BWY DIPLOMA COURSEUNIT 1 WORKSHEETS

These Worksheets should be used in conjunction with the Resource Book:

"The Concise Human Body Book "Pub: Dorling Kindersley

ISBN : 978-1-4053-4041-0

Other Anatomy and Physiology books you may have& the A&P information sheet sent to you by your course tutor

© British Wheel of Yoga January 2003

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

UNIT 1 WORKSHEETS

INDEX OF CONTENTS

1. Worksheet W.1.1.A (i) The Skeletal System - Part 1

2. Worksheet W.1.1.A (ii) The Skeletal System - Part 2

3. Worksheet W.1.1.B (i) The Muscular System - Part 1

4. Worksheet W.1.1.B (ii) The Muscular System - Part 2

5. Worksheet W.1.1.C The Cardio-vascular System

6. Worksheet W.1.1.D The Respiratory System

7. Worksheet W.1.1.E The Kinesiology of Yoga Postures

8. Worksheet W.1.2 Precautions and Prohibitions

9. Guidance Notes for Tutors Not included in Student version

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Name: Paul Wigley………………….…………………………

Date: …October 2009……………………………………………

BWY Diploma Course Unit 1

W.1.1A (i) - The Skeletal System – Part I

1. Read pages 39-41

2. The skeletal system is an essential part of our physical body. Give seven reasons why.

(i)Supports the body: all body tissues (apart from cartilage and bone) are soft so without the skeleton the body would be jelly-like and could not standup. The bones and their arrangement give the body it’s shape.

(ii)Allows and enables movement. This happens as a result of the coordinated action of muscles on bones and joints. Bones are, therefore leavers for muscles.

(iii)Protects delicate body organs e.g. the cranium, or skull, is a hard shell surrounding the soft brain and the thoracic cage (ribs and sternum) covers the heart and the lungs.

(iv)Forms blood cells (in the red bone marrow)

(v)Forms joints, which are essential for the movement of the body.

(vi)Provides attachment for the muscles, which move the joints: muscles are attached to the bones and pull them into different positions, thus moving the body.

(vii)Provides a store of calcium salts and phosphorus, which can be released when needed for essential metabolic processes like muscle contraction and the conduction of nerve impulses.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Tutor assessed:

W.1.1A(i) - Skeletal System - Part I_____ ______________________2

3. There are 206 individual bones in the human body. They are classified according to their shape. Describe five different types and give one or two examples.

(i) Long Bones: The body’s levers, they allow movement, particularly in the limbs e.g. the femur (thigh bone) Tibia and Fibula (lower leg bone).

(ii) Short Bones: Strong and compact bones, usually grouped in parts of the body where little movement is required e.g. Tarsal (ankle Bone) Carpals (wrist bones).

(iii) Flat Bones: Protective bones with broad flat surfaces for muscle attachment e.g. Scapula (shoulder bone) Ribs.

(iv) Irregular Bones: Bones that do not fit into the above categories and have different characteristics e.g. Vertebrae, including the Sacrum and Coccyx (backbone) Mandible (jaw).

(v) Sesamoid Bones: Bones within Tendons. There are only two Sesamoid bones in the human body, the Patella (kneecap) and the Hyoid (base of the tongue). The Hyoid is sometimes classified as an irregular bone because it is attached by ligaments and not ‘floating’ in a tendon like the patella.

4. The vertebral column is divided into five different sections. Give the name of each section and the number of vertebrae in each.

(i) Cervical (7 bones) in the neck.

(ii) Thoracic (12 bones) carrying the ribs in the centre of the body.

(iii) Lumbar (5 bones) in the lower back.

(iv) Sacral (5 bones) in the pelvis fused to form the Sacrum.

(v) Coccygeal (4 bones) below the Sacrum, forming the Coccyx

5. What are the intervertebral discs made of?

Intervertebral discs are made of White Fibrocartilage, white fibres closely packed in dense masses; contains chondrocyte cells, extremely tough and slightly flexible.

Their function is to absorb shock

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

W.1.1A(i) - Skeletal System - Part I_____ ______________________3

6. Explain the terms :

(i) Kyphosis

(ii) Scoliosis

(iii) Lordosis

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

This is an abnormally increased outward curvature of the thoracic spine. In this condition the back appears round as the shoulders point forwards and the head moves forward.A tightening of the pectoral muscles is common in this condition.

This is a lateral curvature of the vertebral column, either to the left or right side. Evident signs of the condition include unequal leg length, distortion of the ribcage, unequal position of the hips or shoulders and curvature of the spine (usually in the thoracic region).

This is an abnormally increased inward curvature of the lumbar spine. In this condition the pelvis tilts forward and as the back is hollow the abdomen and the buttocks protrude and the knees may be hyperextended. Typical problems associated with this condition are tightening of the back muscles followed by a weakening of the abdominal muscles. Hamstring problems are common because of the anterior tilt of the pelvis. Increased weight gain or pregnancy may cause or exacerbate this condition.

W.1.1A(i) - Skeletal System - Part I_____ ______________________4

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

THE SKELETON (Anterior View)

(i) Fully label the diagram(ii) Colour the axial skeleton blue(iii) Colour the appendicular skeleton red

Cranium

Mandible

Sternum

Vertebral Column

Femur

Ilium

Clavicle

Humerus

Ulna

Radius

Fibula

Tibia

Patella

W.1.1A(i) - Skeletal System - Part I_____ ______________________5

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

THE SKELETON (Posterior View)

(i) Fully label the diagram(ii) Colour the axial skeleton blue(iii) Colour the appendicular skeleton red

Cranium

Scapula Femur

Ilium

Cervical Vertebrae

Humerus

Sacrum

Radius

Ulna

Femur

Fibula

Tibia

Coccyx

Name: ………………

Date: …October 09

BWY Diploma Course Unit 1W.1.1A(ii) - The Skeletal System – Part 2

7. A joint is formed when two or more bones come together. Describe the following joints and how much they can move. Give examples.

