Embed Size (px)
Citation preview
Calla Simeone Mr. Taylor AP English Literature 1/31/12
“I’ve never been crazy ‘bout that twang and trains and hillbilly thing”:1 (Trace Atkins) The Dynamics of Musical Preference: Why We Like What We Like
Within this ever-‐changing technological era, people rarely go to the store to buy
albums or CDs, and, instead, declare their musical preference simply by the click of a
mouse. Apple iTunes allows consumers to purchase individual songs online, making their
purchases simpler still by dividing music into separate genres and associated levels of
popularity. Sociologist Matthew Salganick investigated the influence of popularity on song
selection in a recent study conducted at Columbia University. He invited 14,000 subjects to
hear and rate 48 songs, downloading those which they most enjoyed. The subjects were
divided into two groups: the first had access to only the names of musicians and songs,
while the second was only allowed to see popularity ratings on the iTunes top chart.2
Results showed that song popularity and not personal taste was the major determinant of
music purchases.3 Thus, people are clearly swayed by the opinion of others and are likely to
choose trendy music in order to remain socially relevant. But what about those who don’t
follow this iTunes algorithm? Certainly there are people who will never appreciate the
latest pop sensation and, instead, gravitate towards the likes of Rodney Atkins, Dierks
Bentley and Miranda Lambert-‐iconic voices within the country music industry for their
ballads about back roads, shot guns, and honky tonks. In order to shed light on this
question, one must investigate the variables determining musical preference. This will be
1 CBS Interactive Music Group. "Songs About Me Lyrics." MetroLyrics. N.p., 2012. Web. 22 Jan. 2012. 2 Kleiner, Kurt. "Your taste in music is shaped by the crowd." New Scientist. N.p., Feb. 2006. Web. 6 Dec. 2011. 3 Kleiner, Kurt. "Your taste in music is shaped by the crowd."
2
done by the review of the relevant literatures, and will include two CDs (one with iTunes
top hits and the other with less mainstream country songs) to help the reader differentiate
between music type and popularity of genre.
Musicians, such as Miranda Lambert, have reflected on the subject of musical
preference, and, more specifically, why their audience is drawn to their genre of music.
Country music is often stereotyped as a genre where men sing of lost love, hard economic
times and adventures had while intoxicated. These songs often include a resonating chorus
and simplistic chord progression. Lambert challenges this stereotype as an atypical, female
country artist who sings about vile men and gunpowder. She recounts that many women in
abusive relationships came to live in her home throughout her childhood and bases her
music off of their stories.4 In Gunpowder and Lead, she sings, “I'm goin' home, gonna load
my shotgun, wait by the door and light a cigarette…He slapped my face and he shook me
like a rag doll. Don't that sound like a real man.”5 Lambert reflects, “To me, country music
is about real life, the good and the bad. That's why country started…and I don't see why a
woman can't tell the truth just as fast as a man can."6 It is this desire for honesty and candid
lyrics that draws a new generation of country fans. The realism of her music attracts an
audience who share these experiences, demonstrating how artist and audience play off of
one another. Her growing popularity reflects both her ability to give voice to people’s lives
while at the same time making her message part of the influential, cultural narrative.
Indeed, it is a common perception that environmental influence shapes musical
taste. For example, if a child grew up in a family that listened to classical music daily, that
4 Lambert, Miranda. "Miranda Lambert: Breaking The Country Music Mold." Interview by NPR Staff. NPR Music. N.p., 27 Oct. 2011. Web. 24 Jan. 2012.
5 Song #1 on Country > Pop CD 6 Lambert, Miranda. "Miranda Lambert: Breaking The Country Music Mold."
3
child would associate emotion and experience with this genre. This experience would then
determine whether the music triggered a positive or negative sentiment towards the music
(happiness, anger, etc.). In other words, the emotion associated with this environment
would ultimately determine their preference towards classical music. In like manner, if a
child grew up in a family that listened to country music and associated these songs with
positive experiences, they would be inclined towards this genre. Yet, if this child were then
exposed to a society in which country music was not popular, would they be led to adopt
the societal norm? In other words, does one environmental factor, in this case, the
influence of popular society outweigh the impact of one’s family culture?
