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the cambridge dictionary of

Christian Theology

With over 550 entries ranging from ‘Abba’ to ‘Zwingli’ composed by leadingcontemporary theologians from around the world, The Cambridge Dictionary ofChristian Theology represents a fresh, ecumenical approach to theological refer-ence. Written with an emphasis on clarity and concision, all entries are designedto help the reader understand and assess the specifically theological significanceof the most important concepts. Clearly structured, the volume is organizedaround a small number of ‘core entries’ which focus on key topics to provide ageneral overview of major subject areas, while making use of related shorterentries to impart a more detailed knowledge of technical terms. The work as awhole provides an introduction to the defining topics in Christian thought and isan essential reference point for students and scholars.

ian a. mcfarland is Associate Professor of Systematic Theology at EmoryUniversity. His publications include Difference and Identity: A Theological Anthro-pology (2001) and The Divine Image: Envisioning the Invisible God (2005).

david a. s. fergusson is Professor of Divinity and Principal of New Collegeat the University of Edinburgh. His recent publications include Church, State andCivil Society (Cambridge, 2004) and Faith and Its Critics (2009).

karen kilby is Head of the Department of Theology and Religious Studies atthe University of Nottingham and President of the Catholic Theological Associ-ation of Great Britain. She is the author of A Brief Introduction to Karl Rahner(2007) and Karl Rahner: Theology and Philosophy (2004).

iain r. torrance is President and Professor of Patristics at PrincetonTheological Seminary. He is the author of Christology after Chalcedon (1988)and co-editor of To Glorify God: Essays in Modern Reformed Liturgy (1999) andThe Oxford Handbook of Systematic Theology (2007).

the cambridge dictionary of

Christian Theology

Edited by

IAN A. MCFARLAND, DAVID A. S. FERGUSSON,

KAREN KILBY, IAIN R. TORRANCE

C A M B R I D G E U N I V E R S I T Y P R E S S

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First published 2011

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The Cambridge dictionary of Christian theology / edited by Ian A. McFarland ... [et al.].p. cm.

ISBN 978-0-521-88092-3 (Hardback)1. Theology–Dictionaries. I. McFarland, Ian A. (Ian Alexander), 1963– II. Title.

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Contents

List of contributors page vi

Acknowledgements xvii

Preface xix

Entries 1

References 542

Contributors

William J. Abraham is Albert Cook Outler Professorof Wesley Studies and Altshuler DistinguishedTeaching Professor at the Perkins School ofTheology, Southern Methodist University.Revelation

Nicholas Adams is Senior Lecturer in SystematicTheology and Theological Ethics at theUniversity of Edinburgh. Frankfurt School,German Idealism

Allan Heaton Anderson is Professor of GlobalPentecostal Studies and Director of the GraduateInstitute for Theology & Religion at theUniversity of Birmingham. Pentecostal Theology

Andreas Andreopoulos is Lecturer in ChristianTheology and Director of the Centre forOrthodox Studies at the University of Wales,Lampeter. Transfiguration

Edward P. Antonio is Harvey H. Potthoff AssociateProfessor of Christian Theology and Social Theoryat the Iliff School of Theology. Black Theology

Kenneth Appold is the James Hastings NicholsAssociate Professor of Reformation History atPrinceton Theological Seminary. Justification

Willem J. van Asselt is Senior Lecturer of ChurchHistory in the Department of Theology at UtrechtUniversity and Professor of Historical Theologyat the Evangelical Theological Faculty inLouvain. Synod of Dort

Paul Avis is the General Secretary of the Council forChristian Unity. Episcopacy

Christine Axt-Piscalar is Professor of SystematicTheology and Director of the InstitutumLutheranum in the Theological Faculty of theGeorg-August-Universität, Göttingen. LiberalTheology

Lewis Ayres is Bede Professor of Catholic Theologyat the University of Durham. Arian Controversy,Augustine of Hippo, Creeds, Council of Nicaea

Vincent Bacote is Associate Professor of Theologyand Director of the Center for Applied ChristianEthics at Wheaton College. Abraham Kuyper

Gary D. Badcock is Associate Professor of Divinityat Huron University College. Vocation

John F. Baldovin, S. J., is Professor of Historical andLiturgical Theology in the School of Theologyand Ministry at Boston College. Priesthood

Hans M. Barstad is Professor of Hebrew and OldTestament Studies in the School of Divinity at theUniversity of Edinburgh. Biblical Theology

The Revd Dr Michael Battle is Provost and CanonTheologian at the Cathedral Center of theAnglican Diocese of Los Angeles. Nonviolence

The Revd Mgr Dr F. J. Baur is Regent of thePriesterseminars St. Johannes der Täufer inMunich. Occasionalism