(i) Fixed or Fibrous Joints

These are immovable joints with tough fibrous tissue between the bones. Often the edges of the bones are dovetailed as in the sutures of the skull.

Examples include: the joints between the teeth and the maxilla and mandible of the jaw.

(ii) Slightly moveable or Cartilaginous Joints

These are slightly movable joints which have a pad of white fibrocartilage between the ends of the bones making the joints. The pad acts as a shock absorber.

Examples include: between the vertebrae of the spine and at the symphysis pubis in the pubis bone.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Tutor assessed:

Paul Wigley

W.1.1A(ii) Skeletal System - Part II _____ _ ____ _______ 2

8. Name the types of synovial joints illustrated. Simply describe their movement and draw a stylised diagram of the joint's movement. Say where they can be found in the

body. An example (wrist joint) is shown to get you started.

Name the type of jointDescribe the type of movement

and where the joint can be located

Stylised diagram of joint's movement

EXAMPLE - WRIST JOINT

Condyloid joint - allows movement in all directions but no rotation around its central action.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Hinge: e.g. Elbow, Knee, Ankle joints between phalanges of fingers and toes.

This type of joint is where the rounded surface of one bone fits the hollow surface of another bone. Movement is in one direction, flexion and extension

Ball and Socket: e.g. Shoulder and Hip Joint

Most movable of all Joints, it allows movement in many directions around a central point.Flexion, extension, adduction, abduction, rotation and cicumduction

W.1.1A(ii) Skeletal System - Part II________ _____ ______ 3

Name the type of jointDescribe the type of movement

and where the joint can be located

Stylised diagram of joint's movement

Saddle: found only between the phalanges of the thumb and its metacarpal.

Its articulating surface of bone have both rounded and hollow surfaces so that the surface of one bone fits the complementary surface of the other. Movement around the two axes allows flexion, extension, adduction, and circumduction.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Pivot: First two Cervical Vertebrae (Atlas and Axis) which allow the head to rotate.A pivot joint occurs where a process of bone rotates in a socket. One component is shaped like a ring and the other component is shaped so that it can rotate within the ring. Movement around one axis only and a rotary movement

W.1.1A(ii) Skeletal System - Part II_____ _______ _____ 4

9. Using kinesiology terms, name the different kinds of joints indicated on the diagram. (e.g. ball and socket, hinge, etc.)

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Ball and Socket

Hinge Joint

Ball and Socket

Slightly moveableOr

Cartilaginous joints

Fixed Or Fibrous joint

Synovial hinge joint

W.1.1A(ii) Skeletal System - Part II_____ _ ______ 5

10.The movements enabled by certain joints are illustrated below and on pages 6 and 7. In the appropriate boxes, name the type of movement shown, and draw a posture which uses this type of movement.

(i) MOVEMENTS OF THE SPINE

MOVEMENT MOVEMENT MOVEMENT MOVEMENT

POSTURE POSTURE POSTURE POSTURE

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Forward Bend

Flexion

Backward bend in spine or moving

arms or leg behind body

Backward Bend

Extension

Side Bend

Lateral Flexion

Pivot Twist

Rotation

BalasanaChild’s Pose TRIKONASANA

SIMPLE SEATED TWISTUshtrasana - The

Camel Pose

W.1.1A(ii) Skeletal System - Part II _____ _ ______ 6

4(ii) MOVEMENTS OF THE HIP

MOVEMENT MOVEMENT MOVEMENT MOVEMENT

Medial (inward) rotation of the leg at the

hip and eversion (outward movement) of

the foot at the ankle

POSTURE POSTURE POSTURE POSTURE

TRIKONASANA

MOVEMENT POSTURE

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Abduction – taking the leg away from the body’s midline

Adduction – taking the leg towards or across the body’s

midline

Flexion of the upper leg at the hip

Extension of the leg at the hip

PadmasanaLotus

Lateral (outward) rotation of the leg

at the hip, and flexion of the

lower leg at the knee

Garudasana

Mandukasana The Frog Pose

Virabhadrasana Warrior

Garudasana

W.1.1A(ii) Skeletal System - Part II_______ _______ ___________7

4(iii) MOVEMENTS OF THE ARM AND SHOULDER

EXAMPLE MOVEMENT POSTURE

Circumduction

Often used in preparatory movements or sequences

No example required

MOVEMENT MOVEMENT MOVEMENT MOVEMENT

POSTURE POSTURE POSTURE POSTURE

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Flexion of the lower arm and the elbow (arm

bent)

Extension of the lower arm at the

elbow (arm straight)

Pronation (palm down) of the lower arm at the elbow (rotation of ulna around radius)

Supination (palm up) of the lower arm at the elbow (rotation of ulna around radius)

SavasanaCorpse

Dwi Pada PithamTwo-Legged Table

MahamudraThe Great Seal

Sirshasana - The Head Stand

W.1.1A(ii) Skeletal System - Part II _____ _______ _____ 8

11.Briefly describe the following conditions you may come across in the yoga class associated with joints.

i) Arthritis

ii) Osteo-arthritis

iii) Rheumatoid arthritis

iv) Ankylosing spondylitis

v) Osteoporosis

vi) Prolapsed intervertebral disc (slipped-disc)

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Arthritis is an inflammation of the joints. Mono-articular arthritis is an inflammation of one joint and poly-arthritis is an inflammation of many. It can be acute or chronic:Acute: Symptoms are heat, redness and visible inflammation of the affected joints accompanied by severe pain.Chronic: involves the loss of cartilage, deposition of bone tissue around the joint margins and lesser degree of pain and inflammation.

Osteo-arthritis may affect only a single joint and can be triggered by localized wear and tear, resulting in painful inflammation from time to time. Joint degeneration may be hastened by congenital defect, injury, infection or obesity. Because cartilage normally wears away as the body ages, a mild form of osteo-arthritis affects many people after about the age of 60.

This form of arthritis develops when the immune system produces antibodies that attack its own body tissue – especially the Synovial membranes inside the joints. Joints become swollen and deformed, with painful and restricted movement.

