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Table of content

INTRODUCTION page 2

With reference to relevant, classical and current literature, submit concise essays

answering all of the questions posed below. Please ensure that the overall word limit for

the assignment is strictly adhered to.

QUESTION 1 page 3 – page 12

Compare and contrast the essential components of four leadership theories and

analyze each methods of reaching its goals. Then, select one theoretical model and

explain why it would be best used to transform an organization that you are familiar

with.

QUESTION 2 page 13 – page 17

Tuckman’s theoretical model identifies different stages of group development. Describe

these different stages and explain how identification of these different stages can

enhance group efficiency.

QUESTION 3 page 18 – page 22

The process theories of motivation focus on how the employee is motivated. Explain

how managers can use these theories to enable employee job satisfaction.

BIBLIOGRAPHY page 23

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INTRODUCTION

It goes without saying that the business world has undergone different eras and

evolution in order to improve the working environment for both employees and

employers as well as to better the efficiency of organisations. This assignment is going

to talk about leadership theories, Tuckman’s theoretical model and the process theories

of motivation.

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QUESTION 1

Compare and contrast the essential components of four leadership theories and

analyze each methods of reaching its goals. Then, select one theoretical model and

explain why it would be best used to transform an organization that you are familiar

with.

INTRODUCTION

Leadership is the capacity to establish direction and to influence others towards a

common goal, motivating and committing them to action and making them responsible

for their performance. Leadership theory is one of the most discussed areas of

management. This essay is going to identify some leadership theories mainly: the trait

approach, behavioural approach, contingency or situational approach and the

transformational approach.

TRAIT APPROACH

Trait theories are based on the assumption that the determining factor in an effective

leader is a set of personal characteristics. It is also assumed that the way to discover

these characteristics is to study successful leaders and determine which characteristics

they have in common. Such characters are mostly:

above average intelligence, but not at the level of a genius;

initiative – a combination of independence, inventiveness and an urge to get

things done;

Self-assurance – a blend of self-confidence, self-esteem and high personal

expectations.

The trait theories continue to influence, albeit implicitly, many organisational procedures

for selecting leaders.

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BEHAVIOURAL APPROACH

The behavioural approach attempts to determine the types of leadership behaviours

that lead to successful task performance and employee satisfaction.

Effective leadership depends on a proper blending of an employee relationship-centred

approach to employees' needs with a production-centred approach to getting work

done.

Kurt Lewin developed a leadership framework based on a leader's decision-making

behaviour. Lewin argued that there are three types of leaders:

a. Autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting their teams. This is

considered appropriate when decisions genuinely need to be taken quickly

without wasting time.

b. Democratic leaders allow the team to provide input before making a decision,

although the degree of input can vary from leader to leader. This type of style is

important when team agreement matters.

c. Laissez-faire leaders don't interfere; they allow the team to make many of the

decisions. Typically this happens when the team is highly capable and motivated,

and it doesn't need close monitoring or supervision.

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Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid

Similar to Lewin's model, the Blake-Mouton Managerial Grid helps you decide how

best to lead, depending on your concern for people versus your concern for production.

The model describes five different leadership styles: impoverished, country clubs, team

leader, produce or perish, or middle of the road. The descriptions of these will help you

understand your own leadership habits and adapt them to meet your team's needs.

Clearly, then, how leaders behave impacts on their effectiveness. So, the best leaders

are those who can use many different behavioural styles and use the right style for each

situation.

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Theory X and Theory Y

The most publicised concept is McGregor’s thesis that leadership strategies are

influenced by leader’s assumptions about human nature. As a result of his experience

as a consultant, McGregor summarised two contrasting sets of assumptions in industry.

Theory X manager believe that:

Dislikes work and attempts to avoid

it.

Has no ambition, wants no

responsibility, and would rather

follow than lead.

Is self-centred and therefore does

not care about organizational goals.

Resists change.

Is gullible and not particularly

intelligent.

Theory Y managers believe that:

Work can be as natural as play and

rest.

People will be self-directed to meet

their work objectives if they are

committed to them.

People will be committed to their

objectives if rewards are in place

that addresses higher needs such

as self-fulfilment.

SITUATIONAL AND CONTINGENCY THEORIES

Fiedler’s Contingency Model

“This theory attempts to predict how style of leadership, leader member relations, the

power vested in the position of leader, and the structure of the job or task harmonise to

determine the leader’s ability to achieve productive output”. (McKenna, 1994).

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Fiedler’s model assumes that group performance depends on:

Leadership style, described in terms of task motivation and relationship

motivation.

Situational favourableness, determined by three factors:

1. Leader-member relations - Degree to which a leader is accepted and

supported by the group members.

2. Task structure - Extent to which the task is structured and defined, with clear

goals and procedures.

