Building, Dwelling, Dying: Architecture and History in

Building,Dwelling,Dying:ArchitectureandHistoryinPakistan

ChrisMoffat,[email protected],QueenMaryUniversityofLondonPublishedinModernIntellectualHistory(2020)AbstractThereisalonghistoryofscholarsfindinginarchitecturetoolsforthinking,whetherthisistherelationshipbetweennatureandcultureinSimmel’sruins,industrialcapitalisminBenjamin’sParisianarcades,ortherhythmsoftheprimordialinHeidegger’sBlackForestfarmhouse.Butwhatdoesitmeantotakeseriouslytheconceptsanddispositionsarticulatedbyarchitectsthemselves?Howmightprocessesofdesigningandmakingconstituteparticularformsofthinking?ThisarticleconsidersthewordsandbuildingsofLahore-basedarchitectKamilKhanMumtaz(b.1939)asanentry-pointtosuchquestions.ItoutlineshowprofessionalarchitectureinPakistanhasgrappledwiththeunsettledstatusofthepastinacountryforgedoutoftwopartitions(1947and1971).Mumtaz’sworkandthought–engagingquestionsoftradition,authority,craftandthesacred–demonstrateshowthesepredicamentshavebeenproductiveforconceptualisingtime,labourandthenatureofdwellinginapostcolonialworld.

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MOFFAT|BUILDING,DWELLING,DYING 2

I.ArchitectureandHistory

Pakistanasplaceandideaposessomeprovocativeproblemsforthephilosophy

andanthropologyofhistory.Establishedin1947lessthanadecadeafterits

emergenceasapoliticalgoal,thesovereignstateofPakistanrepresenteda

ruptureinSouthAsianhistory.Premisedonseparatistclaimsto‘nationality’

status,itwasalsoabreakfromhistoricalformsofMuslimpoliticalthoughtand

identityintheregion,whichhadintheearlytwentiethcenturygravitated

towardideasofimperialpluralism,elitestewardshiporthepossibilityof

minoritystatuswithinabroadercommunity.1Thepostcolonialpolitycarvedout

ofcolonialIndiawouldfractureagainin1971,whenamassmovementinthe

country’seasternwingfoughtanindependencewartoestablishBangladesh.The

intellectualhistoryofPakistanhasbeencharacterisedaccordinglybyquestions

ofseparation,lossandmourningbutalsooffuturityandthepossibilities

affordedbyruptureandrenewal.2Thenatureoftherelationshipbetweenpast,

presentandfuturehasbeensubjecttoconsiderablecontestationinPakistan,

exploredbyphilosophers,poets,religiousthinkers,and,asIargueinthisessay,

architects.3Architects,intheirthoughtandpractice,attendtocomplexproblems

oftimeandhistoricity.DesigningandbuildinginPakistannecessitatesa

confrontationwiththeunsettledpotentialofthepastcharacterisingthiscontext.

1FaisalDevji,MuslimZion(London,2013),especiallyChapter2.OnthehistoryofqauminSouth

Asia,seethe‘Introduction’toAliUsmanQasmiandMeganRobb,eds.,MuslimsAgainsttheMuslim

League(Delhi,2017).

2Devji,MuslimZion;NaveedaKhan,MuslimBecoming(Durham,NC,2012).

3SeeChrisMoffat,“HistoryinPakistanandtheWilltoArchitecture”,CSSAAME39:1(2019),171-

83,andJavedMajeed,“EverythingBuiltonMoonshine”(Forthcoming).


Theprofessionalizationofarchitectureinthemodernworldhasplaced

questionsofhistoryattheheartofbothitstrainingandpractice.4Whatshould

architectslearnfromthepast,ifanything?Whatvalueisthe‘canon’ofgreat

architecture,andwhoistobecountedamongitsprotagonists?Howshouldnew

buildingsandstructuresrelatetoexistingculturalpatternsandlocaltraditions?

Differentschoolsofarchitecturalthoughtcanbedistinguishedbytheirattitude

towardsuchquestions.ThepolarisationprovokedbytheModernMovementwas

inpartduetoitsattempttobreakfromhistory–tocreate“anarchitecturein

whichtheoldcodeshavebeenoverturned”5–withfigureslikeLeCorbusier,

WalterGropiusandMiesvanderRoheapproachingnewmaterialsandnew

technologiesasthemeanstocreateanewworld.6Buteventhisrejectionofthe

pastrequiredmasteryoverthatwhichcamebefore–considerLeCorbusier’s

appealto“thelessonofRome.”7Thearchitect’sawarenessoftheirplaceinthe

historyofarchitectureisanimportantaspectoftheirclaimtoexpertise.Courses

designedtoinculcatehistoricalconsciousness(oftenpairedwithfieldtripsto

historicalsites)remainstandardinarchitecturalschoolsaroundtheworld,and

reflexivityprovidesoneofthewaysprofessionalarchitectsdistinguishtheir

workfromotherformsofbuilding–whetherthepragmaticefficiencyofthe

4SpiroKostof,ed.,TheArchitect(Berkeley,2000);DanaCuff,Architecture:TheStoryofPractice

(Cambridge,Mass.,1992).

5LeCorbusier,TowardsaNewArchitecture(NewYork,1986[1931]),7.

6Foranevocativeassessmentofthismoment,seeReynerBanham,TheoryandDesignintheFirst

MachineAge(London,1960).

7LeCorbusier,Towards…,173.


temporaryshelter,thedo-it-yourselfinnovationsoftheself-build,orthe

ambitiousstructuralvisionsoftheengineer.

TheconsolidationoftheprofessioninPakistan,whichbeganinearnestin

thelate1950swithgovernmentinvestmentintechnicaleducationandwhich

onlyachievedlegallyregulatedstatusin1982,hasbeendominatedand

enlivenedbysuchdebates.8Whatcouldorshouldnewarchitecturelooklikein

thisfuture-oriented,post-colonialcountry?Howmightarchitecturecontributeto

aprojectofunityinapolityforgedoutofrefugeesandstrangers,internally

fracturedbydivisionsoflanguage,ethnicity,sect,casteandclass?Shoulda

‘national’architectureemergefromorbreakwithhistoricaland‘traditional’

modesandstylesofbuildingevidentatlocalandregionallevels?Towhatextent

shouldtheWesternscriptofarchitecturalhistorybeusedineducationand

training?ShouldastateforMuslimsprivilege‘Islamicarchitecture’,andifso,

howshouldthisbedefined?Whatspecificskill-setdoesitrequire?

TheunresolvedstatusofthesequestionsisreflectedinPakistan’svaried

builtenvironment,wheremonumentalpre-colonialstructuresarejuxtaposed

withmodernistconcreteandcolonialred-brickcomplexesareshadowedbysteel

andglasstowersinspiredbytwenty-firstcenturyGulfaesthetics.Theearly

decadesofthepost-colonialstatesawforeignarchitectsandplanners

commissionedfortheirskillandattendantprestige–famouslywithCADoxiadis’

designforIslamabadorMichelÉcochard’sKarachiUniversity–butbythe1970s

anewgenerationoflocallyorinternationallytrainedPakistaniarchitectswere

makingtheirmark.Privatepracticesestablishedinmajorurbancentres8SeetheOrdinanceforPakistanCouncilArchitectsandTownPlanners,withassociated

documents,inCabinetDivisionFileNo.138/Prog/81,NationalDocumentationWing,Islamabad.


competedorcollaboratedwiththetriumvirateofbuildingservicesestablished

bythecentralgovernmentin1973:NationalEngineeringServicesPakistan

(NESPAK),PakistanEnvironmentalPlanningandArchitecturalConsultants

(PEPAC),andtheNationalConstructioncompany(NC).Thesprawling,top-down

effortsofsuchbodiesarecontrastedwiththegreatvarietyofunplanned,

informalconstructionsofbrick,cinder-block,corrugatedcladdingortarpthat

pepperPakistanicities,townsandvillages,occasionallywell-establishedbut

oftentemporaryandmerelytolerated,aswhereaclusterofresidences

assemblesinthespacenexttoaconstructionsite,housingitstransientworkers.

Itisestimatedthat35percentofurbanpopulationsinPakistanliveinsuch

makeshift‘katchiabadis’.9

Themannerinwhichindividualarchitectsnavigatethislandscapeintheir

designsandintheirbuildingscanrevealmuchaboutthesignificanceofhistory,

thepossibilitiesaccordedtospace,andvisionsofthefutureincontemporary

Pakistan.TheanthropologistVictorBuchliwritesthat“buildingsareabout

thinkingandworkingthroughthingsthatcannotbeadequatelycognizedand

presencedinthehereandnow:thepast,thefuture,ancestors,resolutionsof

socialconflict,andcontradiction.”Theycanalsobeaboutimaginingwhatisnot

there,or“whatcannotpossiblybephysicallyorconceptuallyrealizedasbeing

there”,fromcommunistutopiatotheidealnuclearfamilytothe‘primitivehut’.10

Thereisindeedalongtraditionofscholarsfindinginarchitecturetoolsfor

thinking,whetherthisbetherelationshipbetweennatureandcultureinGeorg

Simmel’sruins,commodificationandindustrialcapitalisminWalterBenjamin’s9AasimSajjadAkhtar,PoliticsofCommonSense(Delhi,2018),152.

10VictorBuchli,AnAnthropologyofArchitecture(London,2013),167.


Parisianarcades,ortherhythmsoftheprimordialinMartinHeidegger’sBlack

Forestfarmhouse.11Butitisalsoimportanttotakeseriouslytheconcepts,ideas

anddispositionsarticulatedbyarchitectsthemselves.Thisnecessitatesan

understandingofdesigningandmakingasparticularformsofthinking,a

relationshipbetweenthemindandthehandthatfacilitatesinsightsintothe

matteroftime,work,spaceandbeing.

Thisarticlefocusesonthecareerofoneofthemostthoughtfulnavigators

ofPakistan’sbuiltenvironment,theLahore-basedarchitectKamilKhanMumtaz

(b.1939).WiththehelpofMumtaz’swordsandbuildings,Idemonstratehowthe

predicamentofan‘unsettled’relationshiptothepasthasbeenproductivefor

thinkingabouttime,labourandthenatureofdwellinginPakistan.Inonesense,

Mumtazbelongstoawidergenerationofarchitectsacrossthepostcolonial

worldwhoconfrontedthelimitationsofinternationalmodernisminthe1960s

and70s,attemptingtodevelopastyleandmethodmore‘appropriate’fortheir

particularcontexts.ButthesolutionMumtazarrivedathasbeenmoreradical

thanthatofhispeers,inpartbecauseitseekstodissolvetheauthorityofthe

architectandinvertdominantideasofcreativity,innovationandproduction.

TracingMumtaz’sengagementswithhistoryandthequestionof‘tradition’

withintheterritoryofPakistan,Idescribehisarrivalataparticularapproachto

buildingandhisadvocacyofaspecificdispositiontowardstime,oneinfused

withideasofthesacredbutalsothedignityofworkandthevalueofpatience.I

11GeorgSimmel,‘TwoEssays’,TheHudsonReview11:3(1958),371-85;WalterBenjamin,The

ArcadesProject(Cambridge,MA,1999);MartinHeidegger,‘BuildingDwellingThinking’inPoetry,

Language,Thought(NewYork,2001),141-60;seealsoAdamSharr,Heidegger’sHut(Cambridge,

MA,2017).


considerwhatthismeansforunderstandingarchitecturalpracticeasamodeof

engagementwithtimeandhistory,connectingthistodebatesaboutthenature

ofbuildinginthemodernworldbutalsounderstandingitasaninterventioninto

thefaultlinesofPakistan’s21stcenturypresent.