To start, one must assume that there exists multiple factors that determine musical
preference. Characteristics found present within one’s personality influence behavior, and,
ultimately, preference. In looking at a purely intrinsic factor, there is a clear correlation
between DNA and behavior. (In this paper, personality will be defined as the combination
of characteristics or qualities that form an individual’s distinctive mentality, while behavior
is the actions that result from these qualities).7 Secondly, it must also be noted that one’s
psychology includes both intrinsic and extrinsic factors that trigger certain emotions
within the brain in response to various types of music. In order to interpret the derivation
of musical taste, one must better understand the role of genetics and psychology, the
magnitude and function of environmental effects and the interdependence of these factors.
Although it is a commonly believed that musical taste is determined solely by
environmental factors, there are important biological and psychological elements operative
as well. Musical preference is indeed complex, and must be studied from these three
7 New Oxford American Dictionary Online
4
separate perspectives in order to better understand how musical taste is determined and
mediated.
The Environmental Effect
Historically, culture has been assumed to be the root cause of behavioral actions and
certain personality traits. At the dawn of the Enlightenment, Locke held that the primary
determinant of human behavior is the external world.8 Rousseau extended this position in
arguing that man was born pure and good, but it was the evil in society that corrupted his
mind.9 Finally, Freud theorized that childhood experiences both formed and deformed
personality and that understanding these factors are key to character analysis.10. Taken
together, these thinkers played a major role in emphasizing the idea that cultural factors
determine behavior much more than one’s biology or psychology. Today, this idea is most
associated with social constructivism, which holds that all meaning is socially
constructed.11
To be sure, there is a great pressure to conform to the social environment in all
aspects of experience. Certainly, conformity is necessary to create a more cohesive society,
but the downside is that it can lead people away from individual experience.12 For instance,
many individuals will download songs, such as “Party Rock Anthem” by LMFAO, simply
because it was the number one best seller from May to September of 2011. The simplistic,
8 Wright, William. Born That Way: Genes, Behavior, Personality. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 1998. Print. 9 Wright, 150 10 Wright, 150 11 Vygotsky, L. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. London: Harvard University Printing Press, 1978. Print.
12 Gallozzi, Chuck. "Individuality and Conformity." Personal-Development.com. N.p., 1999. Web.
5
upbeat lyrics, “ Party rock is in the house tonight, everybody just have a good time”13 are
quite catchy and are a perfect fit for the modern club scene. Thus, the influence of the
environment on individuals has received a great deal of attention over the centuries and,
not surprisingly, continues to be a dominant view, including in the area of musical
preference.
Another issue relevant to this discussion involves personality stability over time and
how changes in personality structure and function affect music preference. A human being
can be viewed to as an open system, that is, always interacting and being shaped by the
surrounding environment.14 Personality therefore serves as a self-‐organizing system, that
constantly changes to adapt and organize a multiplicity of environmental interactions.15
With this constant state of change, how does one develop a stable sense of self? For
example, how does one maintain a cohesive sense of identity when listening to “Someone
Like You” by Adele and “Unbroken” by Tim McGraw, and, conversely, how does that
perception determine how these songs are experienced?16 Clearly, some form of structure
must be present in order to organize the broad sweep of life experiences.
