BUSS2000 notes

THEME 1: UNDERSTANDING YOURSELF

Lecture 1 Theme 1: Understanding yourself

• Individual differences • Motivation and goal setting • Career goals, values and ethics

1. Individual differences

• You will learn how we, as individuals, differ in terms of what we think, feel, and how we behave. We will examine prominent theories of human behaviour and discuss how people differ in terms of cognitive ability, personality, and emotional intelligence.

2. Motivation and goal setting

• You will learn about the importance of your motivation, or simply, what gets you started on something and what keeps you going. We will discuss the concept of motivation, prominent theories of motivation, and different types of motivation.

3. Career goals, values and ethics

• You will gain an understanding of how your career goals, values and ethics are important for your career. We will discuss some theories of careers and the importance of setting SMART career goals, before learning about how our personal values and ethics might affect our behaviours and interactions at work.

Module 2: Individual differences

- How can use our differences to improve the fit between people and work, and types of work where you will thrive - Examines how people are similar and different in their thinking and behaviour

Lecture overview:

1. Theories of human behaviour a. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic approach b. Behaviourism and B.F. Skinner’s reinforcement theory c. Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory

2. Cognitive ability a. Hierarchical model of cognitive ability b. Myths vs research findings

3. Personality a. Models of personality b. Personality at work

4. Emotional intelligence a. Models of EI b. EI abilities

1. THEORIES OF HUMAN BEHAVIOUR – who we are, what we are and why we do things

a. Sigmund Freud’s psychoanalytic approach to human behaviour

The basic assumption of Freud's psychoanalytic approach is that people behave the way they do because of their inner psyche, which consists of three interacting parts: the Id, the Ego, and the Superego.

• Basic approach is that people behave the way they do because of their inner psyche, which contains three parts;

o The Id; § The completely unconscious,

impulsive part that represents our primal desires and basic nature § Operates on pleasure principle – driving us to seek immediate satisfaction § The infant is the perfect example of the Id, it doesn’t reflect on what it needs it simply wants and

screams for these to be fulfilled o The Ego;

§ The conscious, rational grown-up self that enables us to reason and exert self-control § The part of the psyche that is usually reflected directly in our actions

o The Superego; § The moral regulator of our behaviour § Influenced by our philosophical and spiritual ideals and leads the quest for perfection § Is culturally influenced and tells us what we should and shouldn’t do § Also punishes us with guilt when we do the wrong thing

• According to Freud, there is conflict between these three parts, which leads to tension o Eg. Imagine the anxiety you would feel if you get last minute tickets to a sporting event or a concert on

the same day your boss wants you to organise and attend an important meeting. • Issues with the psychoanalytic approach:

o Unscientific, with many of his assumptions and ideas being untestable or having no basis or support in scientific research

b. Behaviourism and B. F. Skinner’s reinforcement theory (operant conditioning)

In direct contrast to the psychoanalytic approach, which has been criticized as a pseudoscience based on unobservable, internal processes that are open to highly subjective, unscientific interpretation, the second major approach to understanding human behaviour is behaviourism. Watch the three videos below to learn about how behaviourism and Skinner’s reinforcement theory explain human behaviour.

• According to reinforcement theory, the key determinants of behaviour are stimulus -> response -> reward

(definitions above) o Reward – something of value that a person receives after performing a desired response

§ Punishment could be no reward

• Issues with behaviourism: o People’s behaviour not only driven by external stimuli o People behave in many different, complex ways and many aspects of behaviour are inconsistent with the

behaviourist assumptions o The complexity of human behaviour is evidenced in the many different types of responses that different

people might have after receiving positive or negative feedback beyond simply repetition or extinction of the behaviour as predicted by the theory

• Some possible responses to negative feedback: o Exerting more effort and repeating the behaviour o Altering one’s goals o Defend or deny behaviour o Change behaviour o Give up or ask others to fix the issue

• Depending on both person and situation and environment • In summary, behaviourism is unable to explain the range of human behaviours that is possible and our behaviours

are influenced not just by environmental events but also by our internal thoughts and goals, etc.

c. Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory The third prominent theory of human behaviour is Albert Bandura’s social cognitive theory. According to this theory, a person's behaviour is influenced by both:

o his or her environment and o their personal characteristics, including their personality, values, goals, etc.

This model is called triadic reciprocal determinism (TRD).

• Triadic because there are three factors (personal, environment and behaviours factors). • Reciprocal because there is a two-way, mutual influence between each pair of factors. • Determinism because each factor influences, or determines, the others.