This is a systemic joint disease characterized by inflammation of the Intervertebral; disc spaces, costo-vertebral and sacroiliac joints. Fibrosis, calcification, ossification and stiffening of the joints are common and the spine becomes rigid. Typically, a person will complain of persistent or intermittent lower back pain.

This is caused by brittle bones due to ageing and the lack of the hormone oestrogen, which affects the ability to deposit calcium in the matrix of the bone. This can also result from prolonged use of steroids. Vulnerability to osteoporosis can be inherited. Bones cam break easily and vertebrae can collapse

This is caused by the weakening or tearing of one of the invertebral discs. The disc bulges or sticks out and this may press on the spinal nerve causing pain.

Name: Paul Wigley

Date: October 2009

BWY Diploma Course Unit 1

W.1.1B(i) - The Muscular System - Part I

Each book on Anatomy shows muscles in a different way. Your text is stylised and doesn’t show the origin and insertions of each muscle clearly. However, it does give the action of each muscle and explains its position clearly.

For each of the following diagrams find the muscles on the list in your book and write the action of the muscle by the side of the name as shown in the example. Then label and colour the diagrams.

Trunk (anterior view of)

Muscles Action1 Sternocleidomastoid

2 External oblique

3 Internal oblique

4 Transverse abdominis

5 Rectus abdominis

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Tutor assessed:

Working together they flex the neck, pull the chin down towards the chest. When working individually they rotate the head to the opposite side.

Flexes, rotates and side bends the trunk. It compresses the contents of the abdomen.

“ “ “ “

Compresses the abdomen contents and supports the organs of the abdominal cavity

Flexes the vertebral column, flexes the trunk (as in sit up) and compresses the abdominal cavity

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Sternocleidomastoid

External oblique

Transverse abdominis

Internal oblique

Rectus abdominis

W.1.1B(i) - Muscular System - Part I _____ _______ ___2

Anterior Shoulder Girdle and Upper Arm

Muscles Action1 Pectoralis major

2 Coracobrachialis

3 Biceps brachii

4 Bracialis

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Adducts and medially rotates the humerus. Draws arm forward and medially adducts and rotates inward

Weakly adducts shoulder joint, helps stabilize Humerus

Flexes elbow joint, supinates for arm (weakly flexes arm at shoulder joint

Flexes elbow joint

Pectoralis major

Coracobrachialis

Biceps brachii

Bracialis

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Trapezius

Deltoid

Latissimus dorsi

Levator scapuli

Rhomboid minor

Rhomboid major

Supraspinatus

Infraspinatus

Teres minor

Teres major

Triceps brachii

W.1.1B(i) - Muscular System - Part I _____ _______ ___3

Posterior Shoulder Girdle and Upper Arm

Muscles Action1 Trapezius

2 Deltoid

3 Latissimus dorsi

4 Triceps brachii

5 Levator scapuli

6 Rhomboid minor

7 Rhomboid major

8 Teres major

9 Supraspinatus

10 Infraspinatus

11 Teres minor

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Rotates inferior angle of scapula laterally raises shoulder, draws scapula backwards

Front draws arm forward, middle adducts back draws arm backwards

Draws arm backwards, adducts and rotates it medially.

Extends (straightens) elbow joint, stabilizes shoulder joint

Rotates and elevates scapula, helps to bend neck laterally

Retracts (adducts) scapula, stabilizes scapula

Slightly assists in outer range of adduction of arm (i.e. from overhead to arm at shoulder level).

Adducts and medially rotates humerus, extends shoulder joint

Abducts arm, holds humerus in socket.

Lateral rotation of humerus, stabilizes humerus in socket.

Lateral rotation of humerus, stabilizes humerus in socket.

W.1.1B(i) - Muscular System - Part I 4

Anterior Pelvis and Leg

Muscles Action1 Iliopsoas Rotates femur laterally and flexes hip2 Tensor fasciae latae Flexes, abducts and medially rotates the hip joint,

tenses the fascia lata thus stabilizing the knee.3 Vastus lateralis Extends knee joint4 Rectus Femoris Extends knee joint and flexes the hip joint5 Vastus Medialis Extends Knee Joint6 Sartorius Flexes hip and knee joint, rotates the femur laterally7 Pectineous Flexes the hip joint, adducts the hip joint8 Adductor longus Adducts the femur9 Adductor magnus Adducts the femur10 Gracilis Adducts the thigh, flexes the knee and hip medially

(inward) rotates the thigh and tibia.11 Tibialis anterior Dorsiflexes and inverts the foot12 Extensor digitorum longus Extends toes, dorsiflexes ankle joint13 Extensor hallucis longus Extends big toe, dorsiflexes ankle and inverts foot

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Iliopsoas

Tensor fasciae latae

Vastus lateralis (3)

Rectus Femoris (4)

Vastus Medialis (5)

Sartorius (6)

Pectineous

Adductor longus

Adductor magnus

Gracilis

Tibialis anterior

Extensor digitorum longus

Extensor hallucis longus

W.1.1B(i) - Muscular System - Part I 5

Posterior Pelvis and Leg

Muscles Action1 Gluteus maximus Extends the hip, abducts and laterally rotates the thigh.

2 Semimembranosus Flexes the knee, extends the hip also medially rotates (turns in) the lower leg when the knee is flexed.

3 Semitendinosus Flexes the knee extends the hip also medially rotates (turns in) the lower leg when the knee is flexed.

4 Biceps Femoris (long head) Flexes the knee joint and extends the hip.

5 Biceps Femoris (short head) Laterally rotates (turns out) the lower leg when the knee is flexed.

6 Gastrocnemius Plantor flexes (points) foot at ankle joints. Assists in flexion of the knee joint. It is a main propelling force in walking and running

7 Soleus Plantor flexes ankle, frequently in contraction during standing to prevent the body falling forward at the ankle joint i.e. to offset the line of pull through the body’s center of gravity. Thus it helps to maintain the upright posture.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Gluteus maximus

Semimembranosus

SemitendinosusBiceps Femoris (long head)

Biceps Femoris (short head)

Gastrocnemius

Soleus

Name: Paul Wigley …………………….…………………………

Date: October 2009

BWY Diploma Course Unit 1W.1.1B(ii) - The Muscular System – Part 2

1. Briefly describe:

(i) The Structure of a muscle:

Muscle tissue is bound together in bundles and contained in a sheath (sometimes called a fascia) the end of which extends to form a tendon that attaches the muscle to other parts of the body.Muscle is 75% water, 20% proteins, 5% fat, minerals, salts and glycogen.