From a psychoanalytic perspective, early experiences create pools and channels of
energy that form in a structured fashion, thus offering a form of personality stability.17
These channels represent all aspects of experiences, and energy not discharged is thought
to create either negative or positive images and memories within the brain that will persist
13 See song #1 on POPularity CD 14 Bickhard, Mark, and John Chambers Christopher. The Influence of Early Experience on Personality Development. Lehigh University
15 Bickhard, 5 16 See song #2 on both POPularity and Country > Pop CD, respectively 17 Bickhard, 6
6
into adulthood.18 Pools are presumed to become stable and form structural systems that
are difficult to change19. In other words, one can become attached to an experience or
emotion based on specific pools of energy. The current findings in neuroscience support
Freud’s early claims of the psychological importance of childhood, as it now appears clear
that experience becomes encoded in specific neural pathways. Thus, a certain genre of
music could produce a channel within the brain that would either cause pooling or,
alternatively, the discharge of that energy. If pooling forms, an emotion will become
associated with the memory and will be triggered each time that type of music is played.20
If pooling doesn’t occur, one may not regard that experience as important or emotional.
This form of stabilization in the brain can solidify childhood experiences within their
respective environments and form a kind of template for the processing of later musical
experiences.
Another notion of musical preference comes from theorists who focus on how
behavior is shaped from strong, cultural influences. This anthropological theory addresses
how various genres of music fit within different socio-‐demographic regions and go on to
explain how preference is gained through network ties.21 These ties could take the form of
various channels of socialization, such as parents, peers, or coworkers. For example, those
with similarities in terms of age, occupation, social status, education, and race are more
likely to become friends and interact.22 Stanford University professor, Noah Mark found
that,
18 Bickhard, 6 19 Bickhard, 6 20 Bickhard, 6 21 Mark, Noah. "Birds of a Feather Sing Together." Social Forces (Dec. 1998): n.pag. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. 22 Mark, "Birds of a Feather Sing Together."
7
Many southern blacks learned about and adopted styles of blues that were popular in different parts of the South through social contact with other black agricultural laborers who wandered the South in search of employment…The folk music tradition of central Appalachia was maintained through a process of inheritance whereby parents passed musical knowledge to children generation after generation.23
Southern blacks interacted with other black workers to expand their interest in blues
music; this cultural transition was encouraged both by their shared social and economic
circumstances, and, as such, created social meaning via the venue of musical preference. An
example of this can be seen in the folk art of Appalachia, where this rich cultural tradition
was preserved largely through intergenerational transmission. Thus, the network of ties
operative here are based on similarities in social status, race, and family, and interactions
within these environments allow music to be transferred to people of like nature and
circumstances.
In addition to social interaction, there is also ample evidence to show that
environment alters one’s biology in significant and determinative ways. For example,
Scientist Theodore Kemper found that men in leadership roles evidenced higher levels of
testosterone only after they were promoted.24 In addition, it has also been shown that the
environment can alter chemical structures that have already been put in place. For
example, a study was done with Rhesus monkeys, where the mother was quite timid, and
raised her offspring in a fearful, paranoid fashion.25 A mother far less inhibited then
adopted these monkeys, leading to a decrease in levels of norepinephrine26, ultimately
23 Mark, "Birds of a Feather Sing Together." 24 Wright, 143 25 Wright, 143-‐144 26 Wright, 144: Hormone that is released by the adrenal medulla and by the sympathetic nerves and functions as a neurotransmitter
8
causing them to become bold and uninhibited as well. The placement of the monkeys
within a different environment altered the internal chemical structure that controls certain
behavior. Clearly, these studies show that there exists a robust relationship between
biology and culture that has important implications for how personality is expressed,
including in musical preferences. The environment can both stabilize and destabilize
musical preference via energy channels or cause fluctuation in hormones, resulting in a
change of taste. As noted above, this factor has been most favored by the average individual
because endorsing other determinants, such as genetics, would imply that people do not
control their own behavior and preferences.27 Although genetics is not the sole source of
musical preference, this biological factor clearly influences musical taste. It is to this factor
that we now turn.
The Biological Effect
The study of biology can be used to identify human behavior patterns, and
ultimately, musical preference. The link between genes and behavior is a relatively new
field, beginning in the late 1980’s. (A gene is a sequence of nucleic bases that is self-‐
replicating and from which proteins are synthesized).28 Scientists were finding identical
sequences of DNA bases, called markers, on the same spot of each chromosome, and
believed these similar patterns could predict musical preference. Decades later, scientists
found the first “music gene” in 2008.29 Kristiina Pulli of the Univerisity of Helsinki was a
27 Wright, 254 28 Wright, 132 29 World Science. "Musical genes may be coming to light." World Science. N.p., 30 Apr. 2008. Web. 26 Jan. 2012.