InthelargelyunwrittenhistoryofPakistaniarchitecture,Mumtazisone

ofanumberoffiguresdistinguishedbytheirreflexivityonpractice,their

engagementwiththepast,andtheirnavigationofinternationalcurrentsof

architecturalthoughtatatimetheModernMovementwasbeingreassessed

globally.12Thesearchitectsarealsodistinguishedbypositionsofprivilegein

Pakistanisociety.Withfewlocalinstitutionsfortraininginthe1950s,mostwere

educatedabroad.Associatedwithelitecircuitsthroughfamilyconnections,their

fledglingpracticesfoundareadymarketforprivatecommissions.Theplayof

ideasthathascharacterisedMumtaz’sprofessionalpathcannotbeseenoutside

ofthiscontext:hisabilitytodwellontheproblemof‘dwelling’hasbeenenabled

byhisdistancefromtheeconomicpressures,landdisputes,andthediscourseof

‘need’thatinformedlarge-scaledevelopmentprojectselsewhereinthecountry,

evenifheinitiallydesiredtohaveanimpactinsuchdomains,forinstance

throughanearlyinterestinmasshousing.13

12ExtanthistoriesofarchitectureinPakistanarepiecemeal,compiledbyenthusiastsor

architectsthemselvesandreflectingonindividualcitiesorcareers,ratherthanforginga

sustained,disciplinaryconversationaboutcontext,concepts,styleandapproaches.Anexample

oftheconstrained,ifeminentlyreadable,natureofthisliteratureisZahir-udDeenKhwaja’s

MemoirsofanArchitect(Lahore,1998).

13Iamgratefultoananonymousreviewerforencouragingthisreflection.


WhileacknowledgingthatarchitectslikeMumtaz–orYasmeenLari,

HabibFidaAli,NayyarAliDada,ArifHasanorothersofthisgeneration–arenot

representativeofthemajorityofbuildingdesigninPakistan,mybroader

researchprojectmaintainsthattheirapproachestobuildingandwaysof

thinkingaboutbuildingsconstitutedistinctresponsestovitalquestionsin

Pakistanihistoryandpolitics,whetherthesebethenatureofshelter,the

constitutionofa‘public’,themeaningoftime,theorganisationoflabour,and

beyond.This,then,isnotaprojectabouthowarchitecturebecomesaterrainto

consolidatenationalidentityinPakistan;itisdrawninsteadtobuildingwork

thatopensspaceforreassessmentanddispute.Iaminterestedlessin

monumentaloriconicprojectsthaninunusual,marginalandevenunfinished

buildings,preciselyforthecontestsandobstaclestheymakeclear.14

Thepresentarticledrawstogetherarchivalresearch,interviewsand

ethnographicreflectiontoconstructanintellectualbiographyofMumtaz.Section

IIprovidesbackgroundonMumtazandhistrainingasaprofessionalarchitect.

SectionIIIexploreshowhisapproachtotheproblemof‘dwelling’isinformedby

attemptstoauthoracomprehensivehistoryofarchitectureinPakistan.Section

IVmovestothelabourof‘building’,focusingonMumtaz’sresuscitationofthe

‘masterbuilder’andanethicsofcraftinhisattempttoreorienttheaimsof

architectureinPakistan’spresent.ThethemeofSectionVis‘dying’,orientated

aroundoneimportantbuilding:amausoleumdesignedfortwoSufisaintsin

14Tworecentbooksinformingmyapproachdo,however,takethemonumentalandiconicas

central:MrinaliniRajagopalan,BuildingHistories:TheArchivalandAffectiveLivesofFive

MonumentsinModernDelhi(Chicago,2016);andMichalMurawski,ThePalaceComplex:A

StalinistSkyscraper,CapitalistWarsaw,andaCityTransfixed(Bloomington,IN,2019).


Lahore.Stillunderconstructionafternearlytwentyyears,thisstructure

providesaspacetoexploreMumtaz’strajectorybutalsotogroundthe

Heideggerianthematicalludedtointhisarticle’stitle:thenotionthatabuilding

isnotautomaticallya‘dwelling’andthat‘todwell’requiresacertainsortof

relationshiptobeing,agatheringofthedivineinbuiltform.15Thisisaposition

debatedinarchitecturalpracticesinceitwasarticulatedinthe1950sbutwhich

Mumtaztakesveryseriouslyindeed.Theslow,sustainedprocessofbuildingthe

mausoleumdemonstratesMumtaz’scommitmenttoa‘recursive’understanding

oftime,whichheplacesagainstthe‘generative’temporalitiesofmodern

architectureandthecompulsiontowardsoriginalitytherein.16Consideringthe

implicationsofthisperspectiveforarchitecturalthoughtandpractice,Iconclude

withsomereflectionsonconstruction,conservationanddevelopmentintwenty-

firstcenturyPakistan.

II.London,Kumasi,Lahore

MumtazwasborninBritishIndiain1939;hisfatherwasacivilengineer,his

motheranartist.HecompletedhisA-levelsattheeliteLahoreboardingschool

15Heidegger,‘BuildingDwellingThinking’.Basedona1951lecturegiveninDarmstadt,Germany,

theessaybecameanimportantreferenceforarchitectsseekingtogroundtheirworkincontext,

againsttheallegedtabularasareductivismoftheModernMovement.Ireturntothereceptionof

Heideggerlaterinthisessay.

16Iborrowthiscontrastbetween‘recursive’and‘generative’temporalitiesfromUriGordon,

‘PrefigurativePoliticsbetweenEthicalPracticeandAbsentPromise’,PoliticalStudies66:2

(2017),521-37.


AitchisonCollegebeforetravellingtoLondonin1957wherehewouldtrainat

theprestigiousArchitecturalAssociation(AA)SchoolofArchitecture.Here,

Mumtazwouldbeabsorbedbyhistrainingbutalsotheexcitementofstudent

politicsandmetropolitanartworlds:anaccomplishedpainter,hisworkwas

exhibitedinLondon,Cardiff,OxfordandEdinburgh.17Followingthecompletion

ofatermofworkwiththearchitecturalofficeofMessrsQuineandNewberryin

London,MumtazreceivedhisaccreditationfromtheRoyalInstituteofBritish

Architectsin1963.Bythistimehehadalsocompletedapostgraduatecoursein

theAA’sDepartmentofTropicalArchitecture,apathbreakingprogramme

overseenbyOttoKoenigsberger,amajorvoiceinmodernurbandevelopment

andfamousforhisworkon‘climaticarchitecture’.TrainedinBerlinandCairo,

KoenigsbergerhadworkedinIndiaaschiefarchitectandplannertothestateof

Mysorefrom1939andDirectorofHousingforthenewgovernmentofIndiain

1948.In1953,hewasappointedtotheAAandinanewspecialistdepartment

taughtMumtazandawholegenerationofarchitectsfromtheglobalsouth.18

Londonatthistimehasbeendescribedasthe“capitaloftropical

architectureknowledge”–withthatword‘tropical’operatingasapolitically

appropriatesubstitutefor‘colonial’inanageofdecolonisation,evenasit

continuedtomanifestaconcernforupliftandprogressinitsdesiretofacilitate

‘development’.Thenamealsosignalledtheimportanceofclimatological

17Mumtaz’s1966CV,inNationalCollegeofArt(hereafterNCA)Archives279F:(P/FileH-35).

18PatrickWakely,‘OttoKoenigsbergerObituary’,TheGuardian,26January1999.

Koenigsberger’spapersarestoredattheArchitecturalAssociationArchivesinLondon.Anarticle

intheAAJournal(April1963)notesthatMumtazwasjoinedinhiscohortbyarchitectsfrom

India,Indonesia,Iraq,Kenya,Singapore,Trinidadandelsewhere.


principlesinitstechnicalandtheoreticalapproach.19Tropicalarchitecture

emphasisedregionalparticularityandthenecessityofrefiningthetechnological

andformaladvancesofmodernarchitecturetoadiversityofcontexts,materials

andweatherconditions.TheAAcurriculumincludedsuchtopicsas‘earth’as

buildingmaterial,airmovementand‘shadowconstruction’,diseaseprevention,

theeconomicsofdevelopingcountries,and‘traditionalgrouppatterns’.20The

programmedidnotsimplyassemblearchitectsfrom“tropicalcountries”inthe

metropolisbutalsosentitsteachersandformerstudentsoutintotheworld.21In

1964,MumtazwasrecruitedtojoinanAAdelegation,ledbyMichaelLloyd,

taskedwithrevivingtheSchoolofArchitecture,PlanningandBuildinginthe

KwameNkrumahUniversityofScienceandTechnology,Kumasi,Ghana.22

MumtazleaptatthechanceandacceptedacontractasLecturerandStudio

Master.

Lloyd,acolleagueofKoenigsberger’sandlaterPrincipaloftheAA,recalls

histimeinKumasiasforcinghimtoconfrontthe“tragicomic”irrelevanceof

standardBritisharchitecturalcurriculaintheAfricancontextbutalsothe

paternalistic,colonialrelationshipshesawaspreservedintheactofteaching.23

Adaptationsweremadeswiftly.Thetraditionalcourseonarchitecturalhistory–

19NataliaSolano-Meza,“AgainstaPedagogicalColonization”,Charrette4:2(2017),47;Hannahle

Roux,“TheNetworksofTropicalArchitecture”,JournalofArchitecture8(2003),337-54.

20DepartmentofTropicalArchitecture1957lectureprogrammeand1965programmehandbook

(72:37[42]ARC),AAArchives.

211965programmehandbook,29(72:37[42]ARC),AAArchives.

22MichaelLloyd,‘DesignEducationintheThirdWorld’,HabitatInternational7:5/6(1983),367.

23Lloyd,‘DesignEducationintheThirdWorld’,368;Solano-Meza,‘Against…’.


movingfrom“EgyptthroughGreecetoBauhaus”–wasreplacedwithacourseon

thecomparativestudyofworldcultureandspecialstudiesofAfrica,which

Mumtazhelpedtoconvene.24Butforthemostpart,theemphasiswason

developingtechnicalskillsand‘scientific’approaches,refinedincollaborative

projectswithGhana’sDepartmentofSocialWelfareandCommunity

Development.MumtazalongwithhisAAcontemporaryPatrickWakely

completedstudiesforruralresettlementprojectsandaschoolsbuilding

programme.TheyworkedalongsidevisitinglecturerslikeJaneDrew(whowrote

theinfluential1956manualTropicalArchitectureintheHumidZoneswith

MaxwellFry),theAmericanarchitectBuckminsterFullerandthehistorianand

artistKeithCritchlow,withKumasiemergingasavibrantspaceof

experimentationinitssearchforanarchitecture‘appropriate’forthispartof

Africa.25

In1966,aftertwoyearsinKumasi,MumtazreturnedtoPakistantotake

upapositionasheadoftheDepartmentofArchitectureattheNationalCollegeof

Arts(NCA)inLahore.Establishedin1875byLockwoodKiplingasthe‘Mayo

SchoolofIndustrialArts’,theinstitutionwashollowedbypartitionbutrevived

astheNCAin1958,withtheAmericanarthistorianMarkRitterSponenburgh

servingasPrincipaluntil1961.Sponenburgh’senergiesweresupportedbythe

WestPakistanGovernment,whichhad“cometorealizethatthecountryisin

24Lloyd,‘Intentions’,Arena:theArchitecturalAssociationJournal82:94(1966)[SpecialNumber

onKumasi],40,56.