(ii) The function of a muscle:

A muscles function is to contract and by doing so start a movement in the surrounding structures (the tendons, ligament and eventually bones). The muscle contracts in reaction to nerve stimulus sent by the brain through a motor nerve. The muscle then shortens becoming fatter at the center.

Summary of muscle functions

Contract and thereby produce movement e.g. to move joints Stabilize Joints Maintain postural tone Aid in temperature control e.g. shivering and dilation of capillaries.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Tutor assessed:

W.1.1B(ii) Muscular System - Part II ___________ 2

2. Briefly explain the function of the following types of muscle :-

(i) Voluntary

These are the muscles we consciously control e.g. our arms and legs. If we want to walk we do so. Voluntary muscle works intimately with the nervous system and, therefore, will only contract if a stimulus is applied to it via a motor nerve. Each muscle fibre receives its own nerve impulse so that fine and varied motions are possible. Voluntary muscles also have their own small, stored supply of glycogen which is use as fuel for energy. Voluntary muscle tissue differs from other types of muscle tissue in that the muscles tire easily and need regular exercise.

(ii) Involuntary

These are the muscles we do not consciously control e.g. those that are found in the walls of blood and lymphatic vessels, in respiratory, digestive and genito-urinary systems. These muscles work automatically whether we want them to or not.

(iii) Cardiac

Cardiac muscle is a specialized type of involuntary muscle tissue found only in the walls of the heart. Forming the bulk of the wall of each heart chamber, cardiac muscles contract rhythmically and continuously to provide the pumping action necessary to maintain a relatively consistent flow of blood throughout the body.

3. How does a muscle know when to contract?

Skeletal or voluntary muscles are moved as a result of nervous stimulus which they receive from the brain via a motor nerve. Each skeletal fibre is connected to the fibre of the nerve cell. Each nerve fibre ends in a motor point which is the end portion of the nerve and is the part through which the stimulus to contract is given to the muscle fibre. A single motor nerve may transmit stimuli to one muscle or as many as 150, depending on the effect of the action required. The site where the nerve fibre and muscle fibre meet is called a neuromuscular junction. In response to a nerve impulse, the end of the motor nerve fibre secretes a neurotransmitter substance called acetylcholine, which diffuses across the junction and stimulates the muscle fibre to contract.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

W.1.1B(ii) Muscular System - Part II ___________ 3

4. How does a muscle get the energy required for contraction?

In order for contraction (and therefore movement) to take place, there must be an adequate blood supply to provide oxygen and nutrients and remove carbon dioxide and waste products from the energy production. Muscles receive their nutrients from the artierial capillaries. This is converted into energy by chemical changes. The nutrients and oxygen are used up by the muscle and the waste product, lactic acid is then excreted into the venous blood stream.

5. What affects a muscle's ability to contract?

Energy available.

Strength of the stimulus from the nerve.

Time muscle has been contracting.

Adequate blood supply bringing enough oxygen and nutrients.

Strength of inhibitory nerve supply.

Temperature of muscle (warmth increases response).

Presence of waste products like lactic acid.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

W.1.1B(ii) Muscular System - Part II ________________ 4

6. Briefly explain the function of tendons and ligaments.

(i) Tendons

It connects muscle to the bone. A white fibrous cord (an extension of the fascia) with no elasticity which are of different lengths and thickness and are very strong. They have few, if any blood vessels or nerves

(iii) Ligaments, Ligaments are strong, fibrous, elastic tissues that are usually cordlike in nature. A ligament is pliant so as to allow good freedom of movement, but it is also strong, tough and inextensible (does not stretch) Their attachment to various skeletal components helps maintain the bones in correct relationship to one another, stabilizing the joints.

7. Give an explanation of the terms origin and insertion.

(i) Origin

The fixed end of a muscle, this end of the muscle barely moves during a muscle action.Generally, the end of the muscle closest to the centre of the body is referred to as the origin. Origins are often shorter and broader and attached over a larger area, than insertions.

(ii) Insertion

The moving end of the muscle, the point to which the force of the muscle is directed. A muscle always works from its insertion towards its origin. Generally, the insertion is end of the muscle attached the furthest away from the centre of the body. Insertions are commonly longer and the fibres are more densely concentrated, attaching to a smaller bone area. The insertion is generally the most movable point and, therefore the point at which the muscle work is done.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

W.1.1B(ii) Muscular System - Part II _________________ 5

8. (i) A muscle must pass over a ......bone joint.........to create movement

(ii) In general muscles work in ....Pairs..............................................................

(i) Pairs contract and relax equally to ensure ...the precisely required degree and direction of motion (agonists) and to prevent the movement over-extending antagonists)..................................

(ii) In pairs, when a muscle is contracting, it is called an .Agonist............................

9. Referring to the diagram below, where all muscles pass over the joint, briefly describe :-

(i) What happens to bone U when the fibres of muscle B and Br contract?

Fibres contract (shorten) thus moving bone attached, bone moves upwards.

(ii) What happens to bone U when muscle T contracts?

When muscle ‘T’ contracts the bones moves downwards.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

ORIGIN

W.1.1B(ii) Muscular System - Part II _____________ 6

9. (iii) What happens to the muscle fibres of T when the fibres of B and Br contract?

The muscle fibres relax and are passively stretched.

(iv) What happens to the muscle fibres of B and Br when the fibres of T contract?

The muscle fibres relax and are passively stretched.

(v) When B contracts it is called an .agonist... and T relaxes and

is called an ....antagonist................................

(vi) When T contracts it is an ....agonist.................and B is then

the ...antagonist.............................................