9
primary contributor to this research via her use of linkage analyses.30 This method
connects specific regions of the genome to traits involved with preference. Her study
included fifteen families, where she examined genetic sequences in particular locations of
their genomes. Each participant took an aptitude test31 in order to measure his or her
varying level of music appreciation. Pulli and her colleagues then looked for genetic
patterns on the genomes of those expressing a greater appreciation, and located the gene,
UNC5C, a molecule that regulates brain cell development, language, and musical aptitude.32
There was also a weak DNA sequencing pattern on chromosome 4, 8 and 18.33 Although
this field is young and relatively underdeveloped, it nevertheless shows a genetic link
between the human genome and musical preference.
These similar genetic patterns can also be used to demonstrate the link between
personality and musical taste. In the late 1980’s, attempts at gene-‐behavioral correlation
did not look promising, but there occurred a handful of studies that began to change this
trend. For example, in 1991, Scientist Simon LeVay found a genetic difference in
hypothalamus (a region of the brain-‐see Figure 1 of Appendix) size between homosexual
and heterosexual men. He discovered that the gene, INAH-‐3, is twice as large in
heterosexual men.34 This was the first study that validated the correlation between genes,
brain structure and human personality. Thus, if gene size variation within one cell could
possibly determine sexuality, one could assume additional genetic research could show
many genetic-‐personality-‐behavioral relationships. The link to musical preference as one
30 World Science. "Musical genes may be coming to light." World Science. 31 Aptitude, in this sense, measures musical appreciation via auditory structuring and pitch testing 32 World Science. "Musical genes may be coming to light." World Science. 33 World Science. "Musical genes may be coming to light." World Science. 34 Wright, 134-‐136
10
such expression of this dynamic seems clear. In 1994, Berrettini discovered a gene that is
linked to depression. He worked with twenty-‐two families afflicted by depression and
searched their entire genome. Berrettini found an abnormality on chromosome 18 (the loss
of the short arm of the chromosome), as did others who replicated these findings.35 These
two genetic breakthroughs reveal a clear tie between genes and human personality traits.
Other genes have also been found to predict mental disorders and personality. For
example, a short arm on chromosome 6 appears linked to schizophrenia, while the gene
5HTT encourages the characteristic, extraversion.36 These discoveries within genetics
show a link between gene composition, personality and behavior, suggesting that there is a
likely relationship to musical preference as well. For example, a person with a short arm on
the gene, 5HTT may suffer from depression, and likely would not be listening to Louis
Armstrong’s “What a Wonderful World.” Other hypotheses may be generated along these
lines, but what is important is that genes clearly determine our musical preference at a
fundamental, biological level. More research must be conducted to better understand this
complex and rich relationship, as overlaps clearly exist between biology and culture. In
other words, each influences and mediates the other and personality may be said to
express both. It is to this complex process and its role in moderating musical preference
that we now turn.
The Psychological Effect
Psychology involves the complex interaction of intrinsic and extrinsic factors and as
such, addresses the brain’s ability to form all manner of preferences, including musical. In 35 Wright, 141 36 Funder, David C. The Personality Puzzle. 5th ed. N.p.: W.W. Norton, 2011. W.W. Norton. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
11
terms of music, each genre has its own set of rules, involving pitch, rhythm, patterns,
timbre, etc. To process and differentiate these rules, the brain uses a schema (i.e. cognitive
framework or concept that helps to organize and interpret information) to organize
perception and cognitive processing in salient ways.37 In a sense, when humans listen to
music, they use schemata that both express who they are and provide a template by which
to interpret the world.38 For example, one might find a sense of familiarity within a
particular set of lyrics or rhythms, and it is this complex experience that would lead to
associated thoughts and emotions.