25MumtazreflectsonthismomentinhisModernityandTradition:ContemporaryArchitecturein

Pakistan(Karachi,1999),41.


greatneedofwelltrainedartists,architectanddesigners.”26Sponenburghwas

nottheonlyAmericanonstaff:fundingfromtheUnitedStatesEducational

FoundationandFulbrightProgrammesupportedvisitingProfessorships

throughouttheearly1960s.MumtazwouldbethefirstPakistanitoheadthe

DepartmentofArchitecture,andwoulddosofrom1966to1975.Hearrivedin

Lahorewithstrongsupport–hismotherwasafamilyfriendoftheartistShakir

Ali,Sponenburgh’ssuccessorasPrincipal,andhisapplicationincludeda

referencefromcelebratedPakistanipoetandleftistactivistFaizAhmedFaiz.27

Mumtaz’sexperiencesinLondonandKumasialignedwellwithAli’svisionfor

theSchool–thenuancedapplicationofmodernmethodsofbuildinganddesign,

attunedtoregionalparticularityandthechallengesofa‘developing’context.28

ThiswasFieldMarshalAyubKhan’sPakistan,andtheprojectofdevelopment

hadacquiredhegemonicstatusinstatediscourse–evenif,asMarkusDaechsel

hasshown,itsinstitutions,policiesandimagesweredeployedtoshoreupthe

sovereignstatusofthemilitaryleaderasmuchastoalleviatesufferingor

inequalityinPakistanisociety.29

AsheadofDepartmentatoneofPakistan’smostprestigiouseducational

institutions,theyoungMumtazwasgivenanenviableplatformtoreframe

26NCAArchives259E:SchemefortheDevelopmentofArchitecturalDepartment,1960-61.

27NCAArchives279F:(P/FileH-35).OnMumtaz’sfamilyentanglementswithearlyPakistani

communism,seeKamranAsdarAli,SurkhSalam(Karachi,2015),70-76.

28ThisisevidentinLloyd’sreferenceforMumtaz,dated9Sept1966inNCAArchives279F:

(P/FileH-35).

29MarkusDaechsel,IslamabadandthePoliticsofInternationalDevelopment(Cambridge,2015),

167,260.


architecturaleducationinthecountry,injectingtherigorouscontextualismhe

hadlearnedfromKoenigsbergerandothersintotheNCAcurriculum.Healso

continuedtoexperimentwithbuilding,establishingtheprivatepracticeBKM

AssociateswiththeAmerica-trainedarchitectFuadAliButt–whohadbeenone-

yearMumtaz’sjunioratAitchison–andtheengineerHashimKhan.Early

projectsincludeschemesforlow-costhousingandthedesignofstructureseasily

constructedwithtraditionalmethodsforpeasantsandfarmers,notablythe1969

KotKaramatproject.KotKaramatdemonstratedhowtropicalarchitecture’s

technocraticassumptionsmightrunupagainstlocalresistance.Theproject

utilisedlocalmaterialsandself-helpmethods,butwasstillpursuedwithwhat

Mumtazlaterdescribedasa‘scientificlogic’andaframeworkofefficiency.Most

damningly,itwasimposedonthecommunityfromabove:Mumtaz’sarchesand

vaultedroofs,whichherationalisedasformsappropriatetobrickandlime

mortar,wererejectedbytheinhabitants.Aflatroof,theyargued,wouldhave

allowedformoreusablespace,forinstancetodrycropsortosleepoutsidein

hotweather.30

Mumtazwouldcontinuetorevisehisassumptionsandapproaches

throughoutthe1970s,becomingincreasinglycriticalofhowimportednotionsof

buildinganddesignwerebeingupheldasthepathto‘progress’,welcomedbyhis

30Archesandvaultedroofswerefamiliarlocally,butassociatedwithwealthierorceremonial

buildingsratherthansimplefarmdwellings.ZarminaeAnsari,“AContemporaryArchitectural

QuestandSynthesis:KamilKhanMumtazinPakistan”(UnpublishedMScThesis,Massachusetts

InstituteofTechnology,1997),48-9,57.AparallelcasemaybeseeninlocalcritiquesofHassan

Fathy’sfamousNewGournaprojectinEgypt.SeePanayiotaPyla.“TheManyLivesofNew

Gourna,”JournalofArchitecture14:6(2009):715–30


studentsandbypublicandprivateclientsalike,whilelocalpreferencesand

practicesofconstructionwerebranded‘backward’orinefficient.Thecontextfor

thisreassessmentwasaPakistanipoliticalsceneanimatedbytheleftpopulism

ofZulfikarAliBhutto,whosetenureasPresidentandthenPrimeMinister(1971-

77)followedtheoverthrowofAyubKhan’smartialrulein1969andwas

propelledbyarhetoricofanti-imperialism,thirdworldsolidarityandIslamic

socialism,evenifultimatelythegovernmentfellfarshortofitsradicalpromise.31

Inthisfertilepoliticalmoment,eventropicalarchitecture,calibratedtodetect

differenceandresponsivetoamultiplicityofvoices,wouldfallshort–

reproducing,forMumtaz,amodelofknowledgetransferthatprivilegedWestern

centres.ForeignexpertslikeDoxiadismightadvocatesensitivitytocontextand

consultationwiththoseaffectedbydevelopmentplans,butforMumtaztheissue

wasmorefundamental:eveniftheseauthoritiestrytolisten,thereisonlyso

muchtheyareabletohear.32Architectureinthemodernworldisgroundedin

certainpresumptions,certainwaysofthinking.Insteadofsimplyadapting

moderninnovationstoa‘developing’contextortotheparticularityofclimate,

Mumtazbegantothinkaboutaprojectofrecovery,ofrestoringdignitytothat

whichhadbeenlosttotheenormouscondescensionofprofessionalarchitecture

–traditionalwaysofthinkingspaceandstructure,embodiedmostpowerfullyin

thefigureofthemastercraftsman.33

31Akhtar,PoliticsofCommonSense;andSadiaToor,TheStateofIslam(London,2011).

32Daechsel,Islamabad…,46-7.

33Ideploy‘craftsman’withfullawarenessofitsgenderedocclusions.InmaintainingMumtaz’s

usageoftheterm,Imeantounderlineacertainimaginaryoftraditionalbuildingpracticeandits

propersubjectincontemporaryPakistan.


Thecelebrationofartisanlabouragainstthecorruptionsofindustrial

modernityhasalonghistoryinSouthAsia,asSaloniMathurhasshown.The

craftsmanbecameanationalistcultfigureinthelate19thcentury,informing

20thcenturymobilisationsfromswadeshitoGandhi’sspinningwheel,even

thoughitssymboliccurrencywasconstitutedinpartbythedocumentaryefforts

ofcolonialethnologistsandentrepreneurialorientalists,thelatterprofitingfrom

EuropeanmarketsforIndiandesign.34BasedattheNCA,itisperhaps

unsurprisingthatMumtazwouldbedrawntocraftwork:thoughtheinstitution

hadbeenrestructuredinthe1950s,itstillderivedasenseofidentityand

prestigefromitspredecessor,theMayoSchool,whichKiplinghadpursuedin

parttopreserveartisantraditionsfromthemoredeleteriouseffectsofBritish

rule.35

Butinhiswritingandinterviews,Mumtazattributeshisturntocraft

vernacularstotwofactors:first,hisexperienceofleftistpoliticalactivisminthe

1970s,wherehisworkwithpeasantmovementsasanartistandposter-maker

forcedhimtothinkmoreseriouslyaboutvernacularcultureandpopular

communication;andsecond,hisencounterwithNaderArdalanandLaleh

Bakhtiar’s1974book,TheSenseofUnity:TheSufiTraditioninPersian

Architecture.36

34SaloniMathur,IndiabyDesign(Berkeley,2007),especiallyChapter1.SeealsoAbigail

McGowan,CraftingtheNationinColonialIndia(NewYork,2009)

35Mathur,withanodtoJamesClifford,describesthisastheBritishEmpire’s‘salvageparadigm’:

IndiabyDesign,32.

36InterviewwithKamilKhanMumtaz,Lahore,12February2018.


ForthearchitectArdalanandIslamicscholarBakhtiar,writinginthe

contextofPahlavi-eraIran,architecturemustgobeyondthemeresensitive

deploymentoflocalmaterialsandtechnologiesbutalsochannelthespiritand

cultureofapeople.InIran–andsotooforMumtazinPakistan–‘traditional’

architecturewasupheldfordemonstratingtherichconnectionnotsimply

between‘man’andhis‘buildings’,butalsoathirdconstitutivenode,thatofthe

divine,ofthecosmosthatstructureanycreation.Drawingontheesoteric

principlesofSufithought,ArdalanandBakhtiararguethatIslamicarchitecture

inPersiaischaracterisedbyitsreflectionofatranscendentsource,ofthe

presenceofGodinman’sactivities,anaspectofculturedeniedbyimported

Westernstylesandmethods.MumtazdescribesArdalanandBakhtiar’sbookas

‘converting’himtothepursuitofanarchitecturethatattendstothe“divine

unity”underlyingthe“apparentphysicalrealityofdiscretephenomenon”.37

Iwilldiscussbelowthisspecificapproachtobuildinganddesign,but

importanttonotehereisthattheconnectionforgedbetweenspiritualinspiration

andthelabourofmakingenablesMumtaz’sturntowardsa‘recursive’

temporality,onethatisinvestedinprocessesofrepetitionandrecurrence,and

whichstandsinstarkcontrasttothe‘generative’timeunderlyingmodern

architectureanditspursuitofcreativeinnovation,orindeedthenovel

contextualadaptationsthatbegintotakeplaceinthissameperiodunderthe

name‘postmodernism’.Asthe1970sunfolds,Mumtazisdrawntoaffirma

conservativepremiseforbuilding,theneedforstabilityandlegibilityinagiven

context,incontrasttothedisruptivenecessityarticulatedbythosearchitects

37Mumtaz,ModernityandTradition,42,30.


whoseethebuiltenvironmentasforgingnewpathsforthefutureandcrafting

newwaysofliving.

CriticshavenotedthatArdalanandBakhtiar’sprojectof‘tradition’was

facilitatedbythepopulismofthePahlaviregimeanditsattemptstoco-optthose

Iraniansleftoutofthemodernizationprocess.Indeed,ArdalanfledIranforexile

followingthe1979Revolution.HisattachmenttoSufiprinciplescanbereadas

anattempttoprofferanalternativevisionofIslamagainstKhomeini’s

theocracy.38Ardalan’scollaborationwithBakhtiar,forhistorianKathleenJohn-

Alder,reflectsthepersonalstrugglesofanIranianarchitectraisedandtrainedin

theUnitedStatesnavigatinghisplacewithintheregionandamidstaglobal

architecturalcommunity.39Butthesefeatures–aprivilegedupbringingand

foreigntraining,acontextofpopulistpolitics,apreferenceforanesoteric

understandingofIslamagainstincreasinglyprominentorthodoxvisions-

resonatetoowithMumtaz,andthecomplexityandconsequencesoftheLahori

architect’spositionareexploredbelow.

III.BuildingandThinkinginMumtaz’sHistoryofArchitecture

38This,indeed,wastheprojectofArdalanandBakhtiar’smentor,SeyyedHosseinNasr,who

providedaforewordtoTheSenseofUnity:TheSufiTraditioninPersianArchitecture(Chicago,

1973).SeealsohisTraditionalIslamintheModernWorld(London,1987).

39TalinnGrigor,BuildingIran(NewYork,2009),164-5;andKathleenJohn-Alder,“Paradise

Reconsidered”inMohammadGharipour,ed.,ContemporaryUrbanLandscapesoftheMiddleEast

(Abingdon,2016),120-148,137.