10. What is the purpose of :

(i) Fixator Muscles

These are muscles that stabilize a bone to give a steady base from which the agonist works. For the biceps and triceps to flex and extend the elbow joint, muscles around the shoulder and upper back control the position of the arm.

(ii) Synergists

The term refers to muscles on the same side of a joint that work together to perform the same movement. These provide a supporting role, such as initiating a movement or assisting a bigger muscle. An example of this is flexing the elbow. The biceps actually work synergistically with the brachialis muscle that lies underneath.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

W.1.1B(ii) Muscular System - Part II ___________ 7

11. (i) Explain the significance of levers and their relation to muscle movement.

Body movements employ the mechanical principles of applying a force to one part of a rigid lever, which tilts at a pivot point (fulcrum) to move a weight (load) that is elsewhere on the lever.The muscles apply force, bones serve as levers, and the joints function as fulcrums.The various lever systems in the body allow a wide range of movement as well as making it possible to lift and carry things.

(iii) Briefly describe the three types of lever. First Class Lever.The fulcrum is positioned between the force and the load, like a see-saw. An example of this type of lever in the body is seen in the posterior neck muscles that tilt back the head on the cervical vertebrae.

Second Class Lever.The load that lies between the force and the fulcrum.Standing on tip-toe, the calf muscles provide the force, the heel and the foot form the lever, and the toes provide the fulcrum.

Third Class Lever.The most common type of lever in the body; the force is applied between the load and the fulcrum.An example is flexing the elbow joint (fulcrum) by contracting the biceps brachii muscle.

(iv) Give three examples of postures and identify how they each utilise leverage -relate this to (ii) above.

First Class Lever: Ustrasana (Camel Pose) would use this type of lever to help tilt the head back.

Second Class Lever: Modification on Upavesasana (Squat) where you go onto tip-toe and then slowly squat down remaining on tip-toe.

Third Class Lever: The uppermost arm in Gomukhasana (Cow-Faced Pose) would be one example of this type of lever. The elbow joint is flexed by contracting the bicep muscle.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

W.1.1B(ii) Muscular System - Part II ___________ 8

12. Explain the varying need for muscle strength in isotonic and isometric movement. For example, holding your arms up in isometric movement still needs strength :

(i) Isotonic (concentric and eccentric)

Isotonic movements mean that the muscle is either contracting and shortening (concentric) or contracting and extending (eccentric).As the muscle contracts, its length changes whilst the tension remains constant or develops to overcome the opposing force i.e. pushing an object over or lifting a glass of water to your mouth and lowering it back to the table.

(ii) Isometric

Isometric contractions are the ones when the muscles length does not change, whilst the tension increases in an attempt to overcome the opposing force e.g. pushing against an object that is too heavy to move (such as a wall) or holding a glass of water still in front of you.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Name: …………………….…………………………

Date: …………………………………………………

BWY Diploma Course Unit 1W.1.1C - The Cardiovascular System

1. Give a brief summary of the circulatory system.

The cardiovascular system is the body’s transport system, composed of the blood, heart and the arteries and veins. It refers to the two main systems: the pulmonary circulatory system and the systemic circulatory system.

2. What is the function of the system, i.e. what does it do?

In brief, blood is pumped from the heart around the body through a transport system of arteries and veins. It distributes oxygen and essential nutrients to the whole body as well as removing potentially damaging waste products and carbon dioxide.

3. The structure of blood.

A fluid connective tissue made up of plasma and cells. An adult bodies contain approximately 4 -5 litres whereas a newborn baby has only 300millilitres. It is alkaline (pH7.4).

(a) Briefly describe plasma

Plasma makes up 55% of blood volume. It is a slightly thick, straw-coloured fluid.It is mostly water (90 – 92%) and the rest is plasma proteins (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen and prothrombin).

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Tutor assessed:

Paul Wigley

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

W.1.1C - Cardio-vascular System 2

3.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

3(b) List the essential substances blood transports

(c) Briefly discuss the function of red blood cells

(d) Briefly discuss the function white blood cells

(e) Briefly discuss the function of blood platelets

Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones & enzymes around the body.

Transports Carbon dioxide and waste materials from the body to the organs of excretion.

The function of red blood vessels (erythrocytes) is to transport the gases of respiration (they transport oxygen to the cells and carry carbon dioxide away from the cells).

The main function of white blood cells (leucocytes) is to protect the body from infection and disease in a process known as phagocytosis, which means to engulf and ingest microbes, dead cells and tissue.

Blood platelets (thrombocytes) are very significant in the blood clotting process as they initiate the chemical reaction that leads to the formation of a blood clot. Platelets stop the loss of blood from a damaged blood vessel in the following way:Platelets gather where a blood vessel is injured and red cells are flowing out.The first platelets to arrive form a plug across the opening and release chemicals that convert fibrinogen (a coagulation factor) to fibrin.Fibrin forms a mesh of needlelike fibers that trap platelets and other blood cells, creating an insoluble clot.

W.1.1C - Cardio-vascular System __ 3

4. The Structure of the Heart

Please label this diagram :

5. Explain the part the heartbeat plays in driving blood around the circulatory system.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Superior Vena Cava

Aortic Arch

Aorta Pulmonary Arteries

PulmonaryVeins

Left Ventricle

Descending Aorta

Right Atrium

Right Ventricle

InferiorVena Cava

The heartbeat or cardiac cycle is the pattern of muscular contractions of the heart wall:

Both the atria contract, forcing their contents into the ventricles. The atria relax but the ventricles contract, emptying their contents into the

arteries. The ventricles relax and the heart is at rest

W.1.1C - Cardio-vascular System ______ 4

6. What information does a nurse obtain when feeling your pulse?

7. Pulmonary and systemic circulation

Using blue and red, annotate, colour and draw arrows on the following diagram to show the flow of blood through the heart.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

The number of times the heart beats in one minute is known as the heart rate. When you feel your pulse this what you are feeling, the rate at which your heart is pumping blood through your circulatory system.Since the pulse varies with the heart rate, the pulse is taken to check if a heart is beating normally.

