Zoroaster436--and even eventually to all religions.

The extension of meaning of ahl al-kitab continues to be promoted by Liberal

Muslim thinkers. Nurcholish Madjid, for example, in the lectures he delivered at

Paramadina in the 1990s once justified this view by referring to the opinion of Rasyid

Ridla and Abdul Hamid Hakim. With this perspective, all religions are ahl al-kitab.

The implication of this view is of course distinct. It reaches out to legal formal

relations, such as marriage, and socio-cultural relations that take place in daily life,

and becomes the foundation of the theology of pluralism for Liberal Muslim

thinkers.437

From the perspective of Islam, there are many prophets and messengers sent

by God, and it is possible that the big religions of the world are also revealed by God,

and also delivered prophets who are not mentioned in the Koran. In the theology of

Islam, God is one, humans are one, and for this reason the essence of the true

religion is also one. It is due to this perspective that the classic Muslim community

can be open and absorb various progresses of civilization surrounding it without fear

of losing the Islamic identity. Islam’s friendly stance to the Jewish and the Christians

in Spain in developing science is the proof of the cosmopolitanism of the Muslims

that is based on this concept of ahl al-kitab.

Our true enemy is in fact the

fundamentalism that comes from all

directions, whether from secular

ideology or religion.

(Rachman 2009: 1461)

Samsu Rizal Panggabean, lecturer at FISIPOL Universitas Gadjah Mada. He

received his MA in peace studies from George Mason University, Virginia, the

436 Luthfi Assyaukanie, “Ahlul Kitab Sepanjang Masa: Perilaku Islam Terhadap Non-

Muslim” PSIK Paper Universitas Paramadina, 2007. Unpublished.

437 Nurcholish Madjid, “Ahl al-kitab” dalam Islam Agama Peradaban (Jakarta:

Paramadina, 1995), p. 69-90.



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US. He is now in charge of the Center for Security and Peace Studies

(CSPS), UGM.

A more widespread opinion was also proposed by a number of contemporary

ulemas. Muhammad Ali—an ulema from India—also believed that the followers of

Christianity, Judaism, Zoroaster, Buddha, Hindu and Shikh are ahl al-kitab. They are

not included as musyrikin, as they embrace the religion of Allah.438 When liberating

the Indus Valley and seeing Hindu people in their temple with a holy scripture,

Muhammad ibn Wasim—a Warlord at that time—stated that the Hindu are also ahl

al-kitab.439 Muhammad Rasyid Ridla quoted the opinion of Ali ibn Abi Thalib saying

that Zoroaster are also ahl al-kitab.

However, ahl al-kitab cannot only be limited to Judaism and Christianity.

Zoroaster, Sabian, Hindu, Buddha, and Confucianism can also be called as ahl al-

kitab. It is true that the Koran did not mention the Brahmas (Hindu), the Buddhists,

and the followers of Confucianism. This is only a technical issue. As Judaism,

Christianity and Sabian were the initial dialogue partners of the Koran and also

because geographically these groups are closest in proximity to the center of the

revelation. Arabs did not yet venture to India, Japan, and China, so religions, such as

Hindu, Buddha, and Confucianism were not known. The Koran would of course not

mention religions that are unfamiliar to the Arabs. When Islam developed to other

countries and met various religions, the term ahl al-kitab should in fact include the

followers of Hindu, Buddha, and Confucianism.440

In the mean time, Exclusive Muslims often affirmed ahl al-kitab as kafir. This

perspective strengthened the anti-pluralism thought. Liberal Muslim thinkers have

438 Abdul Moqsith Ghazali, “Tafsir atas Ahli Kitab dalam Al-Qur’an”. PSIK Paper

Universitas Paramadina. Unpublished.

439 Nurcholish Madjid, Islam, Doktrin dan Peradaban, p. LXXIX, and 189-190.

440 Abduh Moqsith Ghazali, “Tafsir atas Ahli Kitab dalam Al-Qur’an” PSIK Paper




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deconstructed this Exclusive Islam perspective by stating that the Koran did not

directly give the predicate kafir (with the adjective / ism fa’il) to ahl al-kitab. There are

a number of predicates of kafir that are not directly directed toward them. But these

predicates are always accompanied by exceptions, such as “part”, “except” and

many more. Many words of kekafiran (nouns / mashdar) are directed toward them,

but are accompanied with such expressions of exception (Q. 2:105; 12:109; 5:78 &

110; 59:2; 98:1&6; 3:69-71&110). This form of kekafiran also applies to Muslims. On

the other hand, the Koran explicitly differentiates between the kuffar (the plural form

of kafir) and ahl al-kitab (Q. 5: 56). These all show that the Koran never did establish

ahl al-kitab as kafir.441

This argument affirms that the term ahl al-kitab is used by the Koran to

differentiate Jews and Christians from the inhabitants of Mecca who are considered

as “kafir people” or “musyrik people”. The terms “kafir” and “musyrik” are in fact more

general and cannot be placed side by side with ahl al-kitab. Literally speaking, the

term kafir means “a person who has his or her faith shrouded” or “a person whose

heart is blinded”. The Koran considers ungrateful Muslims as kafir.442

The Koran classified the people it once enlightened into three groups. First,

those who rebelled to the previous Prophets and the Prophet Peace Be Upon Him.

They were threatened to receive “wrath above wrath”, which is twice as equal to the

rebellions, that is to the Prophet Muhammad and the previous Prophets (Q. 2: 90).

Next, ahl al-kitab post the Prophet who received his message and joined the Muslim

community. Allah promised them twice as big a reward (marratayn) as their faith was

twice as big that is to the previous Prophets and the Prophet Muhammad. In other

words, this group is ahl al-kitab that has become a Muslim or has embraced Islam

(Q. 28: 54). Third, ahl al-kitab that have faith in the previous prophets, but do not join

the community of the Prophet Muhammad. The Koran explicitly acknowledges their

441 Review Farid Esack, Al-Qur’an, Liberalisme, Pluralisme: Membebaskan Yang

Tertindas, p. 206-207.

442 Luthfi Assyaukanie, “Ahlul Kitab Sepanjang Masa: Perilaku Islam Terhadap Non-

Muslim” PSIK Paper Universitas Paramadina, 2007. Unpublished.



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faith (Q. 3: 113-114).

Many exclusive pilgrims insist saying that the ahl al-kitab referred toS by this

verse is those that have embraced Islam (the second group). However, this

interpretation does not have a basis because regarding the issue of ahl al-kitab who

have embraced Islam, the Koran has mentioned it in another verse (Q. 28: 54).

Thus, there is no reason to cancel the inclusive-pluralist verses with various verses

that relate ahl kitab with kekafiran.443

On the other hand, ahl al-kitab as faithful people has the same position before

God with the position of a Muslim who accepts a revelation from God (the concept of

equality among the faithful). The concept ahl al-kitab that is repeated in the Koran

must be understood as a concept that lives and can be developed into a concept—

borrowing Arkoun’s term—“the societies of the book” with an intention to discover a

new horizon in approaching the concept of revelation in the tradition of Jews and

Christians. Ahl al-kitab must be understood as a universal concept that is extensive

and goes beyond historical boundaries and literal meaning. More than that, the

concept ahl al-kitab must be placed in today’s contemporary context that covers the

future so that it can respond to the global challenges that have grown increasingly

pluralistic.444

The Koran itself uses the term ahl al-kitab for the Jews and the Christians to

signal intimacy. Ahl in Arabic Language refers to a kinship in which there is no

human relation that is closer than kinship. It appears the Koran would like to explain

that among Muslims, Jews and Christians a kinship-like bond is present. In order to

reinforce this, and so that this kinship does not break, we find many

recommendations in the Koran to act virtuously toward ahl al-kitab. The Koran even

invites them to unite perspectives in order to find a common platform regarding

monotheism. In addition, the Prophet Muhammad did not cease to explain that the

443 Cecep Ramli Bihar Anwar, “Menyegarkan Wacana Ahli Kitab”, www.Islamlib.com

444 Take a look at Tim Perumus Majelis Tarjih dan Pengembangan Pemikiran Islam

Pimpinan Pusat Muhammadiyah, Tafsir Tematik Al-Qur’an tentang Hubungan Sosial

Antar Umat Beragama, p. 125-130.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Koran is fundamentally in line and continues the teachings of the Torah and the

Gospel.

Besides that, in the Koran, there are a number of parts that show the

witnesses of ahl al-kitab regarding the truth of the Koran, and for that a good relation

with them must be protected and maintained. The verses in the Koran include (Q.

10: 94), “If thou Muhammad wert in doubt as to what We have revealed unto thee,

then ask those who have been reading the book from before thee. The truth hath

indeed come to thee from thy Lord so be in nowise of those in doubt”. In another

verse, the Koran orders the relation among Muslims and ahl al-kitab to be well

maintained (Q. 29: 46). “And dispute ye not with the people of the book, except with

means better than mere disputation unless it be with those of them who inflict wrong

and injury, but say ‘We believe in the revelation which has come down to us and in

that which came down to you; Our God and your God is One; and it is to Him we

Bow”.

Specifically regarding Christianity from ahl al-kitab, the Koran praises the

behavior part of them put out, which are intimacy and friendship (Q. 5: 82). The

creation of intimacy is proven from the marriage of the Prophet with Maria al-

Qibtiyah, who was previously a Coptic Christian (Egypt). This illustrates the intimacy

of the relation between Christians and Muslims. Departing from this evidence, Liberal

Muslim thinkers conclude that essentially Christianity does not contradict the

teaching of Islam.

To conclude, the intimacy established between Islam during its formative time

and other religious communities (particularly Judaism and Christianity) has proven

Islam’s openness to other religions.445 This is proven from the inclusivism of the

Koran regarding ahl al-kitab which is a very important principle in Islam that needs to

be understood to establish an interfaith relation. An indicator of the importance of

hos principle can be found in a number of verses of the Koran that has been

445 Take a look at Alwi Shihab, Membedah Islam di Barat Menepis Tudingan

Meluruskan Kesalahpahaman, (Jakarta: PT. Gramedia Pustaka Utama, 2004), p. 97-

99.



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historically interpreter. This concept has a positive impact when expressed in the

Muslim’s social-political life, and it allows the Muslims to accept the presence and

acknowledge the existence of other religious communities.

The impact of the concept ahl al-kitab is deeply felt during the cultural

development and the Islamic civilization. For example, victory over Spain in 711, for

500 years Muslims made Spain the homeland for three different religions with one

civilization. The Muslim community, the Christian community and the Jewish

community worked together to build a victorious civilization at that time with a

foundation on religious freedom.446 Religious freedom is one’s freedom to choose

and express a religious faith without being pressured or discredited over that choice.

Below we will analyze Islam’s perspective regarding other fundamental

concepts that have formed the theology of religions in Islam. The concept that will be

analyzed (the third) is religious freedom.

Religious Freedom

The right to embrace a religion and faith is a crucial matter among religions and faith.

This matter continues to instigate debate among Muslim thinkers regarding one’s

right to embrace a religion or to not embrace a religion—and what is most

importantly is when a person embraces a religion, does that mean he or she is free

to choose a certain madhab in that religion. Or quite the contrary, he or she is free to

choose not to be attached to any madhab that is believed to be right and orthodox.447

A good society is one that is religious,

diligent in practicing the teaching of

their religion based on a profound

awareness that is embedded in their

446 Take a look at Vivian B. Mann et. All. (ed.), Convivencia: Jews, Muslims, and

Christians in Medieval Spain (New York: The Jewish Museum, 1992).

447 Ulil Abshar Abdalla, “Membela Kebebasan”, in Hamid Basyaib, Membela

Kebebasan Percakapan tentang Demokrasi Liberal (Jakarta: Freedom Institute,

2006), p. 281-282.



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hearts; and not due to compliance or

fear from regulations. For this reason,

the obligation to teach religion and

embed religious values goes back to

the family and the society as an

institution. The state and the

government can only provide facilities

and legal assurance so that the

society can freely conduct their

religious teaching with caution.

(Rachman 2009: 1475)

Siti Musdah Mulia, Chair of the Indonesian Conference on Religion and

peace (ICRP), Jakarta. She was also the head of the Project of Gender

Equality at the Ministry of Religious Affairs. On March 5, 2007, she received

the award “International Women of Courage” from the Ministry of Foreign

Affairs, the United States.

The Koran itself sees the issue of religious rights as something important for

humans. It is related to humans’ most essential choice to believe or not to believe, to

have faith or not to have faith in something that is seen to be ultim in this life. Ultim

as religiosity or non-religiosity is not merely about faith, but more that that, this

decision is related to the way of life which will end in death and responsibility in the

hereafter (eschatological soteriological issues).448 Islam reveals this with a very frank

and stern statement as mentioned in the Koran, “Let there be no compulsion in

religion truth stands out clear from error” (Q. 2: 256).

According to the cause of its revelation (asbab al-nuzul), this verse was

revealed to the Anshar inhabitants of Medina. At that time, many of the Anshars had

children, both boys and girls, and children who had already become believers of

Judaism or Christianity, the two religions preceding Islam. When Allah delivered the

448 Zakiyuddin Baidhawi, Kredo Kebebasan Beragama (Jakarta: PSAP, 2005), p. 26.



WORKING TRANSLATION

message of Islam to the Prophet Muhammad and his people, the Anshars felt it

necessary to force their children who had already embraced Judaism and

Christianity to embrace the new religion, Islam. As an answer and an explanation to

their wish, this verse was revealed. Principally, Allah forbids them to use compulsion

in converting their children to Islam.

Verse 256 from Surah al-Baqarah (2), must become our attention so that

when delivering sermons the aspect of tolerance and compassion is considered as

underlined by God and His prophets. Compulsion is forbidden, as in fact between

virtue and evil is clear. To force our will in religion is not humans’ right. The cause of

the issue of a person’s faith must truly depart from awareness of the heart that is

sincere, genuine and without compulsion from anyone. To force a person into a

certain faith, does not only oppose human right but also the will and the fate set by

Allah. Because fundamentally religions are one, but with different shari’a.

And so, do not force a person to embrace Islam as this religion is so real and

enlightened, and the argument and thought that supports it is so strong and

convincing, we do not need to force anyone to embrace it. Whoever receives

guidance from Allah and opens his heart toward the truth and wisdom to

understand argument, then he will embrace it voluntarily. However, if a person

is so blind so they cannot see the reason (are forced into Islam) then

embracing Islam would be pointless.449

God does not agree on the use of compulsion to embrace Islam, but gives

them the freedom to choose. A verse from the Koran, “If it had been the Lord’s will

they would all have believed all who are on earth. Wilt thou then compel mankind

against their will to believe?” (Q. 10:99) entirely strengthens this perspective. At

least, according to God’s wisdom, if humans were forced to embrace a religion, then

God would have created humans with one religion. However, God did not do so, and

he left everything to humans themselves. This wisdom according to them is

explained in the following verse: “If God so willed He could make you all one people

449 Zainun Kamal, “Kebebasan Beragama dalam Islam”. PSIK Paper Universitas




WORKING TRANSLATION

but He leaves straying whom He pleases and He guides whom He pleases. But ye

shall certainly be called to account for all your actions” (Q. 16: 93).

The verse that states, “there is no compulsion in religion” is the principle of the

Koran on religious freedom or freedom of faith. Humans are entitled to the freedom

from Allah to choose to embrace a religion or not. This means that the consequence

is Islam should be tolerant towards the existence of religions and other believers and

gives a right to live for each of them to develop. For this reason, it cannot be justified

if Muslims intimidate other believers on behalf of faith.

The verse on the forbiddance of compulsion in religion and faith contains two

legal perspectives. First, the law of religion underlines that there cannot be even the

smallest form of compulsion in religion. Second, the law of religion forbids the

burdening or the pressuring of humans to have faith and belief under a forced

situation. According to the essence of the formation of faith, force will cause humans

to work under external influence, and not from the drive from the heart or

conscience.450

And so, the verse that explains that “there is no compulsion in religion”

explicitly explains the concept of religious freedom in Islamic teaching. The religion

Islam cannot be forced upon anyone as it cannot and should not. The act of forcing

someone to embrace a religion is not right, and not practical. Islam does not justify

this method, and even condemns it. Compulsion destroys the concept of

responsibility that is based on the fact that the physical world of a human is a test in

which one is given the freedom to choose. Ironically, usually a person with a certain

religion is pressured and forced to follow the official opinion and belief. If differences

occur outside the official opinion and belief the person will be made the enemy and

even considered as an apostate (murtad). And yet there is not a single verse in the

Koran that states that a person who is murtad, who has converted, or is astray in

terms of belief and thought, must be forced or punished with a certain law.

Regarding the issue of religion and

450 Zakiyuddin Baidhawi, Kredo Kebebasan Beragama, p. 32.



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secularization, the clashes are not on

the substance of the religion, but how

the cultural expressions can be used

to represent religion. Of course such

efforts are limited by space and time.

For this reason, the process of

secularization is done in order to

deconstruct the bias of space and

time and retrieve substantive values

from the religion so they can be

applied in the very plural society we

face today.