ProfessionalarchitectureinthedecadesaftertheSecondWorldWarbeganto

grapplewithwhatarchitecturalhistorianKennethFramptonhascalled“the

implosionofutopiauponitself.”40Mumtazwasnotaloneamonghisgeneration

ofPakistaniarchitectsincriticisingthefailedpromisesofmodernization,orthe

wayinwhichearlymodernistaspirationsforan‘architectureforthepeople’had

beenappropriatedandcommodifiedtoservicethetastesofthewealthyandthe

powerful.MajorcontemporarieslikeYasmeenLariandNayyarAliDadahave

reflectedsimilarlyontheirattemptsto‘unlearn’whathadonceseemedtheonly

option,thoughneitherhasgoneasfarasMumtazinrethinkingthemethodand

ethicofbuildinginaccordancewithanexplicitlyIslamiccosmology.

MumtazplaceshisreconfiguredpracticeinabroaderSouthAsiancontext,

notingacommoncausewitharchitectswhorefusedtobe“boundbythe

limitationofany‘style’”butrathersoughtanarchitecture“appropriatetoour

ownregions,ourclimateandourmaterials”.HenotesfigureslikeMinnettede

SilvaandLocanaGunaratnainSriLankaorRuslanKhalidinMalaysia.41This

groupisinternallydifferentiated:ifarchitectslikeGeoffreyBawa,theColombo-

basedtropicalmodernist,weremoreconcernedwith“theformalaspectsof

space,constructionmaterialsandbuildingelements”,otherslikeBalkrishna

DoshiandCharlesCorreainIndia,andMumtazhimselfinPakistan,were

workingtoexcavate“thedeeperculturalsignificanceintraditionaldesign

theoriesandbuildingpractices”.Here,“religionandthecraftsensibility”,

40KennethFrampton,ModernArchitecture,ThirdEdition(London,1992),280.

41Mumtaz,ModernityandTradition,34.


privilegedvectorstothe‘local’,wouldplayamajorroleinshapingnew

architecture.42

Theplayfulnessandironythatcharacterisedaturnto‘vernacular’forms

andstylesinEuropeanandNorthAmericanpostmodernarchitectureisnot

evidenthere;rather,thereisagravityandseriousnessintheconcernforthe

‘authentic’.Theshiftreflectsthespecificcognitive-politicalspaceof

‘postcoloniality’:thedesiretocritiqueEuropeanstructuresofknowledgeand

representation,andtorecoverandasserthistoriesoflocalagencyandresistance

againstastoryofimperialdomination.DavidScottpositsthatpostcolonial

thought,thoughdisplacing‘anticoloniality’,incorporatedandtookforgranted

theaccomplishmentsofthelatter:thatis,itslinesofinquirywerepossibleonly

because“theproblemofthehorizonofpolitics(i.e.,nation-statesovereignty)had

appearedresolved.”43Politicalquestionscouldthusbedeferred,evenifthe

secularpremisesofthemodernstateanditsorganisationalformswerebeing

challenged.Postcoloniality’scritiqueofEurocentricmodernity,situatedwithin

thecontainerofthe‘national’,mightthenmanifestconcernswiththe‘organic’,

the‘spiritual’andthe‘traditional’.44

InPakistan,theconflictsthisproducedforatransformationalpoliticscan

beseeninthecareerofUrduliterarycriticMuhammadHasanAskari(1919-

1978).Asayoungwriter,AskariwasassociatedwiththeProgressiveWriters’

MovementbutlaterbecameavocalcriticoftheleftinPakistan,suggestinginthe

decadesafterPartitionthatcommunistswerealienatedfromlocalcultureand

42Ibid,80-81.

43DavidScott,RefashioningFutures(Princeton,1999),14.

44SeealsoParthaChatterjee,TheNationandItsFragments(Princeton,1993).


traditionandassuchcouldnotcontributetothenationalprojectofaproperly

‘Pakistani’literature.Inthe1970s,AskaribecameincreasinglydrawntoMuslim

historyandIslamictradition,inspiredbyDeobandischolarslikeAshrafAli

ThanawibutalsotheperennialistthoughtoffigureslikeRenéGuénon.45Askari

evenauthoredashorttreatiseonmodernism,Jadidiyat,designedtofamiliarise

madrasastudentswithitsmainpremisessothattheymightbetterchallengeits

influenceintheIslamicworld.46

Adeparturefromleftistassociations,aninterestinperennialist

philosophyandadeferralofpoliticsaspursuitof‘thenew’structuresMumtaz’s

engagementwiththebuiltenvironmentinPakistan,asIwillnotebelow.Butthe

architect’srelationshipwiththestateishardlystraightforward:indeed,the

1970swereatumultuousperiodforthecountry,andMumtazwasforcedtotake

extendedleavefromtheNCAinJuly1977,thesamemonththatmilitaryleader

GeneralZia-ul-HaqoverthrewZulfikarAliBhuttoinacoup.In1980,heresigned

45The‘Perennialist’or‘Traditionalist’schoolofthought,foundedbytheFrenchphilosopherRené

Guénon(1886-1951),articulatedacritiqueofthemodernworldbasedonanideaofprimordial,

‘inner’truthssharedbyworldreligionsandcapturedvividlyintraditionalformsofknowledge.

AlongwithGuénon,theworkofAnandaCoomaraswamy(1877-1947)–whomMumtazcitesas

animportantinfluence–andFrithjofSchuon(1907-1998)helpedconsolidateaphilosophythat

challengedscientificandsecularknowledgewithnotionsofeternalwisdom.

46MHAskari,Jadidiyat(Rawalpindi,1979).Forcontext,seeMuhammadQasimZaman,Islamin

Pakistan(Princeton,2019),80-82andAli,SurkhSalam,147-49.


formallyfromtheinstitution–pushedout,asheexpressedtomewithasmilein

a2018interview,onchargesof“corruptingtheyouth”.47

Mumtaz’sturntoIslamicarchitecturewasinpartaresponsetostate-

levelengagementswithreligion–whetherBhutto’sIslamicsocialismorZia’s

policyof‘Islamization’,whichdirectedstatepatronagetothe‘ulamaandledto

newlawsagainstblasphemy,theestablishmentofshariatcourts,revisedschool

curricula,censorshipmeasuresandmanymoreeverydayreforms,from

requiringprayerspacesinofficestobetterfacilitiesforhajj.Ratherthan

critiquingthisgrowingentanglementofstateandreligion,itwasthewayIslam

wasstitchedseamlesslytoprojectsofdevelopmentandmodernizationthatdrew

Mumtaz’sire,obliteratinginhisviewthepotentialforIslamtoilluminateother

waysofbeingwithin,orincontestwith,modernity.Thisflawedconditionwas

reflectedinarchitecturalpractice:thefashionforthecleanlines,glassand

concreteofdevelopmentalmodernismcommoninPakistaninthe1950sand60s

wasreplacedfromthe1970swithwhatMumtazandothershavelabelled

pejorativelyas‘InstantIslamic’,characterisedbytheornamentalinsertingof

domesandarchesintoabuiltenvironmentotherwiseconstructedinaWestern

style.48

47InterviewwithMumtaz,Lahore,12February2018;NCAArchives279F:PersonalFileofKamil

KhanMumtaz,1966-80(P/FileH-35[250]).Hisspecificreasonforleavingisnotgivenbutthere

isrepeatedmentionofMumtaz’sinvolvementin“disturbances”.

48See,forinstance,YasmeenLari’s‘Preface’toTraditionalArchitectureofThatta(Karachi,1989).

Asonereviewerofthisessayobserved,thetransformationofreligiousornamentintomass-

producedmarketcommodityironicallyfulfilsMumtaz’scallfora‘lackoforiginality’indesign–

albeitwithouttheethicofbuildinganddwellingheisprescribing.


Howtorefutetheseimpatient,top-downexhortationswithamore

nuancedengagementwithIslamanditsmeaningsinPakistan?ForMumtaz,like

ArdalanandBakhtiar,architectsmustattendtohistory.Hisengagementwiththe

pastwouldnotbesomenostalgiclamentforthingslost–aromanticizationof

ruins–butaconcertedattempttorecovertactics,practicesandmethodsof

buildingthatforcenturiesflourishedintheterritoriesnowcalledPakistanbut

whichfindnoplaceinanytechnicaleducationprogrammeorprofessional

architecturaldegree.ForMumtaz,thesearenotlostbut“living”traditionsand

canbeactivatedas‘strategies’forthepresent.SpeakingtotheAsianCongressof

ArchitectsinLahore,October1992,heimpressedthat,“wecancontinueto

ignoreordeliberatelymisrepresentthepastonlyattheriskofformulating

arbitrary,andfaultystrategies,ormovingintothefuturewithoutanystrategyat

all.Intheabsenceofasoundtheorybasedonthecollectiveexperienceofour

ownpastandourownpresent,ourarchitecturecanonlybearbitraryand

irrelevantatbestanddownrightdangerousatworst.”49

Asearchfor‘origins’andaninterestin‘authentic’methodsanimates

Mumtaz’s1985study,ArchitectureinPakistan,stilltheonlynationalsurveyof

buildingpracticesthathasbeenwritten.50Thebookwaspublishedunderthe

Singapore-basedMimarimprint,bestknownforitsinternational‘Architecturein

Development’magazineofthesamenameandsupportedbytheAgaKhanTrust

forCulture.51ItbuildsonworkMumtazhaddoneinthe1970sfortheUNESCO

DivisionofCulturalDevelopment,whichhadcommissionedstudieson“themost


50KamilKhanMumtaz,ArchitectureinPakistan(Singapore:Mimar,1985).

51ThedigitizedMimarcatalogueisavailableviaArchNet:https://archnet.org/collections/56.


importantformsoftraditionalarchitectureinPakistan.”52Weareremindedhere

oftheglobaldynamicsthatcaninformaconcernforthelocalandtheregional,

andindeedthisisdemonstrablytrueofMumtaz’sexperience.

ArchitectureinPakistandemonstratesMumtaz’seffortstoestablisha

senseofchronologyindefianceofcolonialandmodernistruptures.Thebook

travelsacrossthelengthandbreadthofPakistantoprovideacomprehensive

overviewof“buildingactivities”withinitsterritorialborders,fromearliest

evidencetothecontemporarymoment.Mumtazthehistorianisstrongestin

discussingmorerecentperiods,butthetextventuresasfarbackas3200BC,

drawingonarchaeologicalresearchintotheKileGulMohammadsitenearQuetta

cityandthepre-HarappanculturesoftheIndusValley.Writtenoveradecade

aftertheindependenceofBangladesh,Mumtazisonlyinterestedinwhathecalls

the‘newPakistan’ofthefourprovinces–Sindh,Baluchistan,Punjabandwhat

wasthencalledtheNorth-WestFrontierProvince–anddoesn’tdiscussthe

significanceorinfluenceofbuildingactivitiesintheformerEastPakistanatany

point.53Demonstratingthenormativepowerofthenation-stateatthishistorical

moment,Mumtazprojectstheborderedterritoryof(West)Pakistanbackinto

time–sothattheBuddhistcultureofGandharadevelopedoutofthe“fusionof

52SeecorrespondencebetweenUNESCO’sWTochtermannandMumtaz,June1975,inNCA

Archives279F:(P/FileH-35).Tochtermannintroducedtheprojectaspartofanendeavourto

“collectinformationonAsian‘architecturewithoutarchitects’.”

53When,ina2018interview,IaskedMumtazabouttheabsenceofBangladesh,hecounteredthat

therewasindeedalong-standingconversationintermsofmethodsandapproaches,particularly

withMuzharulIslam,aleadingvoicein“regionalmodernism”debateswhoalsotrainedattheAA

inthe1950s.