3. Position power - The ability of a leader to control subordinates through

reward and punishment.

The implications of Fiedler’s model for improving organisational effectiveness, that is:

Either to change the manager’s leadership orientation to make it comparable with

the situation conditions.

Or to modify the situation conditions in order to bring them into line with the

leadership orientation.

Hersey-Blanchard Situational Theory

This theory suggests that leadership style should be matched to the maturity of the

subordinates

Four degrees of subordinate maturity - from highly mature to highly immature,

leadership can consist of:

Delegating style – allowing the group to take responsibility for task decisions;

this is a low-task, low-relationship style.

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Participating style – emphasizing shared ideas and participative decisions on

task directions, this is a low-task, high-relationship style.

Selling style – explaining task directions in a supportive and persuasive way,

this is a high task, high relationship style.

Telling style - giving specific task directions and closely supervising work; this is

a high-task, low relationship style.

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Vroom – Yetton –Jago Model

The Vroom-Yetton contingency model is a situational leadership theory of industrial

and organizational psychology developed by Victor Vroom, in collaboration with Phillip

Yetton (1973) and later with Arthur Jago (1988).

Factors of model:

Vroom and Yetton defined five different decision procedures. Two are autocratic (A1

and A2), two are consultative (C1 and C2) and one is Group based (G2).

Decision

Making StyleDescription

Autocratic l (Al)Leader solves the problem along using information that is

readily available to him/her

Autocratic ll (All)

Leader obtains additional information from group members,

and then makes decision alone. Group members may or may

not be informed.

Consultative l

(Cl)

Leader shares problem with group members individually, and

asks for information and evaluation. Group members do not

meet collectively, and leader makes decision alone.

Consultative ll

(Cll)

Leader shares problem with group members collectively, but

makes decision alone

Group ll (Gll) Leader meets with group to discuss situation. Leader focuses

and directs discussion, but does not impose will. Group

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makes final decision.

CONTEMPORARY THEORIES

Transformational theories

Transformational leadership is a process in which the leaders take actions to try to

increase their associates' awareness of what is right and important, to raise their

associates' motivational maturity and to move their associates to go beyond the

associates' own self-interests for the good of the group, the organization, or society.

The transformational leader (Burns, 1978) motivates its team to be effective and

efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the

final desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of

command to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big picture,

needing to be surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always

looking for ideas that move the organization to reach the company’s vision.

.

Female leadership

Women’s management style, which centres around communication and positive

working relationship, is better suited that men’s to the team-oriented leadership of the

21 century.

Better social skills

Better communicators

Keep people informed

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Put the success of the team first

Use influencing skills rather that authority

Better team players

Women may be better at managing a diverse workforce

Less traditional values

More tolerant of differences

Less bound by social traditions

Women are better at motivating others:

More readily show appreciation for the efforts of others

More enthusiastically

Comparison of the 4 theories

Trait theories This describes the various personalities and qualities that a good

leader should possess.

Behaviourist

theories

These concentrates on what leaders actually do rather than on their

qualities. Different patterns of behaviour are observed and

categorised as styles of leadership.

Situational

theories and

Contingency

theories

These approaches see leadership as specific to the situation in

which it is being exercised. It also proposes that there may be

differences in required leadership styles at different levels in the

same organisation.

Contemporaries

theories

The role of leadership is envisioning and implementing the

transformational of organisational performance.

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Application of Situational theory in personal experience

Due to the situations at my workplace, I would have opted for the situational theory, that

is, a combination of Fiedler, Vroom – Yeton and Jago theories for many reasons.

The working environment at my workplace is very friendly and out-going. However, the

leader often misuses his power by delegating his workload to some subordinates.

According to Fiedler’s theory, the job description of every employee should be well-

structured and this includes that of the leader as well. However, by delegating his share

of work that is not found on their job description, he is adding pressures on the

employees. Fiedler and Vroom opined that the leader should assume his responsibility

and not to discriminate between his employees to avoid negative reactions on their part.

Moreover, according to my own experience, the Situational theory seems best to my

workplace, as it allows decision to be taken according to the real business

circumstances, thus facilitating the achievement of organisational goal.

CONCLUSION

In an organization, the achievements of company goals rely a lot on the type of

leadership and the team. In other words, equilibrium between corporate goals and the

way of supporting the team is important. The main function of a leader is to encourage

the team to accomplish challenging duties and maintain its balance and reward them as

required.

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QUESTION 2

Tuckman’s theoretical model identifies different stages of group development. Describe

these different stages and explain how identification of these different stages can

enhance group efficiency.