(Rachman 2009: 1491)

Siti Ruhaini Dzuhayatin, former Director of the Center for Women Studies

(PSW) State Islam University (UIN) Sunan Kalijaga, Yogyakarta. She is

concerned with issues of Islam, democracy, Human Rights, and gender, and

also teaches at UIN Sunan Kalijaga.

In the history of jurisprudence, riddah (the law of murtad) in practice is more

often used as a death poison for the seeds of intellectual creativity of the ulemas.

Claims of murtad, bid’ah, khufarat and kafir have taken down many ulemas who later

on were considered to be heroes in a certain discipline, for example Abu Husain al-

Hallaj and Imam Abu Ishaq. This concept of riddah in today’s context must be

questioned as it defies the discourse of religious freedom that is fundamentally

acknowledged by the Koran.

As the content of the verse la ikraha fi al-din (there is no compulsion in

religion) shows that Islam is very distant from sermons penetratedS through

violence. This means that this verse refutes the assumption in which religion the

religion carried by the Prophet Muhammad can be distributed with violence. The

Prophet delivered his message with compassion and never justified or

recommended compulsion or aggressiveness to convert a person into Islam. How

could he possibly justify an evil or unnatural method in converting a person into



WORKING TRANSLATION

Islam, when the Prophet himself fought against compulsion for 23 years. The

Quraish of Mecca have put all efforts to take the Prophet away from his religion and

back to their belief; they even forced the Prophet to leave his homeland, but the

Prophet never gave up to their plans of aggression and he continued to practice his

religion.

In Medina, the Prophet defended the principle that opposed aggression and

showed that forbidding a person to practice their religion or forcing a person to

embrace another religion is completely wrong. For this reason, the Koran’s

enlightenment, which forbids compulsion in religion (Q. 2: 256), acts tainting religion,

and destruction towards the facilities or assets belonging to another religion, is a

form of God’s wisdom in establishing a civilization of religious freedom (Q. 6: 108).451

The state Medina, based on the Medina Charter, a mini state established by the

Prophet Muhammad, is a prototype of a pluralist-moderate state that appreciates

human rights. In this mini state, there are a Muslim community (1.500 people), a

Jewish community (4.000 people) and an Arabic musyrik community (4.500 people).

Each community can live side by side in peace. For this reason, the Medina charter

can in fact become a moral source that allows a theological basis over the

acceptance of a modern constitution that is better in terms of division of power.452

As a cosmopolite teaching, Islam does not take a native outlook.453 This

means, Islam never forbids the people to engage with other communities. Islam also

never taught the people to force others to embrace Islam. Quite the contrary, Islam

condemns any form of compulsion, including compulsion to a belief in a religion or

certain faith. Religious freedom patterned by the Koran is in line with the natural

451 Fauzul Iman, “Kebebasan Beragama di Indonesia: Antara Ajaran dan

Pengalaman Empiris”. PSIK Paper Universitas Paramadina, 2007. Unpublished.

452 Take a look at Ali Bulac, “Piagam Madinah” in Charles Kurzman (ed.), Wacana

Islam Liberal: Pemikiran Islam Kontemporer tentang Isu-isu Global (Jakarta:

Paramadina, 1999), p. 254-284.

453 Abu Yasid, Islam Akomodatif: Rekonstruksi Pemahaman Islam sebagai Ajaran

Universal (Yogyakarta: LKiS, 2004), p. 37.



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state of humans that essentially aspired for freedom. God who created the natural

state of humans of course very much understood that humans are powerless when

forced to receive His teachings. The method of establishment of the law of God

which is taught by the Koran in stages is proof of the fairness of God in implementing

freedom. This method also serves as an education for humans in attempt to apply a

democratic life in the society. God understands that the issue of religious choice is

an issue of the conscience of humans that is correlated with the phenomenon of

empiricism of the human life itself.

Strictly, the Koran further recommended to “know each other”, “befriend” (li-ta

‘arafu), “engage in dialogue” (jadilhum billati hiya ahsan), and does not require force

in following a certain religion including Islam (la ikraha fi al-din).454 Islam’s attitude

toward interfaith relations according to them surpasses tolerance.455 Islam believes

in the existence of other religions and invites the believers of these religions to

together seek and establish a common platform and a common ground among all

religions in upholding the principles of divinity and humanity.

Islam affirms religious freedom/freedom in faith and acknowledges the rights

of all religious communities, including the rights of the non-Muslim minorities. In the

following passage we will analyze Islam’s perspective on the other basic concepts

that have formed the concept of theology of religions in Islam. The (fourth) concept

that will be analyzed is the rights of non-Muslim minorities.

The Rights of Non-Muslim Minorities

There are many verses in the Koran that were revealed after the migration to Medina

in 622 M which emphasized on the internal cohesion of the Muslim community and

attempted to differentiate them from other communities, in the sense of nemesis and

antagonistic. During the Medina time, the Koran repeatedly ordered the Muslim

454 Amin Abdullah, Dinamika Islam Kultural: Pemetaan atas Wacana Islam

Kontemporer (Bandung: Mizan, 2000), p. 75-79.

455 Ulfat ‘Azizus Samad, Islam dan Kristen dalam Perspektif Ilmu Perbandingan

Agama (Jakarta: Serambi, 2000), p. 118.



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community help one another, and to not do the same with non-Muslims, and fight

those who befriend and ally with non-Muslims. And so the verses of the Koran (Q.

3:28; 4:144; 8:72-73; 9:23 dan 71; dan 60:1) obliged the Muslim community to avoid

the kafir people as awliya (friend, supportet) and ordered friendship and encouraged

cooperation among the Muslim community. Q. 5: 51 also instructed the Muslim

community to not take in the Jews and the Christians as protectors (awliya), unlike

how they took in other Muslims, and for those (Muslims) who cooperated with them

(befriend), will become one of them.456

Thus, differences that lead to discrimination is very significant in the law of

Islam. In the Utsmaniyah dynasty, there is an interesting story to listen to. The story

begins when a king is about to kill some Christians as they were fighting with the

inhabitants of al-Bunduqiyah. As’ad Zamah, the mufti at that time strongly defied the

policy of the king. Even when the king threatened to kill Christians, the mufti

threatened to coup his power for the king had violated the rights of protection of the

ahl al-dzimmah under the Muslims.457

Dzimmah means an agreement, safety and guarantee. Ahl al-dzimmah

etymologically means a person who is bound to a contract. This sentence indicates

that they are people bound to an agreement with Allah, His Prophet and Muslims, to

be able to live under the principles of Islam safely and peacefully. The concept ahl

al-dzimmah is the seed of the emergence of discrimination toward non-Muslims. In

jurisprudence books, ahl al-dzimmah is a non-Muslim community who has agreed to

live under the responsibility and the guarantee of Muslims. They are entitled to

protection and safety. They are also entitled to live and reside amid the Muslim

community. In jurisprudence books, ahl al-dzimmah are those who are required to

fulfill a number of obligations, but are not entitled to receive equal rights and are not

456 Abdullahi Ahmed An-Naim, Dekonstruksi Syariah Wacana Kebebasan Sipil, Hak


p. 273-274.


Pluralis (Jakarta: Paramadina, 2005), p. 148.



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equal to the Muslim community. On this basis, ahl al-dzimmah is often referred to as

the second class citizen.

The concept ahl al-dzimmah needs to be reviewed once again. There is a

significant difference between the spirit carried by the Koran and the Prophet’s

Hadith to provide protection toward ahl al-dzimmah on one hand, and on the other

hand instigate a jurisprudence setting that tends to discriminate them.

The issue of the rights of non-Muslims is a never-ending issue. There is a

tendency for some people to believe that discrimination on behalf of religion is one of

the sources of conflict and even war among humans. This concern is supported by

the reality of the Fundamental Islam and Radical Islam movements. This is

confirmed by the terms that emerge in the old jurisprudence, but remain a discourse

in today’s modern time that is dar al-harb (war territory) and dar al-Islam (peace

territory) in Islamic literatures where there is still a strong assumption that dar al-harb

is not protected by the law (according to the perspective of the Islamic law). Dar al-

Islam must remain in ijtihad until dar al-harb disappears and other religious societies

that would still like to hold on to their religion as individual devotees will be left in

peace. However, they must perform a number of difficult obligations, among others

they must submit to the regulations of Islam and reside in the dar al-islam area while

being bound to the law of the Muslim community, as a citizen that must pay the tax

to the Muslim community.458

For this reason, Muslim thinkers must go back to the initial concept of ahl al-

dzimmah that is a defense and protection toward non-Muslims. This attitude is a

form of the Koran’s main commitment to respect the descendants of Adam and act in

an egalitarian manner to all humans, as they are created from one origin. In a

number of Hadith, the Prophet has in fact given a very tolerant view toward ahl al-

dzimmah, among others, Whoever harms a dzimmi, then I shall be their enemy. And

whoever is my enemy, than so be it until the End of Days. In another Hadith, it is also

mentioned, Whoever kills an al-dzimmah then he is banned from the beauty of the

458 Majid Khadduri, Islam Agama Perang? (Yogyakarta: Karunia Terindah, 2004), p.

78-79.



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heavens.459

This perspective shows that religious difference does not trigger discriminative

acts toward other religions. Every community that resides under the authority of

Islam and acknowledges the basic principle of stateship in Islam, as every citizen

has the right to receive the same treatment. However, this one and integral

citizenship, according to the aspect of aqidah is differentiated into Muslim citizens

and non-Muslim citizens (ahl al-dzimmah). Yet, technically, their treatment remains

the same with Muslim citizens. They also have the same rights and obligations as

citizens. Even Abul A’la al-Maududi—a Muslim “fundamentalist”—asserted that “The

blood of a dzimmi has the same value as the blood of a Muslim. When a Muslim

commits murder to another dzimmi, one must receive qishash as when one commits

murder to a Muslim.”460 According to him, something that is forbidden for the Muslim

community stipulated within the effective law, can be something that is allowed for

non-Muslims in their effective law. For example, if they were allowed to wed without

the presence of any witnesses or wed without mahar, or wed during the iddah period

or wed one’s own mahram. Thus, consequently the Islamic state must allow this, as

what happened during the time of Khulafaur Rasyidin and the others.

The Muslim community needs to learn from the history of the Prophet, and the

early development of Islam. In the political history of the Muslim community, the non-


Pluralis, p. 149.

460 Maududi formulated a work on “the Rights of non-Muslims” to contribute to the

crisis in Pakistan which at that time experienced difficulty in drafting an Islamic law

that was clear on the boundaries of the rights of Muslims and non-Muslims in 1947—

the initial time of the independence of the state. By formulating the sources of the

works of Imam Hanafi who became the role model of the people of Pakistan,

Maududi gave birth to this work, and it has became a typical Islamic view that is

conservative and fundamental.

Take a look at Abdul A’la al-Maududi, Hak-hak Minoritas non-Muslim dalam Negara

Islam (Bandung: Sinar Baru, 1993), p. 16-39.



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Muslim minority groups were on air and received high acknowledgement. This is due

to the concept of tolerance in Islam, in addition to Islam’s concept on the continuity of

religions. Muslims hold closeness or a certain affinity to them (non-Muslims).461 Islam

is a religion that serves as blessing for the entire universe. Islam’s blessing has been

historically proven since the fourteenth century until today. As the number of non-

Muslim minority groups is not little, they can breathe easily as well as enjoy peace,

brotherhood and equality in a state with a majority of Muslim citizens.

Looking back at the history of the Prophet, according to the Liberal Muslim

thinkers, we discover that when the Prophet was upholding the authority of Islam in

Medina, the first state task that he conducted in attempt to establish a harmonious

relationship with non-Muslim states was to set agreements with the neighboring

tribes (kabilah) who were reluctant to embrace Islam. Among them were the Jewish

and Christian groups. According to them, the Prophet positioned them equal in the

context of citizenship where Muslims was the majority in power at that time. As a

citizen, they were treated the same in terms of rights and obligations, without any

discriminative, intimidating and superiority arrogant acts.

From the analysis of the history of the Prophet, it is clear that Islam is not

familiar with notion that non-Muslim minorities can be discriminated when Muslims

are in power. This statement is reinforced and affirmed in the content of Q. 60:

8,”Allah forbids you not with regard to those who fight you not for your faith nor drive

you out of your homes from dealing kindly and justly with them for Allah loveth those

who are just”.

Here, we can conclude that the Koran strongly commands good deeds and

just acts toward non-Muslims, and Islam koshers the act of marrying free women ahl

al-dzimmah, and also koshers their food (Q. 5: 5). For them it is very clear that Islam

allows the establishment of a global community in which it does not include seclusion

of Muslims against the believers of other religions, and there is no barrier for different

believers of other religions who live and do their activities under the authority of the

461 Nurcholish Madjid, Islam, Doktrin dan Peradaban, p. 220.



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Muslim society.462 Thus, there will be no conflict between the concept of Islam

regarding ahl al-dzimmah and the concept of citizenship. What is more the concept

of ahl al-dzimmah is in line with the concept of citizenship in which every believer of

religion and faith should receive the right protection, according to the law and the

agreed consensus.

Faith does not limit a person to do

good deeds to “another”. Many

Islamic sources, such as the history

of the Prophet, support us in

defending others (who have different

religion and faith) without ruining our

own faith.

(Rachman 2009: 1543)

Syafiq Hasyim, graduate of UIN Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta. He received his

MA in Islamic Studies from Leiden University, the Netherlands. He was once

active in P3M (Association of the Development of Islamic Schools and

Communities) and Rahima.

And so, discriminative acts toward ahl al-dzimmah do not receive any form of

justification in Islam. Especially in a state that adopts democracy, in which every

citizen has the same rights and obligations. For this reason, classic jurisprudence

should be set aside as it is insufficient to answer contemporary issues that are

severely complex as a commitment to build tolerance, understanding and equality

among religious believers. Jurisprudence should essentially carry religious moral

messages in order to strengthen the spirit of pluralism.

In the following passage, we will analyze the perspective of Liberal Muslim

thinkers regarding the basic concepts that have formed the concept of religious

462 Kamal Sa’id Habib, Kaum Minoritas dan Politik Negara Islam Sejak Awal

Pemerintahan Nabi saw sampai Akhir Pemerintahan Utsmani (1 H-1325 H or 621 M

– 1908 M), (Bogor: Pustaka Thariqul Izzah, 2007), p. 81.



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theology in Islam. The (fifth) concept that will be analyzed is the concept of jihad and

peace.

Jihad and Peace

The word jihad is derived from the verb jahada that means struggle. The definition of

jihad according to the jurisprudence science (fikih) is a person’s struggle with all

might to take that path shown by Allah that is to spread the word of religion to others

so they may believe in Allah and so that the word of Allah becomes the only true

word in the world. Jihad according to the origin of the word means effort. In its

general definition, jihad does not always mean war. Efforts to take the path shown by

God can be done in various ways, both in the peaceful way and the violent way.463

The terminology jihad and its derivatives are repeated in the Koran as much

as 41 times; 8 times in Makkiyah verses and 33 times in Madaniyah verses in 23

verses. Regarding what is related to the discussion of the conception of jihad and the

explanation of the substance of jihad as a religious teaching, there are 3 verses in

three Makkiyah surah and 24 verses in thirteen Madaniyah surah. The rest are used

in a different context that is unrelated to the substance of jihad as a religious

teaching. However, for semantic purposes, the definition of jihad according to

language (etymology) is “perseverance in accomplishing a purpose”.464

The term jihad is also used in the Koran as much as 14 times in the form of

ism (the noun form), and 27 times in the form of fi’l (the verb form). The part of

speech used in the Koran has its own meaning. The form ism gives a sense of

firmness, while the form fi’l contains the meaning of movement. The form rafa’ shows

the subject or effort, nashab becomes the object that could mean the absence of

efforts, while the form jar gives a sense of interrelation in participation.465 On the

basis, the jihad teaching showed in the Koran is a religious teaching that contains

463 Majid Khadduri, Islam Agama Perang?, p. 70.

464 Rohimin, Jihad, Makna dan Hikmah (Jakarta: Erlangga, 2006), p.16.

465 M. Quraish Shiahb, Membumika Al-Qur’an: Fungsi dan Peran Wahyu dalam

Kehidupan Masyarakat (Bandung: Mizan, 1994), p. 116.



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the sense of movement and self-perseverance as an attempt to accomplish the

purpose. The importance of the teaching of ijtihad for human beings is repeatedly

affirmed through the form of a verb.

Muslims and non-Muslims often misunderstand jihad. Muslims often

understand jihad narrowly as a war against enemies of Islam. In many Muslim

communities, jihad is only understood as a war, while previous ulemas provide

alternative meanings. It is not a surprise if jihad is the most sensitive word in the

vocabulary of Islam.466

There are four methods that can be taken up by the Muslim community in

conducting jihad. They are jihad with the heart, the tongue, the hands or the sword.

Jihad with the heart orientates to the war against Satan in order to avoid evil actions.