Greek,CentralAsian,IndianandPakistanicultures”;ornotingthat,“bythe7th

century,HindurevivalismhadvirtuallyeliminatedBuddhismfromthe

subcontinent,andPakistanwasonceagainasatelliteofIndia.”54

Thislackofreflexivityoverthecategoryof‘Pakistan’meansMumtaz’s

textisconsistentwithformsofofficialimagininginthecountry,whereattempts

tonationalizethepasthavereliedonwhatAyeshaJalalhascalled“an

improbablearrayofconjuringtricks,andsomesomersaultsonthetightropeof

historicalmemory.”55Theoriginalstudywascommissionedbythecivilservant

AltafGauhar,InformationSecretaryunderAyubKhanandlatereditorofmajor

PakistanidailyDawn,indicatingMumtazanticipatedanationalaudience

alongsidetheinternationalreadershipenabledbyMimarandtheAgaKhan

Trust.56Moregenerously,itcouldbesaidthatMumtazendeavourstobreathe

heterogeneityintothiscategory,‘Pakistan’,sincewhatemergesinthisbookis

notasingulartrajectorybutaproliferationofformsandapproaches,whichvary

byregion,climateandmaterialeveniftheyareallgatheredunderonenational

descriptor.ForMumtaz,“thewoodenmosquesofthenorthernregionareas

muchapartofPakistan’straditionalarchitectureastheGopahutsofCholistan

orthewattle-and-daubtownhousesofThatta”.57YettheprimarylessonMumtaz

54Mumtaz,ArchitectureinPakistan,4.

55AyeshaJalal,“ConjuringPakistan:HistoryasOfficialImagining”,InternationalJournalofMiddle

EastStudies27(1995),73-89,74.

56InterviewwithMumtaz,Lahore,12February2018;Mumtaz,ArchitectureinPakistan,2.The

choiceofEnglishaslanguageofcommunicationprivilegesthelatterbutalsoreflectsthelingua

francaofprofessionalarchitecturalpracticeinPakistan.



derivesfromthisresearchisnotoneofdiversitywithinanationalcontainerbut

ratheranethicofcraftthatcanbeseentobindhighlyvariantstructures.His

visionforarchitectureinPakistanisnotcentredonaparticularform,materialor

technologybutratheraspecificapproachtobuilding:thatdemonstratedbythe

traditionalormastercraftsman,afigurewhosuffusestheprocessof

constructionwithapietyderivedfromIslam,andwho,intheirtemporal

dispositionandengagedapproachtomaking,disruptstheauthorityaccordedto

thearchitectandthealienatingnatureofbuildingworkinthemodernage.

Mumtaz’sfundamentalcritiqueofmodernarchitectureisarticulatedin

theseterms:againsttheelevationofthearchitectandtheirrelentlesspursuitof

noveltyororiginality,andfortherecoveryofthemodestcraftsman,the

traditionalbuilder–thediscardedmaster.Hisinterventionisnotprimarilyone

ofspace(i.e.context,localityandwhatis‘appropriate’)butratheroneoftime,a

critiqueofwhatheseesasthearchitect’segotisticpursuitofthefuture,their

obsessionwithinnovation,andtheirdenialofwhattheyhaveinherited,the

slow,repetitiverhythmthatmightattachthemtothepast.Oversubsequent

decades,Mumtazhasworkedtorecalibratehispracticeinlinewithanethicof

craftworkanditsrecursivetemporalities,evenifbridgingthegapbetweenthat

idealcraftsman-heroandthelivedrealityofbuildinghasnotbeena

straightforwardone.ItistothatdisplacedfigureofauthoritythatInowturn.

IV.TheDiscardedMaster

AlamentforthediscardedmasterbuilderrecursthroughoutMumtaz’swritings,

interviewsandpublicaddresses.Theblameforthisfigure’speripheralstatusis


placedsquarelyonthetransformationsofmodernity–thechangesinbuilding

technologyitbroughtandthesecularvisionofprogressitinstilledinthemindof

thearchitect,aprofessionthatbecameincreasinglyremovedfromthecontexts

ofconstructionandthecollectiveexpertiseoftheworkshoporguild.The

craftsman’swayofthinkingaboutandworkingwiththebuiltenvironmentwas

not,forMumtaz,destroyedbycolonialinterventionsnorbythepost-colonial

ascendancyofdevelopmentalmodernism,butrathermarginalised,sustainedin

animpoverishedstateby“ourhereditarycraftsmen.”58Mumtazparticipatesina

largercritiqueofthesocialandpsychologicalalienationcausedbythe

mechanizationoflabour,onethatstretchesfromKarlMarx’swritingson

nineteenthcenturyindustrialcapitalismtoRichardSennett’srecentcelebration

ofexpressiveandmeaningfulworkagainsttwenty-firstcenturyneoliberalism.59

Buthisprescriptionislessoneofrevolutionthanofrestoration.IntheSouth

Asiancontext,MumtazechoesAnandaCoomaraswamy’searlytwentieth-century

appealtoacknowledgethephysicalaswellasspiritualsuperiorityoftheartisan

totheindustrialfactoryworker;“itistheseskilledcraftsmen…whomweasa

nationmostneedasmembersofourbodypolitic”.60

58Mumtaz,ModernityandTradition,38.ForvariationsonthisthemeinthehistoryofMuslim

societies,seePeterChristensen,ed.,ExpertiseandArchitectureintheModernIslamicWorld

(Bristol,2018).

59OnthisgenreofthinkingseeThomasYarrowandSiânJones,‘“StoneisStone”:Engagement

andDetachmentintheCraftofConservationMasonry’,JournaloftheRoyalAnthropological

Institute20(2014),257;RichardSennett,TheCraftsman(NewHaven,2008).

60AnandaCoomaraswamy,ArtandSwadeshi(Madras,nd[~1912]),22;Mathur,IndiabyDesign,

44-46,49.


Inthehumilityandmodestscaleofthe“vernacularcrafttradition”

Mumtazlocatesamodelforbuildingpracticethatmightdisruptamodernnotion

ofprogress,its“obsessionwiththecreativeartists,whosehighestambitionisto

beacclaimedandapplaudedasahighpriestofthedeityofinnovation.”61

Traditionalarchitectureisconcernedprimarilywith

function,space,light,protectionagainsttheelementsandstructuralstability,availablematerials,constructiontechniquesetc.[…]Inallofthesecraftsandartsthecriterionofqualityisnevercreativity,inthesenseoforiginalityorinnovation,butthedegreetowhichtheproductconformstopre-existingconventionalforms.62

Thisconsciousembraceofderivation,thepursuitofcontinuitythrough

repetition,isinpartarejectionofmodernity’s‘cultofinventiveness’,butitis

alsojustifiedastruetoPakistan’s“traditionalIslamiccontext”,inwhichitwould

beconsidered“presumptuousofanyindividualtoclaimforhimselfarole[i.e.as

a‘creator’]whichwastheexclusiveprerogativeofGod.”Thecraftsman,in

Mumtaz’saccount,aspiresonly“toreflectorfaithfullyrepresentan‘ideal’which

alreadyexistedintheworldofarchetypes.”63

Mumtazdepartsfromthosecelebrationsofcraftworkfamiliarina

Europeancontext,fromJohnRuskintoWilliamMorris,withtheirdimensionof

anti-capitalistcritiqueandpromiseoflabourwithoutsubmissionorservility.His

clearestinfluenceisinsteadArdalanandBakhtiar,whoinTheSenseofUnity

identifyaprogrammeforbuildingandworkingwhichguarantees“thespiritual

validityofforms”.64ExploringPersianarchitecturalhistory,Ardalanand


62Ibid,captiontoPlate8.

63Ibid,63.

64ArdalanandBakhtiar,SenseofUnity,10.


Bakhtiaremphasisetheimportanceofcraftguildsassitesofknowledge.Eachis

directedbyamaster“whoisbothaSufiandacraftsmanwhopossessesa

consciousknowledgeoftheprinciplesgoverninghisart”;theirworksare“like

artsofnature,atoncefunctional,cosmicandimbuedwithanobilityof

expressionthatseekstheTruththroughtheWay.”65Mumtaznotesthat

craftsmenintheterritorythatisnowPakistanhavehistoricallybeeninducted

intoaSufisilsala(spirituallineage)asprerequisitetotheirbuildingpractice,

connectingthemtoaformofsacredauthority.66InArdalanandBakhtiar’s

reckoning,thespiritualhermeneuticsortaw’ilguidingthisworkoperateonan

alternativemodeloftime:“Eventsarenotimportantaslineardevelopments;

rather,throughthem,oneseeksanorientationtowardsaverticalaxisuniting

earthwiththeheavens.”67BuildingpracticereliesondeferencetoGod,rather

thanthehubristicpositioningofthebuilderasGod.

Thespaceofthecraftguildorworkshopoffersinsightsintotheethicsof

craftworkandtherelationshipsforgedinitsmidst.Theworkshopisasiteof

collectiveagency,ofcollaborationandinterdependence,butremainsstructured

byhierarchicalauthority.Thisauthority,thatofthe‘master’,isdeterminedby

skill,commitment,andaformofjudgmentthatistechnicaland,forMumtaz,also

spiritual.68Theworkshopisheldtogetherbyideasofhonour,thedignityof

obedienceandlegitimacyestablishedbyactions“intheflesh,notinrightsor

65Ibid,5.

66Mumtaz,Modernity&Tradition,66-7.

67ArdalanandBakhtiar,SenseofUnity,5.

68Ontheinstitutionoftheworkshopacrossadiversityofcontexts,seeSennett,TheCraftsman.


dutiessetdownonpaper.”69Mumtaz’sevocationofcommittedlabourin

contemporaryPakistantransmitsapolemic,especiallywithregardtothislatter

point.Againsttheproliferationof‘specialists’–considerDaechsel’sworkonthe

revolvingdoorofdevelopment‘experts’andforeignconsultantscharacterising

Pakistan’spost-colonialdecades–Mumtazpositionsthedignifiedpursuitsofthe

grounded‘comprehensivist’.70Thediscardedmasterrepresentsamoralityand

modalityofauthoritywhichMumtazseesasrareandundervaluedinPakistan

today–onecharacterisedbydiscipline,humility,andapassionforworkqua

work,approachinglabourasanendinitself,somethingtobedonewithcareand

withnoeyetorewardordesireforpraise.Thisvisionofcraftworkisgendered

andgenerationalinitsfocusonthepresumedphysicalcapacitiesofmalebodies

anditsvalorisationofaccumulatedexperience.Andyetthedispositionit

promotesinrelationtotimeandthenatureofactionisportable:theprimacy

accordedtoengagementcanbemobilisedasabroadercritiqueofalienationin

Pakistan’spoliticalpresent.71Anethicofcraftmight,forinstance,beextendedto

somethinglikecitizenship,themannerinwhichoneunderstandstheir

responsibilitiestosociety.72

69Sennett,TheCraftsman,54;seealsotheemphasison‘unityandequality’amongScottish

masons,alongsideaclearhierarchyintermsofexperience,temperamentandcharacterin

YarrowandJones,‘”StoneisStone”’,261.

70Daechsel,Islamabad…,especiallyChapter2.

71Foraquestioningofthisprimacy,seeYarrowandJones,‘”StoneisStone”’.

72Ontheportabilityofcraftethics,seeFredericoBellini,“CormacMcCarthy’sTheStonemason

andtheEthicofCraftsmanship”,EuropeanJournalofAmericanStudies12:3(2017),1-14.