Deoxygenated blood enters the heart

Oxygenated blood exits heart

Deoxygenated blood exits heart tolungs

Oxygenated blood enters atrium fromlungs

Deoxygenated blood enters the heart

W.1.1C - Cardio-vascular System ____ 5

8. Systemic and portal circulation

Draw your own symbolised and coloured arteries, veins and arrows between the following organs of the body to show how the human circulatory system works.

9. What is the coronary circulation?

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

The heart is of course a muscle which needs the benefits of circulation like every other muscle and organ in the body. It has it’s own circulatory system called Coronary Circulation. Right and left coronary arteries leave the beginning of the aorta and branch within the heart wall to form a network of capillaries to feed the tissue cells.The blood is then collected back into the coronary veins, which empty into the right atrium of the heart

W.1.1C - Cardio-vascular System 6

10. Briefly describe the structure and function of:

(a) Arteries and Arterioles

(b) Capillaries

(c) Veins and Venules

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Arteries are thick walled hollow tubes; they all have the same basic construction A Fibrous outer covering A middle layer of muscle and elastic tissue An endothelial layer made of squamous epithelial tissue

Function: Systemic arteries carry the oxygenated blood from the heart to the body, the pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs

Arterioles in structure they are smaller versions of arteries; they have a similar structure though the middle layer of the walls is mainly muscle tissue with less elastic tissue that arteries.Function: when more oxygen and nutrients are required by an active organ, the arterioles relax and dilate to increase blood supply to it (e.g. muscles during exercise, the stomach and intestines after eating and the skin when the body temperature rises). They contract when the organ is at rest

Capillaries are the smallest blood vessels. Their walls are one cell thick i.e. microscopic and porous, thus allowing the passage of gases (like oxygen and carbon dioxide) and nutrients. A large amount of water, plus solutions dissolve in it, filters out through the capillary walls and bathes the body tissues. This liquid is called interstitial fluid. It carries food, vitamins, mineral salts and hormones out to the tissues and collects waste products, especially carbon dioxide and urea, from them. Most of the fluid ten returns to the capillaries before they join up to become venules.

Function: to distribute essential oxygen and nutrients to most parts of the body. Capillaries supply every part of the body except the deep brain, the hyaline cartilage and the epidermis.

Veins have three-layered walls and though the basic structure is similar to that of arteries, their walls are much thinner and the lumen is much larger. They vary in size, the largest being the venae cavae (from the body to the heart) and the pulmonary vein (from the lungs to the heart). The action of skeletal muscles pushes blood through the vessels. Valves in the endothelial layer of the veins prevent a back flow of blood. Blood pressure in the veins is very low so these valves are essential.Function: Systemic veins carry deoxygenated blood to the heart. Pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood to the heart.

Venules are small veins. These have a thin wall with a large lumen (the passage in the center in which the blood travels). They are easily collapsed under pressure.Function: They carry deoxygenated blood from the capillaries the larger veins.

W.1.1C - Cardio-vascular System _____ 7

11. What is blood pressure?

(a) Explain the systolic figure

(b) Explain the diastolic figure

12. What is hypertension, and why is it a cause for concern?

High blood pressure is when the resting blood pressure is above normal. The World Health Organization defines high blood pressure as consistently exceeding 160mmHg systolic and 95mmHg diastolic. High blood pressure is a common complaint and, if serious may result in a stroke or a heart attack, due to the fact that the hart is made to work harder to force blood through the system.Causes of high blood pressure include: Smoking, obesity, lack of regular exercise, eating too much salt, excessive alcohol consumption, and too much stress.

13. What is hypotension, and why is it a cause for concern?

Low blood pressure is when the blood pressure is below normal and is defined by the World Health Organization as a systolic blood pressure of 99mmHg or less and a diastolic of less than 59mmHg. Low blood pressure may be normal for some people in good health, during rest and after fatigue. The danger with low blood pressure is an insufficient supply of blood reaching the vital centres of the brain. Treatment may be by medication, if necessary.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Blood pressure is the force that the blood exerts on the walls of the blood vessels as it is transmitted from the heart. Without blood pressure blood would not move at all. Blood is always under pressure but the amount of pressure varies in different types of blood vessels:High blood pressure in the arteries gradually becomes lower in the capillaries and veins. In the large veins approaching the heart there is a negative pressure. The heartbeat also affects blood pressure: when the ventricle is contracting it is high, when the ventricle is dilating it is low.

The blood pressure when the heart is contracting. It is specifically the maximum arterial pressure during contraction of the left ventricle of the heart. The time at which ventricular contraction occurs is called systole.

In a blood pressure reading, the systolic pressure is typically the first number recorded. For example, with a blood pressure of 120/80 ("120 over 80"), the systolic pressure is 120. By "120" is meant 120 mm Hg (millimetres of mercury).

The blood pressure when the heart is relaxing (dilating) pressure reaches its lowest level.In a blood pressure reading, the diastolic pressure is typically the second number recorded. For example, with a blood pressure of 100/80 ("100 over 80"), the diastolic pressure is 80. By "80" is meant 80 mm Hg (millimetres of mercury).

Name: …………………….…………………………

Date: …………………………………………………

BWY Diploma Course Unit 1W.1.1D The Respiratory System and the Mechanics of Breathing

1. Give a very brief summary of the respiratory system.The respiratory system consists of the nose, nasopharyns, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi and lungs, which provide the passageway for air in and out of the body. Similar to the digestive system it takes substances from outside the body (gases, particularly oxygen), circulates them through the body to cells and tissues, and then excretes the excess and waste. Oxygen is the respiratory system’s ‘food’ and carbon dioxide is its ‘waste’. Breathing is the most fundamental action of the human body: we cannot live without it for more than a couple of minutes.Our reparatory system serves us in many ways, exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide, detecting smell, producing speech and regulating pH.