Jihad with the tongue and the hands are done by calling on good things and

reminding one’s self from wrong acts. While jihad with the sword means war that is

fighting against those that are enemies of the religion Islam.467

A number of verses on jihad in the Koran that are revealed during the Mecca

period are less in amount compared to the Medina period. The conduct of the

teaching of jihad during the Mecca period was more emphasized on self-control and

avoidance of being triggered by acts that affect emotion. In Mecca, the Prophet

Muhammad Peace Be Upon Him conducted limited jihad in spreading good news

and warning. The jihad that was recommended was only implemented in the form of

a sermon (Q. 88: 21-26; 81: 27-28). While in the Medina period, the verses on jihad

were more oriented on war and explained the law. The command of jihad itself was

first revealed when the enemy (the Mecca Quraish) began aggressively attacking

Medina. Jihad regarding the sense of the war at that time meant to protect one’s self

with all might and efforts. This command can be found within Q. 2: 190-193 in which

jihad means qital (war).468 However, we cannot always interpret jihad as a war as in

466 Humaidy Abdussalam, Islam dan Hubungan Antaragama, p. 224-225.

467 Majid Khadduri, Islam Agama Perang? P. 71.

468 Ahmad Syafii Maarif, Meluruskan Makna Jihad (Jakarta: Center for Moderate

Muslim (CMM), 2005), p. 175.



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the case of Medina, because the war between Muslims and non-Muslims during the

Mecca period did not take place. The war did not take place until after the Medina

period (Q. 9: 12-15; 4:91).

Historically, the Prophet’s struggle (jihad) in spreading the mission of his

message was never separated from the components of jihad and patience. This

application is an implementation of the sign in the Koran that is illustrated in a

number of verses (Q. 3: 142; 9: 16, and 47: 31), which was revealed during the

Mecca period. After entering the Medina period, when the war was allowed and the

position of the Muslim society gained more strength, the Prophet still reminded his

companions to always be patient particularly in facing threats from enemies. He

always taught his companions to prioritize peace, as encompassed in the Medina

Charter, which is the peace principle.469 As peace is a noble value that must be

realized internally within the Muslim society and other societies.

The chief values to create peace among others include patience, appreciation

toward humanity of all parties, sharing, and creativity in resolving issues.470

469 Majid Khadduri, Islam Agama Perang? p. 72.

470 Chaiwat Satha-Anand, Agama dan Budaya Perdamaian (Yogyakarta, FkBA,

2001), p. 32-33. The following is the story of the Prophet Muhammad who illustrated

values create peace.

In year 605, when the Prophet Muhammad was 35 years old, the people of

Mecca rebuilt the Ka’bah that was previously damaged due to a flooding. At that

time, the Ka’bah stood tall and was slightly higher than the body of a human being.

Various clans gather stones to heighten the building of the Ka’bah. They worked

separately, so that the wall was high enough to have a black stone placed in the

corner. Then a conflict of opinion took place because every clan wanted the privilege

to lift the stone and place it in its place. For four or five days they reached a dead

end and each clan prepared for battle in order to resolve the conflict.

The one of the elders who was present proposed to the clans in dispute to

follow what was recommended by the next person who entered the complex of the



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All in all, the paradigm of the creation of peace attained from the actions of the

Prophet when he did not have political authority covered four important values:

patience, appreciation for humanity of all parties, sharing and creativity in resolving

issues. Islam as a faith strongly emphasizes on the absenteeism of structural

violence.

In the area of direct violence, the concept of jihad is very problematic. This

concept is generally understood as a holy war cried out by Muslims against kafir or

enemies of Islam.471 Even though jihad is seen as an established foundation in the

relation between the Muslim society and the neighboring people, this does not mean

that the Muslim society must always be involved in war. This obligation can be

comported peacefully and according to them the Muslim society does not always

need to use violence against their enemy.

Perhaps the story of Muhammad and Hindun, the Quraish woman, can be a

model for a religious society—and this is the best example that is often proposed by

the Liberal Muslim thinkers.

In the year 622, the Prophet migrated to Medina, and this signaled the

Ka’bah through the “Bab-al-Shafa” gate (Shafa Gate). All the clans agreed on this

proposition. The first person who entered this gate was Muhammad. Everyone was

relieved as they knew Muhammad to be an al-amin, the trusted one, sincere. They

were ready to follow his decision.

After listening to the case, Muhammad requested them tobring to him a piece

of cloak, which he spread out on the earth. He then took a black stone and placed it

in the middle of the cloak. He ordered every clan to hold each end of the cloak and

lift it together. When they lifted it to a right height, Muhammad took the stone and

placed it in the corner. And the building of the Ka’bah was continued until the end.

471 Chaiwat Satha-Anand, Agama dan Budaya Perdamaian, p. 32-33. How the use of

the word “jihad” in the contemporary political Islam term is used, take a look at, Gilles

Keppel, Jihad: The Trail of Political Islam (Cambridge: Harvard University Press,

2002)



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commencement of the Islamic calendar. Two years later, the war of Badr erupted, in

which the Muslims defeated the Mecca soldiers. In this fight, Hamzah, the prophet’s

uncle, killed his father, relatives and a number of family members of Hindun. In the

year 625, the war of Uhud, near Medina, the Mecca people once again fought the

Muslims to pay revenge. Hindun was in the battlefield.

Hindun had already promised to Wahsyi, an Abyssinia (Habsyi), an amount of

riches if anyone could kill Hamzah. When Wahsyi saw Hamzah in the middle of a

battle, he threw a sphere towards Hamzah and it struck him right in the stomach and

speared him.

He left his weapon to strangle him to death. Wahsyi killed Hamzah to win

back freedom for the people of Mecca. He ran towards Hamzah’s body, dissected

his stomach, took his heart, bit a part of it, and chewed it, before swallowing the

piece to voice out his vow and spit on the remains. He then came on to cut off the

nose, the ears and other parts of Hamzah’s body.

In actual fact, the most important role

of religion is to shape the society’s

ethical behavior. This means the

individual’s behavior is framed by

universal goodness, which originates

from religion. Within the concept of

philosophy, the term esoterim of

religion is known. This is what needs

to be enriched. Bot the symbol or

form. If people with their own

differences only talk, then they will

never cross paths.

(Rachman 2009: 1563)

Syamsul Arifin, Head of the Center of the Study of Islam and Philosophy

(PSIF) and a lecturer at the Faculty of the Religion Islam Universitas

Muhammadiyah Malang. He is the Assistant Director of the Postgraduate of

UMMM and a Professor in the Sociology of Religion.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Wounded after the Uhud war, the Prophet found the body of Hamzah in a very

terrifying shape. The Prophet reacted with anger and as a result he decided to

burden this act of violence to thirty Quraish. However, at that time the verse in the

Koran was revealed to him. God teaches us even though equal response towards

violence is accepted in Islam in following the retributive justice, it is much better to be

patient and wait for the anger to pass. The prophet then put aside his anger and

practiced patience. When he returned to Mecca with a glorious victory, he had a

choice: to punish Hindun for his violent act towards his beloved uncle, or forgive the

killer. He chose the last option, to forgive, aligned with the verse in the Koran that

evidently states,472 “And if ye do catch them out, catch them out no worse than they

catch you out; but, if ye show patience, that is indeed the best course for those who

are patient. And do thou be patient, for thy patience is but from Allah; nor grieve over

them, and distress not thyself because of their plots” (Q. 16: 126-127). In another

part of the Koran, it is also explained that part of jihad is forgiveness (Q. 2: 219).

The importance of peace is also contained in (Q. 8: 61) that is “But if the

enemy incline towards peace do thou also incline towards peace and trust in Allah”.

This verse was revealed when the relation among groups was based on the principle

of conflict. Peace among social groups or tribes at that time only occurred when

there was an agreement (‘ahd) between them. However, today the relation among

groups or the state is based on the principle of peace, so that contemporary ulemas

and Muslim intellectuals can make this value of peace as the basic value in social

and state life.

There is not a single verse in the Koran, and there is not a single Hadith that

promotes the spirit of hatred, dispute, conflict, or any form of negative behavior,

repressiveness that threatens the stability or the quality of a peaceful life. There is

not a single verse in the Koran that when placed in a textual and historical context

can truly allow war with another part on the basis of faith, ethnicity, or their

nationality. Conducting acts of violence without a valid reason opposes the value and

the principle of humanity. In the Koran itself there is a prohibition to spread hatred

472 Take a look at Chaiwat Satha-Anand, Agama dan Budaya Perdamaian, p. 76-78.



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(Q. 49: 11), “O ye who believe, let not some men among you laugh at others; it may

be that the latter are better than the former”. The Koran also prohibits the spread of

violence (Q. 28: 77). “And seek not occasions for mischief in the land for Allah loves

not those who do mischief.”

Q. 49: 11 is a form of advice that must be referred to as a guide for Muslims,

especially in following the commandments of God and the Prophet regarding

brotherhood that is the prohibition to spread hatred. While in Q. 28: 77 it is

mentioned that acts of violence conducted by the Muslim community of course is not

in line with the teachings of the Koran, and Allah does not favor those behind

destruction. Within religion itself, reactions toward bad acts done by other people

towards us must be returned through better acts (Q. 23: 96).

Islam comes with the principle of compassion (mahabbah), togetherness

(ijtima’iyah), equality (musawah), justice (‘adalah), and brotherhood (ukhuwah), and

appreciates differences. Islam came to save, defend and revive peace. The religion

Islam is a religion that aspires for peace. Islam itself comprises of four letters (ruba’i)

that is aslama-yuslimu-islaman which means to bring peace and salvation.

Peace is the dream of mankind, so the Prophet placed it in the most important

position within the teaching of Islam as shown by the brotherhood of the Anshars

(the inhabitants of Medina) and the Muhajirins (the newcomers from Mecca). This

spirit of brotherhood is what brings peace in the heart of every Muslim, and

generates peace in social relations, including towards non-Muslims. Every Muslim

should essentially spread peace in a pluralistic social life. The existence of Islam

should be able to bring peace between two conflicts and disputes. The essence of a

person’s faith is determined on how one can conduct acts of salvation, so that in any

issue that emerges amid the society is believed to be resolved in a peaceful manner

(Q. 49: 9).

The theology of pluralism that brings peace is thus a religious richness that

must be embedded in every individual, so that being Islam means living in peace and

understanding diversity. Being religious means no more wars, no more hatred and

no more disputes. As long as peaceful efforts are put forward that is where the

essence of Islam is upheld. The spirit of peace should essentially become the culture

that decorates daily life. Every individual, family, society from various ethnicities,



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tribes, races and religions can bury all forms of doctrines that are not in line with the

values of peace. Religion must be able to reveal the doctrine of peace for maslahat

on earth, so that the teaching of peace can become one of the realizations of “the

meeting point of religions”.

In the following passage, we will analyze Islam’s perspective on other basic

concepts that have shaped the concept of the theology of religions in Islam. The

(sixth) concept that will be analyzed is the concept of the meeting point of religions.

The Meeting Point of Religions

We need to complete the theology of religions by pursuing “the meeting point of

religions”. This search is done using the perennial philosophy method or perennials.

Etymologically, the term perennial philosophy is derived from a Latin term that is:

philosophia perennis, which literally means an eternal philosophy. The Perennial

Philosophy is eternal wisdom, eternal lesson or also known as eternal essence.

These terms commonly appear in the discourse of philosophy. The agenda

discussed in religion are: first, regarding the absolute form of linkage, the source of

all the forms of God the Most True is One, and thus all religions originating from the

One are principally the same as the come from the same source. Second, perennial

philosophy aims to discuss the phenomenon of religious pluralism critically and

contemplatively. Although there is only one true religion, as it was revealed to

humans through historical and sociological spectrums, it takes a pluralistic form.

Every religion has a common platform with other religions, but at the same time they

also have their own characteristics that make them different from one another. Third,

perennial philosophy aims to trace a person or a group through the roots of a

person’s or a group’s religious awareness through symbols, rituals as well as

religious experiences.

Perennial philosophy believes that the essence of the true religion is only one.

However, as religion transpires in a non-simultaneous space and time, plurality and

particularity of form and language in religion cannot be avoided in the reality of

history. In other words, the message of the absolute truth participates and engages



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in symbiosis with the dialectics of history.473 Perennial philosophy tends to be

strongly affected by the ambiance of religious spiritually. This is caused by the theme

it develops which is “eternal lesson” which only has meaning and power when it is

discussed by other religions. Thus, it is not a surprise that both in the West and in

Islam, the birth of perennial philosophy is the result of a critical interpretation of the

Sufi philosophers or Sufis that are philosophical in their time through mystical

experiences, such as a metaphysical unity of experience or wahdat al-wujud (the

unity of form) which illustrates the pilgrimage of the spiritual hike to rediscover the

Sacred.

In relation to perennial philosophy, the doctrine regarding tauhid does not only

serve as the message belonging only to Islam, but also as the heart of the center of

each religion. Islam here is defined in its generic definition, that is submission to

God, as often spoken by Nurcholish Madjid—a Liberal Muslim thinker who initially

introduced this method in the early 1990s—in which Islam means total submission

(to Allah), the attitude which serves as the heart of the true religious teaching before

Allah. For this reason, all true religions are called Islam. Without this attitude, a

certain religious faith does not have trueness. The true religion before God Almighty

is the act of sincere submission to Him that is stated in a term in the Koran that is al-

islam, (Q. 3: 19) and every form of adoption of religious faith besides al-islam will by

itself be refused by Allah (Q. 3: 85).

The “heart” or the center of “Islam” is “the Islamicness of the heart” itself that

is spiritual virtue or ihsan that enables us “to see God everywhere” (omnipresence)

and serve as “the eyes, the ears, and the hands of God” in this world. The heart of

“faith” or religion is religion or “faith” in the heart of humans themselves. The heart

mentioned by the Prophet, “the crown of abundant virtue and compassion”. It is

within the faith of the heart can one find eternal wisdom or Sophia which radiates like

473 Komaruddin Hidayat and M. Wahyuni Nafis, Agama Masa Depan: Perspektif

Filsafat Perenial (Jakarta: Paramadina, 1995), p. 6.



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a pearl that is located precisely in the middle of every message from God.474 For this

reason, the concept of tauhid in the Islamic perspective does not only lie in the

acknowledgement of the presence of God Almighty, because if that were the heart of

the matter then even the Devil would believe, but it is more substantial than that, that

is acceptance and compassionate response and the will of God that is addressed to

humans. Because of this, in the Islamic perspective, the holy people of the past, for

example Pythagoras and Plato, are people who embrace tauhid (muwahhidun) as

they have expressed the truth that becomes the heart of all religions.

In other religions, esoterically, the idea of monotheism can be found in every

tradition of religious thinking. The notion monotheism itself has been known for some

time, and thus the teaching of monotheism that is preached by Semitic religions are

in fact not a novelty, but affirm and clarify once again the notion that once grew but

due to a number of reasons faded. In the course of history, humans call God

Almighty and Absolute with various names and terms, but substantially all these

names point to the same Substance. The One God is called with many names. In

Islam, It is Allah, in Hindu it is called Brahman, in Judaism it is called Yahweh and

many more. The same applies to the worship rituals by religious believers that are

done in many ways. Thus, understanding the One God and (simultaneously) many

can be done by viewing the One in many, or the many in One. Or, in other words, the

One is seen as the many, and the many is seen as one. Seyyed Hossein Nasr called

this understanding the One in many. It can also be reversed as the many in the One.

In the concept the One in the many, it can be understood that regardless of

the name of the religion, it is always connected to the substance that is the heart of

474 This illustration can be applied in the discourse of religious plurality. Suppose

religion, which is substantially one as the heart of each and every religion, but

becomes diverse and plural when passed down to the “earth’s atmosphere”, “the

exoteric nature”, or “the nasut nature” in Mulla Shadra’s term. However, even though

religion is plural, all religions principally can bring humans to its Origin that is God.

Take a look at Seyyed Hossein Nasr, The Heart of Islam Pesan-pesan Universal

Islam untuk Kemanusiaan (Bandung: Mizan, 2003), p. 383.



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the religious teaching in which its existence lies beneath its formal form. If only the

substance of religion can be transformed into hierarchy, the most primordial

substance of religion will only be one. It is perennial, infinite as it is the emission of

the Most Absolute. The divine foundation of all existence is the spiritual Most

Absolute. The Absolute is God. He can only be reached with love, but He cannot be

brought into the mind. True knowledge can only be obtained through the heart; it is

not the knowledge of God that is defined, but witnessed. The Absolute is often

depicted as, “Supposed to water, there is only one substance, but its presence takes

the form of the sea, vapor, clouds, rain, rivers, ponds, dews, and many more”.

Through this perennial philosophy method, we may conclude that religion is

the path to God. God has created various religions for the interests of various

believers, time and states. All teachings are just the various ways, but a path is not

the same as God itself. In fact, a person will reach God whatever path he follows, as

long as with complete dedication. We can eat a piece of bread with layers of sugar,

either directly or horizontally. The taste will still remain good, whatever layer is put on

it. As the one and the same substance water, is called in various names by various

nations, one calls it air, another calls it eau, a third calls it aqua, another may call it

pani. And such is the Eternal Happiness-Intelligence known to most people as God,

and to some people as Allah, and to others as Jehovah, and others as Brahman.