Mumtaz’srehabilitationof‘tradition’aspossibilityratherthan

proscriptionisechoedbyotherprojectsacrosstheIslamicworldduringthis

period:besidesArdalanandBakhtiar’sinvestigationsinIran,considerthe

growinginterestinHassanFathy’sexperimentswith‘appropriate’technologyin

Egypt,MuzharulIslam’sdesiretofacilitatetraditionalrelationshipswithnature

inBangladesh,ortheestablishmentoftheAgaKhanAwardforArchitecturein

thelate1970sinparttosupportanarchitecturethatmightembodyIslamic

values.73ButinPakistan,Mumtaz’semphasisonpracticeanddispositionrather

thanformortechnologyappearsasaresponsetotheparticularityofthis

country,itsfragmentedcitizenryanddiversegeography,proposinganethicof

buildingandcultivatingthatmightcreatetheconditionsforharmonious

dwelling.

TheexampleofthemasterbuilderallowsMumtaztoreimaginethe

relationshipbetweenarchitectureandtime,emphasisingthreeaspects:patience,

derivationandduration.Thefirstrelatestothetimeofbuildingitself,which

shouldberemovedfromacapitalistlogicofproductivityandefficiencyand

insteadapproachedasameditativepracticeofrepetitivemovementandevenas

aformofworship.InarecentessayonSufishrines,Mumtazquotesfromthe

accountofa16th-centuryLahorebuilder,UstadBazid,thesonof“anordinary

masonwhoworkedwithmudmortar”andwhowasinvolvedintheconstruction

ofamausoleuminShergarh.

73Indeed,FathywasthefirstwinneroftheAgaKhanChairman’sAwardin1980.Seehis

influentialArchitectureforthePoor(Chicago,1973).Forinsightsintothefunctionoftradition

moregenerallyinPakistan,seeHumeiraIqtidar,“Redefining‘tradition’inpoliticalthought”,

EuropeanJournalofPoliticalTheory15:4(2016),424-44.


BeforeeverybrickthatweputinplaceIwouldinvokeGod’sblessingsupontheholyProphet,mayAllah’sblessingsandpeacebeuponhim.Virtuousmen,devoteesandseekersofthespiritualpathwouldrecitethechapterIkhlas[Qur’an112]twiceoverastheypassedoneachloadofbricksormortar.Thereweresomanypeopleandsuchacrowdthateachturntohandoverthebrickswouldtakeratheralongwhileandwithgreatdifficulty.Inthismannertheconstructionoftheradianttombwasaccomplishedinfouryears.74

MumtazcommendsBazid’spatientendurance,describingthetombas

“conceivedandbuiltasanactofdevotionbypioussouls.”75Evendiscounting

thisspiritualdimension,theuseoftraditionalmethodsinculcatesadifferent

relationshiptoproductivity:bricklaying,initsrhythmofgradualaccumulation

andrepetitiveaction,accentuatesthepassageoftime.Thedemandsofskilland

qualityinthebuildingprocessencourageMumtaztodismisstheimpatience

facilitatedbyarchitecturalabstraction–thecleanremoveofblueprints,the

rapideaseofCADsoftware–andinsteademphasisepatient,hands-on

engagementasvirtue.76

Thesecondlessoninvertsconventionalrelationshipstoform.Mumtaz’s

understandingofIslamiccrafttraditionsdiscouragesthepursuitoforiginality

andanideaofthenewasbrokenfromtheold.Thearchitectshouldthusnot

pursuethe‘creation’offormsbutratherfacilitatetheir‘realization’.Inhis

forwardtoTheSenseofUnity,IranianphilosopherSeyyedHosseinNasrnotes

that,“thereisnothingmoretimelytodaythanthattruthwhichistimeless,than

themessagethatcomesfromtraditionandisrelevantnowbecauseithasbeen74CitedinMumtaz,“TheArchitectureofSufiShrines”inSaminaQuraeshi,SacredSpaces

(Cambridge,Mass.,2009),42.

75Mumtaz,“ArchitectureofSufiShrines”,43.

76AjibeIheardonfieldworksuggestedthat,ifonecommissionsMumtaztobuildahouse,they

shouldn’texpecttomoveinfortentotwentyyears.


relevantatalltimes.”77Narrativesofnoveltyaretradedforanarchitecture

whosequalityandpowerismeasuredintermsof“conformitytopre-existing

conventionalforms”.78

RepetitionandreproductionbecomecentraltoMumtaz’spractice.

Copyingasamethodofdesignandinstructioniscentraltotheorganisationof

craftworkshops,structuringtherelationshipbetweenanapprenticeanda

master,butforMumtazthisstrategyhadbeenunthinkableinhisowneducation

andtrainingasanarchitect:“Thecompulsiontobeinnovative,tobecreative,to

beoriginal,theimperativetobe‘expressiveofourtime’hadalwaysstoppedme

shortofwhatcouldbeseenasimitationandcopying.Inthefinalanalysis,myego

simplyrefusedtoletgo,tosurrender.”79Itwasonlythroughtheguidanceofa

spiritualmaster–thefamousperennialistphilosopherAbuBakrSiraj-ed-Din,

bornMartinLings–thatMumtazclaimsthathehasbeenabletocrossthis

barrier,andIwillnotetheresultsinthenextsection.80Anemphasison

repetitionandimitationdoesnotmeanstasis:traditionalcraftsmenareexpected

toadapttheirpracticetothevagariesofcontextandthematerialsavailable,

respondingsensitivelytotheirenvironment.Thepointisthatchangesare

motivatedbysuchspecificobstaclesorpromptedbydivineguidance,rather

thanby“anindividual’spersonalvanity”.81

77ForewordbyNasrinArdalanandBakhtiar,SenseofUnity,xi.BakhtiarwasNasr’sstudentat

TehranUniversityinthe1960s.

78Mumtaz,ModernityandTradition,Plate8.


80InterviewwithMumtaz,Lahore,12February2018.LingswasastudentofFrithjofSchuon.

81ArdalanandBhaktiar,SenseofUnity,10.


Thirdandfinally,theworkofthediscardedmasterallowsMumtazto

emphasisetheobduratequalityoftraditionalarchitecture–itsdesignand

constructionasastructurethatwillsurvivethepassageoftime.Returningto

UstadBazid’ssixteenth-centuryshrineinShergarh,Mumtaznotesaninscription

whichreads,“ThispuretombofHadratDawood,MayGodforeverspreadits

shadowwide”.82Ifbuildingsarecreatedthroughactsofdevotion,and‘realize’in

theirformaspiritualtruth–theteachingsofasaint,perhaps,orageneralideaof

divineunity–thenitfollowsthattheyshouldbedesignedtofacilitatealonglife,

aheavyshadow.Thiscanbeensuredthroughthequalityofbuildingbutalsothe

respectaccordedtothestructuresbythosewhodwellinthemoraroundthem.

AsHeideggertooreflected,to‘dwell’isalsoto‘cultivate’,toacknowledgeone’s

responsibilitytoplace;otherwiseabuildingismerelyacontainer.83Thislesson

manifestsacritiqueofthedisposabilityofcontemporaryarchitectureinPakistan

–thedevelopmentgoalsorprofitmotivesthatinspiretherapiderectionof

structuresbutnottheirlong-termmaintenance–butalsoapleatodepartfrom

thetemptationsoffashioninfavourofaculturally-embedded‘timeless’quality

thatcanendure.Toassignvaluetoqualitiesofdurationandabuilding’s

groundednaturehasotherimplicationsinPakistan’spoliticalpresent,

contrastingstarklywithatwenty-firstcenturyrealityofmobilepopulations,the

transnationalflowsofmigrantsandtheshiftingaffiliationsofmixedand

heterogeneouscommunities.ItisperhapsunsurprisingthatMumtazhasmade

hislifeinLahore,acitynotedforitspalimpsesticnature,theobduracyofthat

whichcamebefore–anditsassociationwithacertainparochialismasaresult–82Mumtaz,“ArchitectureofSufiShrines”,43.

83Heidegger,‘BuildingDwellingThinking’.


incomparisonwithacitylikeKarachi,aplaceshapedbymigrationandongoing

rhythmsoferasureandrenewal.84

Mumtazdescribeshiscareerasalongprocessoflearning,andhehas

beenabletotesthisideasinthespaceprovidedbytheLahore-basedAnjuman

Mimaran(‘SocietyofArchitects’),agrouphehelpedfoundandwhichformany

yearscollectedandspreadknowledgeabouttraditionalbuildingpracticesin

Pakistan.ButMumtaz’sownarchitecturalwork–hisprofessionalpractice,

establishedinhisownnameafterasplitwithBKMAssociatesin1984–has

facedconsiderableconstraints,dueinparttothenarrownessofhisclientele

base.Mumtazhasaspottyrecordoflarge-scalepublicbuildingwork,hisdesigns

forhigh-profileprojectsliketheDataDarbarshrineexpansioninLahoreorthe

Quaid-i-AzamMemorialMosqueinKarachirejectedbyjuries,whichMumtaz

blamesvariouslyoninternalcorruption,selectioncommitteesstackedwith

tastelessGenerals,oramisguidedpreferencefortheglamourofforeign

architects.Asaresult,mostofMumtaz’sportfolioconsistsofwork

commissionedbywealthy,privateclients,andmuchofitdomestic.Indeed,the

architecthasbenefitedfromawider,elitemarketfor‘traditional’artandculture

inPakistan,afashionthatismirroredprominentlyinthepopularityof‘Sufi’

musicandwhichalsobelongstoahistoricalmoment,acceleratingafter9/11,

84IamgratefultoVaziraZamindarforencouragingmetothinkaboutthisaspectofMumtaz’s

biography.OnLahoreaspalimpsest,seeWilliamGlover,MakingLahoreModern(Minneapolis,

2008).


whenotherwaysof‘beingIslamic’aresalvagedbycertainclassestocontest

risingIslamisttendencies.85

Inthebuiltformofthehouse,Mumtazrecounts,hehashadthe

opportunitytoexplorealternativebuildingpractices,usingmaterials,patterns

andsurfacedecorationtoencouragetheresidentorvisitor“tobecomeawareof

arealitybeyondtheimmediatematerialityofabrickwall,amarblefloor,ora

steelgrille.”86Eventhishasbeenimperfect.Referring,forinstance,tohisinterest

intheIslamicdesigntechniqueofproportionalsubdivision,amethodusedto

determinethesizeandshapeofbuildings,Mumtaznotesthat“suchmundane

obstaclesasbuildingregulationshadproved,inpractice,tobeinsurmountable.”

AndwhileclientsofMumtaz’sprivatepracticearegenerally“supportiveofour

ideas”,untilveryrecentlythey“hadnotfoundanyonewillingtorealizethem

fullyintermsofdesignprinciples,buildingmaterials,andconstruction

techniques.”87

Intheearly2000s,Mumtazwascommissionedtodesignandconstruct

twodifferentbuildings,witheachclientencouraginghimtofollowhisprinciples

completely.ThefirstbuildingwasamosqueatPakWigah,apilgrimagesitein

thedistrictofMandiBahauddin,150kilometreswestofLahore.Hisclient,Dr

SahibzadaMohammedFarakhHafeez,wasaneyesurgeonbutalsoashaikhin

theNaushahiSufiorder,rootedinthisarea.Thesecondbuildingwas

commissionedbytwoengineersinLahore,whoaskedMumtaztocreatea

85Foranaccountofthisterrain,seeAmmaraMaqsood,TheNewPakistaniMiddleClass

(Cambridge,Mass.,2017).

86Mumtaz,ModernityandTradition,42-45.



mausoleumfortheirlocalsaint,HafizIqbal,andhismasterBabaHassanDinin

thecity’sBaghbanpuraneighbourhood.Iwanttodiscussthislatterprojectin

detailasawaytobringtogethersomethoughtsonbuilding,makingandtime.

