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rNl'RODUCf\ON ...... .
CHAPfER 1: IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY IN AMERICA ..... . COLONIAL IRON L'<DUSTRY ...... . IRON RAll.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... - THEAGEOFSTEEL .............. . STEELRAIL ...... ....... . ..................... . AGE OF CONSOLIDATION AND INNOVATION CONTJi'I.'UED GROWfH OF STEEL INDUSTRY
CHAPTER II; TIIE CAMBRIA TRON COMPANY 1852-1880 ......... . CAMBRIA COUNTY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ......... . JOHNSmWN, PENNSYLVANIA .............. _ CAMBRIA IRON COMPANY PREDECESSORS . __ . _ . ORGANIZATION OF THE CAMBRIA IRON COMPANY ............ _ REORGANIZATIONS OF THE COMPANY . . . ........... . ROLLING IRON RAILS AT CAMBRIA ..... . CAMBRIA GROWTH AND EXPANSION . . . . . . . .............. _ CAMBRIA AT ITS HEIGHT ....... .
CHAPTER III: TECHNOLOO!CAL CONTRIBUTIONS OF TIIE CAMBRIA IRON COMPANY . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ...... . JOHN FRITZ AND THE THREE-HIGH MILL . . . . . . . . ....... . WILLIAM BESSEMER'S STEEL ............... . WILLiAM KELLY'S CONVERTER ............ . ALEXANDER HOLLEY AND THE BESSEMER PROCESS ROLLING STEEL RAIL AT CAMBRIA MAKING STEEL AT CAMBRIA ..... . LOSS OF LEADERSHIP ......... .
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'" 100 101 III< 107 109 II 0 110 111 119 116 116 119 120 123
RAiLWAY AND INDUSTRIAL CAR DIVISION LOWER WORKS . ELECTRICAL DEPARTMENT TRANSPORTATION DEPARTMENT AND YAROS FUEL DEPARTMENT METALLURGICAL DEPARTMEt-'T POST-WORLD WAR I YEARS
CHAPTER V: IMPACT OF THE CAMBRIA IRON COMPANY COMPANY SOCIAL SERVICES ... HOUSING COMPANY STORE OFHCE BUILDINGS CLUB HOUSE .... UNlON HALL CAMBRIA LIBRARY ... CAMBRIA HOSPITAL CITIZEN'S CEMETERY ASSOCIATION JOHNSTOWN COUNTRY CLUB AND WESTMONT TENNIS CLUB CAMBRIA MUfUAL BENEFIT ASSOCIATION PENSION FUND POLICE AND FIRE DEPARTMENTS .. JMMIGRAt'.'TS IN THE CAMBRIA WORKS BLACKS IN JOHNSTOWN ... LABOR LABOR ISSUES IN JOHNSTOWN STRIKE OF 1873-1874 1919 STRIKE ........ . LITILE STEEL STRIKE OF 1937
SUMMARY
RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FURTHER RESEARCH
HISTORICAL BASE MAPS l. Cambria Iron Company 1853 2. Cambria Iron Compan}' 1878 3. Cambria Iron Company 1891 4. Cambria Sled Compmy 1911 5. Bclhleltem Steel Company 1939 6. Bethlehem Sled Corpora!ion 1983
APPENDIXES 1. Description of Iron and Sleclmaking 2. Producl!on of iron rails in lhc United Stales, 1!'.49-1890:
Miles of steel and iron rnb in the United States, lHH0-\890 3. Production of Bessemer sled ingots in lhe United Sl.ales, 1867-1890
PrOOu~tion of Bessemer steel rails in the United States, 1867-1890 Pmducli<>n of Bes.scmer S\Wl ingo\s and Bessemer steel rails in !he United Smes and in Great Britain, 1877-1890; Production of opcn-1\can.h steel in lhe Unile-!1 States, 187o-1890; Production of open-hearth steel in Great Britain, 1879-1890
4. Ten Largest Steel Companies, Selected Year.; 1904-1950
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Advantages of lhe Johnstown, Pennsylvania vicinity in manufacturing imn- 1853 Aniclcs of Association of !he Cambria Iron Company Administrations of the Cambna Iron Company Cambria Produclion 1860, 1865, 1875: Cambria Table of Wages 1860-61, 1864, 1865, 1~75; Price of Iron Rails Sold by Cambria Iron Company Cambria Iron Worl:::;, 1868 Gautier Steel Department Trade Catalog, Wire, Terms, Finished Plow Shapes Cambria Iron Company IH78 with plan or tltc work.l Cambria Iron Company 1878 IL'ilh drawings of Wire Rod Tnin and Siemens Heating Furnaces Cambria Iron Company 1878 with dr.twings of Blast Furnace Cambria Iron Company 1878 with drawings of Boilers and Blowing Engine Cambria Iron Company, 1878 Biographies of Men As50cia1Cd wiih the Cambria Iron Company Patrick Graham's Rcmcmbr:mccs John Fri!J; Patent for Three-High Rolls John Fritz's description of building the Cambria Rolling Mill, 1857 Bessemer Production at Cambria, I ~71- 1892 Stcelmnnage of 11 slecl plan!S, 1878-1879 Nam"-'i or Steelworkers present at first blow of Bcr.semer steel at Cambria, and Cambria officers on July 10, 1871 [Poem] Written for the Pioneer Steel Workers' Reunion held at Johnstown, Pa., September 20, 1911 Cambria Iron Company. 1884 Cambria Iron Company, 1890 Cambria Steel Company, 1907 Principal Products of the Cambria Steel Company, 1916 Mines, Manufacturing Plants, Equipment, Ell:., 1920 Operating and Financial Da!.a, Bethlehem Steel, 1905-1957 Cambria Plant, Johnstown, Pc!1J1.Sylvania 1923 Cambria Steel Company's Coke Works, Wages and Prices, 1910 Prodw:!S of lhc Cambria Plant, 1936 Cambria Steel Company, Cambria Barbed Wire, 1916 Hi>wry - Fnntlin Mills Department Cambria Steel Cars, 1905 U::dgcr, Mechanical Orders to Machine Shop, September 1910 Rules of Cambria Iron arul Stcd Works, 1874 Rules of Cambria Stcd Company, 1910 Cambria Steel Company Tenements, 1911 Maintenance on company housing- Wesunont, 1921 Ethnic Distribution of Iron Mill Workers in Johnstown, 1870; Nationality of Johnstown Iron Workers, 1880 Daily wage scale of laborers at the Cambria Steel Company, 1880-1900; Tonnage rate (per hundred ll)ns) scale for skilled wo/Xcrs at the Cambria Steel Company, 1880-1900 Statement.~ of Cambria wort;en>, Strike of 1919 Employees Rcgis!<'r, 1920s
ILLUSTRATIONS .....
REPOSITORIES VISITED DURING RESEARCH
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PREFACE
'This historic resource s!Udy has been p~parcd to salisfy lhc ~sca~h needs as stated in Lhc task
directive approved by Mid-Atlantic Regional DiteClDr James W. Ollem.n Jr., on February 13, 1987,
concerning lhe America's industrial Heritage Project under package 217. Data contained in !his
repon will be used in determining !he significance of lhc Cambria Iron Company silJl as it grew
and evolved, and possible interpretation, preservation, and management needs.
The study focuses on \he nistocy of an iron and str:el company on !he Conemaugh River in
Johnstown, Pennsylvania. Included is infonnation ronceming lhe significance and hislOry of Lhc
iron and steel indusLSy in America; and the hisLOry and significance of lhe Cambria Iron Company,
sub.o;equently, !he Cambria SI.Cel Company, lhc Johnswwn plant of the Midvale Steel and O!dnance
Company, and Lhc Bar. Rod, and Win: Division of Bethlehem Steel Corpontion.
Most of lhe research was conduc!Cd during field trips to JohnsLO\IJn and E..sLOn, Pennsylvania;
Wilmington, Delawan:; and Waslrington. O_C. in January, Man:h, and May 1987. Additional data
was collected throughout 1988 and 1989. Several people a.<isisted in pn:paring this resoun:e study.
The author's thanks go to Randall Cooley, Director, America's Industrial Heritage Project, and Keith
Dunbar, John Albright, Jen: Kral.O\IJ, and John Paige of !he Denver Seryice Cenrcr for dleir
encouragement and advice. Special !hanks go LO Joyce Aucbery of RDcky Mountain Region Library
for all of her interlibrary loan help. The stuffs at !he Hagley Museum and Library. American Red
Cross Na!ional Headquarter,;, Library of Congress, Smithsonian lm;tirution, Center for Canal Hiswry
and Technology, Cambria County HisLOricaJ Society, Cambria County Library, Johns!Own Rood
Museum, arul The Historical Society of Pennsylvania were all very helpful. Richanl Burken ol1en:d
sage obseryation.l about !he cntin: Cambria documentation project while Lance MeLZ g13ciously
shan:d primary rcscan;h materials. Lon:ua Schmidt, James R. Alexander, and Donald Sayenga
conlribmed helpful review commem.s which wen: very much appn:cia"'d The Historic American
Engineering Record \£:am provided the excellent historical base maps. G. Gray FitzsimOTI'S offen:d
technical infonnation and primary n:sean:h materials for both the resource study and lhe landmaD:
11/Jmination. Gray also offered Lhc friendship !hal springs from exploring Penruylvania steel mills
in January. Thank: )'llu Dean Shawr and Bclhleh= Steel Cmporation for your cooperation and
aacss to the Jolmstown planT.
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The Cambria Iron Company made an impoJ1am contribution tD American industrialism. Founded
in 1852, !he rompany was regarded as one of !he greatest of lhc early modem iron and sleel woru.
Forerunner of llelhl.chem Steel Company, United SLates Steel Co!}XIration, and olhcr laiC nineteenth
and ei!Tly twentieth century steel companies, lhc Cambria plant became a model of lhe industry. In
lhe 185();, 1860s, and 1870s, Johnstown auracteJ lhe be"! and lhe brightest minds in the industry
-William Kelly, George ;md John Fritz, Daniel J. Morrell, Ruben W. Hunt, William R. Jones, and
Alexander Holley. Togclhcr and individually, these men :ldvanccd iron and stccl!Cchnology through
invention and industrial design in Johnstown, work which was w1dely ropied by other iron and steel
companies. This enormous comribution signalle<llhe end of America's reliance on Bmish·produced
rails and allowed lhc expansion of the nation's railroad ne!Work.
Several bmldmg~ remain in the "Lower Works" from this sigrullcant ume period. Dated and
surveyed b}' the Historic American Engineering Reconl (HAER), these include: the ca. 1864
blacksmith shop. ca. 1884 blacksmith shop J/llle~. ca. 1870 pattern shop, ca. 1865 foundry. ca. 1880
foundry addition, ca. 1874 office building, ca. 1881 car shop, and portions of the 1870 rolling mill .
