BUSINESS RESEARCH Lecture 8 Collecting qualitative data © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 1 Business Research

BUSINESS RESEARCH

Lecture 8

Collecting qualitative

data

© Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 1Business Research

Business Research 2

Learning objectives

After studying this topic, you should be able to Describe methods based on interviews Describe methods based on diaries Describe methods based on observation Compare the strengths and weaknesses of methods Choose a method that reflects your paradigm

Independent study Study Chapter 8 Activities and progress test as set

© Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

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Introduction

It is the research data rather than the method of collection that can be described as quantitative (numerical) or qualitative (non-numerical)

Data can be primary (new) or secondary (existing) Interpretivists will want to collect qualitative data Positivists may also collect some which they will later

quantify, especially if they use methodological triangulation (see Chapter 5)

You need to describe and justify the method(s) you use to collect your research data in your methodology chapter


Data collection in the context of the research process

© Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research 4

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Interviews

An interview is ‘ a method for collecting primary data in which a sample of interviewees are asked questions to find out what they think, do or feel’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 144)

Interviews can be conducted with individuals or groups, using face-to-face, telephone, email or video conferencing methods Interpretivists prefer unstructured interviews

(questions not planned in advance) and open questions

Positivists use structured interviews with closed questions© Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Interviews - Advantages and problems

Advantages You can ask complex questions and use probes

Potential problems Access to participants (interpretivists) or to a

representative sample (positivists) Cost (time, expense) and risk (personal security) Permission to record data (audio, video, notes) Concerns about confidentiality/anonymity Interviewee wearing more than one hat Interviewer bias (no approval/disapproval) Ensuring stimulus equivalence (positivists)


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Critical incident technique

Interviews are not merely idle conversations - you are trying to get in-depth and authentic knowledge

One way to do this is to use critical incident technique (Flanagan, 1954), which is ‘a method for collecting data about a defined activity or event based on the participant’s recollections of key facts’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p.147) Interpretivists use it in unstructured interviews Positivists use it in structured interviews or

questionnaires


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Example of critical incident techniqueResearch problem: Access to finance

Please think about an occasion when the business was seeking finance How much was required and for what purpose? Can you tell me what happened from the beginning?

Probes Did you seek any advice? If so, at what stage, from whom

and what advice did you receive? How did you select the potential source(s) of finance? What information were you asked to supply? Were any applications unsuccessful? If so, what were the

reasons?© Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Exercise 1Critical incident technique

What are the advantages and potential problems of using critical incident technique?

Jot down a few notes


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Solution 1Critical incident technique

Advantages Simple to use Creates focus as interviewee talks about issues in the

context of his or her experience and discourages interviewee from talking about hypothetical situations

Potential problems Interviewee’s reason for choosing the event is not known Important facts may have been forgotten Post-rationalisation may have taken place (the interviewee

recounts the events with a degree of logic and coherence that did not exist at the time)


Protocol analysis (Clarkson, 1962)

Protocol analysis is ‘a method for collecting data used to identify a practitioner’s mental processes in solving a problem in a particular situation, including the logic and methods used’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 148) The researcher gives a written problem to a practitioner

who is experienced in that field As the practitioner addresses the problem, he or she gives

verbal explanations which are recorded by the researcher

A protocol is a transcript of the verbalization



Protocol analysisAdvantages and problems

Advantages Reduces the risk of interviewer bias Reduces the possibility of omitting potentially important

areas or aspects Technique is open-ended and flexible

Potential problems Time-consuming and labour intensive (Bolton, 1991) Retrospective verbalization does not represent a real-time

situation, but rather an action replay (Day, 1986) Concurrent verbalization may be too time-consuming as

the researcher must maintain a continuous presence© Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009

Repertory grid technique (Kelly, 1955)

Repertory grid technique is ‘a method based on personal construct theory that generates a mathematical representation of a participant’s perceptions and constructs’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p.150) during a structured interview A grid is generated using the interviewee’s notions of the

concepts under discussion (the elements) and attributes of the elements (the constructs)

Interpretivists get a mental map of how each interviewee views the world and can interpret the emerging patterns

Positivists collect quantitative data for statistical analysis


Procedure for constructing a repertory grid

Determine the focus of the grid Determine the elements in advance or agree them with the

interviewee (approx 5 – 10) Write each element on a separate card Decide whether to use 2 cards (dyads) or 3 (triads) and

randomly select the appropriate number of cards Ask the interviewee to provide a word/phrase that describes

each similarity or difference between pairs of elements and use these words as the constructs on the grid