Tuckman’s model

To limit consequences which might arise in the team development, Bruce Tuckman

developed a simple, yet elegant four stage model to help explain typical team

development and related behaviour. Each of the following stages must be completed

before a team can move on to the next point of their development. Such stages are:

Forming

Storming

Norming

Performing

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Forming stage

This is the stage where the group will be coming together for the first time. During this

“ice-breaking period” stage, group members tend to be uncertain and anxious about

such things as their roles and the group’s goals. Mutual trust is low, and there is a good

deal of holding back to see who takes charge and how. The rules and behaviour seems

to keep things simple and to avoid controversy.

How does the forming stage help in the enhancement of group efficiency?

This particular stage is concerned with the orientation of the task. Indeed, member

attempt to become oriented to the task as well as to one another. To grow from this

stage to the next, each member must relinquish the comfort of non-threatening topics

and risk the possibility of conflict.

Storming

Once group members feel sufficiently safe and included, they tend to enter the Storming

phase. Participants focus less on keeping their guard up as they shed social facades,

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becoming more authentic and more argumentative. Group members begin to explore

their power and influence. It is not unusual for group members to become defensive,

competitive, or jealous.

How does the storming stage help in the enhancement of group efficiency?

At this stage group members are becoming more authentic as they express their

deeper thoughts and feelings. During this chaotic period, a great deal of creative

energy that was previously buried is released and available for use. This is an

excellent time to know one another and move from a “testing and proving” mentality to a

problem-solving mentality.

Norming

Groups that make it through stage 2 generally do so because a respected member

other than the leader, challenges the group to resolve its power struggles so something

can be accomplished. A feeling of team spirit is experienced because members believe

they have found their proper roles.

How does the norming stage help in the enhancement of group efficiency?

In the norming stage, interpersonal relations are characterised by cohesion. The focus

of each individual is on “how can I help the group?” because of this, there is increased

cohesion and more collaboration. Trust begins to emerge and differences are

appreciated. The issues become how to strengthen relationships, open

communication and provide positive and constructive feedback.

Performing

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In this stage, people can work independently with equal facility. Their roles and

authorities dynamically adjust to interdependence in personal relations and problem

solving in the realm of task functions.

How does the performing stage help in the enhancement of group efficiency?

By now, the group should be the most productive. Individual member are both highly

task oriented and highly people oriented. The task function becomes genuine

problem solving, leading toward optimal solutions and optimum group

development. The overall goal is productivity through problem solving and work.

It was only ten years later that Tuckman decided to refined his theory an added a fifth

one known as Adjoining state. This occurs when a team breaks up, sometimes when

the task is completed successfully. If a group fulfils its purpose, everyone can move on

to new things, feeling good about what’s been accomplished. However, many members

may feel a compelling sense of loss.

How to make the adjourning stage a success?

A planned conclusion usually includes recognition for participation and achievement and

an opportunity for members to say personal goodbyes. The ritual to independence can

be eased to ritual celebration “the end” and “new beginnings.

Disadvantages

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One limitation of the model may be that it makes team building appear linear and

sequential. Actually, we must remember that some teams may “loop” around in their

development. For example, not all teams evolve smoothly and may yo-yo between

norming and storming until they either begin to function or are disbanded.

Conclusion

In a conclusive note, the Tuckman model provides a useful and simple way to think

about how humans interact in team situations. It illustrates that it is normal for teams to

go through different stages as they develop. It also highlights the need to manage

different aspects of team behaviour at each stage of that development.

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QUESTION 3

The process theories of motivation focus on how the employee is motivated. Explain

how managers can use these theories to enable employee job satisfaction.

What is motivation?

Motivation is the act or process of providing a motive that causes a person to take some

actions. Many theories have been developed to help managers to tackle the

motivational problems. This essay is to going to focus more on the process theories of

motivation.

What is the process theories of motivation?

Process theories describe the process through which needs are translated into

behaviour. They attempt to identify the variable that go into motivation and their

relationship with each other. Focus on the thought or cognitive processes that take

place within the minds of people and that act to influence their behaviour.

A process approach probes further to identify how this need leads the person to behave

in particular ways relative rewards and work opportunities. The major process theories

of motivation are equity theory, expectancy theory and reinforcement theory.

What is meant by equity theory?

The equity theory focuses on individuals' perceptions of how fairly they are treated in

comparison to others. It was developed by J. Stacy Adams, who found that equity exists

when people consider their compensation equal to the compensation of others who

perform similar work. People judge equity by comparing inputs (such as education,

experience, effort, and ability) to outputs (such as pay, recognition, benefits, and

promotion).

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When the ratio is out of balance, inequity occurs. And inequitable pay can create an

impossible situation when implementing salary and incentive systems. According to Daft

(1997), Individuals will work to reduce perceived inequity by doing the following:

Change inputs: increasing or reducing effort.

Change outcomes: requesting a salary increase or improved working conditions.