SeC<Jnd generation buildings ca. 1890s "'lSociaLCd with lhe original four blast furnaces "!main. as
do rcmn:mts of lllc 1878-1800 blast furnaces lt5 and #6. and the second generation machine IDop,
ca. 1906.
Emphasis in research for !his rc,ourcc study wa~ placed on the Cambria Iron Company's early
years of irtflucnce and conllibutiom to llle technological progress made in the iron iUld steelmaking
processes. The iron and steel masters associated with Cambria are nationally significant, and during
the mid-l870s Cambria was the l:ll"gcst rail producer in America.
After Andrew Carnegie's cntr.lilcc into the steelmaking business Cambria's inllucnce d1minished
even though its growlh did no!. It remained a signific:mt independent stcel plant. This resource
study traces Cambria's takeover by other steel corpomtions, and its wcial, economic, and lalxlr
impacts on the city of Johnstown. Mention is made of Franklin, Gautier, Rosedale, and other
Cambria installations, aod. lengthy ~scriptions of the Cambria plant in later yea"' appoar io llle
appendixes, included !Dr relerencc purposes .
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20. 21 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27 28. 29. 30. 31
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Cambria Steel Company Method of Paying, !911, Locust Slreet office C. L Co. 3555 Stocker.l & Otargcrs 4 oclock C. I. Co. 3549 "Bessemer" 4 oclock
50. Cambria Iron Works, group of men holding tongs 51. Forge Plant, Cambria Iron Company, August 25, 1888 52. Armistice Day Parnde Franklin Street bridge
CHRONOLOGY
1852- Cambria Iron Company founded on June 29 by George King !llld Peter Shoenberger
1853- Company failed after partial completion of lhe works
1854- David Reeves. Matthew Newkirk. George Troner and olhers leilSe the plant, rolling mill completed; first iron rails rolled
1855- Philadelphia company, Wood, Morrell & Company. lease the worts to roll rail
1857 -FiN three-high rolling miU developed and put into usc by John and George Fritz; rolling mill burned and rebuilt
1857-1862- William Kelly experimencs with converter
1862- Wood, Momll & Company lease expir.~tion. company reorganized and n11Dled Cambria Iron Company
1867- Firnt commercially onlered Bessemer steel rails rolled at Cambria From ingots forged at the Pennsylvania Railroad's Pennsylvania Steel Worl;:s in Steelton, Penruylvania
1869- Fir'<! Bessemer furnaces erected at Cambria. designed by George Frit.z, Robert Hunt and Alexander Holley; sixth Bessemer plant in America
1871 -First blow wilh two six-ton convertern, firnt steel rails rolled at Cambria
1873- Cambria wru~ !he largest stcelmaker in !he country
1876- Steel r.~il output at Cambria totals 10 percent of oountl)l's production
1878- Two 10-!0n opcn-heanh furnaces buill
1889- May 31 Johnstown Rood damaged Lower Worl;:s, destroyed Gautier Work..'i, Mineral Point. Woodvale
1898- Cambna Steel Company formed
1901 -Franklin Wo!Xs started
1916- Midvale Steel and Ordnance Company OOught Cambria Steel Company
1919 Gll!at Steel Strike
1937- Little Steel Strike
1952- Bessemer process discontinued 3!\d machinery demolished
19M2- Ele~tric furnaces installed at Fl<ll1klin
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Altogether, the difficull.ies encountered were enough \o appall lhe brave$! hearts. My brother George once sajd, when at Cambria, that he did nlll believe then: was a man who ever wen! in!U the Bessemer business, and was responsible for lhc result, who did not at times wish he had never gone into it: and so far as my experience goes l fully verify it. And, funhcr, I think lhat, if it had not been for the interestmg and exciting char~cuer of lhe business, but few men would have been wi!ling tD endure the trouble and anxmty and to endure the physical lator and danger to which he and the worlunen were c0!15lllillly exposed, long ell(lugh lO have placed lhe business on a commercial basis.
John Fnl1'., "The Development of Iron Manufacture in lhe United SLates."
Cas;·iers Magazine, April 1900, p. 467.
There is a glamor about the mating of steeL The very size of lhings - lhe immensity of lhc tools, lhc scale of production - grips lhc mind wilh an overwhelming .'iCrue of power_ Bla<St furnace~. eighty, ninety, one hundred feet tall, gaunt and insatiable, are continually gaping to admit ton after ton of ore, fuel, and stone. Bessemer conveners dazzle the c:yc wilh their leaping names. Sueel ing(ll.l at white heat, weighing thousands of poWlds, are carried from place 10 place and tossed about like JOys. Electric cranes pick up steel ra!l.< or fifty-foot girders as jaWlty as if their torn were OWlce£. These are the lhings !hat cost a sp::l! over the vi;itor in these work..lhops of Vulcan. The display of power on every hand, majestic and illimitable, is overwhelming: you must go again and yet again before it is borne in upon you !hat !hen: is a human problem in steel production.
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191\,p.l
CHAPTER 1: IRON AND STEEL INDUSTRY IN AMERICA
Johnstown, Penn;ylvania, is a name synonymous with the words iron and steel. Blessed with
abundant deposit~ of iron ore, coal, wood, a water supply and a developed transponation sy;tcm
via canol, JohnMown W:Ill a natural location for a growing induslry. The Cambria Iron Company,
founc1cd in 1852, was preceded by early Pennsylvania iron forges, and subsequently consumed,
almost 65 years l:uer, by large steel conglomerates which formed pan of tre huge industri;ll base
of America_ The Cambna Iron Company's histOt)' is thus entwined like steel wire with other strands
of iron and steel development both in P<:nnsylvania and the nation_
A wider view of lhe Cambria Iron Company's impa~t considers the human response to both U1c
technological advana:s made in Johnstown, aml to industrialism as a whole in !he late nineteenth
and early twentieth centuries. Industrialism had its first impact on American society during these
years, and its implications wen: profound. All aspoxts of society were affected, from changes in
worl<ing environments, to increased immigration, 10 the devastation of runlllirc as miU10ns moved
to the cities, to lhc growth of lhe urban middle clao;s. The emergence of conglomerates, !he rise of
unions, the excesses of lhe weall.hy, and !he innuence or various reform, polilical and imcllccwal
climates arc all major themes <.>f American hisiOry chardcWriLing the era when !he Cumbria Iron,
and later, Steel Compa11y was at tis pruduc!ive height.'
Thus, lhe Cambria !run Company's >tory is more than an examination of the nationally significant
technologic.al advances made in the conversion from iron to steelmaking_ It i; ai>O a look at the
human, social, economic, and political responses to industrialism, in which Cambria played a
significant, ycl rcp=cntative role.
The growth and development or lhe American irun and steel in.Jt•SII)' was one of the wondcr.l of
industrialism. It was the basis for American global puwcr, as cheap steel helped build a modem
navy, conslructed the cities, and illowcd for the rapid expansion oJ the railroad and automobile
industries. Thus, the sih'llificancc or the Cambria lrun Compmy has to be placed wi!l1in 01c context
of lhe evolution of the American uon and stcd industry .
L For more informaUon on Lho impact of indu,lri.li.<m, "'" Mel•yn Dubnf>k)', lodf'Sinoij;m oNi. rhe ,\rnerican WorCer, 1865-1920 (New York: Thoma> Y. CrowcU Com"""y, 1975), and Samuel P II•)">, I I«· Re'P""'' ro /od"-"'j.,j._,m JB!Ij-/9/~ (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1~57).
COLONIAL IRON INDUSTRY •
Iron was at one time vital lO everyday life in America. IL'i production provided a livelihood for
towns like Carbondale, lllinols, md lrunlOn, Missouri, and words such as "ironware" and "iron
horse" and "ironing" crept into American language. The production of iron wacs the basic smple of
!he American industrial revolution. In the late 17tnl and early \810;, most furnace ca!>l items were
housewares and anvils. wheels and small castings for farm equipment. By lhc 1820s and 1830s,
however, the list of needed irun pruduct.s grew to include "mandrels, gudgeons (or runnions), iron
parts for windmills and pumps, wagon pans. plows, lathes, plaster mills. wheels and tires, 'e<mllell<'
(or plow blades). rolling-mill castings, rhrcshing-mactllnc pam, and beams."'
Most of !he early iron works were organized on plantations. The home of the ironmasJer, worker.;'
cabms, and stores stood next to the \L'Oodlands, farmlands, ironworks, grislmills, sawmills, and
blacksmith shop lD compose a self-contained community. Agriculrure md irulusliy were combined,
and this type of industrial organintion continued throughout the late 1700s and early J80Cls to
produce pig iron, castings, and bar iron. Most of these communities disappeared by the end of the
~ Da"d Wc<<r.nton, Tr=< of'"" Pa.<l A F"'ld G~id• lo lndu.~'iai A<ekaeoloa (Now Yot\; Charles S<nbno:r'< Sons. 1980). pp. 133-13~. Weill.man pru,·ided an e:<cellent description of Ole variel)' of uw; for iron:
If wo could mum oo "" c"ly Am01ioon <il)'. ,.ill,go. or farm. we would .odi.<rover Ole w<mdet> of tho fum.«<. foundr}·, and forge L,fung ow ")'<> to U.o roofoups, we would b< groetcd by a mllf'lelims array of wea<her-van" - g•llnpmg horses. swans. trumpeting IU1gol>, rw>l<-'1<. peaoocb., )uromo~vcs, binl,, uruJ f.mciful "''l"'"" - «n< m sanJ mold>. cut from 0•1-iron shee!S, ur hammorcd 10 shope in i1on mold< 01 templates. Passm~ !hrough Ole iron gate, fence, Md trclh> on one of tho hous<> ard <1MOW1cing our atriv:d wHh the "P of an iron door !<node~. ow •tl<nllon .. ·oulci <eT!IUnly b< drown to tho hand-wrought door "''I' hillgos ll!ld foolscrapor. Insido, all the door> of tho house o.nd tile hutch<< would be hung and latched wilh uon hatdwote. Givong w..--mth would lr • lon-ploto stove or p<rhop;! o Fronllin fi<eplat< doco,.u,d Wlth U.c poruJIU' cast-iron 1"""""-' of lhc day: <hi!". Jlllwet 1111<1 t"-"f mouf~ peaooci<>, lho shepherd, or lhc fox chas• !longing from iron kc!~e hook• or shling abom the kllchom would b< <kille<s. Du1<h ""'""· mldl" (e<:Wse sieves), "arne rrons, bole plate.!. sl<w I""'· and a teoh'llc - •ll of iron. T!me was kepl by iron clock weight>; windo"' wore COUnl<rb•lan<ed wilh iron sash weighl<. hollow"'"'" •nd iron utensils filled the drowers orul cupboard< - and there, under lhc uhle, "ould boa child's toy hllrse anJ w•~un reOC<Iing in ii> """Y dclllil U.c mo[<Jcr'> ""·Iron bindors stea<J,od U\o brickwork of U.c durnney, and in <he yatd whoeled implcmorH< of iron would si! by lhe born owoiling !heir turn in lhe fLelds
The irnn in !loe barn was h>lnlwmk1ng Thoro wore tho famtliar shoes for horses and o<en. lhe o< Y""'- wi<h i« iron fntings, orul some unfamili..- hlocl:.s of wood lhlough whick po.,ed an iron stirrup oocur<d wilh wing nuL>; U.cso were "bog shoes," clamped onto U\o hur>e> hooves ro "'-' much ilk< soowshoes. providing more suppuro for the horse as i\ pulled the iton plow through <oft, m>t<hy ><>il. lwn h,uumor>, """'"·saws, a broadaz O< \W<>. P""' outl<rs, frncs (cleating lools), >plHiin.i wedges, ard a cnw bell would h<lflg on tho wall The iron """''-" orul <ymWI; a!'-"'h<<l to woodert h.mdlo; would be shoop m.,-km and lu.uod>ng iron.> for catrk, and lhc gracefully curved handwrought iron blade< •U,o;he.J to "ooden footl-u>lds, which hang from buo'-lod lcolhcr strap> in tho wmOT, would bo r=<>l:)lt"b)e oven lDJ,y " tee >kdtC> Ibid
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nineteenth cemury because of the uncenainly of iron production. changes in technological prncesses.