Within the brain, specific regions mediate particular functions. For example, the
ventral striatum, amygdala, and mid brain all take part in the formation of memory, but the
amygdala plays the central role.39 The process of encoding includes all three regions, in
which a human converts what is heard, seen, felt or thought into an experience. Memory is
thus triggered by the repetition of encoding, or similar experiences. The memory will then
become stronger each time it is evoked, as the brain reinforces the connections among
groups of neurons. The amygdala ultimately forms an engram: a record of this experience
within the brain.40 If these memories are not evoked, the engram disappears.41 Dr.
Elizabeth Phelps, lab director at New York University in the Psychology Department,
explains that the amygdala takes part in the storage of memory through the slow process
known as consolidation, where
It takes time for these memories to become more or less ‘set’… One reason for 37 Levitin, Daniel J. This is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession. New York, New York: Penguin Group, 2007. Print. 38 Levitin,116 39 Schacter, Daniel L. "Memory Expansion Channel." Brain Channels. Perseus Books Group, 1996. Web. 6 Dec. 2011. 40 Schacter, "Memory Expansion Channel." 41 Schacter, "Memory Expansion Channel."
12
this slow consolidation process is to allow an emotional reaction…to influence the storage of that event. The emotional reaction, such as arousal and the release of stress hormones, necessarily follows the event itself. In this way, events that elicit emotional responses are also more likely to be remembered later42
The basal ganglia and cerebellum are also involved with emotion, as they are linked to the
amygdala and can strengthen engrams by triggering specific memories. The basal ganglia is
responsible for motor control and development, while the primary role of the cerebellum is
to process timing and coordinate movement of the body.43 The frontal lobe connects to the
cerebellum and distinguishes speech and sound (See Appendix, Figure 2, displaying the
location of the frontal lobe, cerebellum, and basal ganglia.44
The nucleus accumbens, located above the amygdala, is the center of the brain’s
reward system-‐ associated with pleasure and addiction. Researchers, such as Daniel
Levitin, sought to show that the nucleus accumbens moderates levels of dopamine45 while
listening to music (See Appendix, Figure 3). He began by measuring the interaction of one
brain region and another, allowing a moment-‐by-‐moment examination of neural networks
activated by music. Levitin showed that this process first begins in the auditory cortex, as it
is this region that processes the components of sound.46 The frontal regions then process
musical structure and expectation (the rules-‐ pitch, timbre, rhythm, patterns, etc.). The
cerebellum and basal ganglia are activated throughout to process rhythm and meter. The
mesolimbic system then produces dopamine, which then activates the nucleus accumbens;
reward is then determined by a rise in dopamine levels, which has been well documented 42 Phelpls, Elizabeth A. "The amygdala’s influence on memory encoding AND The amygdala’s modulation of consolidation." Huma n emotion and memory:interactions of the amygdala and hippocampal complex. Ed. John Gabrieli and Elizabeth A Murray. N.p.: n.p., 2004. N. pag. Science Direct. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
43 Levitin, 189 44 Levitin, 189 45 A compound present in the body as a neurotransmitter. It also helps regulate movement and emotional responses. 46 Levitin, 191
13
to mediate pleasurable experiences.47 If the levels remain low, this will cause feelings
ranging from indifference to pain and anger. Thus, this network of brain structures and
functions reveals the complex influence of dopamine in moderating musical preference.
In addition to the neuroscience reviewed above, researchers have been able to show
how particular personality traits can predict musical preference. In a landmark study done
by Rentfrow and Gosling, participants completed the Short Test of Musical Preferences
(STOMP, where participants indicate their level of preference for various genres of music)
and a battery of personality measures.48 This experiment was conducted three times in
order to ensure stable and accurate results. The data found in Table 1 (See Appendix)
reveals the following personality categories and relationship to specific music genres: (1)
one with a reflective and complex personality finds interest in classical, jazz, blues, and folk
music, (2) intense and rebellious people like alternative, rock and heavy metal, (3) people
who are upbeat and conventional like country, pop, religious, and sound track music, and
(4) finally, one with an energetic or rhythmic personality favors rap, soul, and electronic
music. 49 The evidence obtained shows that a relationship indeed exists between human
personality and choice of music genre.