It is in this framework, Frithjof Schuon, the most prominent genius of

traditional metaphysics, contributed a very original thought by adding emphasis (in a

diametric manner) between “exoteric” (the area of religious plurality) and “esoteric”

(the area of the heart of religions). Every religion has one form and one substance.

The form of religions is relative, but within it lays an absolute substantial content. As

religion is a fusion of “substance” and “form”, religion then becomes something that

is relatively absolute. Awareness of this aspect of substance and form will open

many alternative ways toward “the straight path”, without denying that a person who

defies a religion or strays from the right path. In an esoteric manner, or in its

substantial definition, the claim or statements made by a religion are absolute.

Exoterically, or in the definition of a form, or on the level of humane diversity, these

statements have no other option but to become relative and historical.

The search of God and the path to Him (God) becomes the only destination.



WORKING TRANSLATION

Sometimes it must be done in a very dangerous way: that is by plunging into the

meeting of all world religions, selecting traditions that are still pure, leaping across

the differences among religions. Frithjof Schuon’s book Finding a Meeting Point of

Religions is a very strong evidence how the efforts done are truly serious.

The relation between exoteric and esoteric is the same as the relation

between “form” and “soul” which can be found in all symbolic expressions. This

relation will of course be found in esoteric itself, and it can be said that only the

spiritual men can only understand the level of Truth that is pure and whole. “The

soul”, which is the supraformal content of “shape” in relation to “what is written”,

always displays a tendency to break through the limitations of its form. For this

reason, it gives an impression that is seemingly in conflict with its outer form. It is on

this basis that perennial thinkers find it necessary to readapt religion, and that is the

reason revelations were now and then passed down in the history of religions, as a

fulfillment of the function of esoteric in relation to the form of the religion preceding

it.475

The practice of ijtihad relies on

reasoning. And from the beginning of

the development of Islam, this

process had already existed.

475 For thinkers developing perennial philosophy, life consists of levels. The hierarchy

of this existence, starting from God that occupies the highest level, to humans and or

lifeless objects that occupies the lowest level. From the metaphysical aspect, it is

only in God—who occupies the highest level—that there is a meeting point of various

religions. While on a lower level, these religions are different. In relation to this

metaphysical reality, from the epistemology aspect, it can also be said that

differences between one religion and another narrows down and unites on the

highest level, while on the lower level, these religions split up. For thoughts on this

take a look at Frithjof Schuon, Mencari Titik Temu Agama-agama (Jakarta: Pustaka

Firdaus, 2003), p. 77, 84.



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However, it was not until recently, the

concept ijtihad was preconditioned

with heavy conditions. While the fact

is as humans have mind, that when

perpetually sharpened, the mind will

set in motion and develop.

(Rachman 2009: 1575)

Taufik Adnan Amal, lecturer at the Faculty of Shari’a UIN Alauddin

Makassar. He graduated from the magister program of Johannes Guetenberg

University, Mainz, after he completed his Undergraduate degree in Arabic

Literature at UGM Yogyakarta and the Faculty of Shari’a IAIN (now UIN)

Sunan Kalijaga Yogyakarta.

According to Frithjof Schuon, among the various conceptions that cannot be

understood by exoteric, at least in certain things, what is most important is regarding

the levels of Universal Reality. Universal Reality reveals itself in levels without

reducing its essence as the “One” integrated unity. The lowest level is absorbed

metaphysically or synthetically into a higher level. This is the teaching of the cosmic

illusion in which the world is not only lacking of perfection or is temporary, but also

more than that, it cannot be called “being” in relation to the Absolute Reality, as the

reality of the world will limit the Reality of God and what will be left is the “existing”.

What is more, the Being itself, which is no other than God who is Personal, is in turn

beyond the Most Personal and Most Suprapersonal. That is Non-Being in which God

the Personal or the Being is only the first determinant in which all added

determinations flow and form a cosmic existence. However, exoteric cannot

acknowledge the unrealness of this world and the special reality from the divine

principle, let alone the natural state of the Non Being compared to the Being or God.

In other words, the exoteric perspective cannot understand the natural state of divine

impersonality, that is the Highest Reality that becomes real in God who is Personal.

Various of these truths are too high in level, and for this reason they become too

blurred and complicated to be understood from the aspect of understanding through

the common mind. And so, the truth is too difficult to be understood by most people



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or do be formulated dogmatically.476

From this metaphysical pluralism statement, it is comprehended that the path

of life is wide and plural. It is not as a purpose, but as a “path” to God. Although

physically, this part is very diverse and the differences and even the conflicts are

evident, but in terms of “esoteric”, “essence” or “transcendence”, for perenialists, all

these paths will reach “the same transcendent unity (religions)”. Although the path

taken is wide, diverse and plural, all of them (religious community) will together walk

“straight” vertically toward God “Almighty”, Most Holy. This formulation makes the

approach of perennial philosophy enter the area of the heart of religions, which

substantively is only one, but packaged in different forms (containers, paths). “There

is only one God, but many paths”. An intense understanding in the symbol of religion

is esoteric. Pure esoteric lies in every religion. The esoteric view is based on ruhul

qudus, which is perfect as it is the true intellectual vision that sources from

revelation. Esoteric, metaphysics, Sufism, satisfy the need of human’s intellectual-

spiritual talent. And so, metaphysics’ concern is not only thought, but also the

existence of mankind, beyond philosophy and religion in their common meaning.

For this reason, the meeting point of religions is not in the formal, external

cover, exoteric, phenomena, aksiden and so on paths, so what is seen on the

surface is the reality of religious pluralism, as presented by the presence of religions,

such as Judaism, Christianity, Islam and so on. This meeting point of religions can

only be realized on an esoteric, essential and transcendence level. As a more clear

illustration, “Suppose religion as the wheel on a bicycle” “The radian of the bicycle if

further away from the ‘as’ (‘center’), it will be looser.” On the other hand, the closer to

the ‘as’ (‘center’), it will get closer, and even unite. Philosophically, it can be revealed

that; “Whoever only prefers to see differences as something very significant, then

suppose the person in that circle is at the sidewalk position. However, whoever is

capable of revealing the heart of religions reach the religion of heart, and all religions

476 Frithjof Schuon, Mencari Titik Temu Agama-agama, p. 84-86



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(religious community) will meet.”477

And so, perennial philosophy is born from the fusion of philosophy as a

thinking methodology with mysticism as a spiritual experience that is full of wisdom

and revelation. In the eternal Wisdom—which in the Arabic terminology is called al-

hikmah al-‘athiqah—gives an illustration that the spiritual dimension in religion is

something that is very important as spirituality with dimensions of empathy and

compassion is the heart of religion, and the heart of religion is an esoteric dimension

(qalb, spiritual) which reflects the compassion of God that allows humans to leave

behind egoism, greed, violence, rudeness and self-righteousness—what is now the

problem is fundamental diversity.

Human beings according to their natural state are religious creatures. This

state originates from their natural sense to worship or devote him or her to an object

or a form that is higher or has more control. The true sense is a path from the inner

unconscious urge that is the urge to move towards God due to the result of the

primordial agreement with the Creator in the spiritual land. This is the essence of

true perennial philosophy.

As the urge could not be held any longer, he will find one way or another. If it

was not put out well, the urge will come again in the forms of deeds and worshipping

practices that would be a loss to humans themselves. According to the divine design,

human beings are the highest of God’s creations, the noblest beings. For this

reason, humans should not do anything that could diminish the dignity and self-

respect as the noblest human beings, by not submitting to or worshipping anything

besides the God Almighty.

One of the important paths to appreciate and do all forms of worshipping and

devotion to a form that is believed to be more than humans that is God as the

purpose of perennial philosophy is tasawuf. In Islam, taswuf is religious practices

that are filled with the esoteric dimension (external appearances, formality, the shell),

477 Nurcholish Madjid, “Kata Pengantar” in Komaruddin Hidayat & Ahmad Gaus AF

(ed.), Passing Over, Melintasi Batas Agama (Jakarta: Gramedia Pustaka Utama &

Paramadina, 1998), p. xxix.



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which could not be touched, by the eternal wisdom and purpose of religion,

particularly in the phenomenon of revelation.

Perennial tasawuf is the idea tasawuf, mystic, a tasawuf that is truly tasawuf,

sufi tasawuf, tasawuf originating from the Koran and the sunna, that is tasawuf as a

spiritual path toward Allah, that sources back to noble characteristics, brings humans

closer to Allah, stay loyal to shari’a, emphasizes on the balance between physical

and spiritual aspects, material and spiritual, worldly and non-worldly, siding with the

weak and the oppressed.478

For this reason, in the perennials perspective, the highest philosophy is

metaphysics. Science is a knowledge that uses inductive method, which is

characterized by empirical analysis of limited, relative or probable truth. However,

philosophy using a relative deductive or probability truth method is characterized as

analogical analysis, truth that is produced as universal self-evidence, essential and

goes in line with the laws of the mind itself, which originates in the first law and the

conclusion is characterized as absolute rights.

Perennial sees this issue off values based on supernatural principles, which

accepts eternal universality. Based on this principle, it was not only ontology and

epistemology that are based on the principles of theology and supernatural, but also

axiology. Particularly regarding human behavior, then humans as the subject has

potential goodness in line with their nature, besides there are tendencies and urges

to a worse direction. The issue of value is the main issue in perennials, because it is

based on supernatural principles that are to accept eternal universality, particularly

regarding human behavior. For this reason, human’s essence also determines the

essence of the actions, and the issue of value is a spiritual issue. In axiology, the

principle of thought remains and is still validates. Ethically, the action is in

accordance to the rationality of a human, because humans are naturally inclined to

goodness.

Perennial philosophy provides ontology, epistemology and ethical foundations

478 Kautsar Azhari Noer, Tasawuf Perenial: Kearifan Kritis Kaum Sufi (Jakarta:

Serambi Ilmu Semesta, 2003), p. 13.



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for the meeting point of religions.

Exemplar of thought on Pluralism in Religions

Interfaith Jurisprudence

In the following passage exemplars or examples on the use of pluralism principles to

produce an interfaith jurisprudence thought will be elaborated. The book Interfaith

Jurisprudence is the best example on how the issue of pluralism for Liberal Muslim

thinkers in Indonesia has attempted to develop a new theology of religions. It can be

said that the book Interfaith Jurisprudence is an important pillar in the interpretation

of theological pluralism in Islam in Indonesia.

For this reason, the issues of new Islamic thought, which emerged in the book

Interfaith Jurisprudence, will be explained. MUI’s fatwa on forbiddance of pluralism in

facts refers to this book, especially when the book Interfaith Jurisprudence has its

“deviation” specifically studied by MUI.

For Liberal Muslim thinkers, one of the most promising book—in the recent

five years—that has brought up the issue of the new theology of pluralism is the

book Interfaith Jurisprudence: Building an Inclusive Pluralist Society. The project of

this book is led by Kautsar Azhari Noer and Mun’im A. Sirry—a specialist in

philosophy and Islamic law—who coordinated the 8 writers from Paramadina.479

I need to emphasize that what I

oppose from the Islamic shari’a is

when it regulates public affairs

regarding civil rights and civil liberties.

However, if the Islamic shari’a that is

conducted is related to the issue of


Pluralis (Jakarta: Paramadina-The Asia Foundation, 2003). The authors of this book

are Nurcholish Madjid, Kautsar Azhari Noer, Komaruddin Hidayat, Masdar F.

Mas’udi, Zainun Kamal, Budhy Munawar-Rachman, Zuhairi Misrawi, Ahmad Gaus

AF, and Mun’im A. Sirry.



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desire to revive the Islamic culture,

such as veils and many other things,

it should not be a problem and must

be protected. However, if it is obliged

for everyone, then in must be fought

off as it is in contra with civil rights

and civil liberties. This is what I mean

as liberalism.

(Rachman 2009: 1625)

Ulil Abshar-Abdalla, a researcher and Director of Freedom Institute, Jakarta,

a PhD student at Harvard University, Massachusetts, the US, who before

completed his MA program in the Department of Religion, Boston University,

the US.

This book is the result of the chain of meetings and the intensive discussion of

the issue of the method of thinking and interpreting Islam in order to reformulate the

presence of interfaith theology and jurisprudence amid modern changes and

development. The emergence of this book is foregrounded by a deep concern

toward the tradition of jurisprudence, which epistemologically is unable to build a

relation between Muslims and non-Muslims. What is more, in many cases there is

still an impression that non-Muslims are severely discriminated. This book is a very

significant leap in Islamic thought in Indonesia.

This book has already answered almost all issues on theology and

jurisprudence that are related to interfaith relations, such as the issue of saying

merry Christmas to non-Muslims—which has caused many confusion for common

people, interfaith marriages, communal prayers, the tax status of non-Muslims,

inheritance for different religions and the concept of ahl al-kitab. Crucial issues

contained in this are book is meant to open a landscape of diversity that is more

open and tolerant, or to be precise pluralist. In order to develop a pluralist

jurisprudence, the writers of this book developed a pluralist theological step by

considering the diversity of truth brought by the messengers of God.

The existence of the book Interfaith Jurisprudence has brought a polemic



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among a number of people, particularly Muslim communities. This polemic does not

only enter the domain of discourse but furthermore implicates the resistance among

the Islamic conservative group which had transformed into anarchy actions in a soft

form that is claims that the book is taken of circulation as it is thought to endanger

the aqidah of the Muslim community, and even physical threats for the writers.

The publication of this book was foregrounded by a deep concern among

Liberal Muslim thinkers towards the issue of jurisprudence that had not been fairly

settled, particularly regarding interfaith relations. As a result, the relation between

Muslims and non-Muslims was always a non-harmonious and non-friendly one.

Departing from this assumption, Liberal Muslim thinkers who were a part of this book

attempted to build a theology of religions that could answer interfaith problems. They

believed that modern society requires a new jurisprudence that is sensitive towards

pluralism. Pluralist jurisprudence is believed to be important in creating a peaceful

and healthy religious life. Discussion on al-islam as a universal religion—as

proposed above—is expected to be able to find the principles that underlie the

possibility of religious sustainability tie of Abrahimiyah. The foundation of these

efforts is that God brought teachers and followers of the truth (prophets,

messengers) to mankind without exception. The core of the teaching is the same

and one that is the teaching of submission and compliance to God that is known as

al-islam, which is understood in its generic meaning, and not its linguistic

terminology.

The core of the Islamic teaching is search and siding to the truth, sincerity and

natural goodness, with a center on the notion of God Almighty or tawhid and

submission toward Him. Pluralism is an undeniable reality. It is true to say that

religious plurality, as other pluralities, such as ethnic plurality, cultural plurality,

linguistic plurality, are all a form of nature’s law. To deny religious plurality is the

same as denying nature’s law. For this reason, to foster the harmonious relation

among communities with different religions, the religious factor could not be

disregarded.

In order to establish a harmonious relation among religions, a new format of

theology that can answer how a religion should see itself in relation to other religions.

The new theology founded by many recommendations of interfaith dialogues is the



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inclusivism and pluralism theology. The inclusivism theology of religions, which is

known as inclusivism, acknowledges that other religions also contain truth, but the

zenith of truth is in the supporting religion of this theology. Pluralist theology of

religions, which is known as pluralism, sees all religions, although differ in paths,

move towards the same destination, that is the Absolute, the Last, the Real, God.

Pluralist theology is required as a foundation in building and maintaining a

harmonious relation among religions. However, pluralist theology in this sense is a

theoretical theology, and for this reason it requires a “practical theology” that serves

as a guidance for the practice in the concrete situation among religions. A thesis held

faithfully by Liberal Muslim thinkers in the context of interfaith relation is that pluralist

theology requires a more practical pluralist jurisprudence. The interfaith

jurisprudence that is in line with pluralist theology is pluralist jurisprudence that can

answer these religious issues. For this reason, exclusivist jurisprudence (evident) is

not in line with pluralist theology, as it cannot answer religious issues in interfaith

relation in today’s world and society, in which the pluralist awareness of the people

have increased. Because of this, replacing exclusive jurisprudence with pluralist

jurisprudence is a necessity to prepare the Muslim community to enter an increasing

global world.

In the following passage, a number of jurisprudence thoughts developed by

Liberal Muslim thinkers with several theological-historical arguments related to

religious issues in interfaith problems in the social scope will be discussed.480 The

issues that will be discussed are issues regarding greetings to non-Muslims,

communal prayers, saying Merry Christmas and greetings of other religious days,

allowing non-Muslims to enter mosques, allowing non-Muslims to enter Mecca and

Medina, and performing religious rituals in other religious worship places.

480All arguments based on this book Fiqih Lintas Agama (Jakarta: Paramadina,

2003). The English edition of this book is entitled Interfaith Theology, Response of

Progressive Indonesian Muslims (Jakarta: ICIP-The Asia Foundation, 2006)



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Giving Greetings to Non-Muslims

For Liberal Muslim thinkers, the law for an issue is only established when the context

and the situation are known, and so its maslahat and mudarat must also be known.