and Lhc growth of large-scale production and consolidation which ocCI!ned aflu lhe Civil War.'
The remllllllts of many fourWries. furnaces, and forges can be found in lhc eastern United States
oountrysidc. There were 160 furnaces in 19 Pennsylvania counties, including \8 in Blair County
and 10 in Cambria County, and ncarly \00 in New Jersey. In lhc 1890s Pennsylvania, Ohio md
illinois produced 90 percent of 100 nation's iron. Every pan of l.he counuy saw lhe production of
iron. however, for there wen: furnaces everywhere from New York to MillllCsola, Washington,
Colorado, Alabama, and Texas.'
Colonial irorunokers used several production techniques, all based on Lllc usc of wood cha!'CQal as
fuel. Healing iron ore on a stone hcanh with a bellows aru:l a charcoal fire produced iron refinablc
by reheating and hammering. This was ,..rough! iron, slabs of which wen: called blooms, made in
ironworks called a bloomery. Colonial blacksmiths could tum wrought iron imo any cypc of
implcmem. aod lheir seryiccs were in high demand. B!oomeries had limilfl.l produc!ion, however,
and l~er scale demands could only t>:: met by a blast furnace when: large amounts of ore could
be mcllcd for use.'
3. Arthur Cecli BLomg, "'Tho Rl>< of !ron Manu!ac!o;rc m Wc<l<m Ponn>yh·•n1a," 1"/.e We.<l<m P"""'yiW>m<> /l!S!oru;a/ Magat<ne 16, no 4 {Nvv<mbcr J933)o 238. For • fuJI dts<lli<;on of cha~oool ;rorun:Wng on plltllratiom Lo Pennsylvltllia, "'" Artlmr Coc~ Bming, Pe.,:;/vomo [r(llJ M"""facJort m J/oe Eig/oeenlh Cef!ll'ry (H.m,hur~: l'enll.<yiYOJJ\0 H,;toricol >nd Mu<oun> Commi.!>ion 1973).
4. Weltzrnon. Traces, pp. 13.~-138, Myron fl. Sh"''' and Willjam H. Th•>mL~ A G•id< ro Jhe Old Slone Bla.~ F"'""""·' in IV.c<l"n Penn.f)lvani.a (Pit~>!rursl" The Hi<Wli<:ill Sociery of Western Pcnruylvltllio, 1966), pp 17-24, 27 -3D.
:;, W, Dav;d r_.,wi.!, Iron arid Sue/ in Amtrica (Groe"viUc, Delaware' The Hogle)' Museum. 1976), p. 10 Hi.!UJJian W. David r_.,wi.! provided the followOn,g dcmoiption of a hllllil furnace and il> ~"'"'
T1lc bl'-'t fumaoc w"" the l-o>art of ..,~ l~c rolorual il'onwurk.l. Built tn the shap< o( a nottened pyramid. H WllS U>ually tW<IIry-fi•o or llmly feel hi~h. Hollow from lap r.o boltom, it hotl thict stone outer walls md illl inner ii!Wli of Orick t>1 oth<X fuc·rcsi>lant m•l<rillis. A i•YH of day"''"'"" chip< i><<w«m the Jjning aod the outer wall :lllowod the inwalls"' ''P"'d l!ndet the'""""""' he" p100uoed b~ !he "smoltJJ'lg," the pn><o<S of r'<!ucil1g the oro. From • >mall <>p::ning at the Ttlp, ~ftetJ called lhc "lhroal'' or "tunnel !-.<ad." lhc furnace shofl widened r.o a poil1t aOOut two-thiffi.< of !he way down konwn a< the "OOsh." Hece it <top<rl tnwsnl .-1 downw...J "' supp<~l lh< rna=ial, with which the ~tmaee WJ15 ch111gcd, dlr..,Ung !hem ww"l"l the "cruCJblc," a chamhcr which r«eivcd lhc mcll«l rron IUld liquid sag !hal ron Mwn fmm lhc /iory m""' aOOvc. A <mall hole called the ll<y<re locfiiC<i ncor the OOU<rm of the crucible odmhled ihc nw.zlc.< of the bellow< thal supplied !he air blosc The bellows wore"~"'"""' by • watllWheel. which r"''u;red "'" lho fumace b< \oco.l<d nea: • stream. It wos &!"" u.<ually built near a htll /tom wlrich raw maler;al> could b< carriOO to the top of the fuma.oe ove1 • lmdgc fm ch"'f;ing.
At grnoru:! level "' front of the crucible was the "hearlh." a workin~ area i>:>llowed out of lhe side of oho (umocc. A "darn <ton<:" P''""""'d the oon«n« of !he oruciblo from 'J!ilhng nut Lnltl !he boorlh. onJ • part "f tho '"""' w.tt known ._, ~"' "timp'" <>me down h<hind Lho d""'stone, leavrng • <moll OJ>en;ng lhrou~h wh;oh workm could iruen probing tools Em:pt wlum tho furnace wa< being t.1pped. this opening wa:; nonnally plugged with clay. n.:: mcl"'<< <o,g, lighter tJ,.., the iron, coll«:l«l in th< "~'~"-' J>Ul o( the <nJ<ible orul was drovm off tbrouf)l an op<Ring lo>own a< Lhe "eiru!OJ ootch" n.::
3
Blast furnace pig iron could be used for objects needing to ret:tin or withstand heat, hut !lilt for
tools needing t<mgllne.!.S under stress. Further processing at a "fine!)'" or forge was needed. A forge
convened pig uon imo wrought iron, rather lhw maling wrought iron from ore. During 11\e CD!onial
po;riod and after, pig wd wrought iron were suffic1ent for the nation's iron needs.' Some srccl, an
alloy of wrought iron and cartxln, was used for swords and line cutlery.' Steel was prized for
centuries for i~~ hardne". Bars of carbon-free wrought iron were heated in a sealed refraCIOJY 00~
in cartxlnaccous I>Jwder for days and allowed to slowly cooL The imn absorbed the carbon under
tile righl conditions. and would contain one percent or cartxl11- The gases which were produced in
the process would give the imn a blistered surface. Tilis was "blister steel" which ,.,as carefully
forged to shape the tooL Tlle proces> for incorporating the carbon ,.,as called ·•cementation." Steel
W:i< cxpo;nsive and only used sparingly."
By the 1~50s reverbatory. or puddling, furnaces were used to refine blast furnace imn. In !.his
furnace the fuel wa.-; burned in a fireplace or grate next 10 the hcanh. Tllc heanh was heated by
liquid iron sllllll to lho bottom. When !he tappmg hoi< ''"'' unplut;gc<l, it gusto<<! out in a whuo-~ot stream mto , 5<rics of "nd moiJ< Tcsembling " lil""' of P'&' ntu<ing "' lh<o t.olly of a molh<or sow_ Thi< o<pl..in> ~·hy tho product of a b!I!St furnltCO became known o.s "ptg iron." o teml lh" pe:rsim to tho pres<lll Jay.
Tho fum•cc was ohor~'d wilh !hte~ raw ma..nili· iron ore, charco.!, and • thitd substance usually limostone, which promot<d the "'~""'"'"n of'"'" fwm ompmiti« in tho nr<. Chateoal,"" almo" P""' carbon fud <1'"' butn.< woth int<ns< h""c w"" p<odocod hy lh<o <low romhus<ion of wo.od in pi« or oono-sh.ped ['li<> at lho iTon-wnrh Sme< largo qU<tnlltios of clwcoal W<T< nw1:d frn- smelting, l\ wos """"""')' fUT bla>l furnaces to bo illcated on exlOnsive lfltct> of woodland. Chlli"Coal mating c.Ued for """"'" .toll and """" to p<evcnr lho wut>d fr<m'l boUlg completely hmne<l ut<tood of merely ch"""<l, and colliers wor< cons<qucntly among !he high<>l p'ltd employees 01 'colorual ironwork.!. ltnd., pp. 10, 12-13.
At lh< forgo !he casl-iron pigs, scrap, and gate metal i> mmcllM in Ute reftning ftte. This is Ute fml step in convcnmg tlt< pogs into ""ought irtm. Tho proce55 "ou!J be osscnllally the some"' any foq;e. After ktndhng !he fi<e, !he finer's"''"""' """ld h<•p chll!roil 12 tn IX iJJ<h"-< high'" !he fitepl•oc for gmy molal, or "'' to 24 inches if whilO metal were to bo work.O. Whom !he firo wa> JUS! right, !he fmor ,.·oulO irne<t the enOs of rwn or lhrco po~s 1nto the 'h\ll"CO•I ftrc. The blit-<t "'"'now awheO, :.nd a> !he end• of !he ]Jigs in the fire softenod. !he reS! was fed ;, ond new pig< l!ddcd uncil !here were about !20 [')Un<ls of tron \f\ lho hearth. The iron was melted no! to a fluid state •gain bul just umH i< <each.O a pO>ty con<i<tency_ Using • long iron bM. the f!!l<t wu<kcd tho pasry tn""-' Ull<'l a hall by «>ntinually r&>mg and turnUlg ll until the iron was uniformly heated When tho fmer fell tho lime Wa< riY,.. ""' bloom Wa> hOed fTom <ltc h•fiTth wilh long,, >wung OnlD the anvil of a huge hammer, and "'""" into a r«tangular bill<t, 5 or 6 inches square and obout 16 imh<> long. Tho carbon hed bocn b1ought to !he .<utface of !he bloom in lhc «fining fi" . .m now li>c hartunoring w<luld remove !his carbon, combined wtlh tho cinders, and would long"""' !he fib<r.i - prOOucing a much stronger and d1fforcn\ inm !hall !hal which had cmcrg,J from lho bl"-'t furnoe<. Weilo>Ian, Tr~ce.<, p 170.