V.TheTombofBabaHassanDin

MyexplorationofMumtaz’scareerasanarchitecthasreliedheavilyonhis

wordsthusfar,andthisfortworeasons:one,thatprofessionalarchitectsare

primarilyengagedinprocessesofconceptualisationanddesignratherthanthe

directmanipulationofmaterialforms–theirworkinvolvesthetranslationof

ideasanddatacollectedfromsitesurveystothepageviatheblueprint,theplan,

theillustration;88andsecond,becausemuchofMumtaz’sideasaboutworkand

crafthavebeenunrealisableinbuiltformforthereasonsdiscussedabove.But

themosqueatPakWigahandthemausoleuminLahoreprovidetheopportunity

toconsiderthematerialrealityorganisedbyMumtaz’sthinking.Thelatter

building,whichIvisitedregularlyduringfieldworkperiodsinLahoreacross

2018-19,revealsmuch,notleastinitsincompletestatus,theslownessofits

continuingconstruction.ThebuildingpracticeMumtazespousesisaminority

one–inurbanspacesespeciallyandinrelationtonewsacredarchitecture

generally–butitsuncommonqualityunderlinesitspolemicalforce.Thissection

willintroducethetombbeforelinkingMumtaz’sprocessesofmakingtothoseof

preserving,touchingonthearchitect’sworkasaheritageactivist.

88KostofinTheArchitect,xvii,describesarchitectsas“conceiversofbuildings”,whomediate

betweenclientsandbuilders.


HassanDin’stombandshrinecomplexislocatedinthedenselypopulated

neighbourhoodofBaghbanpura,eastofLahore’swalledcityandadjacentto

ShalimarBagh,aMughal-eragardenrecognisedasaUNESCOWorldHeritage

site.ItisalsoashortwalkfromDarbarMadhuLalHussain,themausoleumof

sixteenthcenturySufipoetShahHussainandhiscompanion,Madhu,theHindu

boyheissaidtohaveloved.Forcenturiesthishasbeenanimportantanchorin

Lahore’sspiritualgeography,remainingasiteofpopulardevotiontothisday–

aswellasasiteforsubversionofnormsaroundgender,sexualityanddruguse.89

ThecaretakerofHassanDin’sshrine–anelderlymanwhohaslivedonthesite

sincehewasaboyandthroughoutthelongperiodofconstruction–proudly

pointedoutthedomeofthefamoussitefromthefrontstepsofMumtaz’s

buildingononeofmyvisits.

Approachingthetombonnarrowstreets,itisdifficulttogetafull

perspectiveonthestructure,thoughtwotallminaretssignalthesitefromafar.

Ahand-paintedgreensignannouncesthesitetopassersby,whileavault

decoratedwithmuqarnasandacypresstreerelief–asymbolofgraveyardsin

theMuslimworld–guidesthevisitortowardstheentranceway.Startedin2001,

themausoleumis,atthetimeofpublication,stillunderconstruction.Themain

structureisfinished,asaredecorationsintheroomsthatholdthesaints’

remains,andthebuildingisopentodevoteesandothervisitors.Custodiansof

thetombhaveamplespacetohostanannualurs,thecustomarydeath

anniversarycelebrationsforaSufisaintwhichisintendedtopublicisetheir

teachings.Certainareasremainclosedoff;partsawaitornamentation–onthe89AmenJaffer,‘InhabitingthePoweroftheSacred:LegitimacyandAffectinPunjabiShrines’

(PhDDissertation,NewSchoolforSocialResearch,2016).


externalfaçade,forinstance,Mumtazplanstodeploythepracticeofkashikari,

“theuniqueLahoriartofglazedtilemosaics,whoselastrecognizedmasterdied

somefiftyyearsago”.90OnmyfirstvisitinFebruary2018Imetaglassartisan

whowasassemblingasheeshmahal(palaceofmirrors)inoneareaofthe

mausoleum.Hehadbeenworkingforoneyearandestimateditwouldtake

anotherfourorfivetofinishlayingtheintricatepatternsofsmall,blownglass

pieces.Theartisanlearnedsheeshakarifromhisfather,thesecraftskillspassed

downthefamilyline.HenotedthatwhileMumtazdecidesonthegeneralsortof

worktobedone,hedeferstothecraftsman’sexpertisefordetailsandthe

specificitiesofmaking.

‘Appropriate’materialshavebeenprivileged,withthemausoleumbuilt

entirelyoflocalclaybricksandboundbylimemortarpreparedonsiteusing

traditionaltools.Craftsmenhavebeencommissionedfordecorativeschemes

includingstonecarving,stoneinlay,plasterrelief(thobaandghalibkari),fresco

(naqqashi)andwoodcarving,aswellascalligraphy.ButMumtaz’sengagement

withthe‘vernacular’isnotsostraightforwardastheevolutionof‘appropriate’

formsfromthelogicofthelocalsite.InfacttheclientsrequestedthatMumtaz

usethefamousshrineofImamAliinNajaf,Iraq,asinspirationforhisdesign.

Thisshrine,theholysiteforShiaMuslimswhoregardAliasrightfulsuccessorto

ProphetMuhammad,firstappearedinthe8thcentury;itscurrentformowes

moretoextensionsandrestorationspursuedinthe17thand18thcenturies.

Mumtazagreedtoadaptthismodeltothesignificantlysmallersitein

Baghbanpura,analysingimagesandplansfromNajaf“todecodetheunderlying



proportioningsystemsandgeometries”,whichwerethenusedtoestablishbasic

structuralandplanninggrids.91Thearchitectnotesthat,earlierinhiscareer,

suchanexhortationtoimitationwouldhavebeenimpossibletoaccept.Butnow,

heexplains,workingfromprescribedmodelsis

never,inpractice,simplyamechanicalprocessofreproduction.Itinvolvesintelligentinterpretation,adaptation,andapplicationofcriticaljudgmentanddiscernmentateverystepoftheway.AsPakistanimastermasonUstadHajiAbdulAzizwouldputit,‘Icangiveyoualltheformulas,theratios,andtheproportionsforeveryelement,buttherealwayscomesapointwhenthecraftsmanhastoexercisehisimagination.Itisaquestionofhawa[lit.‘air’;indesignthetermreferstothesubtletiesofform]...Itcannotbedefined.Youhavetoletyoureyeandyourheartguideyou.’92

AframedimageoftheNajafshrineleansagainstthewallinthecaretaker’ssmall

room,balancedoverthebedwhereHafizIqbalhimselfsleptfordecadesbefore

hisdeath.

AcceptingNajafasamodelfor‘appropriate’architectureinLahore

demonstrateshowsignificantlyideasofthe‘local’intheIslamicworldhavebeen

restructuredbytransnationalconnectionsandsacredgeographies.Butsuch

troublingofthevernacularseemsjustifiedforthedomesticationofBabaHassan

Din,whowasinfactanEnglishmanborninBirminghamasAlfredVictor.Victor

workedasamechanicalengineerforBritishRailwaysbeforebeingvisitedbythe

11thcenturymysticAliHajveri–veneratedasDataGanjBaksh,patronsaintof

Lahore–whoexhortedhimtoleavehiscountryinthe1950s.Hedisappearedto

theforestsofKenyabeforesettlinginasmallbrickdwellinginLahore’s

Baghbanpura,whereheadoptedashisdiscipleapoorlocalboynamedHafiz

Iqbal,whomheeducatedbutwhocontinuedtoworkasastreetsweeperinthe91Ibid,55.

92Ibid,58.


area.HassanDindiedin1968,whileIqbalremainedaprominentlocalpir

(spiritualguide)untilhisowndeathin2001.93Thecaretakerexplainedthat

HassanDin’steachingsstressedmodestyandhumility,andwereinfactcriticalof

theauthorityofthemaulvi(Islamicreligiousscholar),arguinginsteadthat

“everyoneofuswritestheirownholybook.”

ThebuiltformofHassanDin’stombandshrinestandsinstarkcontrastto

otherSufimazaarsinthecity.Thoughthemostimportantofthesesurvivein

placeovercenturies,theirstructurescanchangedramatically.Inrecentyears,

manyshrineshavebecomeincreasinglyostentatious,deployingglitzandbright

lightstocreateaspectaculareffectandattractdevotees,reproducingalogicof

‘marketing’thatpervadesthemanagementcultureofshrinesinanincreasingly

commercialisedPakistanisociety.94HassanDin’smausoleumisbeing

constructedtoprovokeadifferentsortofmoodinthevisitor.Butwhatdoesthis

insertionofaseventeenthcenturybuildingintoLahore’sbustling,twenty-first

centurymetropolitanrealitymean?Thereisundoubtedlyapolemicalaspectto

thebuilding–intheslownessofthework,againstcommercialimperativesof

productivity,andindeedintheveryfactofcreatingwithsuchdevotiona

structureforthevenerationoftwoSufisaints.Shrinesorganiseheterodox

devotionalpracticesinPakistan:ecstaticdancingandsinging,thesolicitationof

miraclesandthedistributionofamulets(ta’wiz)towardoffevil.Thefamous

shrineofAliHajveriinLahore,DataDarbar,isrenownedasaplacewherethe

saintwillanswerprayersorprovideguidance.Forthesesamereasonsshrines

93DeclanWalsh,‘OfSaintsandSinners’,TheEconomist(18December2008).

94IamgratefultoUmberbinIbadforconversationonthispoint.SeealsohisSufiShrinesandthe

PakistaniState(London,2018).


drawthewrathoforthodoxIslamicgroups,andonoccasionhavebeenviolently

attackedbygroupslikethePakistaniTaliban,DataDarbarincluded.As

MuhammadQasimZamannotes,itisoftenthebuiltformthatistargetedas

muchasthepeoplegatheredthere.95Mumtaz’sbuildingshouldthusbe

understoodasaripostenotmerelytomodernarchitecturebutalsotoIslamist

understandingsofreligiousexpression.

TheshrineinBaghbanpuraisintendedtodemonstrateanalternativeway

ofinhabitingtheworldandtheslow,ongoingprocessofconstructioniscentral

tothis.Themausoleumisanimatedbythatvitallinkbetweenthecraftsmen,the

communitytheybelongto,andtheplacewheretheyworkanddwell.Mumtaz,

echoingHeidegger’sapproachtocraft,contraststhiscomplexofrelationships

withserialproductionormassmanufacture,whichbreaksfromcontextand

communitytoproduceinterchangeable‘objects’,alienatedlabourand“imagesof

theselfwhichareillusions”.96ThereareclearsimilaritiesbetweenMumtaz’s

thoughtandHeidegger’sdiagnosisofthe‘crisisofdwelling’inmodernity.Thisis

unsurprising,consideringtheinfluenceHeidegger’swritingshadon

architecturaltheoryandeducationinthe1970sand80s,astheprofession

reorientedpracticearoundideasofcontext,atmosphereandthespiritofplace.97

WhileMumtaztoldmethatheneverengagedwithHeidegger’swritingsdirectly,

hiscareertookforminaninternationalcircuitdeeplyaffectedbythem.The

Germanphilosopher’santi-technocraticstancehasfoundsympatheticadvocates

95Zaman,IslaminPakistan,223-24.

96Mumtaz,Modernity,35;andseeMartinHeidegger,BremenandFreiburgLectures,trans.

AndrewJMitchell(Bloomington,2012),34-5.

97AdamSharr,HeideggerforArchitects(London:Routledge,2007).


amongliberalsandconservativesalike,hisentanglementswithNazism

notwithstanding.Butindrawingthesecomparisonsitisimportanttosituate

Mumtazamidstageneration’sdisillusionmentwithorganisedleftpoliticsin

Pakistan,theirsearchforanalternativeaftersustaineddomesticrepressionand

achanginginternationalorder.Manyofthearchitect’scontemporariesturnedto

questionsofculture,poetryandliteraturetoexplorethemesofresistance,

freedomandthedignityofwork.Mumtaz’sturntocraftcanbeseeninsimilar

terms.Whileacritiqueofcapitalismremainstangibleinhispublicinterventions,

thepossibilityofradicalchangeisdefusedbyaperennialistconcernforbalance

andharmony:aretreatfrompoliticsastheideaofinnovationtoonethatis

aboutmitigatingexcessanddeferringtothewisdomoftraditionalorder.