2. (a) Structure of the Respiratory System [Please label this diagram]

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Tutor assessed:

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Nasal Cavity

Heart

Right Lung

Oesophagus

Naso-Pharynx Hard palate

DiaphragmRibs

EpiglottisLarynx

Trachea

Left Lung

Pleural Membranes

Alveolus

Bronchioles

Alveoli

Bronchi

W.1.1D - Respiratory System 2

2. (b) Write a very brief description of the structure and function of the following:

NoseThe nose is divided into the right and left cavities. It is lined with tiny hairs called cilia, which begin to filter the incoming air, and mucous membrane, which secretes a sticky fluid called mucus to prevent dust and bacteria from entering the lungs. The nose moistens, warms and filters the air and is an organ, which senses smell.

PharynxThe Pharynx or throat is a large muscular tube lined with mucous membrane, which lies behind the mouth and between the nasal cavity and the larynx. The tonsils are found at the back of the pharynx. The pharynx serves as an air and food passage, but cannot be used for both purposes at the same time, otherwise choking would result. The air is also warmed and moistened further as it passes through the pharynx.

LarynxThe larynx (voice box) is a short passage connecting the pharynx to the trachea. The larynx is a box like cavity with rigid walls, which contain the vocal cords and stiff pieces of cartilage, such as the Adam’s apple, which prevent collapse and obstruction of the airway.The vocal cords are bands of elastic ligaments that are attached to the rigid cartilage of the larynx by skeletal muscle. When air passes over the vocal cords they vibrate and produce sound. The opening into the larynx from the pharynx is called the glottis. During the process of swallowing, the glottis is covered by a flap of tissue called the epiglottis, which prevents food from ‘going down the wrong way’. The larynx provides a passageway for air between the pharynx and the trachea.

TracheaT he trachea or windpipe is a tube anterior to the oesophagus and extends from the larynx to the upper chest. It is composed of smooth muscle and up to 20 C-shaped rings of cartilage, which serve a dual purpose. The incomplete section of the rings allows the oesophagus to expand into the trachea when food bolus is swallowed and the rings help to keep the trachea permanently open. The trachea passes down into the thorax and connects the larynx with the bronchi, which pass into the lungs.

Bronchi

The bronchi are two short tubes, similar in structure to the trachea, which lead to and carry air into each lung. They are lined with mucous membrane and ciliated cells and, like the trachea, contain cartilage to hold them open. The mucous traps solid particles and the cilia move them upwards, preventing dirt from entering the delicate lung tissue.

BronchiolesThe bronchi subdivide into bronchioles in the lung, the final and finest tubes in the passage of air from the nose to the lungs. Made of muscular, fibrous and elastic tissue, they become progressively smaller as they spread further into the lungs until they are no more than a single layer of flattened epithelial cells (just like blood capillaries). These microscopic tubes are called terminal bronchioles.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

W.1.1D - Respiratory System 3

Lungs

The lungs are the centers of the respiratory system. Tthese two spongy organs facilitate the exchange of the gases and carbon dioxide that enter and exit the blood. The lungs are paired, cone-shaped, spongy organs situated in the thoracic cavity on either side of the heart. The left lung has two lobes, the superior and the inferior; the right lung has three lobes, the superior, middle and inferior. The right is thicker and broader than the left, as the diaphragm is higher on the right side to accommodate the liver which lies below it. Lung tissue is made of bronchioles, alveoli, blood vessels, nerves, connective tissue and elastic tissue. They are covered in a special membrane called the pleura.

Pleural Membrane

The pleural membrane surrounds each lung. It has two layers, the inner, visceral layer which sticks to the lung tissue and covers the surface of the outer, parietal layer which sticks to the chest wall and the top of the diaphragm. The two layers are separated by a space called the pleural cavity, which is filled with a serous fluid.

Alveoli

The exchange of gases in the lung takes place in tiny sacs called alveoli (singular: alveolus) at the end of the terminal bronchioles. Made of a thin layer of squamous epithelial cells and surrounded by a capillary network, the function of the alveoli is to exchange gases between the circulatory and respiratory systems. The pulmonary artery delivers deoxygenated blood to the capillary network, which is then oxygenated by contact with the air in the alveoli. The oxygenated blood then leaves the lungs via the capillary network and the pulmonary veins and travels to the heart to be pumped around the body.

Diaphragm

This is the chief muscle of respiration and is a dome-shaped, muscular partition that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominal cavity. Made of a sheet of tendon with muscle fibres towards the edges it has three origins – posterior, lateral and anterior. During contraction the diaphragm is pulled down, creating a vacuum in the chest cavity (air pressure is lower inside the body than outside), which sucks air into the lungs. When the diaphragm relaxes it becomes a dome shape and pushes up into the chest cavity, thus reducing the cavity’s size and volume and increasing the pressure. Air rushes out because the pressure is lower outside.

Intercostal muscles

These are the muscles between the ribs and aid the diaphragm in respiration. During inspiration the external intercostal muscles contract t the same time as the diaphragm, lifting the rib cage up and outwards. The flattened and lowered diaphragm and the raised ribs cause an increase in the size of the chest cavity. During expiration, the external intercostals relax allowing the ribs to fall down and inwards, helping to decrease the size of the chest cavity. Nerve impulses delivered by the intercostal nerves tell the muscles when to contract and relax.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Pharynx

Larynx

Trachea

Bronchus

Bronchioles

Alveoli

Pulmonary Vein

Aorta

Arteries

Capillary Bed Capillary Bed

Veins (venule)

Inferior/ superior Vena Cava

Alveoli

Bronchioles

Bronchus

Trachea

Larynx

Pharynx

CELLS OF THE Body CELLS OF THE Body

Pulmonary Vein

W.1.1D - Respiratory System 4

3. Using the diagram below show the process that oxygen makes between the nose and the lungs.

Label each of the links in this Label this chain to show howchain to show oxygen's route carbon dioxide is removed around the body. during expiration.

NOSE NOSE

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

W.1.1D - Respiratory System 5

4. (i) Annotate, colour and draw arrows on the following diagrams indicating the mechanics of breathing.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

AirEnters lungs

W.1.1D - Respiratory System 6

(ii) Write a brief summary to show that you understand the mechanics of breathing.