7. !..cw1.1, /mn &>d Si<el, p 16_
8_ Jack Chard, Mal.<og Iron & Sl<<l Tl-,. 1/i<Wric Pn>ce'5e< 1700 1~!:(1 (13ogotll, Now lors<y; Roebling ChaptOI of the Soc.tcty for lmh»rri•l An:haooior.'l. 1986), PI'- 8-~.
4
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flames wanning the furnace walls, but also from lhc heat retlecting off the furnace roof, thus the
name, "reverbatory."'
The squeezer fore«~ out much of the SU!plus slag and formed "blooms" which were then rolled
inw "muck bar," or flat sections. Because the quality of iron varied from furnace to furnace lh<e
muck bar wa.~ cut iruo sections, mixed wilh bar from other furnaces. and reheated and mlled again
imo ingots. Approximal.ely 400 to 600 pounds of wrought iron was pro<luced during a "heat," las~ng
about one and thrcc-founhs hours. One puddler and one helper worked a "tum" of five or six
healS."
The wrought iron was put imo finished form by passing the bars. ingoL,, and sheeL' through rolls
arranged in pairs. The rolls had grooves of different sizes. These two-high rolls opernted in one
direction, meaning Lhat !he bars or ingol.'; were passed l.hmugh the la'!;CSI groove and carried by
tumd around 10 the front to be passed again Lhrough the smaller groove. This process took time,
allowing lhc bars [o cool. They would h.ave to be rchearcd several times, which took even more
time. These two-high rolls were used exclusively before 1857-''
The puddler.;, hcalCn>, and roller.; were skilled workers who controlled the entire process.
Apprentices to these tmdcs were hired, trained, and directed only by the skilled wclilelli. Me.;hanicill
engineers began til improve !he rolling process to increase production and save labor, thlL• changing
9- Woit.<man. Traces. p. 170. The (lLod<lting P"""" w" d<'<ioped m 1784 in Englond b)' Hem)' Cott. Ch~~rd, Matin{j '""' & Sr«l, P- 5 Oovhl W<itm1an pr<Wided a <~<=iption of puddllng fuma<o o<th·iLk>.
The iron ~oor of Ll>o hcatUt "rovorcd "'ilh a layer of fmci)' p<>wdotcd ctnd<rs 10 a d<ptl1 of 3 or 4 '"'h"'- A «ooc-,oal fire is lhcn kindled in the ~rate and loft to Ourn for about fi,·c hours. The om<lcr> ovcnlually melt and ate smooUtcd up onto tiLe iron pi""' fonning Ute ".!<'of the heanh so tll>l the """'" 'hc>rlh is ""'"ered with a linln~ of fused clnder. The do"' on tiLe sWc of tho furnace is Op<ll<d, allowin~ tho lining "' oool ""d b.rn.lcn, and Lhon the hrnkcn pigs .,-c thrnW>l in 'Tho doot 1S do<ed olnd tho fore btoughl up to worl<ing tcmpcr•Uoro. As tho helper >tirs the fire. getting u hotlcr ..,q Oot"''· tho )JL>ddkr breW up tho t><>W-p"-"Y P"''"'' of iron .,.J "'""' <he-m wtth Ute mol!Oo> c>nd= using a puddhng hoo~- S~nco lh< Lools .,-o in tho furnace much of the time. a trough filled with waocr is anached alongside the fuma<o; in th" o-ough the pud<Jimg boob !Lild bono ""Y he coolOO The puddlor eonnnuc> I<> wmk the ~on .,-,d cindct nUX<uro unnl the mc<al i<. a< he would "Y- "'ronUng 10 natuto."" AL Lhis sLago liulc "'und hall< nf mnlLc"Tl """ aboul the siE.c uf peas appc..- m the ,;odor. They grow l.,gcr •nd l"'gor a< Ll>oy adhere to one anolltot. The !'umaco i>" il>< highest tl<a~ and dto puddler must w01k quiclly now ~'keep lhe m"'' uf cimlcr .00 iron Lurning and uniformly heaLed. Then, with Ill> 1:...- or hook, th< ['Uddlcr pulhos the ""'"1"' lump> "'gethcr '""' '""'"I l:ttgct muod b;,ll<. 12 tu 15 inches tn diamctr:t and wctghmg •bout 70 or SO pounds. The door i• clo<ed; a final and thorough heal is gi•en the iron. omlthe hdf"' now "''"d' "'odY h<<ide tho fumocc with an iron h'"d<"'· The door L< opened, lhe puJdlor ond hi! helper grasp one of lhe white-hot ball• of iroP with a sLoul pair of ton~<. drog it onto the cart, '"d whocl Jt OV<'r lO the hommcr or squoclCf. W<>'-'m"", Trace., p. 171.
tO. John Willilllll Benne<(, ""lmn ~rl<C!< in disscrtal\on, Umvcr>ily of PitL<burgh, 1977, p 12_
" Ibid, PI' 12-13
Woods Run and Johrutown; Tho Union Er• 1~65-1895," Ph.D.
5
the nature of the wort. from wo!ter-directed to management comrolled. Much of !his change
occurn:d at the Cambria iron Company willl the development of the three-high roll mrin, developed
by John FrilZ. (For funhcr information sec chapter TIL) Because Cambria had so many engirueers,
it was one of the first major companic.o; to "establish full management control over the means and
methods of production.""
Pennsylvania was the most imponant iron manufactunng colony. it had abundant resources of raw
materials and streams. Philadelphia merchants financed llle ironmaking establishments, and by the
end of the colonial c111 the industry was located west of the Susquehanna River in Yort County,
the Cumberland Valley. and in the Junialll Valley area. By the time of the Revolutionary War iron
production sLancd in the wc>1cm pan of Pennsylvania. Eastern manufacturers had great difficulty
sending heavy iron goods over the Allegheny Mountains. and western ironmastcrs lllus were
provided willl some protection from competition. Blast furnaces and forges were set up close to ore,
charw<JJ. and water sources, and llle wrought and pig iron was shipped by animal or boat to
Pittsburgh. where it was fini>hed. Pit!sburgh was an iron processor, but not yet an iron
manufacturer."
A large new source of iron ore was discovered in the upper pcrtiru;ula of Michigan in 18~. It
was almost immediately commercially exploited, and llle Late Superior area became an ore supplier
for the easlem manulacturing centen; afler !he Sault Ste. Mane Canal was finished in 1855,
connecting Late Superior and Lake Huron'' The discovery of !his ore made llle production of sreel
po><iblc. The blast furnace industry was "completely revolulioruzed" after 1860 when more powerful
engines and improved stoves were used, and by the use of anthracite and biturmnous coal and the
pure iron orcs from the Lake Superior area."
According to Historian W. David Lewis. "The adoption of european techniques, the discovery of
the Lake Superior ore deposilS, the mpidly expanding use of anthracite in iron manufacruring east
of the Appalacruans. and the slow but steady progress in the use of bituminous coal for ironmaking
12 !bJd., pp. 13-t5.
14 Jbi~ .. PI'· Jll-31.
IS lam<> M Swmk. Nmes aNi C""""'"'-'' on lllliJJ.rlriai, [cOMmie, Poliliml, aodllistoricai. Subj•cu (Phil"'"'lphia: The Amorio•n Iron >lld S[Cc\ A.»oci•"on. lS97), p. t45.
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in Pittsburgh and eJgewheJt greatly increased Lhe productive capacity of !he American iron industry
in lhe last two decades of the antebellum era."
The malket for iron grew lremcndously in lhc years prior lO the Civil War. Growth of cilies,
lrnllsponation. and industry created demand for iron producl'i. Textile factories, macltinc shops,
agricultural equipment, and steam machinery all demanded iron pans. Railroads increased in
trnckage, from 2,818 miles in 1840 lO 30,626 miles in 1861, which created a demand for iron raiL
Iron was used for rallroad b!ldges, gmlero, and rrusscs. The telegraph spurred lhe growih of the iron
wire indusl.l)', and iron and steel cable was used in suspension bridges. Uiban growth promDicd the
use of iron water lines, iron heating equipment and iron columns, be11II!S, window sashes, and door
frames. Such use reduced tlm risk of lire."
IRON RAIL
By the 1840s lhe technology of rolling iron "T" ra.it a supencr type of rail. was mastered in Great
Britain. The very lin;t rails used were wood or timber, and early wooden roadways were called
U1irnways. Tllc fir.;! iron rails to be used were cast in flat bar.; called plate rails. When flat rails
were later rolled from rn.Ulcablc iron !hey were called strap rails. The liCK! rails used were cast irun
edge nuls. These were later rollell from malleable iron, were changell iu sh.ape to a single head and
caJ.Jed the T rail. The double head rail was !hen produced and callell the double T, also known as
!he double head and bull head rail." Another problem to be solved was that of the support for rails.
Cast iron, stone, and wood were all considered. v.IJcd was chosen b.!cause it could absorb shock
from the impact of the looornotive whecls on the rail."
Bntish ironworl<em whll ernigral.ed to America helped establish the industry. The Mount Savage
Rolling Mill of Allegheny County, Maryland, made the first T mils in America in 1845, fer use
of the railroad from Fal.l River to Boston, Massachuscns. New Jcflley and eastern Pennsylvania
comparues soou foll"wc.d. Tlle high cost of British rail> eased competition and spurred American
16 Uwi<. Iron a,.,J Stul. p. 31.
17 Ibid .. PI' 31-33.
IS G T, RiUclobaut>to, "Histu')' of lhc Ro!Hng of Raib." TM Blasr F•mac< ON! .\'reel Pl;nr (A,!'"d 19Z1); 197 .
19. p,,.,, Temin, lrtm. mid Steel in Ni""reen<h-Celllury Moerica An £contmli.c 1"'1uiry (C'amb,;Jge, Mass""h"""'"'· The M.l.T. PrOM, 1%4), p. 4X.
production, allowing ~ompanies such as the Lackawarma Iron and Coal Company in Scranton,
Penmylvania, to supply the Eric Railroad with locally made rails. By the mid-1850s, fifteen new
American mil miUs were built, primarily west of the Allegheny Mountairu, including tlle Cambria
Iron Company.""