InMumtaz’sdeferencetoSufispiritualprinciples,hisunderstandingthat

successarrivesonlyasthe“fulfillmentofpureintentions”,thearchitectallowsa

placeforGodintheprocessofmakingandbuilding.98Thisisexplicitinastoryhe

tellsofthemosqueprojectinPakWigah.Ahugeamountofmarblecarvingwas

requiredforthedesign,butproblemswiththeon-sitemasonryworkshopwere

causingsignificantdisruption.Atamomentofdesperation,Mumtazdescribes,“a

miraclehappened”:

Onehundredstonecarversmaterializedoutofnowheretotakeupthework.Twiceaweek,theyappearafterdarkandworkthroughthenight.Thesiteisablazewithpowerfullights.Themusicofhymnsandchantsplayingovertheloudspeakersallbutdrownsthedinofmorethanfortypowertools.Theairisfilledwithmarbledustthatturnseverythingchalkywhite–whitehair,whitefaceswithcut-outliquideyesandtracksofjoyfultearsrunningdownthecheeks.Atthebreakofdawn,theworkstops,thecarverssaytheirmorningprayersincongregation,andthendisperse.Washedandchanged,theystepintothedayasordinary

98SaminaQuraeshi’s‘Introduction’toSacredSpaces,xi-xii.


teachers,lawyers,paramedics,andshopkeepersandgoabouttheirdailyroutines.99

Acceptingthisspacefordivineinterventionrisksunderplayinghumanagency,

butwhileMumtazisopentoserendipityhedoesnotrelyonthemiraculous,and

hasfrequentlyassumedthepositionofcampaignerandadvocateinhiscareer.I

wanttoconcludenowbyturningtohisheritageactivisminLahore,andits

relationtosomeoftheideasofdisposability,historyandrecursivetemporality

discussedabove.

ThemiraculousenergymusteredatPakWigahisnotableforitsabsence

otherwiseinpopularinteractionswithPakistan’sbuiltenvironment,according

toMumtaz.Theethicsofacrafttradition–patience,durability,care–arerarely

observed,marginalisedbyaresilientappetiteforthenewwhichisreflectedin

twenty-firstcenturyLahore’sglasstowers,concreteviaductsandsprawling

shoppingmalls.Hispessimismabouttheprotectionofhistoricarchitecturein

thecountryispalpableinconversation.Alongcareeroforganisingconservation

campaignsandconsciousness-raisinginitiativeshasprovidedlittlefuelforhope.

MumtaziscurrentlyPresidentoftheLahoreBachaoTehreek(Lahore

ConservationSociety,lit.‘SaveLahoreMovement’),anorganisationestablished

inthe1980swiththemissionto“undertakeandpromote…theprotection,

conservation,andimprovementofthephysicalenvironmentofLahore”100.This

groupof“concernedcitizens”looksparticularlytofillagapleftbythe


100‘OurMission’,http://www.lcs.org.pk.TheLCSwasinitiatedin1984bythearchitectZahir-ud

DeenKhawaja,supportedbyothersincludingthearchitectNayyarAliDadaandhumanrights

advocateIARehman.


governmentintheirdisinterestinproblemsofhistoricalpreservation–or,in

caseswheretheyareinterested,topreventrushjobs,‘overrestoring’,andthe

useofincorrectmaterials.TheAnjumanMimaran,similarly,wasinvolvedin

restorationworkinLahore’sWalledCity,attheHaveliSayyidaMubarakBegum

andelsewhere.ThecarefulandpreciseworkofrestorationalignswithMumtaz’s

ideasoflearningthroughcopying,‘realizing’formsthathadpreviouslyexisted.It

isapracticethatinstillsknowledgethroughwork,ratherthanthroughmere

observation.Heritageconsciousness,forMumtaz,requiresachangeinvalue

systems–itisaquestionofhumanityandofenvironment,“nottheacademic’s

needforauthenticity,nottheaesthete’senjoymentofbeauty,notthetourist’s

demandforthequaintandpicturesque,notthenationalist’sneedforglory,not

thezealot’scravingforaplaceinheaven,andleastofallnotthesatiationofthe

market’shungerforprofit.”101

In2014,thevalueofLahore’sbuiltheritagewassubjecttounprecedented

publicdebate,promptedbyconstructionworkforanewrapidmasstransit

system.TheOrangeLineMetroproject,fundedbysoftloansfromtheChinese

governmentandbuiltincollaborationwithChinesecontractors,cutsthroughthe

heartofthecity,requiringthedestructionofseveralbuildingsandevenentire

neighborhoodsinitspath.Theschemeattractedcontroversynotsimplyfor

theseevictionsbutalsoforanideathatthecompletedMetrowillspoilthescenic

vistasofoldLahore:thatitwillcompromiseandthereforecondemn“theentire

culturallandscape”ofthecity.102Activistshighlightedelevenhistoricalsites

101KamilKhanMumtaz,“SustainableCulturalTourism”,TheFridayTimes(25July2004)

102“UNurgesPakistantohaltconstructionofOrangeMetroTrain”,DailyTimes(25January

2016).


threatenedbyproximitytothepath,stretchingfromtheShalimarBaghtothe

tombofZeb-un-Nisa.

OppositiontotheOrangeLinehasbeencriticisedforreflecting‘elite’

viewsofwhatisculturallyvaluable,foregroundingquestionsofheritageover

humanlivesandwellbeing–thenecessityofbetterpublictransportprovisionin

oneofPakistan’slargestcities–buttheissueisnotsoclearcut.Inthefirstplace,

itpresumesanappreciationofhistoricarchitectureisrestrictedtocertainsocial

groups,andasShailaBhatti’sethnographyoftheLahoreMuseumhasshown,

heritageassetsdrawinterestacrossPakistan’ssocialspectrum.103More

specifically,Mumtaz,asspokespersonforanallianceofcitizensgroups,has

consistentlycentredtherelationshipbetweenheritageandthewelfareof

communities.AnAugust2016petitiontoLahoreHighCourt–whichwas

successfulintemporarilysuspendingconstructionoftheOrangeLine–didnot

focussimplyonaestheticimplicationsoftheMetrobutconnectedtheheritage

argumenttothewell-beingofLahore’svulnerableormarginalisedcommunities,

criticisingthegovernment’sacquisitionoflandfromcitizensby“hookorby

crook”,andthepursuitofa“whiteelephant”for“cheappublicity”.104Mumtaz

hereanimateshislong-standingcritiqueofthestate’spursuitofdevelopment,

understoodlessasanattemptto‘improve’Pakistanisocietythanasameansto

accumulateprestigeanddemonstratesovereignpower.

Thefailureofcampaignslike#RastaBadlo(‘ChangetheRoute’)hastaken

atollonMumtaz.Thestateappearsashiskeyantagonist,sohypnotisedbythe

103ShailaBhatti,TranslatingMuseums(WalnutCreek,CA,2012).

104“ConstructiononLahore’sOrangeLineMetroTraintobesuspended:LHC,”Dawn,August19

2016.


desiretoemulateShanghaiorDubaithatitisreadytodestroythatwhichmakes

Lahoredistinctive–unlessofcoursethosedistinctionscanbemobilisedfor

tourismandeconomicgrowth.In2018,hecommunicatedthisvisionofa

benightedpoliticalelitetomewithajoke.TheOrangeLinedebaclecouldbe

summarised,hesaid,inastatementattributedtoPunjab’sthen-ChiefMinister

ShehbazSharif,expressinghisfrustrationwiththeprotestsofheritage

campaigners:“Whataretheseguysgoingonabout,elevenhistoricsites?Wewill

makehundredsofhistoricsites!TheChinesewillhelpus–Chinaisverygoodat

it!”105ForMumtaz,thecorruptionofthedevelopmentalmindsetishere

complete:‘heritage’issimplyanotherformofentertainmentorcommoditythat

canbemassproducedandevenimported.

Butallisnotlost.Mumtazseestheseedsofapopularheritage

consciousnessinthewaythatpeopleinteractwithtombsandparticularlySufi

mazaars.Incontrasttomosques,whicharenot‘consecrated’inthemannerof

Christianchurchesandassuchcanberestructuredorremovedentirely

dependingonneed,tombsaretied–viathepresenceofthedead–tothe

significanceofplace.Mumtaztellsmethatinfacttheymay“sufferfromtoomuch

love”,referringtothedecorationofpopularsiteswithlightsandother

ornaments,glorifyingthespiritdwellingwithin.Butthebuildingisappreciated

asanobjectofpermanenceandsingularsignificance.Itorientatestheworld

105InterviewwithMumtaz,Lahore,12February2018.Thejokederivesfromaspoofnewssite:

see‘ShahbazvowstoconstructnewheritagesitesalongOMLTroute’,TheDailyKhabaristan(20

August2016),accessedonlineathttps://dailytimes.com.pk/62454/satire-shahbaz-vows-to-

construct-new-heritage-sites-along-olmt-route/.IamgratefultoTimothyCooperforthis

reference.


aroundit.Thetombthusdemonstratesanethicofcultivation,upholding

continuityagainstdisposability,imaginingstructuresasvitaltoacommunity

andacknowledgingthat,thoughpeopledwellinbuildings,somustthespiritsof

thedead,withallthehistoriestheycarry.

IbeganthisarticlebynotinghowthecreationofPakistanin1947posed

somecompellingproblemsforthinkingabouttimeandhistory.Myinterestwas

notinattemptstoforgenationalidentityoutofavacuum,butinwhatconceptual

innovationsthisconditionofan‘uncertainhistoricity’mightprovoke,specifically

intherealmofprofessionalarchitecture.ForKamilKhanMumtaz,who

navigatedaperiodinwhichbothmodernistsandIslamistsadvocatedarupture

withthepast,towardsthecreationofanewworld,theprospectofabuilding

practicegroundedinregionalcodesandsensitivetoculturalcontextspromiseda

wayoutofthetwentieth-century’scrisisofdwelling.Butratherthansimply

deployingtraditionalformsorusinglocalmaterialsandtechnologies,Mumtaz

departedfromthetropicalmodernists,criticalregionalistsandvernacular

ornamentalistsofhisgenerationtoplaceanemphasisonthecraftandprocessof

buildingitself,andinparticulartherelationshipofthisprocesstotime,

productivityandspirituality.Ihavenotedhowthispathwasinformedbothby

disillusionmentwithleftistpoliticsinPakistanandbyaninterestintheesoteric

dimensionsofIslam,filteredthroughareadingofperennialistphilosophy.The

ethicofdwellingthatemergesfromMumtaz’shistoricalresearchandbuilding

workisapowerfulone,butonethatremainsmarginalisedincontemporary

Pakistanandwhich,initscommitmenttooldorderandhiddenharmonies,

cannotallyeasilywithprojectsforaradicalrealignmentofthesocietythat

promptedit.Inourtwenty-firstcenturypresent,clutteredwiththedebrisof


divisivebutintenselyfelthistories,facingfuturesofscarcityandtheincreased

mobilityofpopulations,problemsofcultivationandpreservationhavebecome

evermorepressing.Mumtaz’srecursivereasoningmirrorsglobalcallsfororder,

balanceand‘slowness’inatimeofecologicalcrisis.Butwhetherornotsuch

practicescanwithstandthemountingpressuresofthepresentwithoutan

experimental,generativedimensionremainsacrucialdebateforourtimes.

Documents

Building, Dwelling, Dying: Architecture and History in