The law must submit to the maslahat and the wisdom of a case. Maslahat is the

purpose of shari’a, while the law is a way or a path to reach a destination. One of

these events—shown in the book Interfaith Jurisprudence—is what occurred in a

Seminar on Religions in Salatiga, Central Java on September 1995. In this seminar,

an ulema who was looked up to by many people and greeted al-salam-u ‘alaykum

warahmat-u’l-lah-I wa barakatuh to all the participants of the seminar, who were all

Christians. The greeting was responded by the participants by wa ‘alaykum salam

warahmat-u ‘l-lah-I wa barakatuh. Suddenly one of the participants spoke, “Why do

you greet us al-salam-u ‘alaykum? (“Assalamu ‘alaikum) isn’t it forbidden in Islam for

Muslims to give greetings to non-Muslims?” The ulema answered:

“In the past, the Prophet Muhammad Peace Upon Him forbids giving

greetings to the Jewish and the Christians because they were enemies with

the Prophet and the Muslims. Today, all of you here, Christians, are friends

with me. We are brothers, we are not enemies. For this reason, I give my

greetings to all of you. In the past, the Prophet gave his greetings to the

Jewish and the Christians because when they met with the Prophet and the

Muslims said “Assammu ‘alaikum” (“Death be with you,” “Misfortune be upon

you”, “Disgrace be upon you”) and not “Assalamu ‘alaikum” (“Peace be upon

you”). Today, when I say “Assalamu ‘alaikum,” you all answer with “Assalamu

‘alaikum.” Because of this, giving greetings to non-Muslims is not forbidden.

The participant’s bewilderment evaporated when listening to the explanation

on why it was allowed to give greetings to Muslims. There is a hadith that shows

that the Prophet Muhammad Peace be Upon Him (began) giving greetings to

Negus, King of Ethiopia, through his letter. His letter read:

In the name of Allah, Most Merciful, Most Compassionate.

This letter is from Muhammad, the Messenger of Allah, to Negus, King of

Ethiopia.

In this letter, the greeting given by the Prophet Muhammad was: Greetings for

you (salam-un ‘alayk). This greeting was directed to Negus, the King of Ethiopia,



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who was a Christian. Related to the issue of giving greetings, there is a Prophet’s

Hadith through Anas ibn Malik who said that the prophet stated, “When an ahl al-

kitab gave greetings, answer Wa ‘alaykum,” This hadith was narrated by Bukhari

and Muslim and it shows that Muslims are obliged to answer the greetings given by

ahl al-kitab. Although in the hadith this is known as ahl al-kitab, of course Muslims

are not only obliged to answer the greetings of ahl al-kitab but also other non-

Muslims.

Amid the diversity of the Indonesian

society, interfaith marriage is a

sunnatullah. We cannot choose to

interact with those who share the

same religion with us, similar to how

we cannot predict when love comes

or choose whom we dedicate our

love to. This means that in a very

plural society, interfaith marriage is a

necessity that should truly be

supported by the state law.

(Rachman 2009: 1661)

Yanti Muchtar, the founder and Director of the Circle of Alternative

Education for Women (KAPAL Perempuan). She is active in developing a

model and module for feminist education and pluralism; she is conducting a

research on education and relation among groups.

A Hadith narrated by Muslims through Abdullah ibn Amru can be used as a

reference to know whether giving greetings to non-Muslims is allowed or forbidden.

This Hadith narrates a man asking to the Prophet Peace Be Upon Him on which

Islam is the best. The Prophet answers: “Giving food and giving greetings to who you

know and who you do not know.” For Liberal Muslim thinkers—as reflected in

Interfaith Jurisprudence, the Hadith stated firmly that Islam is a religion of solidarity

and peace.



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Saying “Merry Christmas”

The tradition of saying “Merry Christmas” in Indonesia, as in other states, is done not

only by Christians, but also non-Christians, including Muslims. Saying “Merry

Christmas” is of course directed at Christians, as Christmas Day is the Christian’s

religious day. For example, the Christians in Ambon—post the interfaith conflict—the

celebration of Christmas is a very special day. This is because on Christmas day, the

Christians in Ambon today can participate in mass peacefully without pressure from

any other parties. They are busy receiving greetings “Merry Christmas” and visits

from their Muslim relatives. Muslims there say “Merry Christmas” to their Christian

relatives. The border that separated the residential area of the Christians and the

Muslims in Ambon has been removed. The ambiance of the celebration of Christmas

in Ambon is full of peace and friendship.

Today, Liberal Muslim thinkers have completed in solving the theological

issue of saying Merry Christmas. One of the most prominent ulema in Indonesia, M.

Quraish Shihab, stated that there is a verse in the Koran which eternalized the

greeting of Merry Christmas which had never been spoken by the Prophet Jesus and

how it was not forbidden to say it and it was not wrong to say “congratulations” to

anyone, as long as they understood and felt what it meant in the Koran: “So peace is

on me the day I was born, the day that I die” (Q. 19: 33). If this is meant as

“congratulations”, then saying “Merry Christmas”, and other sayings that uses

“congratulations” is not forbidden.

What is more important and serves as the theological reasoning is the

purpose of saying “Merry Christmas” for Muslims is for social, brotherhood and

friendship reasons. Social, brotherhood and friendship aspects are maslahat. The

same applies to saying “Happy Day of Silence”, “Happy Vesakha”, “Happy Chinese

New Year” to other religions is not forbidden. The law is the same as saying “Merry

Christmas”. What is more, if the saying “Merry Christmas” can be put together in the

same boat as praying for Christians, this saying is also allowed as it is seen as a

prayer for non-Muslims. Communal prayer that aims for maslahat, such as peace,

harmony, brotherhood, and solidarity, are of course allowed and to be increased so

that they are recommended.



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Allowing Non-Muslims to Enter Mosques

Allowing Non-Muslims to enter mosques and do mass (salat) have been done since

the time of the Prophet Muhammad. Below are the arguments that have been

developed by Liberal Muslim thinkers. As narrated by Ibn Hisyam, in al-Sirah al-

Nabawiyah, the Prophet once received a visit from 60 Najran Christian figures.

According to Muhammad ibn Ja’far ibn al-Zubair, when the group arrived in Medina,

they went straight to the Mosque. At that time, the Prophet was performing the Ashar

Prayer along with his companions. They came wearing cloaks and turban, clothes

that were commonly worn by the Prophet Muhammad Peace Be Upon Him and his

companions. When the time for mass came, they did not have to find a church. The

Prophet allowed them to perform their prayers in the Mosque. Based on this event,

Ibn Qayyim al-Jauziyah concluded that ahl al-kitab are allowed to enter the mosque

and are even allowed to perform mass in the mosque.

When the late Buya Hamka was still alive, many non-Muslim foreign tourists

visited Masjid Agung Al-Azhar, Kebayoran Baru, South Jakarta, and Nurcholish

Madjid who at that time was an undergraduate student at the Faculty of Adab IAIN

Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta was always asked by Buya to guide the tourists into the

mosque. When the tourists came into the mosque and Buya saw Nurcholish Madjid

there, Buya instructed him, “Nur, there they are, guide them into the mosque!” Unlike

the experience in the late 1960s narrated by Nurcholish Madjid, there are

increasingly more mosques that are not allowed to be entered by non-Muslims.

From these two events, we learn how one of the goals of Islam is to provide

peace for the soul and for those who follow the teachings the guarantee of individual

freedom and conduct of prayer safely and peacefully. All religions have the same

freedom in following beliefs, the same freedom to state opinion, and the same

freedom to conduct the mission of religion.

For Muslim communities, there are no theological constraints in entering other

religious places. This is because all Islamic teaching on the surface of the earth, as

long as it is holy from najis, can be made into a place for bowing and worship. This

argument is based on the story of the caliph Umar ibn Khathab when he went to

Jerusalem. The second caliph, who was given the title Amirul Mukminin

(Commander of the Faithful) has done a proliferation of Islamic teaching outside the



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normative limitations of religion that is understood by most people at that time. For

example, when he performed Prayer on the stairs of the church. It was told that

Umar Ibnu Khaththab came to Siam, and tied the peace agreement with the people

of Ramaala regarding their requirement to pay jizyah (non-Muslim tax). And so,

Umar came to them and wrote the agreement of safety for the text (in part) which is:

“In the name of Allah Most Merciful and Most Compassionate, from Umar ibn

Khaththab to the people of Aelia (al-Bayt al-Maqdis or Jerusalem) in which their

souls, their descendants, their women are safe, and their churches shall not be

occupied or destructed.”

When religion enters a public matter,

religion must undergo a process

involving substance and rationality. In

other words, the process of

secularization must take place. This

means that religion could not appear

suddenly without quotation towards

verses, and even the essence. It

must be transformed rationally into

open languages and can be tested by

the public’s rationality court.

(Rachman 2009: 1669)

Yudi Latif, Executive Director of the Reform Institute and Leader of the

Islamic School of the Science of Humanities and State (PeKiK-Indonesia). He

is founder and member of the Special Council of Nurcholish Madjid Society,

and received his MA and PhD from the Australian National University in

political sociology.

Umar ibn Khaththab entered al-Bayt al-Maqdis and arrived at the Qumamah

(Qiyamah) church and stopped in front of the plaza. When the time of prayer came,

he told the Patriakh, “I would like to pray”. The Patriakh answered: “Pray in your

place”. Umar refused, and then prayed on the stairs near the gate of the church



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alone. Umar refused to pray in the church not because of a theological foundation,

but Umar felt it ethical to protect the security of the church to avoid the future

assumptions that Muslims had seized the church.

Building Synergy Among Religions

Islamic thought on pluralism awakens us on the authenticity of the teachings of

peace in Islam. However, on the other hand, they realize that jurisprudence is a

product of classic thought, and is not yet a religious science that has been fairly

translated. Nevertheless, it is one of the branches of science that has remained for

quite a long time, because jurisprudence is a primary necessity of the Islamic

community. Yet, it cannot be denied that the presence of jurisprudence can be said

as one of the causes why religious doctrines are made sacred. The only problem is

that jurisprudence cannot be approached through sociology and anthropology.

Jurisprudence has become one of the influential sciences that have a strong gravity.

History proves that there has not been any orientation that has remained as long and

as experienced in extensive diaspora than jurisprudence.

A number of issues that have been explicitly illustrated in exemplars of social

reality are jurisprudence related to interfaith relation. The issue of interfaith relation

has long been realized by Liberal Muslim thinkers as a serious problem faced by

modern society. The complexity that appears is not only on a textual level, but also

on the historical background and the objective condition of the Muslim society, which

often sees “other groups” as threats. These problems have caused an unharmonious

relation between Muslims and non-Muslims. Below are a number of dilemmas faced

by the jurisprudence of interfaith relation, as listed in the concept of ahl al-dzimmah,

the concept of jizyah, interfaith marriage and inheritance for different religions, and

how Liberal Muslim thinkers have attempted to discover the initial solution to these

issues.

The Concept of Ahl al-Dzimmah (Non-Muslim Minority)

As proposed above, Liberal Muslim thinkers are very much aware of the concept of

ahl al-dzimmah (non-Muslim minority), which is the seedlings of the emergence of

placing second or discrimination against non-Muslims. In the books of jurisprudence,



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ahl al-dzimmah is the non-Muslim community, which agreed to live under the

responsibility and the guarantee of the Muslims. They received protection and

security. They also received the right to live and a residence amid the Muslim

society. In the books of jurisprudence ahl al-dzimmah is the people who are claimed

for a number of obligations, but did not receive equal and aligned rights as the

Muslim community. On this basis, ahl al-dzimmah is often called as the second

class. For Liberal Muslim thinkers, the concept of ahl al-dzimmah needs to be

reviewed once again. There is a strong difference between the spirit brought by the

Koran and the Hadith of the Prophet, which provides protection for ahl al-dzimmah

on one hand, and on the other hand a jurisprudence ambiance that tends to position

them second.

In developing a liberal thought, Muslim Liberal thinkers dig more on the

ambiance of the Hanafi mazhab thought, the most rational jurisprudence mazhab.

According to the Hanafi mazhab, ahl al-dzimmah is allowed to perform their rituals

and their law in line with their teachings. They received freedom to express their

diversity openly. While Ibn Qayyim al-Jauziyah in Ahkam Ahl al-Dzimmah sheds the

perspective of a Muslim in marrying a woman of ahl al-kitab, the husband must

appreciate and must not force the women who would like to drink khamr.

In a number of Hadith, the Prophet in fact shared his perspective, and a most

tolerant one, toward ahl al-dzimmah: among others:

This perspective shows that a difference in religion would not cause any

discriminative actions toward other religions. There is no conflict between the Islamic

concept of ahl al-dzimmah and the concept of citizenship. What is more, the concept

of ahl al-dzimmah is in line with the concept of citizenship, in which every believer of

a religion and a faith must received protection to be aligned with the law and agreed

consensus, disregarding the religion. Especially in a state that adopts democracy,

which is the most recent phenomenon that is unavoidable. The true jurisprudence

can bring moral messages to confirm the spirit of pluralism.

The Concept of Jizyah (Non-Muslim Tax)

The concept of jizyah is a vulnerable point in jurisprudence of interfaith relation.

Jizyah is tax paid by non-Muslims (ahl al-Kitab) as a return for their liberation from



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the obligations to defend the state; or return over the guarantee of their safety and

protection as well as various civil rights as citizens that are in line with Muslims. This

perspective has a normative foundation in the Koran (Q. 9: 29). This verse is often

used by many jurisprudence ulema to oblige jizyah for non-Muslims.

When observed deeply, this verse has a certain historical background that is

war. For this reason, it cannot be implemented in a normal situation. There is an

element of jurisprudence that justifies this perspective that the legality of the law lies

in its cause. If the cause of the law does not exist, the law itself would be cancelled

(al-hukm yadur-u ma’a al-‘illah wujud-an wa’adam-an). The absence of war between

Muslims and non-Muslims, by itself it removes the law of the payment of jizyah. The

concept of jizyah is one of the ways used by the Koran and ordered by God not only

to coerce and second place other religions, but as a way to build an agreement

between two mutual parties.

Interfaith Marriage

In many cases in the Indonesian society—also part of the Islamic World—many

resistances toward interfaith marriages still occur. Generally, in the case of the

kosher and the haram (legally forbidden) of an interfaith marriage, ulema always hold

on to the verses of the Koran (2: 221) and (60: 10). This verse carries a special

message so that Muslims do not marry musryik women and vice versa. Some

ulemas believe that a number of verses in the Koran calls Christians and Jewish as

musyrik. However, this perspective does not guarantee truth, and does not make it

as guidance, because in another verse, it was also revealed another paradigm on

musyrik. Every act of syirik does not necessarily make the person a musyrik.

Because in reality, the Jewish and the Christians—like the Muslims—can also do

shirk, but Allah does not mention and call them as musyrik but as ahl al-kitab (take a

look at Q. 4: 171; 5: 5; 3: 64).

The difference between musyrik and ahl al-kitab is so important that their

meanings should not be mixed up; in which musyrik is defined as ahl al-kitab and

vice versa. For this reason, the perspective, which includes non-Muslims as

musyrik—as done by Radical Muslims—must be refuted.

Regarding the allowing of marriage with non-Muslims, there are a number of



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the Prophet’s companions who married Christian and Jewish women, among them:

Hudzaifah, Thalhah. Then what about the opposite, the marriage between Muslim

women with non-Muslim men, Christians, Jewish or other non-Semitic religions? In

this issue, there is not a single holy text, both in the Koran, and in the Hadith that

allows or does not allow such marriage. The issue of marriage between non-Muslim

men and Muslim women is in the area of ijtihad and is bounded to a certain context,

among them is the context of the Islamic sermon at that time, in which the number of

the Muslim community was not as large as today, so that interfaith marriage is

something forbidden.

Due to its position as a law that was born from the ijtihad process, it is

possible that when a new opinion was initiated in which Muslim women are allowed

to marry non-Muslim men, or in other words a wider interfaith marriage is allowed,

whatever the religion or the faith is. This refers to the spirit brought by the Koran

itself in which pluralism is a sunnatullah that cannot be avoided. In the Koran, God

mentions that the differences of the sexes and tribes as a mark to unite with one

another and get in acquaintance. Interfaith marriage can be used as one of the

rooms among religious believers to know one another better. The spirit carried by

Islam is liberation, and not shackles. For this reason, there is no prohibition to do

interfaith marriages.

An issue of the same complication to the numerous issues before is

inheritance regarding different religions. The verse that is often used as a legal basis

is Q. 4: 141 which explains that Islam forbids inheritance among different religions.

However, there is still different opinion among ulemas regarding the law of a Muslim

to pass down to non-Muslims. Ulemas are still seeking an alternative in relation to

other religions. However, the perspective of Liberal Muslim thinkers who defended

the rights of non-Muslims that provide a space of inheritance for different religions is

an effort of ijtihad. It should be known that in a deeper perspective, these things

forbidden in the right of inheritance is not something established or absolute. At

times, the law can change according to different contexts. Change and social

dynamics must erect above the text. The interest of humanity must be put forward

before the text.