American rail production increased, but, ac~ording to hi.1tori.n Peter Temin, !he "major part of the
J~mwtd for rails during the railway boom of the early 1850s wao; filled by Bnti>ll rail maker.l who
supplied over lhrce-quarten. of the iron r.lils wnsumed by Arneric.n r.Uirnads in lhcse yean;."
British nlil suppliers dominated for two reasons. They were !he low-cost supplier,; in the industry,
especially of bar iron. They ai!>O produced a cheap product wh.ich they exponed to America, in
comr.~st to the higher quality, more e~pcnsivc Amcricun products made by older melhuds. American
railroad buildcn; were more imcre.ltcd in stan-up CDSlS and not main~enancc, !>0 they purchased the
ch~apcr British 10il. much to the anger of American ra1~nak.cr.;. The Briti<;h also supplied rml on
credit."
Wes~em Pennsylvarua became the domestic leader in the pruduction of iron and steel rails because
of the libernt supply of raw materials, but alo.o because of prolCctivc legislation. Libeml gr.nts of
public lands to railruad compJilie<, pro!CctlV<l tariff policy, and !he homestead policy all spurred !he
construction of thousmds of mlles of railruad With the building of dlesc railroads, the C<lnsurnpti'>n
of iron increased along with !he population. The opemng of fanns and ranches in the Midwest and
West c~panded the market for iron products."'
A listing of active rail mills in die Vmtcd States in 1856 rcflecLI !he early dominance of
Pennsylvania in the trade.
20. Lev.i<, /ron tW1 St<<l, p 31.
21 TcmU.. f!cor.om.ic l><q"if'). pp. 21-22. For more Information nn rolling lfon and <=I nul•. '"" F. H. Kind!. n •• Rullin8 MW /Mus<ry (Cbel""d Pont<m l'ubli>hU.g Comp>illy, 1913).
22. lam<< M. Swont. 'Tho Manufacture of !ron and Stocl Ralls in Wc>tom Pc..,n<~h·•uno." Tn. Pennrylwmio. Mogll2<<14 of Hi>1ury aM Bio.grtlfh} XXVIll, no. 1 (I '1{)4). I -2.
8
The rails miUs of lk Unilci SLales llfC
The Bay Swe, Sou!h 80<100 The R""sselaer, Troy, N.Y .. The Trent<Jn, NJ. The PhO<mixville, Pa- Thc Pous.ille, Schuylktll Co., Pa. The Ladawmma. Lu>.emc Co. Pa .. The Rough aild R..,.Jy, Danvdlc, 1'!1. The Momour, DanVIlle, 1'!1. The Sofc HIIJ'bor, Laocaswr Ca. Pa. The MoUilt Savage, Lanoastcr Co. Pa The Cambria, Cambria Co. Pa. The Brady's Bend, AnnsLmng Co. Pa. The Cosalo, Lawrenoe Co. Pa. The Washinglon, at Wheeling, Va. The McNICkle, 01 CovinglOn, Ken'y The Newbury, near Cleveland, Ohio The Rail Road Mill, 01 Cleveland The Wyandoue, """' Deuoit, Moch. The Chicago, in Illinois The lndianaiXJhs, in lr<liana
Tollll above m~e of Rails m 1856
Tons of rails made in 1856
17,871 \3,512
141,555
The last four mills have been recently siane<l with ihc inlention of re-rolhng wcstem raill. The Fairmount at Philada., bas been also recemly a<l•pled lO rolling rails; 8lld the Polo Alto at Pot~<ville, rolled a thousand LOn> or SIJ, in 1~56. There were therefore made 142,555 IOns of railroad iron m 1856, of wh1ch twO·lhirds were made in Pennsyl\•:tnia."
It is easy 10 forget how imponant mlroads were in Ameri<:a from 1850 10 1890. Railroads were
!he fin.! dominaling business, and 1herefore set the pa!ICms for admini>tration, financing, and scale.
Railroad expansion spal1:ed many changes in social, technological, and humllJl terms. The railroads
crealCd the demand for iron, then swel mil, and !he railroad men were some of !he loudest boosLCr.:;
of !he fledgling Bessemer steel industry. Of the fir.:;t eleven Bessemer plants, all but one wa..s
organized lOr the rail business."'
In 1861 Congress passe.d the Morrill Tllriff Act, which imposed stiff duties on iron and steel
impom. American m:mufacturel3 were guarJnteed protection from foreign competition. In 1870 a
tariff of $28 a ton was put on imponed Bessemer mils. In the Uruted States in 1871 the price of
a gross !on of mils was $91.70: in England they cost $57.70. In the next ycac British mils went
for $67.30 while American rails cost $99.70. American importers could pay the $28 Wriff plus a
two 10 four dollar per ton lnuJsponation cost and still save money over buying Americw rails.
:;'3 J.P L>oley, socrotary, Americo~ Iron As.<O<iaJion Bodlelm /8.\6 (Philodelphia; Amenc•n hun A>•ocio<ion, ]g:;6, correctod \o 1858), p. 171.
24. Elting E- Monson, Me11. M<JChini!s. aNi Madun 1im£.< (Caml.-1dge: The M.LT_ Press. 1966), pp. 170-171
9
This siruation did no\ last long, for the price of American rails ooon dropped. In 1875 English
rails cost $12 more than American, and by 1879 they were only $5 more. From 1875 10 1879
vcl1" few if any rail~ were imported from Great Britain." This was due 10 !be introduCI.ion of new,
cheap steel rails.
THE AGE OF STEEL
The breakthroughs in lhe 1850s for making cheap steel were pioneered by two Englishmen, Henry
Bes!iemer and Roto;,rt F. Mushet, and American William Kelly. Tlle combination of their patenlS.
bringing wgethcr the various i.echnolo!,>ical, mechanical, and chemical aspects of the process. result.ed
in the establishment of the American st.ecl iru:lusrry. (For an in-depth discussion of lhese evems. and
the Cambria Iron Comp1111y's involvemem. sec chapler 1!1.) S1ecl plants were established a.cross the
United States, arul from 1870 to 1907, Bc:ssemcr sl.ecl compriseil half lhe naiional producticm. (For
a dio.cus.,ion of \he Bessemer steel indusrry's beginnings, sec chapt.er Ill.) Almo;t all of this steel
went to the production of rails. American production of Bessemer steel rJiiS surpassed that of Great
Britain in 1879; by 1886 the Unil.ed State~ was the largest steel maker in tre world, with an output
of moro than 2.500,000 lJ;ms.'"
Pig iron was produced when several ingredients, iron ore, coke and limestone, were heau:d together.
Included in !his mi~ture were phosphorous. manganese. sulphur, silicon. carbon, and iron. The same
elemenl'; were presem in steel, but in different proportions. Carbon in pig iron was 3.8 pero:nt of
the tol;ll while steel conl;lined 0.4 percent of carbon in the whole. The primary challenge of
steelmaking was to reduce the carbon content. The making of blist.er st.ecl result.ed in solid steel in
limited quamitics. Tllese n:stric1ive factors were conquered when Henry Bessemer announccll his
new process in 1856."
The Bessemer process consisted of forcing cold air under pressure to a pear-shaped ve,.,cl !mown
as a convener, partially filled with melted cast iron. Tllc air's oxygen combined with the iron's
carbon and silicon and climinatro it, not through cooling. but through combustion. The silicon,
manganese, and carbon joineil W!th the oxygen to form combustible gases which burned off, leaving
:!5. JbLd,. j)p. \7\-Jil.
L-<wi<. /wn and ~1ecl. p.38; Sw~ /J(J/es, p. 156.
7.7. Mo"-'""· Men .. \laehiN!s, Modem. p. 125.
10
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pure iron. However, some carbon was needed liJ make steel, so after it was burned out of the
mixture it was added back lD !he iron. Manganiferous pig iron (spicge!cism), composed of carbon,
mang!IIlCSe and iron, was added to lhe converter while 1\S contents were s~ll fusing. The manganese
combined with !he oxygen w!Uch united with the non during lhe blasL The product was liquid
B<:.-<semcr •tee!, produced in large quantities, which could then be poured into ;hapcs. The
commc~ial success of Bc;scmcr steel laid in the control of !he recarburization slCp of lhc process."
In a Bessemer steel plant lhe pig iron was brought into !he wnverting hou>e by railroad cars. A
wn at a time was dumped iniD lhe cupola where it was mcllcd and run off into ladles. From !here
lhe melted iron was tipped into S(XIuts which filled lhc convcrtc~. Fans were then >lartcd which
blew air through. the \uye~~:s and lltrough the metal. Then began the blow, "one of the most
impressive momenLS in American industrial history." When lhe blow wa> Jiniohcd ihe moiLCn steel
was tipped imo ingot molds. After cooling ihe mgots were moved to tile blooming mill where they
were hammered or rolled inJo blooms, or steel blocts. These could then pass ihrough. the rail mill,
"which was like an old-fashioned laundry wringer wilh notches, rail si1e, cut in (he roller,;_""
28 I amos M. Swank, }jjst"'Y "f 1M /tl"'"'facior< of /,on mAll Age<. and Panic-.lwly in !he United S1<11<' from Colon«Jl '}-.,..,, Io /891 (Phiiod<lphia: Tho 1\mericon Iron ond Sloe\ A>soc>alion, Jg92), p. 39S; :.to'"'"'· Men, Machi"''· MoJ..,-n, PI'- 126-127.
l9. Monson, M<n, Machin<; .. 'J,.J""· pp \66-Hil _ AI"..OO" L Holl<)', on early .Ovoca\< of ~IC Be>"-'"'"' I"'""""· wroto a doscripoton of Ill< conversion procc» which w"' en<>:! in ~'" indu.s~y f<>r yea<>;
The "vomous room i< dork: ibe oii sulphurous; ibe sound> of '"PP''""'d l<'wcr "'" mcbnchuly ..,d doep. H•lf r<voakd mon>!Cr> WLib pic~cing cyO> <touch 10 <he c<>rn= Sped.! s!\af"'' evor fit about Lhc v.-oll, ond IL>l'id beams of~~\ anon flash in )'OUr face "some remor-<cl<5> be~'' "1"-"" LIS wd hoi jaws lor i\> iron .. won. Then ibe melt<r !bnlst' a spe.tt bc1wcen Lhe JOints of i<s armor, lilld , glistomng yellow stteam spurts ou\ for a moment, an.d ibcn •tl is d.,-k once more. Agam ond agllin he .,.., ''· until 6 Ions of i" ho< aml '""'king biOO<l f,ll a ~f<al cuuldton to ibe btim. Then Lhc foreman >hoots to • 3{) feet giant;, Lho comer. who sttoightway s\Ict<hes out his iron arm .00 gently hf<s Lhe coul<lron awoy up in«> Ill< ,;,, and turns uu< ibe ydlow biO<ld ;n • hi"lfig. sporkhng streom whlch drives into Lho wMe hot jows of aoolh<r monster big as an elephant "ilh • head ILko a frog and • scaly hiclo_ Tho foreman ohuu" og>in, a\ wheel< UpfLSoS tl10 munster on i" haunches. growling and <nofli!\11 s~k> and flame.