• Widely accepted that human behaviour is a product of both personal and situational/environmental factors • This model provides a useful framework for understanding the complex interaction between the personal,

psychological and environmental factors that culminate in human behaviour • It is the model that is mostly used – especially in this course

2. Cognitive ability Cognitive ability – the capacity to learn, reason, problem solve, plan, think abstractly, and comprehend complex ideas (Arvey et al., 1995)

a. Hierarchical model of cognitive ability

• At the very top, we have the general cognitive ability or ‘g’ o Some think g is what drives our overall ability to solve problems while others think of it as simply the

sum total of all of our abilities o What sits under is a broad spectrum of cognitive abilities o Shows why some people are better at some tasks than others, also shows how different people may

have unique strengths and weaknesses in terms of their cognitive ability - Frank Schmidt and John Hunter researched individual differences and job performance

• Found that cognitive ability was the single strongest predictor of performance in a very broad range of jobs

• Some common predictors of job performance • Can see that cognitive ability are the winners

b. Cognitive ability: myths vs research findings of cognitive ability in the workplace • Myth 1: “Cognitive ability … only matters in

complex jobs” o In other words, in some simple jobs,

cognitive ability wouldn’t make any difference

o Turns out not true. John Hunter looked at how well cognitive ability predicts job performance in over 500 different organisational role and found no significant differences.

o Chart shows relationship between cognitive ability and job performance on various types of jobs ranking in different complexities. Shows that all were positive relationship. That people with high cognitive ability tended to perform more highly, but were highest for high complexity jobs.

• Myth 2: “All you need well… is a certain amount – any more does not help”

o Myth that having more cognitive ability than a certain ‘magical’ amount won’t help you perform any better

o This is also wrong. A study of military personnel suggested that performance accelerates as cognitive ability approaches very high levels.

o Shows that difference in the slopes as cognitive ability increases is very subtle but it is reliable. • Important to note that cognitive ability is still only one part of a very complex puzzle

3. Individual differences in personality What is personality? Personality refers to a person’s unique and relatively stable set of characteristics or patterns of behaviour, thoughts, and emotions (Funder, 2012). There are three basic beliefs underpinning personality theories:

1. Personality traits, characteristics, and dispositions are relatively stable and enduring. - Disposition and personality usually matures and stabilises around the age of 30 – then 2. They are major determinants of one’s behaviour. - Eg. Introverted person will likely be withdrawn and maintain unassertive behaviour

3. They are likely to influence behaviours across a wide variety of situations and how a person adjust to different environments.

- Eg. Introverted person will likely be withdrawn and maintain unassertive behaviour at work, a party or at social gatherings

Are situational or personal factors more important? - Depends on strength of personality and situation - Personality strength

o Extroverts and introverts - Situation strengths

o Weak situations = few norms § There is wider latitude of acceptable behaviours (eg. At party, at home) § In weak situations, an individual’s personality tends to become more apparent because there are

less situational constraints o Strong situations = rigid norms about how people should behave (eg. Funeral)

§ People tend to act in a similar manner to each other, regardless of personality Behaviour is a function of both the personality-situation interaction:

a. Personality models i) Personality type models, e.g., MBTI for learning & development

One very popular model is the concept of personality types. You might have come across personality types before, such as the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI), which classifies people as one of 16 types. MBTI is very popular with over 2.5 million people taking the test annually and 89 of the Fortune 100 companies using it in some form (Gladwell, 2004; Hoffman, 2002). Although the MBTI is widely used, there is little evidence supporting its reliability and validity. Therefore, most researchers prefer to use a trait-based model of personality, with the dominant model of personality commonly referred to as the 'Big Five'. Watch the next video to learn about trait-based models of personality including the Big Five and HEXACO models.

ii) Trait-based models of personality:

• People differ in terms of where they sit on these dimensions • The dominant trait-based models of personality is the Big Five and it suggests that people’s personality can be

summarised by 5 independent traits. • These traits are:

o Conscientiousness § Refers to degree an individual is well organised and use disciplined ways to achieve goals § They tend to be reliable, possess a drive for success, focusses on completing tasks, and thinks

before acting o Emotional stability

§ Refers to the extent to which an individual easily handles stressful situations and heavy demands § Is relaxed and slow to feel anger, rarely becomes discouraged and handles crisis well

o Extraversion § Refers to the degree an individual enjoys being around people § Is warm to others, speaks up in group settings, likes excitement and generally cheerful

o Agreeableness § Reflects the degree of which an individual is easy going and tolerant § Willing to help others, dislikes conflict and is sensitive to the feelings of others

o Openness to experience § This indicates the extent to which an individual seeks to new experiences, thinks creatively, has a

vivid imagination, has an appreciation of art and beauty, values and respects self and others, prefers variety rather than routine and has broad intellectual curiosity

• Shown that Big Five demonstrates performance o A 2002 review found that personality accounts

for 5% of performance while the other 95% of performance is unaccounted for by personality

o Strong evidence that among Big 5 personality factors, that conscientiousness is the single, best predictor of overall job performance across all job categories

o Conscientiousness also found to be a valid predictor of job performance.

o Evidently efficient, organised and achievement-oriented individuals would do well

• Big Five Factor is the dominant model of personality but it is not without its critiques: 1. The model is entirely descriptive rather than explanatory. It only describes personality, it doesn’t explain why

people are the way they are. 2. Also questioned whether we have the right numbers of factors.