Additional Applications of Research
Genetics, environment and psychology are all key factors in determining musical
preference. Gene sequences can influence specific personality traits, thereby leading people
47 Levitin, 191 48 Rentfrow, Peter J., and Samuel D. Gosling. "The Do Re Mi's of Everyday Life: The Structure and Personality Correlates of Music Preferences." Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2003) 49 Rentfrow, Gosling, 1243
14
to gravitate towards a certain category of musical genres. Also, musical experiences that
occur within society and childhood can be encoded and consolidated into the form of
memory within the amygdala. 50 The level of dopamine produced when the memory was
created will be the deciding factor in whether this genre is well liked.51 When music of a
particular genre is played, strong memories are evoked and the emotion attached to that
memory will determine human musical preference. Historically, cultural-‐environmental
factors have heavily influenced the study of musical taste much to the neglect of equally
important biological and psychological variables. However, with the recent inclusion of
these latter factors, advances in neuroscience have led to other exciting applications of this
research.
Oliver Sacks addresses one such application-‐musical intonation therapy-‐ a method
used by speech language pathologists to help patients who suffer from Parkinson’s disease
and other speech impairments. Parkinsonism is a movement disorder, where patients tend
to have immovable motor systems. This lack of motor control results in damage of the basal
ganglia, which cannot initiate movement.52 Music can work as an outside stimulus and
allow motor control to be effective.53 Speech is controlled within the left hemisphere of the
brain in the frontal lobe, while music is localized in the right. When the left side of the brain
becomes impaired, music can act as a form of medicine, as it is capable of initiating
language in the right hemisphere. For example, on January 8, 2011, Senator Gabrielle
Giffords suffered a gunshot wound to the left hemisphere. While in recovery, Giffords’
50 Phelps, “The Amygdala’s Influence on Memory Encoding” 51 Levitin, 191 52 Sacks, Oliver. Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain. New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc., 2007. Print. 53 Sacks, 249
15
therapists used melodic intonation-‐rhythm, pitch, vision, hearing, and repetition-‐to
improve her speech within the right hemisphere.54 Melodies affect the hypothalamus,
amygdala and basal ganglia, all of which regulate emotion. 55 In therapy, Giffords sang
familiar songs, such as “Girls Just Wanna Have Fun” and “Happy Birthday”, in order to
initiate right hemispheric functioning, thereby increasing her linguistic capabilities. 56 One
might see this as evidence that a musical preference schema is operative in this process. In
other words, if someone favors one form of music over another, what cognitive
psychologists label “perceptual salience,” then it is likely that the favored genre will
enhance the effectiveness of this treatment. 57
Oliver Sacks once said, “Music survives all the common insults. Music is a part of
being human.” 58 Indeed, music is a part of being human, and as has been shown herein,
there exists a complex interplay of biological, psychological and cultural factors that
determine musical preference. All forms of human taste rely on this interdependence to
form schemata of varying saliences: some are strong, while others are weak.59 When
studying alternative forms of taste, such as food, it is a common belief that people become
assimilated to the cuisine within their culture, yet the biological and psychological effects
must be examined as well. Genetically, taste receptor genes play an important role in
determining what foods are favored, as an expression of biologically based, individual
54 Moisse, Katie. "Music Therapy Helps Gabrielle Giffords Find Her Voice After Tucson Shooting." ABC News. N.p., 2011. Web. 23 Nov. 2011.
55 Sohn, Emily. "How Music Helped Gabrielle Giffords Heal." Discovery News. N.p., 2011. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. 56 Sohn, “How Music Helped Gabrielle Giffords Heal” 57 Hamilton, D.L., and R.D. Fallot. "Information Salience as a Waiting Factor in Impression Formation." The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1974): n. pag. Print.