What a confl1ct u[ olcm<11<> "going un in th-' Vll>l M""""""' A million b•ll< uf melr<>l iron teanug awa)' fruno Lho liquid mas~ sursing from side to side and plun~ing down agaLn, nnly 10 be blown out mmc hot 1Lnd "'W} !ban before. ('nluom upon column "f illf, ><jooo,:<;d >Olid ILkc roili of gl""' hy ll" powor of 500 ),orse<, piercing and sha"ering tho iron ot every· P"inl. chosing ir up onJ d<>wn, robbin~ it of iLs ttell>Ule<, on!)' to be itself d=mposcd and hurled oo\ mto lhc night m • ru..-ing bl•<O- A• ibc combu><iLm progrossc~ II« surgmg m.,s K'""' honor, tluol'oing ''' tlasl1e< of liquid •nag_ And 1M dischiiig< frnm it-' mouth ch.mgo. !rum >pack' and str<•i<> of r<J aoJ )'ellow gas «> Lhick full while dazzling tlamo. But such botU:r "'"Tll'' 1'1>1 long. In • quarter of ou hour 1ho irun i> ""WCd ol eve.-y combu,Lible olloy and hMgs out Ill< whito n,g_ Th< con>e~« is !bon tumoti upon it> >Ld.o, ibc l•l"" shut off. and ibc carburi>-"' run ;n, Tl10n foro moment tl" w.r of the elen>ent> rages again- tl"' ""'-'' b.l<\S .00 flames with highor inl<nsity and v.-iib a rapLLiily of chemical "''"'lion, ;omcrimc> ibrowmg it vioi<Tlll)' out of lhc cnn>·end.> mou\h_ Tfu.-n oll is quicc a.Ld the p<Oduc\ is steel, ];quid. mil!..y steel lho! I""'' out into ibe ladle from undor Ll< roof of slag. smooth, shiny, Md dmo>! Uar'>t=cnL Quoloti in Lbtd., f'l'· 1\16-161,
It took yea.-.; for the quirks '" the Bessemer process to be solved_ Improvements in the process
were developed by Engli~h inventors Stdncy U. Tllomas :md Percy C. Gilchrist in the late 1870s.
TitC)' discovctcd that phosphorus could be eliminated from the steelmaking process by changing the
actd lining of a furnace to a basic material. De:.pitc these advanccmcnu;, deficiencies of the
lkssemer process led to the .Uopuon ol the open-hearth method ol producing steel. This process
was refined by William and Frederick Siemens, and Pierre Martin in 1865. Abrom Hewin of the
Trenton Iron Works in Trenton. New Jersey. introduced tl1e Siemens-Manin proce" into the United
St3tcs.'"
The open-hearth furnace had several advantages over the llessemer convener. Various rypes of
scrap metal (.~Juld llc mixed with pig iron over a period of time. Samples were tested until an
exact metallurgical combinanon W"-' achieved. Tlte steel was made on a hearth benca!h a roof, and
it was acces;tble !hrough Jumace doors, whereas B~ssemcr saeel could not be tested for quality
while it was made. Opcn·hcanh \>las slower !han the Bessemer process, bul had a high production
capacity and a htgh level of scientific accuracy_ The largest influence in tlu: adoption of the
opcn-heanh method over Bcs;cmer was its ability to use phosphoric ores. After 186\1 open-hearth
production tncrca.scd, reaching 10,980,0CIO tons in 1906. In 1908 open-hearth steel SUipaSSed
lles.<emer >tee! in volume." (See appendix J for a description of iron and steel processes. Sec
illuotr-Jtion l for diagram of entire steel process, from ore to finished product.)
STEEL RAIL
Sleel mil wao.· preferred over iron nlil because of tis durabihty. It could support heavier weights
of cars. locomotives, freight, :md passenger.;, and .:illowcd trains to liavcl at faster speeds. Carrying
capacity increased while operating costs decreased. The usc of steel rails prevented continual
disruption on the line; due to replacement of iron rails.
The imponance of ~tee! rail to America's economic development can not be understated. According
to James W. Swank in 190-1:
l' Lev.;., Jwn =d .11<<1. P- 40, Tcmin, Eca"""'ic i"''Ul'), pp 1~5-1~6; "Open 1-"'-'rlh Sreol Soon lO Pas> 11c,cmc-r," The lmn Age (Apnt t~, t907) 1206, "S•«:l'' Contcnni•l 1957. The FmttOO Year> of the S=l Age," Am""'"" bon md Sted lnstttmo. ~'"' York. April 19S7. p. 25 Fm lwth<r infom1ation on the d""olopmenl of tho >tc<:t P"'""''· ""' G.E. Th.ock"Y· "Noto> on tho Hi•tory of lmn >rrd S"'el," Tr~"'"''W= of rloe ,),.,ric"" SQc.ery jOT Sreel Trea~i~g (October 1924). ''43-~91l.
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But for our cheap steel rails flour and meat, lumber and coal, and numerous other heavy produclS could not have been ~heaply llistribuLed to consumcn;, the necessaries of life would have been largely enhanced in price through !he high cost of tr.l!l.~portation, and lhe whole country would have had a much less raptd growth lhan it has experienced.
The bcncfico; which this country has denved from ctueap steel rails of home mmufacture are so numerous that cntJ:r so largely imo the daily life of ill our pc<Jplc that they have ceased to c~citc spcdal comment, like the nawral blessings of light, air, and water_"
The expansion of the r.nlroad sysLCm was a commercial boom ror the American iron and steel
industry. At the end of 1860 there were 30,626 miles of r.lilm ll.IC, but by 1895 this figure grew
to 181,021 miles. But while the demand lOr iron and steel promoted the indusuies, so did the
protective policy to increase production. In comparison 'IOith Great Britain, American production
grew during these years."
The llr,l swel rails in America were rolled at lhc North Olic:Jgo Rolling Mill on May 24, 1864,
from Bessemer steel ingots forged at a small e~pcrimental works at Wyandouc, Michigan. The
first steel rails rolled in America on commereial order "m the way of regular business" were run
at the Cambria Jron Company in AuguSI 1867, from Bes.<emer steel ingots ca>t by the Pennsylvania
Steel Company in Steelton, Pcnnsyh·ania. The mils were rolled for the Pennsylvania Railroad
Company. (For more information on !his event see chapwr II.) After that year Bessemer steel rails
of American manufacture began to replace iron rails. The highest ""'ount of iron nlils made was
&08.&66 tons m 1872, but by 1877 iron rail producllon !ell behind Slel)l rJil production. '[lu, iron
rail industry was, by 1897, "practically ntinct." In 1880 iron rails totaled 70.~ pem:m of the
nation's railroad track: by 1895, 87.8 percent of track was laid wHh steel rail. Steel rails had, by
19()4, entirely replaced iron rails." In 1902 the nal!On produced 2,935,392 mns of Bessemer steel
rails. Wcswrn Pennsylv~~nia comriburcd 950,266 tons of this amount, or one-third of !he totlll. This
lOnt~agc c""'e almost entirely from the Edgar Thomson Steel Worts at Braddock, Pennsylvania.
operJted by And~ew Carnegie, and the Cambria Iron Compony." (Appendixes 2 and 3 con!.lin
st.atistics on Briush and American rail, steel ingot, and opcn-heanh production.)
" h,..k. "'M.,u!.«\u<o,"; 3-4_
" Swuol;. Nmes, FF· t'\4.)55.
" "Steel'• Coo!erutiot," p IS; Swi!nl:, -'Ia<"'• p 147, Swonl;, "MJnufacturo.", 7, Rrudabaugh. "History.": 183.
" Swunl<. "M.muf•c<uto,'"; '"
Tile costs of shipping goods via rrulroad dropped steadily after the inl.roduction of steel r.til. From
1867 !0 1877 !he cost of transponing a bu>hel of wheat by railroad from Oticago to New Yolk
droprxd from 44.2 cents a bushel to 20.3 cents; from 1870 to 1880 !he cost of shipping a barrel
of Jlour from Olicago to New York by r;>il was reduced from $1.60 !0 86 cents. By 1903 the
freight charge on the Pennsylvania Ra>lroad in car-load lol.S from Oncago to New York wa.o; 36
cents per barrel.'"
A vital development in !he runlinued growih of !he ;-we! indusuy wa.o; !he use of inlemal
combustion engines to drive lhc rolling miUs. In earlier years !he mills were run by wa!er wheels
and then low-pressure steam engines. After 1890 !he internal combustion engines opcruled on blast
furnace gas and not only operate<! electric power gcner-Jtors IQr driving !he rol!ing mills but ran !he
blowing eqmpment for the bla't furnaces."'
AGE OF CONSOLIDATION AND INNOVI\TION
Jmponam changes took place in the United States in lhc time .-:riod bet\<leen 1890 and World
War I. Many of lhc country's imponant public and private inslltutions eme~ed in !heir modem
form. including corporations. trade and professional o~ani1.ations, labor unions, regulatory toa.nls,
and other bureaucratic orgllni?ations. This transfonnation has heen described by historians as
"finance capilalism," "scientific management," "'welfare capitalism,"' "business unionism," "'industrial
democracy," "'Progressivism," and "'corroratc libera.Usm'' It made no difference whether the Lerms
referred ro financial, social, indu~trial or political developments, rhey were all related and linked
together."'
These interrelated developments can be seen in the rcslfUcturing of rhe iron and steel industry in
America during this time period. Successful me~crs were b>.~ed on a growth strntcgy of vcnical
integration. Almost aU of til<: primary metals oompanies gained control of ore and fuel supplies,
and many moved into fabricating metal pmducts. The 1901 formation of the United SUites S!ecl
Corporation, which wa<; a holding company. unified 60-70 percent of the country's <;tcclmaking
16. Ibid·' 3.
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capacity under a single slructure. Even though U.S Steel's production totaled only 23 percent of
lhe country's steel in 1977, it ami six o!her finns still dominated th~ industry."
Tile House of Morgllll played a cruc1:il role in !he creation, fmancing and control of U.S. SteeL
Bankers and financiers reorganized !he industry, inheriting the power once wielded by the
s!eelmakcrs. This iUusLruted the "ruanagenal revolution," when foundc" of swe! rui!\s and sclHaughl
steelmakcn; were replaced in leadership roles by managcmem spcciJJists, all highly trained and wcU
educ;ued."'