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The Issue of “Uniformity” of Religions

As a summary to close this chapter, it is interesting to know that the discourse of the

Koran can easily support the ethics of difference, tolerance, and pluralism. The

Koran did not only expect, but also received the reality of differences and diversity in

the human society. Classic interpreters did not rely on exploring the implication of

this diversity, or the role of the resolution of conflicts peacefully in carrying out social

interaction that was born from a society that “knew one another” (li-ta’arafu). The

Koran also did not provide a regulation or a special order on how the knowledge of

“nations and tribes” was acquired. However, in reality, there exists diversity, as the

main purpose of creation, as revealed in the Koran, still does not develop in

theology, let alone classical Islamic jurisprudence.

During the zenith of Islam, all

civilizations can enter. The Muslim

community was intact with any

religion and culture. Such intact took

place, as the area of the power of

Islam was so wide. And so, Islam was

still forced upon. Especially during the

time of the Abbasiyah, the kingdom

was so vast and split into smaller

kingdoms that were led by sultans.

This phenomenon is a form of

secularism. Religion is placed not

only as a symbol, but also their spirit.

It is during this time that Islam

reached the zenith of glory.

(Rachman 2009: 1707)

Zainun Kamal, the Dean in the Faculty of Ushuluddin and Philosophy at UIN

Syarif Hidayatullah Jakarta. He is also a lecturer at the University of

Paramadina and also taught at the postgraduate program at UIN Syarif

Hidayatullah, University of Indonesia, University of Islam, Jakarta, University



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of the Science of the Koran (PTIQ), and the Institute of the Religion Islam Al-

Aqidah.

Pre-modern Muslim ulemas did not have a strong urge to explore the meaning

and the implication of the agreement of the Koran regarding the diversity and the

interaction of cross-culture. This is partially caused by political dominance and

superiority of the Islamic civilization, which made Muslim thinkers have a sense of

over-confidence.

Even so, it is still sufficient to say that the Islamic civilization is a pluralistic

and a very tolerant one towards various social and religious groups. However, in

order to show the implications of this commitment to the diversity of mankind and

common knowledge today, what is needed is an ethical reflection concern on

historical situation—something that is not missed by the theology and the doctrine of

conservative, fundamentalist, and radical Muslims.

Besides a general agreement on the diversity of mankind, the Koran also

receives a more specific perspective on the plurality of faith and religious law. Even

though the Koran clearly affirms that Islam is the divine truth and demands trust to

Muhammad as the last messenger in the tree of Abraham’s prophecy, the Koran

does not erase other paths toward salvation. The Koran affirms that the wisdom of

God does not rely on anyone to give His compassion to anyone. In a chain, once

again, Muslim theologians have not put it under theory; the Koran acknowledges

various faith and valid religious law.

To overcome plurality, it is also important to understand how the society was

educated in order to see the potential of the plurality of the society as a communal

potential to build an Indonesian society that is more democratic. For this reason, it is

in this context, that the contribution of the plurality of religions in Indonesia to the

society and the nation of Indonesia is meaningful. It also needs to be affirmed, as

analyzed that what is meant is pluralism and not relativism. Pluralism is not a notion

that crushes the faith. Pluralism also does not encourage converting to another

religion or forcing a person to convert to another religion. In order to avoid

misunderstanding, we need to foster a joint program for communal interests and also

conduct activities of alternative education that is directed to the development of the



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pluralist society of Indonesia that is just, open and democratic.

This is because one way or another in today’s global context, no single

person can survive only within one’s own community. Sooner or later, often or rare,

we will interact with another group. Recently, the condition is concerning with

situations in which groups admit themselves to be the most righteous in committing

violence towards another group.

However, creative tension triggered by the condition of plurality of course is in

its own a challenge. This challenge is a crisis as well as an opportunity for spiritual

development. It is called a crisis, as it does not seal the possibility that will implicate

the chaos, as minim knowledge and understanding of religions. On the other hand,

this serves as an opportunity, because it forces the responsibility of religious men,

intellectuals, to formulate and reinterpret precisely the message from God and the

entirety of its meaning. Such creative tension is what becomes the concern of Liberal

Muslim intellectuals in the future of religions in Indonesia.

The messages of God “The Cherisher and Sustainer of the Worlds” (Q. 1: 1)

can be beneficial in directing their followers toward a universal pluralism.

However, because of the same texts in the divine sources, it is possible that

they appear in contrast. This is because these texts principally respond to

different situations; the common faithful people may fail to understand these

texts in their holistic sense. Instead of making a difference between the

general principle and the specific situation, they incline to personal or group

interests in certain conditions in order to adjust to chauvinistic acts that are

opposing. Hermeneutics must given a responsibility to provide an accurate

interpretation regarding the message of God in the entirety of the meaning

and to protect the faithful to defy the shallow acts of diminishing the guidance

from God though siding and inequality that will create a wrong depiction of

closeness and bring about unethical acts, discrimination and injustice.481

This concern of course is not seen as an overstatement regarding that

recently many religious conflicts are often caused by a theological sentiment. The

481 Mohamed Fathi Osman, Islam, Pluralisme dan Toleransi Keagamaan, p. 10-11.



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emergence of claims of truth and salvation on behalf of religion is a widespread

phenomenon in our society. The strengthening of conservative, fundamentalist, and

radical groups in the body of the Muslim community is truly a serious threat for the

development of pluralism.

For this reason, what is required is so that one group can understand another,

and exchange of understanding takes place. As a result, affection among one culture

and another grows. Many experiences and local intelligence can be learned. Failures

and misdoings in the past can also be studied. What is more, other societies outside

Indonesia that have many experiences and thoughts. And so, there is no wrong in

making it a comparison. For this reason, openness and absolute wisdom is required

to review and find a solution to this issue. The issue of pluralism in Indonesia should

be underlined, developed and implemented by seeing the problems that emerge due

to violence in religion. Because of this, once again we must not force ourselves to

take a single value. Various approaches are needed to overcome the issue of

religion and conflict.

Secularism in the Islamic Worlds

needs to be put forward. This is

because, like the West in the

Medieval Times, the Islamic World

too (particularly since the Dynasty of

Muawiyah) always experiences

intervention from religious institutions

within the state. Religion which is

supposed to be a moral force in order

to create a just political life, it is used

as a media to secure power.

(Rachman 2009: 1739)

Zuhairi Misrawi, Director of Moderate Muslim Society (MMS). He completed

his undergraduate education in the Department of Akidah-Philosophy,

University of AL-Azhar, Cairo, Egypt. Before MMS, he participated actively in

P3M (The Association of the Development of Islamic School and Society),



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Jakarta.

The conception of nationality, stateship and citizenship has currently motioned

further and more complex that what had been practiced during the time of the

Prophet. Even so, the spirit of Media to guarantee openness, equality, freedom and

solidarity for citizens remains actual, particularly for nations who have a majority of

Muslims, with a high plurality condition like Indonesia.

Indonesia, from the very beginning, has been destined to become a plural

nation. Not a single person can refuse this fate. Plurality has educated us to become

humans that are used to face differences, in terms of tribes, cultures and religions.

This should make us able to live hand in hand and still maintain our differences. To

believe that we are the most righteous would be an inappropriate action.

For this reason, in today’s pluralistic life, it is important to introduce a religious

perspective that is comprehensive in order to appreciate differences. The Muslim

community must think of a way to resolve fanaticism in religion. In understanding the

sources of Islamic teaching, the Koran and Sunna must not only be interpreted by

specialists of religion, but also other specialists so that the understanding may

further approach the truth. Besides that, religious teaching is not only about religious

doctrines, but also development of philosophy and humanistic sciences as well as

multiculturalism studies so as to be aware that plurality is a historical necessity.

It is exactly at this point—as analyzed previously—that in order to make

plurality something productive, pluralism is required. Because, it is undeniable that—

as seen in the religious phenomenon in Indonesia—plurality contains the element of

fragmentation. It is the threat of fragmentation that requires tolerance, openness and

equality. Religious plurality is a reality. In accordance to the definition of pluralism

itself that is “an ism about plurality”, for this reason, we cannot accept that plurality is

seen as a reality, while pluralism is refuted as a notion, as stated in MUI’s fatwa.

From the analysis of this book, it can be summarized that “all religions are

good and right”.482 There are a number of reasons why religion is said to be good

482 M. Dawam Rahardjo, “Mengapa Semua Agama Sama”, Tempo Magazine Edition

44/xxxiii/26 Dec-01 Jan 2006.



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and right (not explicitly saying that all religions are the same!)

First, the statement that all religions are good and right needs to explain with

the note “for the believers”. This is based on the reality that every religious believer

has faith that their religion is the best and most righteous. For this reason, the

statement that “Verily, the religion accepted by Allah is only Islam,” is true for the

Muslims. While for the Christians, of course they believe that “salvation can only be

found within (faith of) Christ”, as stated by Vatican before 1965. Afterwards, the

Vatican II Conciliation acknowledged that salvation could also be found (and

achieved through) in other religions. What is more, specifically, Vatican II very much

appreciated the faith of Islam. And so, it is acceptable to claim that a certain religion

is the right one, but for their believers.

Second, the truth and salvation of religion can be categorized into two types.

The first one is exclusive truth, the other is inclusive truth. Exclusive truth is a certain

truth that is believed in a certain religion. For example, the doctrine of the Trinity.

While the teaching of compassion in the religion Christian is an inclusive truth that

can be accepted by the believers of all religions.

Third, all religions are “the same” in the sense that all religions in their own

perspective, essentially are paths toward truth and goodness. Not all religions teach

the wrongness or the bad and the evil. However, the substance of the truth and

goodness are different from one religion to another.

Fourth, every religion contains the truth, not only for the religious believer, but

also for other religious believers. For example, the Muslim community or the

Christian community can learn the truth from the book of Baghavad Gita or the books

of Taoism and Confucianism.

Fifth, there is the meeting point of religions. For example, the basic teaching

of the “Ten Commandments from Allah” in Judaism, it can also be found in other

religions. The teaching of fasting can be found in other religions, even though not all

religious believers can preserve this tradition in today’s modern era. However, other

religious believers can assume that this teaching of fasting is the true teaching,

because the purpose is to educate human’s ability to control their instinctual desire

and be in taqwa.

Sixth, all religions, regarding their birth and their details, or on the level of



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shari’a are varied, because on this level, the thought and the formulation by man

already has a role that is influenced by the condition and history. However, on a

higher level, commonalities will be seen and in the end a meeting point on a

transcendental level (essence) will take place. The system of prayer or different

religious teachings must be perceived as the entrance gate to religions and also the

ladder to climb up to the highest essence or the deepest in a religious teaching. The

form should not confine, because if so it will obstruct our understanding to achieve

the essence of religious teaching. This is the transcendent unity of religions in

perennial philosophy that has been optimally developed by Liberal Muslim thinkers

for a deeper understanding on pluralism. The believers of perennial philosophy

believe that the heart of religion and authentic tradition contains the same “message

of truth” which is known as the heart of religions. For this reason, every religion and

faith has the same distance to the center of the Awareness and the Truth that is

God. With this act of diversity, it is expected to be able to produce a more pluralist

and cool thoughts.

Seventh, all religions are seen to be good and right. This is the perspective

that should be taken by the state or the government. Because, a state must act justly

to every individual and group, and must not believe that there is only one individual

and group that is good and correct, while the others are wrong. Indonesia that holds

the ideology of Pancasila sees every religion to be the same and right. And so, every

religion is hoped to contribute to the development of the state and the society.

Thus, pluralism may allow harmony in the society, and attempt to be

accommodative and as sensitive as possible to the smaller and weaker groups. God

blessed the entire “grandchildren of Adam” with respect and dignity (Q. 17: 70)

regardless of their differences. For this reason, theologically, Muslims are

encouraged to develop a notion of religious freedom, and that truly there is “no

compulsion in religions.”

Seeing the complexity of the reality of the issue which develops in the society,

as proposed earlier, Liberal Muslim thinkers affirmed the importance of reformulating

studies toward classic jurisprudence which all this time could not answer the

challenge of the era. This empirical reality shows a gap between jurisprudence and

humanitarian reality. Here—as affirmed by them—it is a necessity to see classic



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jurisprudence critically. And here it is also seen that hermeneutics can also be used

as a tool to reveal the commitment of the universal revelation. The revelation of

doctrines which were made guidance among Fundamental and Radical Muslims as

an urgent necessity, and in order to conduct them—as realized by Liberal Muslim

thinkers—serious efforts are needed, and this is in fact the big agenda of pluralism

belonging to Liberal Muslim thinkers, as analyzed previously.

Liberal Muslim thinkers have developed an interpretative culture that is open

and tolerant in order to return the commitment of the universal and pluralist

revelation. In order to solve the complexity of this issue with is full of discourse, a

liberating interpretation is needed, an interpretation that will become the blade of

analysis to see the problem of humanity, consider culture, remove dependency on

the reality of a certain history, and this makes the religious doctrine as an ethical

source to do change.

The hermeneutics that is meant is not only “revealing” and relies on the

limited revelation given in the text, but it is further applied in “functional”

hermeneutics that is how far a text can liberate the reality of humanity. The text will

be called “revelation” when it can liberate the oppressed, side with the poor, fight

against the despotic ruler and appreciate plurality and differences. As long as these

functions are not reflected in the text, we cannot call them revelations, because

revelations are the reality of culture, history, semiotics and anthropology.

True pluralism believes in the essence of maslahat and translates that value

into the social context. These two things must be done in synergy. To separate one

from the other is something impossible—something that cannot be done. The

explanation is that religion shall not stop on symbols and rituals that are personal,

but must also touch the public area that is more plural. For this reason, the theology

that fosters pluralism will propel the formation of a just, open and civilized society. To

acknowledge and appreciate diversity is part of the law of history or sunnatullah

where the Koran itself indicates accommodation for its development. One of the

issues that often appear among religious leaders is that they often deny this reality

and aspire for the formation of a single religion on the surface of this earth. This is

impossible and contradicts the blueprint of God.

For this reason, efforts to build the perception that Islam indeed contains



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teachings that support pluralism needs to be further developed. What is more, it can

be assured that the reputation of the Liberal Muslim thinkers is built above their ideas

on pluralism. These Liberal Muslim thinkers develop pluralism to support interfaith

dialogue. They based the perspectives on the verses Q. 2: 62 and 5: 69, which are

verses to promise salvation to all religious believers.

Faith will not end with issues of

formality, because many people

diligently pray and go for haj but also

do corruption. Many among them also

want khilafah but when we look back

historically, the model itself exists by

committing murder, as seen during

the Utsmani Turkey time.

(Rachman 2009: 1765)

Zuly Qodir, lecturer at the Faculty of Social Science and Humanities of UIN

Sunan Kalijaga, Yogyakarta. He received his masters in Islamic Studies from

UII Yogyakarta and his doctorate in Sociology from UGM Yogyakarta.

By departing on these pluralist action and perspective, efforts and thoughts in

interfaith dialogue have been pioneered and developed. From this interfaith dialogue

is then put into discourse in interfaith cooperation with purposes that are adjusted

with the demands of the situation and the need of each of the participant of the

dialogue. Here, it needs to be emphasized that it is not that important on which level

is this dialogue done. However, what needs more attention is how the dialogue

continues to an act of mutual understanding and appreciation to efforts that not

blockade interfaith cooperation in various aspects of life.

For these Liberal Muslim thinkers, pluralism and interfaith dialogue can take

place in various forms, among them are dialogues regarding life, social works,

theology and theology. The dialogue regarding life is the simplest form of the

interfaith meeting. Different religious believers meet in daily life. They blend in social

activities normally. They do cooperation in various social activities without looking at

the identity of each of their religion.



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Dialogue regarding social works is the continuance of the dialogue regarding

life and has directed to forms of cooperation that is motivated by religious

awareness. The historical foundation of the dialogue regarding social works and

interfaith cooperation has been found in the tradition of various religions. The

sociological foundation is acknowledgement of pluralism so that a trust society is

formed. In this context, pluralism is actually more than acknowledgement of the

reality that we are plural, but also be actively involved in pluralism. While the basic

doctrine is the must to find a meeting point or kalimat-un sawa’ (Q. 3: 64) and avoid

things that prevent dialogues and cooperation. Humans are created by God to know

one another, and they see them regardless of their sex, tribe, and religion, they are

claimed to cooperate various goodness among humanities.

While dialogue on theology cannot just be disregarded if we want to establish

a more true interfaith relation. Dialogue regarding theology is more important to be

done as a foundation for the harmony of the religious community. Dialogue regarding

theology aims to build the awareness that outside our belief and faith all this time,

there are so many beliefs and faiths outside our religious traditions. Dialogue

regarding theology faces the issue how we position our faith amid the faith of others.

For Liberal Muslims, dialogue regarding religion began by developing the

inclusive-pluralist theology. The first theological source is the Islamic doctrine that is

inherently open. Islam acknowledges previous prophets and affirms the holy books

that they brought, as stated in the Koran Q. 2: 62 and Q. 5: 69. Islam’s

acknowledgement toward other religions is the precondition for faith (one of “the

Pillars of Faith”). In the dialogue regarding theology, what is the most important thing

is various religious experiences, and not debates let alone refusals. Dialogue is the

best way to resolve a problem—as stated in Q. 29: 46.