35 Bethune, Brian. "The 'music species': not just a pleasure, music is in our neural wiring, says Oliver Sacks." Maclean's (Oct. 2007): 46. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 3 Dec. 2011.
59 Hamilton and Fallot, “Information Salience as a Waiting Factor in Impression Formation."
16
differences. 60 In addition, emotional eating is an example of an important psychological
factor, as certain emotional states can cause humans to crave specific (usually high calorie)
foods.61 And finally, in art, the same questions might be asked; what genes can be linked to
artistic preferences? What psychological and neurological effects can predict a human’s
favorite style of art? Within all aspects of human taste and aesthetics, these factors can be
systematically studied to better understand this multi-‐faceted phenomenon. As has also
been shown, it is possible to take these findings and apply them to other related fields, such
as medicine.
Musical taste thus stretches far beyond the cultural influences found within one’s
environment. Although popularity functions as a critical variable, genetics and psychology
play important roles in the developments of personal taste. Preferences can no longer be
defined as uni-‐dimensional, and, instead, must be seen as a dynamic process. In sum, the
iTunes algorithm is no match for these three essential factors of taste, and it is these factors
that ensure that country music fans will continue to emerge from all walks of life.
60 Mennella, Julie A, M. Yanina Pepino, and Danielle R Reed. "Children's Taste Sensitivity And Food Choices Influenced By Taste Gene." Science Daily. N.p., 2005. Web. 12 Dec. 2011.
61 Martin, Eric W. "The Emotional Eater." Psychology Today. N.p., 2008. Web. 12 Dec. 2011.
17
Appendix
A) Figure 1: Location of Superchiasmatic Nuclei and Hypthalamus
B) Figure 2: Diagram of the Human Brain
18
C) Figure 3: Diagram of Dopamine Pathways Within the Human Brain
19
D) Table 1: Correlation of Personality Subtypes (Data taken from The Do Re Mi’s of Everyday Life: The Structure and Personality Correlates of Music Preferences)
Personality Trait Music Genre
Reflective & Complex
Intense & Rebellious
Upbeat & Conventional
Energetic & Rhythmic
Classical, Jazz Blues, Folk
Rap/Hip-‐hop Soul/Funk
Electronic/Dance
Country, Pop Religious, Sound
Tracks
Alternative Rock
Heavy Metal
20
Works Cited “Behavior and Personality.” New Oxford American Dictionary Online. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2011. Bethune, Brian. “The ‘music species’: not just a pleasure, music is in our neural wiring, says Oliver
Sacks.” Maclean’s (Oct. 2007): 46. Gale Opposing Viewpoints In Context. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. Bickhard, Mark, and John Chambers Christopher. The Influence of Early Experience on Personality
Development. Lehigh University. N.p., n.d. Web. 6 Dec. 2011. The Brainwaves Center. “Your Brain and What it Does.” The Brainwaves Center. Bragdon Publishers,
Inc., 2010. Web. 13 Dec. 2011. British Parliament. Parliamentary Office of Science and Technology. Primary Science.
www.parliament.uk/post. N.p., Sept. 2003. Web. 22 Jan. 2012. CBS Interactive Music Group. “Songs About Me Lyrics.” MetroLyrics. N.p., 2012. Web. 22 Jan. 2012. Chamorro-Premuzic, Tomas. “Mr. Personality: The Psychology of Musical Preferences.” Psychology
Today. N.p., 14 Jan. 2011. Web. 21 Nov. 2011. Delsing, Marc, et al. “Adolescents’ Music Preferences and Personality Characteristics.” European
Journal of Personality 22 (2007): 109-130. Inter Science. Web. 21 Nov. 2011. Filips, Megan, et al. “How Does Personality Affect Music Choice?” N.d. Miami University. Web. 21
Nov. 2011. Funder, David C. The Personality Puzzle. 5th ed. N.p.: W.W. Norton, 2011. W.W. Norton. Web. 6 Dec.