Thus dle American iron and steel indrntry undcTV<cnt consolidanon in !he late nincLC~nth century,
which. accomparucd !he growth of large-scale martets and expansion of the railroads. Limited
capacity ironworu simply oould nO\ compete. Companies saved money and o~rated more
eJllcienlly by comroUing their sources of rdw matcrials, and the integration of lhc convcn;ion of
pig iron imo steel md then imo products aiJed efficiency. PitL,burgh took advamagc of it>
proximity to the Connellsville, Pcnnsylvunia, coalfields, its rail and river tmnsponation, and location
near eastern markets to become the leader in steclmakmg alter the Civil War. Iron ore fields in
upper Michigan and nonhero Wisconsin paled in comparison ,.;th the discoveries of ore in the
Vermilion and Mesabi ranges, nonh of Duluth, Minnesota_ The Mesabi Range supp~cd ore for Lhc
iron and steel indu>11')' for fifty years after the tum of the ccntul')'."
Coal was also a nccessal')' fuel for the furnaces. Scfore Ule 1831}; almost all pig iron was made
with charcoal, but af\er lhis time coal regan to be used. The cobng process expelled gas from soft
bituminous coal and left coke, which approached pure carbon. Han! anthracite coal comained vel)'
little gas and was called "natural coke." EasiCm Pemsylvania oontained heavy concentrations of
anthroci!c coal which was used by cao1cm iron producers. Bituminous coal. more abundant west of
!he Alleghenies, was used both in its original form or coked, by we.1tem producer.; including !he
Clii!lbrla Iron Company. Another factor is this use of bitumlnou'i coal w~s lransponation. Tile
Allegheny Mountains prohibited easy shopmcnt of coal cast and west. Therefore, eastern iron
39 ]bi<!., flll. 'i->~i. A ,·enic>l coml:rin:~~mn brought under singlo C<morol oil of lho sl.lge> of an mdustri.J P"''""'· from lhe row m:llortol< "' lho fllllihed product, ~<hile a horiL.onoal oombi.1adon wur.e<J indcpendon• flii!Uo all in lhe ''"'"' businc" under <ingL< oo"orol. Mu.~ U.S. St.,.], kno''"' '-> '"!Jig S1<el.'" lhe si< l:Ug<~l companies, producing 70 percent of American >loci Ln t977, wcro: Bclhlchcm Sled Compa.1y (!3.6\'o), N•tionol S1<ol (1.2%), R,"P"bhc S1<cl Corror.own (7 .2\t). lol>nd Sf<<\ OompanY (6.4%). An~>co "' Am<rican Rolling Mill (0-4%), mol Jones al"ld L..ugl•t;, (610. Ibid .. no!e, p. t77; Alfrod D. Cl>andl« Jr., "Tho Slructure of Am«<ean lndu>try in Lhe Twc"f1Uc\h Century' A His\oncot lh·cn·icv,," IJ"-''""" /li>IM} R<Vjew, Xllll, no_ 3 (Aunmm 1969): 271.
Lewis, /rem and Sre,·l, pp. 43-44.
"
pmducers used anthracite coal even though coke technology was used in England and became tlle
swndanl in America. Anthr~cite coal burned too slowly for efficiency in smelling, however, and
soon the manufactmc of cok:c from bituminous coal became widely accepted. Beehive ovens were
fir.;t used, and then supplanled in the 1890s, in the urban centers at lc!!.lt, by the by-product overu,
which were designed to capture gases. lllrs. and other substances."
Compclilion spurred the irmovations in eMracr.ing. processing, and mmsponing iron ore. "The
Bes;emer process needed iron ore low in phospholl.l!i while hard driving in the bl~t furnace needed
fuel which would bum rapidly and not crush. Local imn ores were soon replaced with L.W.
Superior and foreign ores. The usc of Lake Superior on.:s began gradually because of transporration
pmblem;, but costs were lessened wi!l1 the mcrcased capacity of ore boal!l and wilJJJhc introduction
of mechanical unloading. One-fourth of the nation's iron ore was mined from the Lake Superior
area in the 1870s. Tins amount rose after 18RO to one·half in 1890 und two-!hirds in 1900''
llasic procedures for smelling. refirung. and rolling steel had come from Europe, but Americaru
continually improved the processes. Afl.er 1870 trained chemists brought :;cientific methods to bear
in met.allurzical problems. Machinery was improved to move materials at the furnaces. Refining
processes were also improved for both Bessemer convener.; and open-heanh furnaces. The
integration of production stages soon occumil. William "Captain Bill'" Jones developed new
machines. improved equipment. and devised plant layoUls which promoted coordination and
efficiency. Jones, who go\ his stan at Cambria. then incorporated all of the technological
42 Ibid., pp. 4·1. 46; Temin. Iron aM. S<e<i. f'P· 52-'iJ.
43 ~wL<. /u)Tl ami. S•od. pp 43-41; T emm. E:c"'"""<e l"'i"""Y· pp 194-196. Peter Temm dc>enb«! how iron w,.; muve<i f"'"' Mumewta to Ponruylv..,io<
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developments al the Edgar Thomson plant for Andrew Carnegie, wiJh no expense spared.
Open-hearth technology was also improved with changes in configuration and operation ...
Rolling mill processes were improved, wuh a continuous. mcchanicul operation !he goaL lngoL'
arriving at a roiling m!IJ were mechanically transferred from railroad cars. heated, and conveyed
10 heavy metal rolls mounted in adjustable stands. Before l.hc Civil War. iron-rolling mills used
two mlls to a set, whereas three-high s!ands were used after the war. 'The Lhrec-high roll wa'
pioneered by John FriiZ at C:llllbria. (For more information on the technological improvements in
rolling mills see chap!Cr IlL) Bars were passed back and forth with ease, and the final step or
mechanizing the lift upward for the n:tum pass was accompli,hed by Rohen W. Hunt in 1884,
also a former Cambria employee."
Advancements in technology were the result of intense com~tillon m the Amcncan Slccl industry.
A certain psychology existed in !hm;c who headcrl !he steel mills. Andrew Carnegie was preoccupied
with economy in sacclmaking. and this was constdered to be !he key to Amencan success in lhc
field. Charles M. Schwab, president of U.S. St,.,l, remarked: "Camcgtc never "anted 10 know the
profits. He always wanted W know lhc cos!." Economy and lhe reduction of production cosl' were
essential to economic sur;iv~l and achievement. A~cording to steel historian David Brody:
That impulse for economy shaped American steel manufacrun:. ll inspired the inventiveness that mechanized !he productive o~mtions. It fotmcd the calculating objective mcnLality of the induS!I)' It selected and tw'dcrrcd the managerial ranks. Its tuhnological and psychological consequ~n,.,s, finolly, defined the treatment of !he steelworkers. Long h.ours, low wages, bleak conditions, anti-unioniSl!l, rlowcrl .:tike from !he economizing drive that made the American steel industry the wonder of !he manufacruring world ...
The need for economy was dictated by the demands of com~titio.J which preceded the mergers
of the 1890s_ Steebnakmg was considered a "mercile!s game" because the dcman;l for steel,
primarily for railroads, was unstable_ The unceasing disparity between supply and demand fostered
com~tition. Steel companies cut prices to keep on:len; during depressed yean;. From the boom year
45. !bid., P- 48; David Bmd}, St<e/worler' in ,\merica Th< NwwniO'I Cra (New Yoli:· Harper Tw:hO....>h 1 ~60j. pp ~-11 .
of 1880 to !he "wllapscd" market of IB85, steel rail prices fell from $85.00 to $27.00 a ton_ Only
tile most economic and efficient could survive."
Mcdumzation grca!ly improved produclion. Profits from increa.ed output oulWeighed the costs of
rapid wear ;md rcpl"cement The top produccn; in !he irulustry garnered fame and fortune. Andrew
Carnegie became a steel titan by controlling raw materials to assure continuity of operation at
minimal cost He h.ired men wilh SCientific and technological experti>e and in.sistcd on the most
up-to-date equipment.""
Carnegie's methods fon:cd other >teet businesses w adopt w survive During !he depression years
of lhc !~90s many small producers were absorbed by merger~. Eleven major reorganizations or
consolidations occum:d in the induSlry lx:twecn lSn and 1899. ll was during these yeill1> that !he
Cambria Iron Company reorganized, becoming the Cambna Steel Company. The luturc. however,
lay with the Carnegie Company because of Carnegie's abiluy lD coru;istently urulerscl! his
competitor.., and grow in the race of mcrcasing economy. The iron and steel trade was "dis.astrous"
in 1893, with many firms Jailing. Carnegie was able 1C monopolize the depressed m.rkel and lD
further perfect eco!IOtlncaJ stcclmakmg. By 1897 Carnegie could charge only $14.00 per ton for rails
on some Orden; and still make a profi1. Only rising prices in 1899 saved e:mcm producers. '!bey
learned a lesson from Carnegie: only economy. efficiency, and control of raw resources could ellSilre
a place in ~1c market."
The need for economy, spurred by competition, supported the tcchnolog!cal advancements. Ths
technology, in tum, promoted economy. The two force> affected !he mentality of the steelmakers.
They werc extremely calc11Ming and rational. When a Briton visited the Uniled Slates in 1890 he
was amazed at !he rapid rate of driving blast furnace> which wrecked !heir int.erion; every three
years. The Amcncan furnaces smelted six times as much iron as !hose at the ClaTCilCC work~ in
England, but the f.nglish furnaces were performing as well as they d1d seventeen and one-half yean;
11 lhi<L, pp. 2-J.
;g_ t"'"'''· /;on arul Soed, p. 50. f,, more information on Amlr<"' C"..-nogio's llfc ...J car<'T ><<; Ho<otd C_ t.<ve<O)'. Al«i;e" Camcg'" w.l ,r., Rise of Bi8 Br<>incS> (So>tono ).<lUC, lltown and Compmy, l97J) ond Josc1'h Frazior Wall. A..dr<w Camqie (Kcw York- o,[md Uncvmtty Press, 1970). Se< '""' IJ•dW"""! of Aoteric"" Bwgrarhy, 1930 cd, ~ v_ -•c..,<~"· A<oltow," by f!urton )me H<"'!mk_
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ago. Cambna's Superintendent Ch.arlcs S. Price remarked: "We ihink !hat a hning is good for so
mucll iron 1111d Ihe sooner it makJ::s it the better.'"