The last is a dialogue regarding spirituality, which moves in the esoteric area

that is “the inner side” or perennial religions. As known, every religion has a physical

(exoteric) aspect and spiritual (esoteric) aspect. The theology and ritual system of

religions is the exoteric aspect. On the other hand, the experience of faith and the

experience of God is individualist and is the esoteric side of religion. In this spiritual

dialogue, pluralists ask religious community to read and see the holy books from the

spiritual aspect. They developed the concept of love in order to see differences as a



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blessing from Allah that must be blessed. For this reason, pluralists always

appreciate differences that can be found in this life, including religious differences.

The concept of love became the basis for the establishment of brotherhood of the

religious community. Love bases the meeting and the dialogues among other

religions. This is because in love there is no prejudice or fear of the loss of religious

identity. Spiritual dialogue aims to enrich spiritual experience and through it we will

be increasingly ascertained that all religions are essentially good and right.



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CHAPTER VIII

CLOSING

Democracy and pluralism are a basket. Is this basket universal?

What is the view of Islam on this issue? In the world at large,

as well as within each civilization, there is a conflict between those

who have one vision to be imposed on the entire humanity and others,

who subscribe along the lines of pluralism to diversity.

Islamic civilization is no exception. Regardless of these different views,

The Qur’an teach us diversity.

Bassam Tibi483

Discourses on secularism, liberalism and pluralism have been predominantly

addressed time and again since the reform era and for the most part following MUI’s

fatwa on the forbiddance of these three issues. This book has highlighted the

progressive growth of secularism, liberalism and pluralism notions, particularly those

propagated by institutions promoting Liberal Islam, within Islamic thought in

Indonesia ever since the issuance of MUI’s fatwa.

Theoretically, secularism is a notion of segregation between religion and the

state/politics. Secularization is an inevitable process that partakes the process of

modernization in the society, while secularism is a notion that develops out of

humans’ response to the development of political life in the society, chiefly regarding

the relation between religion and the state. The rise of secularization cannot be

separated from the growth of the notion of democracy that positions the sovereignty

483 Bassam Tibi, “Islamic Civilization and the Quest for Democratic Pluralism: Good

Governance and the Political Culture of Non-Violence” in Karlina Helmanita (ed.),

Dialogue in the World Disorder: A Response to the Threat of Uniolaterism and World

Terrorism (Jakarta: PBB UIN Syarif Hidayatullah, Jakarta, and Konrad-Adenauer-

Stiftung, 2004)



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of state life in the hands of the people. Understanding secularization and secularism

is preeminently indispensable. Because through these two concepts, understanding

of religion will all the time more become rational and in the end will generate balance

between religion and the state or religion and politics as “two pillars” that jointly

contribute in the founding of a nation.

Such understanding indicates that religion belongs to the personal sphere and

the society; and not a state affair. Even so, this does not automatically mean that

within a state that implements secularism religion will suffer retrogress and

oppression, as religion can still be practiced and developed by individuals and the

society; but of course without any form of assistance by the state. In other words,

secularism denotes how the influence of the state does not entirely diminish, but

remains in the form of moral claims. This is why in recent development, it would be

inapt to perceive secularism merely as an ideology that aims to set aside the

existence of religion—the decline of religion—from the public sphere. What occurs is

quite the opposite, as shown from the notions elicited by Progressive Muslim

thinkers in Indonesia. Through secularism, religious communities can develop their

religious lives optimally in line with their own religious spirit, and it has also became

increasingly of awareness that without secularism, the principles of democracy

cannot be wholly actualized. If one religion receives a more special position

compared to other religions, there will be no equality among the believers, because

there is a certain group of believers that will receive a higher position than other

believers. Democracy as a governing system places secularism as somewhat

unquestionable. The aim of secularism is to provide freedom for all religions in order

for them to be able to grow in the hands of the society, because religion cannot

interfere in all public matters. Political and state domains cannot be intervened by

religion in words of one syllable. In the case of religion, the state must remain neutral

so as to guarantee the principle of justice of equality for all religions and faiths before

the state.

On the subject of secularism developed by Progressive Muslim thinkers in

Indonesia, these Progressive Muslim thinkers bear out a secular state (“A Pancasila

State”) that nevertheless provides room for religion. Religion cannot command the



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state, and vice versa. What must be fought for in a secular society is a system that is

based on constitutionalism and Human Rights and to a great extent espouses

religious freedom. All the same, Indonesia entails and maintains the 1945

Constitution, including the preamble that contains Pancasila, which does not allow

the state to transform the law of religion into the law of the state. Pancasila, as a

common platform, according to the Progressive Muslim thinkers, serves as kalimat-

un sawa’ (the meeting point of religions). Pancasila amply holds the aspired values

of an ideal structure. Pancasila is formulated based on a plural society, which

includes tribal and religious differences. Therefore, Pancasila must be accepted by

all religious communities, and for this very reason it should not be referred to as “an

Islamic state concept” in the sense of state - religion. According to Progressive

Muslim thinkers, Indonesia fits well with today’s model, in which the state is not

formally based on religion, but the substance of religion inspires—or “becomes the

soul”—in the process of nation and state building. In other words, the state does not

defy the existence of religion, but it does not make a certain religion the official

religion or the foundation of a state.

And so, it is evident that Indonesia is a secular state, but in the sense that it is

a state that provides a constructive room for the development of religion. Without this

newfangled definition of secularism, it becomes quite difficult to visualize a state that

can act justly towards each and every religion that belongs to the people. Secularism

explains how the relation between religion and the state distinguishes the authority

that each of them posses. This is because if religion takes over the public role of the

state, a personal legal product will be created, as it only applies to the believers. The

same goes for religion when manipulated by public interest in order to win power.

Dogmatism, closure, fanaticism, and clashes will unfold and in the end lead to

violence. If Indonesia aspires for the democratic system to run well, once again—

there is no other option but to become “a secular state”.

A constitutional democracy must be established based on the agreement of

plural elements of the society. When there is one group that attempts to put forward

legal regulations that oppose the constitution, which is supposed to be plural, the

democracy is no longer a constitutional democracy. This is why a government that is



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not controlled by a certain religion by itself becomes a tool to oppress thoughts or

notions that are believed to be astray by the elites dictating the authority of that

religion; and does not constrain the religious rights of other religions.

However, religion cannot play a role in the political domain, as it will cause a

practice of political identity. Religion may possibly inject itself in the domain of the

civil society as a moral reasoning for the development of the society. It is within the

civil society domain that religion can actively partake in resolving problems of the

society without discriminating different religions or faiths. And so, secularism offers a

wider space for liberalism and pluralism notions.

When one converses of secularism, it will be inevitably continued by talks of

liberalism and pluralism, as the three of them are associated to one another in

responding the issues of religious freedom, which recently has been under the

spotlight of many people. Liberalism departs from the notion of freedom. What is

meant by liberalism is civil right freedom: freedom to think, freedom to express an

opinion, freedom to embrace a religion and faith. The principle of liberalism cannot

be deducted only to the issue of freedom. Let along be understood at liberty. This is

because within liberalism lies the rule of law. In reality, in a state that adopts the

liberal system, such as developed Western states, freedom is well guaranteed.

Every individual has the right to express one’s opinion without obstruction, and it is

ensured by the state.

Religious neutrality within the notion of liberalism signifies that the state does

not grant special treatment to a certain religion, even though it is the religion of the

majority. This is why liberals will unendingly proclaim that religion must be viewed

critically. A liberal spirit will foster a condition within the society where people feel

safe, unafraid or keen to acknowledge and express their religious faiths. In other

words, freedom must be accompanied by efforts to appreciate one another.

Religious liberalism is in actual fact a form of openness and an ability to

conduct self-criticism, which is very important within plural life, without removing or

erasing religious identity. Regarding pluralism, liberalism places it in an autonomous

space that is not intervened by the state. The state has no authority over the



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existential decision of an individual’s very own safety. Orientations of particular

values, such as religion or ethnicity, are under the authority of these particular

groups. In order to eradicate religious totalitarianism, the state must excessively act

through uncompromising actions toward violent effects from religious absolutism.

Liberalism is a strategy to encounter the problems of absolutism or religious

totalitarianism.

We often fail to differentiate Political

Islam and Islamic politics. Political

Islam denotes Islam that is

transformed into a political vehicle.

And so, when it has succeeded to

achieve its goal, the aspiration of the

Muslim community will be renounced.

Islamic politics, on the other hand, is

how we embalm the teaching of Islam

to be aligned with the concept of

rahmatan li al-alamin. This is what

should truly be lived through again.

(Rachman 2009: 59)

Abdul Hadi WM, a poet who dwells in Sufism and the intellectual treasure of

the Archipelago. Today, he teaches and is a professor at the Faculty of

Falsafah and Civilization Universitas Paramadina Jakarta and Islamic College

for Advanced Studies (ICAS), Jakarta.

Within liberalism, religious freedom is something absolute and for that reason

it must be ensured. Freedom is a blessing from God. Humans do not have the right

to shackle and seize another person’s freedom. The reason why God blessed

humans with freedom is so that humans may embrace sincerity and genuineness in

faith and religion. In liberalism, a person who violates another person’s freedom may



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be sanctioned. This can be seen in the praxis of the freedom of the liberal society

itself. Freedom in a liberal society is stabilized by a system of rights. Liberalism is the

par-excellence of modern ideology principled to sustain individual freedom, political

freedom in democratic participation, equality among humans, and pluralism.

Liberalism inspires the spirit of freedom of the mind in the society in order to seek the

best solution for the issues currently being coped with. Through liberalism,

democracy can be ensured—in which democracy serves as the way out to all issues

in the society.

When we refer to Islam, from the outset the initial mission of Islam is liberation

from oppression, tyranny, and various practices of injustice. This spirit needs to be

further developed, so that it no longer becomes a hegemony of the truth in

interpretation, including the fatwa that considers certain notions to be misled and

misleading. Liberalism is also acknowledged by the Koran, although the term is not

explicitly explained in the Koran. Islam ensures religious freedom as one of the chief

aims of the shari’a. This is revealed in the concept of al-kulliyat al-khamsah, the five

chief elements in the shari’a, which comprise of: protecting religion (hifzah al-din),

protecting reasoning (hifzh al-‘aql), protecting descendants (hifzh al-nashl),

protecting wealth (hifzh al-mal), and protecting dignity (hifzh al-‘irdl). In hifzh al-din,

the teaching of Islam ensures a person’s freedom to embrace his or her religion. The

Koran also affirms that, “There is no compulsion in religion”.

Liberalism is also related to pluralism. Pluralism is a notion that acknowledges

the plurality of reality. It encourages every person to realize and be in acquaintance

with diversity in all aspects of life, such as religion, social affairs, culture, the political

system, ethnicity, the local tradition, and many more. Plurality is a reality and what is

more it has increasingly become a must with regard to today’s development. This

means that the society is motioning towards plurality. In order to regulate plurality to

be productive, pluralism is required. It is due to the threat of fragmentation that a

tolerant attitude and openness to mutually learn, and equality are needed of.

Pluralism fosters harmony in the society and not conflict. With the notion of pluralism,

every person is entitled to the same, just and equal freedom. However, it is also



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recommended to engage in a dialogue that is of reciprocal understanding, tolerant,

and actively involved in building the civilization.

Pluralism emerges as a notion that departs from differences, and not

commonalities. Those who propagate pluralism automatically acknowledge

differences and commonalities. For this reason, the opinion that pluralism views all

religions as the same is not only shallow, but also unfeasible because principally

pluralism acknowledges differences. Pluralism has a lawful place in the religion

Islam. Islam acknowledges all religions and faiths have rights to live and develop.

Pluralism concedes that every religion and believer is entitled to the same

right for existence. If all religions are considered noble, people will be propelled to

learn from one another. In the absence of pluralism, one will only cling to one’s own

religion and will be reluctant to learn from the wisdom of other religions. It is true that

a person who believes in a religion must be ascertained that his or her religion is “the

most true religion”. However, on the other hand, there must be acknowledgement

that every religion has its own sense of trueness. Progressive Muslim thinkers affirm

that Islam encompasses affinity, i.e. there lies some truth that is the same as that of

Judaism and Christianity. Thus, there is an affinity of truth from various religions that

must also be acknowledged as a continuity of the Abraham tradition. The fact that

Muslims or Christians have faith in their truth to be the truest of truth does not mean

we look down or disapprove other religions. In unison, we must also be aware that

another person’s religion may also have that very same faith. Such social awareness

is known as religious pluralism. And so, pluralism is a position, a faith, a way of life, a

doctrine, a teaching or an ideology that acknowledges all religions to be authentic,

valid, true and encompass values and potentials that transform the human attitude.

Religions have a positive purpose to direct humans toward the holistic life known as

salvation. Acknowledgement that all religions are noble paths toward salvation

blessed by God should make them appreciated and none must undergo

discrimination. In affirmation, pluralism acknowledges that every religion, which is

authentic, is a unique path towards salvation.



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This book has given us the idea about the nonappearance of logical conflict

between being faithful and being tolerant. It is in fact quite the opposite. Tolerance

originates from true faith and should be a part of religious identity. Often, militancy

and tolerance are placed on opposite poles, as it is impossible to have them as one

unity: a militant person cannot be tolerant, and vice versa, a tolerant person cannot

be militant. Militant tolerance is a perspective in which struggle to actualize interfaith

tolerance is part of the battle of the true faith of religious citizens.

The core purpose of Islam is as a

blessing for the universe, in which

seculars, and even atheists, will also

experience this blessing. In other

words, we do not have the rights to

banish them from the face of this

earth, except when they have

disturbed or violated the positive

law—and even that, once again, in

relation to the violation of the positive

law that applies in nation and state

life it should not become a religious

affair but a state affair.

(Rachman 2009: 179)

Ahmad Syafii Maarif, Advisor to PP Muhammadiyah and founder of the

Maarif Institute. He received his MA from Ohio University and his PhD from

University of Chicago. He was the former Chair of PP Muhammadiyah for the

period 2000-2004.

A true faith does not dehumanize humans from other groups by perceiving

them as enemies, infidels or strays but fosters efforts to build mutual understanding.

A person who is tolerant in a militant manner is a person that is not easily wavered



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amid a pluralism of values, but becomes a laissez faire towards his or her own faith.

He or she will attempt to discover cosmopolitan references from religiosity to support

tolerance, and thus a situation that mutually fertilizes each and every faith is

established. This is why pluralism encourages dynamics and propels every individual

to learn a lesson from experiences of other believers.

This book concludes that in order to attain true pluralism what is needed is

courage from the Islamic world to engage in dialogue with the believers of other

religions. Within this dialogue, humans will seek to mutually understand and

appreciate one another. A productive dialogue will not take place when each of the

participants is reluctant to open up and unwilling to give and take voluntarily and

enthusiastically. An introvert attitude in dialogues is in fact not the true foundation of

faith, but of instability.

The purpose of dialogue on a doctrine level is shared growth and on a

practical level is unity to overcome problems, such as natural disasters, war, lack of

common sense, poverty, unemployment, health education by establishing social

cooperation that concentrate on existing resources, time, skills, and science, so as to

face problems more effectively. This will be successful when done together,

compared to when done individually.

In a democratic state every citizen, regardless of the religion and ethnicity,

has equal position before the law. Differences are blessed by God not only for us to

know one another, but within them explicitly lie a calling to exchange values of

civilization to give and receive happiness.

Liberal Islam is only an attempt to further understand this issue from a new

approach and a more detailed one that is aligned with the challenges of today’s

modernity. The issue regarding Fundamental Islam remains the same: to answer

their challenge by making them see that Liberal Islam is not a wrong path, and it will

not meet a dead end. Typically, Fundamental Muslims emphasize on the claim why

must Islam be “liberalized”?, isn’t Islam already complete, perfect, universal and

applies to every era? This type of polemic has existed since the past century, and



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has always become a tug-o-war issue between Liberal Muslims and Fundamental

Muslims.

However, in point of fact, a Muslim thinker cannot say no, and in the end must

face the challenge of redefining Islam to face the world we live in today. Liberal Islam

is one of the responses of the new ideas of the era.

It is worthy of note to view hermeneutics from the interpretation of Liberal

Muslims. In general, they employ an interpretation of suspicion in the sense of

interpretation as an exercise of suspicion—suspecting traditional thought. And this is

implemented in how they read and interpret the shari’a.

There are three ways taken up by Liberal Muslims in reading the shari’a—as

once proposed by Charles Kurzman, and then followed by many Progressive-Liberal

Muslims in Indonesia—(1) Liberal shari’a (shari’a that is liberal); (2) Silent shari’a

(shari’a that remains silent regarding this issue); (3) Interpreted shari’a (shari’a that

needs reinterpretation). These three terms are thought provoking, because until now

there has never been any sharp categorization in reading the shari’a. This shows us

how even among liberals, disagreements in interpreting Islam can occur—in which

everyone claims to be in pursuit of the authenticity of Islam.