• HEXACO

o An emerging personality factor that is gaining influence is the HEXACO model which is a 6-trait model. This model adds a sixth personality trait to the Big 5 called Honesty-Humility

o Humility is when a person has an accurate assessment of both his and her strengths and weaknesses

§ Self-awareness; not being depressed by finding out a weakness of yourself o This idea that we vary in humiliation and that this humiliation matters came when researchers observed

that individuals that are intellectually humble have a constant desire to learn and improve. They embrace ambiguity and the unknown, they like getting new information. They even enjoy finding they are wrong and when they are in trouble, they are more accepting of help. Also found that humble college students have higher academic achievement.

§ One of the obstacles to intellectual humility has to do with the way a person thinks about the nature of intelligence more broadly.

§ Fixed vs growth mind-set – Carol Dweck – believes that everyone is born with a certain amount of intelligence and that because of this, there is little point of trying to improve yourself.

• Fixed mindset + high IQ = arrogant? (may think they know everything so may inadvertently hold themselves back from learning more)

• Fixed mindset + low IQ = defeatist? (dampens their drive to success) § Humble leaders prioritise the organisation success rather than their own

• Have lower employee turnover, higher employee satisfaction, higher company performance

b. Personality models • Can influence:

o work performance o organisational choice o career choice o career satisfaction

• may indicate these things, but not how capable we are – can simply use these to know what path to take, eg. What job to take, which situations are we capable of, etc

• for example, there is evidence that individuals who score lower in emotional stability, in other words, are more anxious, are more linked to lower complexity jobs 1. And even career success – by influencing the jobs people select!

o People would tend to select jobs that match their personality. 2. Personality Predictors of job performance

o Eg. Conscientious people work harder, they aim higher, get compensated higher, take on more job responsibility, get promoted, etc

3. By influencing the ways individuals engage in social interactions at work o Getting along with boss, increasing chances of career success

4. Emotional intelligence What is emotional intelligence (EI)? EI is the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information to guide one’s thinking and actions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p. 189).

• Found that great leaders manage their and others’ emotions well • EI crucial for organisational success

A person with high EI has:

1. Strong self-awareness – they are aware of their own emotions as they experience them 2. Accurately detect emotions in others 3. Able to use this (own emotions and other’s emotions) to manage interactions with others so that they can

influence how they and others feel There are three main assumptions underpinning the concept of EI:

1. Emotions play an important role in life and work. 2. People vary in their ability to perceive, understand, use, and manage emotions. 3. These differences affect individual adaptation in a range of contexts, including the workplace. • “The ability to monitor one’s own and others’ emotions, to discriminate among them, and to use the information

to guide one’s thinking and actions (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p. 189).

Two main models of EI: 1. Mixed models

o EI as a diverse construct, including aspects of personality (eg. Emotional stability) and ability o Performance related traits; Emotional & social competencies

2. Ability-based models o EI as an ability or aptitude for processing affective information o Sees ability in its own right – this model focuses on the idea that we vary in our aptitude for processing

affective or emotion-based information. • Both approaches have some validity

General consensus that EI has four main abilities and that each ability builds on the previous one (ie. Need the first level to have second level, etc):

1. Self-awareness o the ability to accurately perceive your own emotions and be aware of them as they happen o you understand what makes you angry, your strengths and weaknesses o you understand what you feel, why you feel and what makes you feel o if you understand your emotions, you can understand its impact on you and those around you o these emotions come in rush, so the ability to recognise them is an important skill

2. Self-management o Being able to manage your emotions and impulses o Able to use your awareness of your emotions to direct your behaviours o Also ability to generate, use and feel the emotions you need to communicate to be in charge of what you

say and do. o Once you recognise all the emotions you are feeling, self-management is being able to assess the

situation and deciding which one you show and how you show it. 3. Social awareness

o Ability to perceive and understand the emotions of others and to see things from other people’s point of view

o Picking up emotions of others to see what is really going on for them 4. Relationship management

o Ability to manage other people’s emotions and to use your awareness of your emotions and others to manage the interactions successfully.

o Your capacity to manage relationships by regulating your own emotions and by being aware of others’ emotions

o Eg. Noticing there is tension but being able to appease it

• Relational management – emotional management (yourself); Social awareness – Emotional understanding

(others) • Can influence:

o Interactions with friends o Customer satisfaction o Commitment to organisation

• EI predicts academic performance, and is associated with a 10 to 12 % increase in grades at University. • However, it is not as clearly related to performance at work as personality and intelligence.

Why does EI matter?

• Many research published on EI since concept was first introduced in 1990 • Predicts academic performance and shows 10-12% increase in grades at uni • Low EI also shown to relate to bullying, violence and drug problems • High EI showed quality interactions with friends, customers and commitment to an organisation • These findings are significant even when researcher hold other individual differences such as personality and

intelligence constant. o So EI is a distinct type of individual difference

• However, EI unlike personality differences are not as clearly related to performance at work o But still important because:

§ Like personality, you may want to include EI as a factor in your decision making about your career choice.

§ EI may be important for long-term leadership skills for career success. EI is more malleable than personality so can improve on this.