By 1900 lhe maJOr characteristics of American steelmaking were in place. Mcch.wir.ation (If the
process had oCCuiil!d, management ruled wHh logic and economy, and the place of labor had
already been defined. Labor was looked at only in terms of cC(lnomy because it was a wst item
American acoomplishment in ste.cl was based, in pan, on labor savings. According to his!Orian
John Brody:
Every elTon was directed IDwanl lowering lhe labor cost [X'f lDn of ~t.eel. Cost per \Dn, however, had only bookkeeping meaning. The individual workman was the ac\ual unit, Ulld !he variahles m labor cost wen: his productivity and earnings over the same period. The goal of economy, as it rela(r.d to labor, was to mul!iply the worl<er's output in relation to his income. Compln enough in its det;ull, lhe steelmasters' labor policy n:duced to lhat simple objective."
Pmducuvity was more imfJJrtant lhan labor. Whenever pos>ihle lhe labor force was decreased l"ilh
increases in !he pace of work. Mechanization was lhc key !0 multiplying worker productivity, As
lhe yea~ went by, gangs of laborers well' no longer needed "" production procedures were
mechanilCd. Manual operatio~ in the blast furnaces, rolling mills and finishing miUs quickly
disappeared. The role of the stcclworl(crs lhus changed. H1ghly skilled workers who once handled
hot steel in lhc rolling mills became semiskilled machine operators. Judgment and cxpcnise were
no longer required. But also eliminated was much of lhe intense, hot tabor required to feed furnaces
and other equipment. Heavy work did remain, but by 1900 it was generally recogni1.ed !hat
American steel labor's worl( wa> easier."
Labor was atTec~d by economy through technological changes and labor cosLS were reduced through
the development of efficient machinery However, labor was direclly touched by issues such as
wages md hours, and lhese were looked at with !he same scrutiny which the stedmakers applied
to the entire husines>. The relationship between hours of work and mechani7.ation WitS recognized
wi!h maximum productivity the objective. Hours were d1ctated by both the mechwintlion wd
integration of the sLCclmak.ing process and by the economic heal!h of lhc industry. Boom penods
demanded longer hours while panics and depll'ssioru; closed planll. Half-speed operations wen: not
Ibid_, p. 28 .
Ibid .. PI'· Jl 34_
efficient. and p);llllS wcro oflen shut down until orders sparked their reop;:ning. Continuous
cmploymcm was rossible only during excellent economic conditions."
The dctennination of wages was ano!hcr considcrntion affected by productivity. Basically. !here
W"-< no connection between them. In earlier year:s workers were paid on a tonnage basis, which
reltectcd their output. Mcchani~ation. however. separated !he amount of a worker's labor from h.is
earnings because the growth of pruductivity of a blast furnace came from capital expendilllro, not
human effon. Even !hough working hours were mcroased, Lhe increa~e; in workers' productivity led
to the reduction of the cost of labor. How much a steelworker earned was based on both market
conditions and the supply of labor. During good years labor shonages developed wh.ich led to
higher pay. This wa<; no problem since prices wero also up. During economic deprcssmll.l, however,
workcr.s often accepted wage reducnoru. In 1893 Cambria's P<Jwe!J Stackhou'le remarked: '"We were
looking everywhere to reduce our costs, and labor got its share of it. .. We got !hem down low.
We had w:· If prices dropped. wages did wo."'
The results for lite steel industry were spectacular. During the 20 yean; following 1890 a furnace
worker's output tripled while his income rose one-half. A ~teelworker doubled h!S p!U(]uctivity
while receiving only onc-fif!h more pay. This was possible only because Lhe labor force could not
oppose acdsion.~ made hy the .~~eelmakers. The drive of economy dictated the position of labor ar1d
labor unions in lhc steel industry."' (For mono itiformation on labor uniorn and the stecl industry
sec chapter V.)
From 1865 to 1985 continuous change occurrod in the production of iron and steel, with the
following results: the numbers of workc,;- per ton of metal mlled was reduced, some skilied
po>itinns were rendered obsolete, skilled workers lost contrul over how they perfonned their jobs,
only >emixkilied jobs were required to pmduce Bessemer steel. and managers could train new
5l !btO .. pp. J4 40. For mformatLOn M ht>w technotot:Y aff<:<t«l lhc JObs Lmolvcd wuh mWng steel,"'" Kalhcrinc S\floe, 'The Ong;n of Job Structu<e< ;n Uto S!Oollndu<try;· ll<ldicaJ Amenca 7. no.~ (Novemh<r-Poc<mbc< 1973): 19-64 .
lhiO .• pp. 48-49.
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employees. TI!is was lhe background for how slCel workers rclaJ.cd LO each other, whether skilled
or unskilled, and with management-'•
CONTINUED GROWTH OF STEEL INDUSTRY
Steel usc continued lO expand afler the Hurry of lllilmad ooru;ll1Jction. In 1890 heavy wmor plates
were fir.;! made by lhc Belhlehcm Iron Company. The plate was used in !he building of •teel
vessels, and in lhc con~truction and armament of the U.S. Navy." Other industries which boomed
at the end of tre century included the production of slructural s=t steel wire, and wire rod. A
vital development in lhe growlh of steel was the use of lhe continuous rod mill, first buill in 186\l,
which produced wire for Lelegraph Iiru:s, fences, and suspensioo bridges. The invention of bartlerl
wire in 1873 also increased the demmd for wire, along with lhe use of wire nails which replaced
1111ditional cut nails. Another development was ~amless steel tubing, made by rotary piercing, and
fi~l produced in 1895 in Ellwood City, Pennsylvania. It was then possible !.0 produce tubing for
!he bicyde, automoUve, and petroleum industries. A promising newcomer in the laiC nineteenth
centul)' was lhc tinpla!C industry."
Open-health !Cchn<Jlogy was challenged by lhc introduction or !he elcclric furnace, which was
suitable for making spcciali7.ed alloy stccls. The fi~t direct-arc furnace Wall buill in Syracuse. New
York, by !he Balwmb Steel Company. and was first used on April 5. 1906. The fumacc Wa<S
charged wilh scrap metal and heat from lhe = mel!Cd !he charge. Steel produced by !his method
increased as cheaper eleelricity became available, as lhe supply of scrap rnelal increased, and as Lh-e
demand for spcdaJ Sleds increa,.,d."
S6. !lennon, "Iron w.,!«,-," p 3S. fur d<oailod informat>on on oho VllnCty of work<= ond tho;.- laW in m~ sl<o), '-"" pp. 27-:l3 of Bennen, "Iron Worl;c,.;· ond John A. Fitcll's d<scr:lptions of s""-.-wOTkc-rs in Allegheny Codl\ty in 1910. in The Steel Worker.< (New Ymk' Charitie• l'llblication Commit~«, l9Jl; r<p-Lm 121. New York' Ami>&. 'Tho New York Tunes, t969~ ci>•ptcr lU "The llliLSt Fllmll<:e Crews," clu<pt<r IV "l'udll<ls ond Iron Rollers," or.! chopter VI 'TheM"" of the Rolling Mills." For a <li>ous.>ion of the la>ks involved with openling the blast furno<es (bot10m-H1Jers, w<ighe.rs, barrowmon, larrym<n, etc.) ond the open-hearth furnaces what <YI>'-' of worker p«forrnt>J those ""l« ""dhow mc<:hmiaion etiminaled mOlly positions,"'" Charles Roil<ll, "Macllino<)' Olld It> Ben<!lts 10 !.moT in lhe Crude Iron & St<ol lndus<ries." (Ph.D. dmenation, Uni'C~sity of Pennsylvania, !917). pp_ ~-36.
n Swllllk, Nales,w. 147·148. For • tllorougil hi.ltOI}' of oho Navy's"'"'"' for armor md wmamonl befo,.., World War I whl<h g•vo rise Ill a m1litazy-industrial oomplc>, "'" Ben!"'"'" Fronldln Cooltng, Gray S1eel and Bl"" Water Nary "/he Fur,.,ive Yews of America'.> M!lllary-/r>J.u.<rria!. CCJmpla 1881-1917 (H""'""'" CannO<ticuc A1chon Boot<, 1979)
Sw..,., Nom.!'!'- 148-15\J: "S\c-ol'• Crntonnial-19~1," pp. 15-16; Temin. Ec"""-"'ic Inquiry. p. 2TJ .
"S<ed's Centenniol-1957," 1'1' \4, Z.'i
The modem mass-pmducuon ma-;s-coruumption economy was marked by tJu, apPearance of !he
automobile. This indus\ry inOucnced production and techn;llogical change in the s~e<:l indusuy just
as !he railroad industry had done in the nineteenth century. By 1929 the car induMry consume<~ 6
m111ion wns of s.ee1 a year. Highway construction established the need for reinforcement ban;. 55
wns per mile. Railroads were still expanding, and consuuclion of skyscrllpers created demand for
structunll steel. The growih of the appliance industry ronsumcd even more steel. Production of steel
soared from ll.400,000 tons in 1900 to 63,205.490 tons in 1929.60
Ano!ltcr vual devclopmcnl for sLCel's growth was the first usc of a continuous rolling miU for
producing wide '"strip'" or sheet metal. This was fliNt used in 1923-1924. John Butler T'ytul;
suceessfully designed a mill which produced a rontinuous sheet of s!CCI from an ingot wilhout
buctling or variation in the gauge. By 1955 steel sheets and strip accoUJ1ted for 47 percent of lhc
industry's hot rolled producllon''
Con~olida!ion cominucd into the twentieth century. By 1929 only a few giant steel corpor:nions
cxisl.cd, having sv.allowed smaller fiiTils. During this era lhe Cambria Steel Company wa~ iaken
over by the Midvale Steel and Ordnance Company and lhen by the Bcl.h.lehem Steel Company .
U.S. Steel was the largest steel company, with four time' the income of the next lmgest, Bethlehem
Steel. Other ftnns included Youngstown Sheet and Thbc Company, Jones and Laughlin Steel
CorporJiion. Republic Steel COTporation, National Steel Company, Inland Steel Company, and the
American Rolling Mill Company, or "Am1co."'" (Sec appendix 4 for the ten lat}lest stcd companies
in selectC\.l ycaiN, 190-1-1950.)
Technological and scientific discoveries in steelmaking continued. Among lhc most dramatic was
the mixing of iron and steel wilh other metals to produce alloys such as nickel sle<:l annor pla!C,
vanadium steel. tungsten s\eel, and olhcrs. Slainless s!Ccl was rommerciaUy produced in lhe 1920s,
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By the time of World WM !1, !he steel mdwmy had wcaillcn:d many changes. At that time
American steel production equalled !hat of lhe ~~:st Df tile world. The drastic decline in the
American steel industry in !he 1970s and 1980s was lhe result of m311y interrelated forces. The
dramatic growth of foreign steel: the rcsullant excess steelmaking capacity; incn:ased usc of plastics,
aluminum, and other subslituJe ma!Crials: the decline of lhe labor movcmeJJL; and the dctcrio111lion
of !he Ame