Explain the rating scale (eg 5 = high, 1 = low) Ask the interviewee to indicate the number closest to his/her

view and explain the reason© Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research 14

An employee’s constructs of organizational systemsAdapted from Dunn and Ginsberg (1986, p. 964)

Constructs Elements

(Rated on a scale of 1 – 7)

Inventory management system

Strategic planning system

Office automation

Decision support system

Quality working circle

Collateral organization

Technical quality

6 5 4 2 1 3

Cost 2 1 4 6 5 3

Challenge to status quo

6 1 2 4 5 3

Actionability 1 6 2 4 5 3

Evaluability 6 1 2 5 4 3


Exercise 2Repertory grid technique

The structured and quantitative approach of repertory grid technique gives rise to controversy over its suitability for an interpretive study

In addition to recording the interviewee’s rating scores on the grid, what else might an interpretivist want to record to support his or her interpretation of the grid?


Solution 2Repertory grid technique

Ask the interviewee to generate the elements and constructs, but also to explain why they have chosen each element and what each construct means

Ask the interviewee to explain why he or she has given a particular rating score to each pairing

Record all stages (audio and notes)



Diary methods

A diary is ‘a method of collecting data where selected participants are asked to record relevant information in diary forms or booklets over a specified period of time (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 152) A log is a detailed record of time spent on activities

(preferred by positivists) A diary is a descriptive record of participant’s daily life A diary-interview is where detailed questions are

developed from the diary and used as the basis of an in-depth interview with the diarist (Plummer, 1983)



Diary methodsAdvantages and disadvantages

Advantages Greater coverage of types and locations of participants Participants classify their activities, rather than an

observer who may not have the technical knowledge All time can be recorded, rather than when an observer is

present

Potential problems Selecting participants who can express themselves well Providing encouragement over the record-keeping period Risk of recording bias by participants Comparison may be difficult if sample is not homogenous


Observation

Observation is ‘a method for collecting data used in a laboratory or natural setting to observe and record people’s actions and behaviour’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 154) Non-participant observation (researcher is not involved) Participant observation (researcher is fully involved)

Potential problems Access, ethics, cost/time, how to record the data Demand characteristics (effect of researcher’s presence) Researcher bias (eg one observer interprets action

differently from a co-researcher)© Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 Business Research 20

Focus groups

A focus group is ‘a method for collecting data whereby selected participants discuss their reactions and feelings about a product, service, situation or concept, under the guidance of a group leader (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 155) Group leader facilitates discussion of a prepared list of

topics using broad open questions, visual displays Assistant records what is said and by whom

(audio, video, notes)


Focus groupsAdvantages and disadvantages

Advantage of focus groups is that they combine interviewing and observation and can be used to Develop knowledge of a new phenomenon Generate propositions from the issues that emerge Develop questions for a survey Obtain feedback on the findings of research in which the

focus group members participated

Potential problems Selecting a range of participants, choosing a venue,

ensuring issues are covered in sufficient depth, recording Cost/time


Grounded theory

Grounded theory is ‘a methodology in which a systematic set of procedures is used to develop an inductively derived theory about phenomena’ (Collis and Hussey, 2009, p. 157) Used where there is no theory to explain the phenomena

‘Joint collection, coding and analysis of data is the underlying operation. The generation of theory, coupled with the notion of theory as process, requires that all three operations be done together as much as possible’ (Glaser and Strauss, 1967, p. 43)


Grounded theoryAdvantages and disadvantages

Advantages Any data collection method associated with an interpretive

paradigm can be used in a grounded theory methodology

Potential problems It is hard to rid yourself of the boundaries imposed by prior

theory but you need to have an open mind (imagine you are observing the Olympic Games from another planet and trying to make sense of what you see)

Limited generalization as the resulting substantive models relate only to the particular context and research setting


Conclusions

You can collect primary or secondary research data Do not collect any data until you have decided on

your method of analysis Your methods must have a good fit with your paradigm

and methodology, be feasible and allow you to investigate your research questions

You will justify your choice in your methodology chapter

It is not possible to give a full description of the main methods introduced in this lecture

Now read Chapter 8


Documents

BUSINESS RESEARCH Lecture 8 Collecting qualitative data © Jill Collis and Roger Hussey, 2009 1 Business Research