With regard to liberalism in Islam, questions always come from Western

thinkers, such as how liberal are these Liberal Muslims? What is Liberal Islam like?

Can the liberalness of the Muslim community be compared to the liberalness of the

West? For example, the West accepts the position among humans to be equal as

stipulated in the notion of Human Rights (HR), thus can Islam also acknowledge

something like this? For example, another issue that is related to interfaith relations

is can Islam introduce “the other” as the same in the capacity of humanity, and not

as in a group, like in the concept of ahl al-kitab. Here, there is a new challenge,

particularly on Huma Rights. Abdullahi an-Na’im—a contemporary Muslim thinker—

once said that today the Islamic shari’a faces a great dilemma between becoming

authoritarian (because it implements notions that is inapt with today’s vision), or

opting for “secularism” (by instantly adopting the Western liberalism). And yet, it is

said the Muslim community actually needs a win-to-win solution that is hard to come



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upon without having a basic transformation in theology, i.e. “democratic shari’a”. But

can we build a democratic shari’a? This is the challenge of Liberal Islam that was

previously analyzed in this book.

In the mean time, in addition to the inevitable challenges of the era, the

Muslim community also needs to maintain authenticity. The question is when we

intend to be liberal, does the Koran command this or not? And so, the issue of

authenticity becomes very significant.

Liberal Muslims generally find it necessary—in the process of establishing a

Progressive Islamic thought—to reveal what is known as “authenticity”. That is

efforts to return to the main sources of reference of Islam, such as the Koran and the

Sunna; also in conducting revitalization toward the philosophy of Islam. This is the

reason why they care about the shari’a—this is different than the definition of Radical

Islam on the shari’a. It is also unlike what is imagined by the fundamentalists that

when one is liberal one no longer cares about the shari’a.

From what has been proposed earlier, in relation to the shari’a, there are at

least three models of readings or hermeneutics that belong to Liberal Islam. The first

model is liberal shari’a. Those who are in this category state that the shari’a itself is

naturally liberal, when understood correctly. The argument put forward by the

followers of liberal shari’a is usually that from the very beginning Islam already has

solutions for the problems that we face today as an issue of contemporary Islam. For

example, appreciation over the plurality of religions, Islam has a unique experience,

perhaps even the first of its time that is formulated in “the Medina Charter.” In

conversing the issue of social-politics, they often underline the liberal verses of the

Koran. Another example, khutbah al-wada’ (the Prophet’s last sermon) or what is

elaborated as the pioneer of the notion of Human Rights—was established before

the Universal Declaration on Human Rights. Liberal shari’a to a great extent

underscores the importance of authenticity and this explains whey they are always

looking for support from verses of the Koran and the Hadith to reinforce their notions

of Liberal Islam. They are assured that being liberal is part of God’s

commandment—and so it is the commandment of religion. For instance, Nurcholish



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Madjid often said, “The Muslim community themselves are sometimes more

conservative than the Koran!”

At times, the argument put forward by the followers of liberal shari’a is

apologetic by saying that the liberalism of Islam came before Western liberalism. For

example, the notion of democracy that is transformed in the thought of liberal shari’a.

They apologized by saying that in Islam—before Western democracy existed—

democratic values had already subsisted. The main theme of liberal shari’a is

enthusiasm in showing the liberalness of Islam, particularly the issue of democracy,

or furthermore issues surrounding social-political problems, such as the civil society,

and human rights. Regarding the issue of interfaith pluralism, they are often capable

of showing the liberalness of Islamic teaching. They agree with the opinion that the

closer it is to the Prophet’s era, Islam becomes increasingly tolerant. The closer it is

to the center (in Middle East), the increasingly tolerant Islam becomes. Also—and

this is what is most important—it gets increasingly closer to the essential meaning of

the Koran, Islam becomes more tolerant, and provides space toward diversity.

Liberal shari’a is customarily vulnerable toward the attacks of Radical Muslims

that claim that they have compromised Islam with the teaching of Western

secularism. Whatever existed in the West was adapted, and then “customized into

Islam” by seeking verses that reinforce them. However, even so, the issue among

the followers of liberal shari’a is not as controversial as others (silent shari’a and

interpreted shari’a).

Silent shari’a attempts to build the authenticity of Islam based on the

assumption that the Islamic shari’a does not speak much about contemporary

issues—for example the six issues of Liberal Islam above. The person who

pioneered the issue regarding this in Indonesia, for instance, is Harun Nasution. He

asserted that not all problems are discussed in the Koran. The number of verses in

the Koran is (only) around 6000, but those that regulate social life only reach up to

around 500, which is very little. And so, it is understandable that many social-political

issues today are not covered by the Koran. Because shari’a does not speak anything

about modern issues, according to them, it is possible to think about it creatively.



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Particularly when dealing with mualamah issues—when we use the language of

Islamic jurisprudence—that are issues related to social life, which indeed requires

new creativity. Creativity is not allowed when it comes to prayer. They believe that

the Muslim community should be sensitive and responsive toward changes that

occurred due to the development of the era. A most expressive example is ‘Ali Abd

al-Raziq, when he spoke about the absence of a notion about the state obliged by

Islam. He strengthened a notion against theocracy. According to him, the shari’a

never spoke about the state. For this reason, we are allowed to think about (for

example) liberal democracy for Islamic states. The thought regarding the form of an

Islamic state did transpire post the colonialism and post the destruction of the

Turkish Empire. Afterwards, no caliphates existed, and this forced the Muslim nation

to rethink the form of the state: Kingdom? Republic? Islamic Republic? Liberal?

Socialist? And so on. According to the silent shari’a, religion never specifically

regulated state affairs. For this reason, the Muslim community is allowed to think of a

notion of a modern state—which emerges from the philosophy of politics.

When the shari’a does not speak about many issues—or what we now call as

modern issues—this does not mean that “God forgot.” Claims from fundamentalists

and radicals toward the silent shari’a are because they consider that the silent

shari’a assumes God forgot about this issue. For example, why state affairs are not

regulated in the Koran, or in sacred texts? Radical Muslims say that “If Islam

regulates how Muslims enter the bath room—for example step in with the left foot,

and step out with the right foot, the prayer, and so on—it seems ridiculous that Islam

does not regulate about the state; an issue that is fundamental for the life of

society?”

Silent shari’a sometimes relies on the Koran, but they do not have a heavy

burden that is related to proving these holy texts (such as the Koran and Hadith)

because they say that the true shari’a does in fact not regulate all the issues related

to life norms. Silent shari’a considers the Koran to speak more about moral and

spiritual issues than details about social and political life.



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According to silent shari’a, in fact in the Holy Scripture, there are also themes

that are not liberal, such as possession of slaves, ransom of prisoners of war,

amputation of certain body parts of perpetrators. In facing this kind of problem, silent

shari’a opens a space for interpretation, which brings out—or will be worked on by—

another group that is interpreted shari’a. Towards an issue like this, the Sudanese

Muslim thinker, Muhammad Mahmud Thaha, for example, attempted to seek an

understanding of the Koran that is seen as something that always has a context.

Mahmud Thaha called the verses that were revealed in Medina as the First

Message. However, the purpose is not on the First Message but on the Second

Message which was revealed in Mecca—and not Medina—that is more egalitarian,

humanist, and visionary. All social religious issues must be interpreted in this

manner.

Looking at the way Liberal Islam is read, the most controversial hermeneutics

is the way of the interpreted shari’a where the shari’a, according to them, needs to

be reinterpreted. And from the perspective of the West themselves this group is the

one most closest to the sensibility of liberalism in the West. However, this group is to

a great extent controversial, even though in the end, it is through them that the

pursuit of the authenticity of Islam can be seen. In general, they—who in this book

are called Progressive Muslims—put forward an epistemology that affirms the

necessity of diversity by interpreting religious texts. And so, “there is not only one

Islam,” because in reality there are “many Islam.” The religion Islam itself is a clear

revelation that is “the One.” The truth is One, but the One Truth is always read and

understood in different ways. For this reason, there is a diversity in understanding. It

is very necessary to allow disagreement in an interpretation, if we would like to

revive the spirit in Islamic thought. And so, they defend understanding on truth that

requires dialogue. The word “dialogue” means to continuously study religion, not as

a “noun,” but as a “verb.” For this reason, they support democratic acts in religion,

because democracy is an acceptance of the different opinions in interpreting religion.

Especially when they consider religion has been mediated by interpretation. The

shari’a does not come down straight from Allah, but the shari’a is always the



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interpretation of humans. Development of the science of shari’a is also a formative

process.

This is why they—the interpreted shari’a group—try to do interpretation. In

general, Progressive Muslim thinkers in a Muslim state are part of this group. Their

issue in particular (that is controversial) is the issue of the pluralism of interpretation.

And in general, the concern of interpreted shari’a—over the claims of Fundamental

and Radical Muslims—is to be called an apostate. Radical Muslims when annoyed

by the liberal thinkers from the interpreted shari’a usually call them apostate. Like

Nasr Hamid Abu Zaid from Egypt (now a professor at Leiden) who was once called a

apostate, because of his very liberal perspective on the hermeneutics of the Koran.

He then left Egypt, and moved and taught at University of Leiden.

The emergence of the idea of

pluralism departs from the

assumption that religions are not the

same and because of that pluralism is

needed to answer the reality of the

society that is plural. Because there is

a reality that is plural in the society,

we need to act in a pluralist manner

that is accepting and appreciating this

plural reality. This is the message

brought by pluralism.

(Rachman 2009: 309)

Djohan Effendi, former Chair of the Indonesian Conference on Religion and

Peace (ICRP), Jakarta. He was once the Staff of the Secretary General of the

Ministry of Religious Affairs (1973-1978) and former Minister of State

Secretary (2000-2001).



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The themes that are discussed in Liberal Islam thought in pursuit of the

authenticity of Islam are: first, interpretation that is against theocracy, a theme which

until today remains controversial. The issue of an Islamic state is in fact very

modern—this means, during the time of the Prophet there was never any debates on

whether an Islamic state was needed or not. However, when the concept of state

was founded, and a new definition on modern governance was found, then people

began to think of a state that is Islamic. And so, the issue of state—such as an

Islamic state—is in fact related to the new development of the Islamic World post-

colonialism, and not an issue based on an eternal shari’a that is permanent. The

theme against theocracy—that is related to secularism—is usually talked about in a

silent shari’a manner.

The second theme supports the notion of democracy which is usually talked

about in a liberal shari’a manner. The liberal shari’a group supports the notion of

democracy by considering that Islam already has democratic values that are inherent

in the doctrine of religion, even though the form is still very simple—and is usually

elaborated through the traditional concept of syura.

The third theme, regarding women rights, is related to the interpretation of

Liberal Muslims on the issue of gender—or feminism. An issue—that when

confronted with Fundamental and Radical Muslims—is entrenched with controversy.

Unlike democracy that has already been interpreted liberally, related to the issue of

gender equality and defense over women rights, Liberal Muslims must fight against

the interpretation of statements in the Koran that all this time in tradition has been

interpreted with a misogynistic approach (prejudice of hatred toward women) in the

patriarchal culture. As if the Koran has affirmed gender inequality between men and

women. For example, multi-marriage for men, men’s rights to divorce wives, rights of

inheritance of men that is bigger, a larger authority in the witness of the law by men,

traditions related to veil or hijab, gender segregation, inappropriateness for women to

become leaders and so on. This issue of inequality in tradition has received

legitimation of truth from the Koran. Liberal Muslims who fought for this theme

struggle to create a new interpretation, and they—because they are faced with

sacred texts that have been believed to justify the inequality of gender—as a result



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cannot take a liberal shari’a position. Their position is to restudy comprehensively,

and thus the model of hermeneutics for interpreted shari’a was born. They then did

something that possibly opposes the literal meaning of the text of the Koran. Or they

might even have to reread the Koran.

The fourth theme is about the rights of non-Muslims. I believe that this issue

has received a great attention and is very controversial when confronted with the

older perspective that theologically is exclusive. One of the controversies is the

speech given by Nurcholish Madjid at Taman Ismail Marzuki in 2002 which proposed

an understanding of Islam that is hanifiyah samhah—a notion that diversity must not

be seen from its formal diversity, but more from its substance that is the outlook of

the heart towards the Divine in the sense of religiosity aspects. Today, many people

have tried to plunge into these interfaith issues by building a theology of Islam that is

pluralist. Even some thinkers have already thought about the possibility of building

theology of religions. The most important question in this issue is: Is there salvation

in other religions? Is it true that in our religion there is no place for other religions?

The notion of pluralism serves as the heart of this issue. And today, many Muslim

thinkers are increasingly aware that religiosity must consider other religions.

Moreover, being religious today means being interreligious. For this reason, all

religious concepts in Islam that have been known to encompass injustice, inequality,

as well as judgment over “others” among fellow people who have faith in Allah need

to be reviewed.

It is quite often we use the following anecdote: in fact Islam appreciates

religious freedom, even towards infidels as long as they do not disturb the Muslim

community. They even have the freedom to worship their God guaranteed. However,

when a person has embraced Islam, that person becomes “entrapped” and no longer

has the freedom to leave Islam. If a person leaves Islam, he will receive the stigma

“apostate”, and this means that person will be under the riddah law, and may be

killed. This type of Islamic jurisprudence today has become a lengthy debate. And

the standard used by Progressive Muslims is the benchmark of Human Rights,

particularly regarding religious freedom. Also issues, such as the old concept of dar

al-Islam and dar al-harb, the Islam territory and the war territory. In the Islamic



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jurisprudence, it is stated that outside the area of Islam—the war area—anyone can

do anything. It is so extreme that often Radical Muslims apply daar al-harb to places

that are not Islam. If it has reached such extreme levels, it becomes justification of a

notion, which in fact cannot be justified by religion. However, we find such arguments

in certain Islamic groups that apply the argument of the old Islamic jurisprudence that

does not consider the “others”. For that, many Islamic thinkers today are beginning

to think whether the categories of the old theology that we have regarding interfaith

relations are still relevant?

The fifth relation, regarding freedom of mind, is very important because it is

associated to the actualization of the old concept on ijtihad. And today, ijtihad needs

to be reemphasized as an important motor so that religion becomes dynamic, and

responsive to issues of progress, in which the acceptance of the notion of progress

becomes the sixth issue. This issue of freedom of the mind is generally managed

into liberal shari’a.

Progressive Muslim liberals agree that freedom of the mind is part of the

precondition of progress for a society. A society that is shackled and is forbidden to

propose opinions is a fixated society that has no future. For this reason, a

liberalization movement is needed to make text, mind and civilization balanced. The

dialectic between the three is without question. If not, the Islamic World will once

again fall into stagnation and rigidity.

In the richness of the Islamic intellectual, the concept freedom has been long

known. In the tradition of Islamic philosophy itself there is freedom of the mind that

seeks to provide an alternative for orthodox understanding. For example, the tasawuf

discipline identifies the doctrine of freedom. This discipline puts forward freedom in

understanding the text of the Holy Scripture. Because of this, the roots of liberalism

in Islam can be traced to two disciplines. They are philosophy and tasawuf.

Philosophy provides an intellectual and rational foundation, while tasawuf provides a

spiritual foundation.

The generic meaning of the word liberal itself is freedom. And Islam is

freedom. Islam provides space to think freely. Monotheism itself is no other than



WORKING TRANSLATION

liberalization over the shackles of polytheism and nature. This means that liberalism

has in fact occurred for a long time in Islam. Based on this, humans need to be given

space to express their freedom. In this context, liberalism becomes a positive notion.

Liberalism in Islam is a desire to bridge the past and the present. The bridge is

reinterpretations so that Islam becomes a living religion. For this reason, we live in a

dynamic and forever changing religion. To make religion always remain relevant, we

need a new perspective, or a new way of interpretation in viewing and understanding

religion. We need to reinterpret so that there is sustainability between Islam in the

past and Islam in the present.

In its extensive sense, in order to resolve the complexity of issues that are

entrenched with discourses, we require a liberating interpretation technique, an

interpretation that will serve as the blade of analysis to view the problems of

humanities, consider culture, reduce reliance on a certain historical reality and make

religious doctrines as an ethical source of change. Now in order to face absolutism,

liberalism is the most effective strategy to face the problems of absolutism and

religious totalitarianism. It is liberalism that can protect and maintain religious

balance, because thinking liberally, rationally and critically is something that cannot

be disregarded in the pursuit of aspiration and progress. Liberalism is a perspective

that aims to reveal humans’ true position, with their rights and liberty in this life. One

of the purposes of Islam is to provide peace for the souls of those who follow the

religion with a guarantee over each person’s freedom to perform their prayers safely

and peacefully.

According to progressive thinkers, as elaborated above, all religions have the

same freedom in believing a religion, the same freedom in expressing an opinion

and the very same freedom in running the mission of religion. Every believer of a

religion and a faith must receive the right protection that is aligned with the law and

the agreed consensus regardless of the religion. Particularly in a state that adopts a

democratic system in which every citizen is entitled to the same right.

Documents

Budhy Munawar-Rachman - Islam and Liberalism (Working Translation)