The mechanics of breathing is the means by which air is drawn in and out of the lungs. It is an active process where the muscles of respiration contract to increase the volume of the thoracic cavity. Air is moved in and out of the lungs by the combined action of the diaphragm and the intercostals muscles.The major muscle of respiration is the diaphragm. During inspiration the dome shaped diaphragm contracts and flattens, increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity. It is responsible for 75% of air movement into the lungs. The external intercostals muscles are also involved in respiration, and on contraction they increase the depth of the thoracic cavity by pulling the ribs upwards and outwards. They are responsible for bringing approximately 25% of the volume of air into the lungs. The combined contraction of the diaphragm and the external intercostals increases the thoracic cavity, which then decreases the pressure inside the thorax so that air from outside the body enters the lungs. Other accessory muscles, which assist in inspiration, include the steromastoid, serratus anterior, pectoralis minor, pectoralis major and the scalene muscles in the neck.During normal respiration the process of expiration is passive and is brought about by the relation of the diaphragm and the external intercostals muscles, along with the elastic recoil of the lungs. This increases the internal pressure inside the thorax so that air is pushed out of the lungs.

5. How much oxygen and carbon dioxide is there:

(a) in the air we breathe in? 21% oxygen and 0.04% carbon dioxide

(b) in the air we breathe out? 15% oxygen and 4% carbon dioxide.

Thus the air we exhale contains 100 times more carbon dioxide and 6% less oxygen than the air we inhale.

6. Briefly explain how the body knows when to breathe (e.g. the brain's role in breathing)

Two centres of the brain are involved, the respiratory centre in the medulla oblongata and the pons varolli.The respiratory centre stimulates inspiration and controls the depth of breathing and its regularity.The pons varolli stops inspiration thus provoking expiration. When the respiratory centre tells the diaphragm to contract, air is sucked into the lungs, stimulating nerve cells called stretch receptors found in the lung tissue. These receptors send impulses to the diaphragm telling it to relax, thus provoking expiration.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

7. Describe internal respiration, using your own words and/or diagrams.

Internal respiration is the diffusion of oxygen from the blood to the body cells, and of carbon dioxide from the body cells to the blood. Once blood has been oxygenated n the lungs it travels back to the heart and is then pumped around the body. When blood reaches the various cells of the body, oxygen is again transferred by diffusion: the pressure of the oxygen in the blood is high whereas the pressure in the cells is low, so the oxygen passes into the cells. The amount of oxygen delivered to the cell depends on how busy the cell is. For example, more oxygen will be delivered to a cell when it is exercising than when it is resting. The blood delivers its oxygen and collects the carbon dioxide (pressure in the blood is lower than in the cells so the carbon dioxide passes into the blood), carrying it back to the lungs where it will be delivered to the alveoli and the exhaled.

8. Describe external respiration, using your own words and/or diagrams.

This refers to the gas exchange in the lungs between the blood and air in the alveoli that came from the external environment. The respiration process is as follows:

During inhalation oxygen is taken in through the nose and mouth. It flows along the trachea and bronchial tubes to the alveoli of the lungs, where it diffuses through the thin film of moisture lining the alveoli.

Oxygen differs from the air inside the alveoli, across the alveolar walls and into the blood capillaries. The oxygen binds to the haemoglobin inside erythrocytes and is transported to the cells throughout the body.

Carbon dioxide is transported by the blood in the opposite direction from the cells of the body to the capillaries attached to the alveoli.

The carbon dioxide then diffuses from the blood, across the alveolar walls, into the air inside the alveoli, which will then be exhaled through the nose and mouth.

Oxygen and carbon dioxide exchange across the wall of the alveoli at the same time.

9. Give a brief summary to show your understanding of this interrelationship.

Respiratory system links to:

Circulatory: the circulation transports oxygen from the respiratory system to every cell of the body and transports carbon dioxide to the respiratory system to be exhaled.

Nervous: respiration is closely controlled by the nervous system, which indicates when inhalation or exhalation should happen. Chemoreceptors in the main arteries stimulate the nervous response of the respiratory system to begin the process of inhaling oxygen when required.

Muscular: the Intercostal muscles and the diaphragm are fundamental to the process of respiration.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

TICK TUTOR ASSESSEDJOINTSMUSCLES

UTHITTA TRIKONASANA

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TICK TUTOR ASSESSEDJOINTSMUSCLES

DWI PADA PEETHAM

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TICK TUTOR ASSESSEDJOINTSMUSCLES

ADHO MUKHA SVANASANA

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TICK TUTOR ASSESSEDJOINTSMUSCLES

PASCHIMOTTANASANA

Erector Spinae

Gluteus Maximus

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TICK TUTOR ASSESSEDJOINTSMUSCLES

SIMPLE SEATED TWIST

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TICK TUTOR ASSESSEDJOINTSMUSCLES

VRKSASANA

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Name: …………………….…………………………

Date: ………………………………………………..

BWY Diploma Course Unit 1W.1.1E - The Kinesiology of Yoga Postures

12.Using two of the posture illustrations (blanks) shown below and on page 2:

(i) Label the joints being used when holding the posture and show howthey are working.

(ii) Label the main muscles being used to hold the posture and show how they are working.

Note : full-size blanks will be provided by your course tutor :

TRIKONASANA DWI PADA PEETHAM

N.B: These are examples of postures to help facilitate analysis and represent muscle/joint action. Theyare not intended as prescriptive.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

Tutor assessed:

Paul Wigley

W.1.1E - Kinesiology of Yoga Postures _____________________ 2

ADHO MUKHA SVANASANA PASCHIMOTTANASANA

SIMPLE SEATED TWIST VRKSASANA

N.B: These are examples of postures to help facilitate analysis and represent muscle/joint action. Theyare not intended as prescriptive.

Paul Wigley, Oct 09

References (list here the books and resources you used to complete the worksheets).

http://www.patient.co.uk/health/High-Blood-Pressure-(Hypertension).htm

www.a2zyoga.com Drawings of asanas

Paul Wigley, Oct 09