2011. Gallozzi, Chuck. “Individuality and Conformity.” Personal-Development.com. N.p., 1999. Web. 29 Jan.
2012. Hamilton, D.L., and R.D. Fallot. “Information Salience as a Waiting Factor in Impression Formation.”
The Journal of Personality and Social Psychology (1974): n. pag. Print. Heriot-Watt University. “Music Tastes Link to Personality.” BBC News. N.p., 5 Sept. 2008. Web. 21
Nov. 2011. Hughs, Brendan. “Vis-a-vis agnosticism.” Brendan Hughs. N.p., 2009. Web. 13 Dec. 2011. Kleiner, Kurt. “Your taste in music is shaped by the crowd.” New Scientist. N.p., Feb. 2006. Web. 6
Dec. 2011. Lambert, Miranda. “Miranda Lambert: Breaking The Country Music Mold.” Interview by NPR Staff.
NPR Music. N.p., 27 Oct. 2011. Web. 24 Jan. 2012.
21
Levitin, Daniel J. This is Your Brain on Music: The Science of a Human Obsession. New York, New
York: Penguin Group, 2007. Print. Mark, Noah. “Birds of a Feather Sing Together.” Social Forces (Dec. 1998): n. pag. Gale Opposing
Viewpoints In Context. Web. 3 Dec. 2011. Martin, Eric W. “The Emotional Eater.” Psychology Today. N.p., 2008. Web. 12 Dec. 2011. Mennella, Julie A, M. Yanina Pepino, and Danielle R Reed. “Children’s Taste Sensitivity And Food
Choices Influenced By Taste Gene.” Science Daily. N.p., 2005. Web. 12 Dec. 2011. Moisse, Katie. “Music Therapy Helps Gabrielle Giffords Find Her Voice After Tucson Shooting.” ABC
News. N.p., 2011. Web. 23 Nov. 2011. Pauer Home. “All About the Endocrine System.” Pauer Home. N.p., 2010. Web. 13 Dec. 2011. Phelps, Elizabeth A. “The amygdala’s influence on memory encoding AND The amygdala’s modulation
of consolidation.” Human emotion and memory: interactions of the amygdala and hippocampal complex. Ed. John Gabrieli and Elizabeth A Murray. N.p.: n.p., 2004. N. pag. Science Direct. Web. 6 Dec. 2011.
Rentfrow, Peter, and Samuel Gosling. “Message in a Ballad: The Role of Music Preferences in
Interpersonal Perception.” Association for Psychological Science 17.3 (2006): n. pag. University of Texas at Austin. Web. 21 Nov. 2011.
Rentfrow, Peter J., and Samuel D. Gosling. “The Do Re Mi’s of Everyday Life: The Structure and
Personality Correlates of Music Preferences.” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 84 (2003): n. pag. University of Texas at Austin. Web. 21 Nov. 2011.
Sacks, Oliver. Musicophilia: Tales of Music and the Brain. New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf,
Inc., 2007. Print. Schacter, Daniel L. “Memory Expansion Channel.” Brain Channels. Perseus Books Group, 1996. Web.
6 Dec. 2011. Sohn, Emily. “How Music Helped Gabrielle Giffords Heal.” Discovery News. N.p., 2011. Web. 23 Nov.
2011. Vygotsky, L. Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes. London: Harvard
University Printing Press, 1978. Print. “What Does Your Music Say About You?” ScienceBlogs. N.p., 12 Mar. 2007. Web. 21 Nov. 2011. Wikipedia. “Dopaminergic Pathways.” Wikipedia. N.p., n.d. Web. 13 Dec. 2011.
22
World Science. “Musical genes may be coming to light.” World Science. N.p., 30 Apr. 2008. Web. 26 Jan. 2012.
Wright, William. Born That Way: Genes, Behavior, Personality. New York: Alfred A. Knopf, Inc.,
1998. Print.