Distort perceptions: This occurs when individuals cannot change their inputs or

outcomes; one example is artificially increasing the importance of awards.

Leave the job: Individuals might do this rather than experience what they

perceive to be continued inequity.

How to implement this theory into job satisfaction?

When administering compensation and incentive programs, managers must be careful

to assure that the rewards are equitable; if programs are not perceived as equitable,

then they will not contribute to employee motivation. Managers must also help

employees to develop their own personal development plan and encourage feedback

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from them. The implementation of rewards and share of recognition scheme show

employees that their good performance has been noticed and shared.

What is the expectancy theory?

The expectancy theory of motivation is suggested by Victor Vroom and does not

concentrate on the needs but rather on outcomes. Vroom hypothesises that in order for

a person to be motivated, effort, performance and motivation must be linked. He

proposes three variables to account for this, which he calls expectancy, instrumentality,

and valence.

Expectancy refers to the fact that employees have different expectations and

levels of confidence about what they are capable of doing. Hence, organisation

must try to discover what resources, training, or supervision, employees need

and provide them with what they need.

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Instrumentality has to do with the perception of employees concerning whether

they will get what they desire. In this situation, organisations must ensure that

promises of rewards are fulfilled and that employees are aware of that.

Valence refers to the emotional orientations people hold with repect to outcomes.

The important thing is that organisations must discover what employees value

and provide them with what they value.

How to implement this theory into job satisfaction?

1. Determine the rewards that each employee values. To be motivators, rewards

must be based on each employee's values. Managers can determine which

rewards their subordinates want by observing their behaviors and by asking

them.

2. Clearly identify the desired level of performance. Managers must clearly

articulate, both to themselves and to subordinates, what it takes to be rewarded

lt is desirable for managers and subordinates to mutually agree on the types and

levels of performance expected.

3. Make sure that performance levels are attainable. If employees believe that

management has set unattainable performance levels, their motivation will be

low.

4. Link rewards and performance. To maintain or increase motivation, managers

must clearly link rewards and performance.

5. Make sure that rewards are adequate. Minor rewards act as minor motivators.

The expectancy model has limitations, which managers must recognize.

What is meant by the reinforcement theory?

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Theories of reinforcement are based not on need but on the relationship between

behaviour and its consequences.

If the results are considered positive, then the behaviour is positively reinforced. And

when behaviour is ignored, the behaviour tends to go away or become extinct. The four

types of reinforcement are the following (Daft, 1997):

Positive reinforcement : The application of a pleasant and rewarding

consequence following a desired behaviour, such as giving praise.

Negative reinforcement : The removal of an unpleasant consequence following a

desired behaviour. This reinforcement is also called avoidance.

Punishment : The application of an unpleasant outcome when an undesirable

behaviour occurs to reduce the likelihood of that behaviour happening again.

This form of reinforcement does not indicate a correct behaviour, so its use in

business is not usually appropriate.

Extinction : The withdrawal of a positive reward. If the behaviour is no longer

positively reinforced, then it is less likely to occur in the future and it will gradually

disappear.

How can manager use the reinforcement theory to enable job satisfaction?

To implement the reinforcement theory in an organisation, Luthans (1995) developed

five steps which managers should follow in order to enhance motivation.

1. Identify those behaviours which will help in the success of job

performance.

2. Measure how often employees get engaged in these behaviours.

3. Analyse the activator of these behaviours so that managers can

implement conditions to encourage such behaviours and determined

whether such behaviours are helping in achieving the organisational

‘success.

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4. Develop an Intervention Strategy to use positive and negative

reinforcement to increase the frequency of the desired behaviours.

5. Evaluate the difference between employees’ behaviour before and after

the reinforcement.

Conclusion

In a conclusive note, it can be said that to motivate their employees, managers should

enquire about their needs to know the type of motivators that can spurn the employees

to get the best out of them. Employees must feel that they are being treated fairly and

equitably in an organisation to be more efficient.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Daft, Richard L. (1997). Management , 4th ed. Orlando, Fl.: Harcourt Brace.

Luthans, Fred. (1995) Organisational Behaviour, (7th edition) New York, New York:

McGrwHill, Inc.

McCoy, Thomas J. (1992). Compensation and Motivation: Maximizing Employee

Performance with Behavior-Based Incentive Plans. New York: AMACOM, a division

of American Management Association.

Maslow, Abraham H. (1998). Toward a Psychology of Being, 3d Ed. New York: Wiley.

Smit, P.J. and de J. Cronje, G.J. (2002) Management Principles: A Contemporary

Edition for Africa (3rd edition) Epping, Cape Town: Juta and Co, Ltd.

Drucker, Peter (1973) Management. Tasks, responsibilities and Practices New York,

NY: Harper and Row

Unknown sources

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