Tina Beattie is Professor of Catholic Studies atRoehampton University. Abortion, Assumption,Human Rights, Immaculate Conception,Mariology, Nuptial Theology

Dana Benesh is a PhD student in theology at BaylorUniversity, with an interest in the history ofexegesis. Excommunication, Secularization,Tolerance

Michael Bergmann is Professor of Philosophy atPurdue University. Reformed Epistemology

Nigel Biggar is Regius Professor of Moral andPastoral Theology at the University of Oxford.Moral Theology

André Birmelé is Professor of Dogmatics at theFaculté de Théologie Protestante in Strasbourg.Ecumenism, World Council of Churches

C. Clifton Black is Otto A. Piper Professor of BiblicalTheology at Princeton Theological Seminary.Kingdom of God

Paul M. Blowers is Dean E. Walker Professor ofChurch History at the Emmanuel School ofReligion. Maximus the Confessor, Monothelitism

H. Russel Botman is Rector and Vice-Chancellor atStellenbosch University. African Theology

John Bowlin is the Rimmer and Ruth de VriesAssociate Professor of Reformed Theology andPublic Life at Princeton Theological Seminary.Aristotelianism

Ian Bradley is Reader in Practical Theology inthe School of Divinity at the University ofSt Andrews. Pilgrimage

vi

Lucy Bregman is Professor of Religion in theReligion Department of Temple University. Deathand Dying

Luke Bretherton is Senior Lecturer in Theology andPolitics and Convener of the Faith and PublicPolicy Forum at King’s College London.Constantinianism, Divine Command Ethics

James T. Bretzke, S. J., is Professor of MoralTheology in the Boston College School ofTheology and Ministry. Casuistry

Lynn Bridgers is Director of Intercultural ReligiousResearch at the College of Santa Fe.William James

John P. Burgess is the James Henry SnowdenProfessor of Systematic Theology at PittsburghTheological Seminary. Baptism

Stanley M. Burgess is Distinguished Professor ofChristian History at the Regent University Schoolof Divinity. Perfectionism

David B. Burrell, C. S. C., is Hesburgh ProfessorEmeritus in Philosophy and Theology at theUniversity of Notre Dame and the UgandaMartyrs University. Islam and Christianity

Jason Byassee is the Director of the Center forTheology, Writing and Media at Duke DivinitySchool. Allegory, Typology

Euan Cameron is Henry Luce III Professor ofReformation Church History at UnionTheological Seminary, New York. Reformation

Amy Carr is Associate Professor of Religious Studiesat Western Illinois University. Temptation

Mark J. Cartledge is Senior Lecturer in Pentecostaland Charismatic Theology at the University ofBirmingham. Glossolalia

Augustine Casiday is Lecturer in HistoricalTheology and Director of the MA in MonasticStudies at the University of Wales, Lampeter.Hesychasm, Gregory Palamas, Platonism

Christophe Chalamet is Assistant Professor in theDepartment of Theology at Fordham University.Dialectical Theology

The Revd Dr Mark D. Chapman is Vice-Principal ofRipon College Cuddesdon, Oxford, and memberof the Faculty of Theology at the University ofOxford. Ernst Troeltsch

Sathianathan Clarke is Bishop Sundo Kim Professorof World Christianity at the Wesley TheologicalSeminary. Dalit Theology

Philip Clayton is Professor of Religion andPhilosophy at Claremont Graduate University

and Ingraham Professor at Claremont School ofTheology. Panentheism

Francis X. Clooney, S. J., is Parkman Professor ofDivinity and Professor of Comparative Theologyat Harvard Divinity School. Hinduism andChristianity

Basil Cole, O. P., teaches Moral, Spiritual, andDogmatic Theology at the Dominican House ofStudies, Washington, DC. Seven Deadly Sins

Tim Cooper is Lecturer in Church History in theDepartment of Theology and Religious Studies atthe University of Otago. Antinomianism

Paul Copan is Pledger Family Chair of Philosophyand Ethics at Palm Beach Atlantic University.Moral Argument

M. Shawn Copeland is Associate Professor ofTheology at Boston College. Womanist Theology

John Cottingham is Professor Emeritus ofPhilosophy at the University of Reading and anHonorary Fellow of St John’s College, Oxford.Cartesianism

S. Peter Cowe is the Narekatsi Professor ofArmenian Studies in the Department of NearEastern Languages and Cultures at the Universityof California, Los Angeles. Armenian Theology

James L. Cox is Professor of Religious Studies inthe School of Divinity at the University ofEdinburgh. Traditional Religions and Christianity

William Lane Craig is Research Professor ofPhilosophy at the Talbot School of Theology.Cosmological Argument, Middle Knowledge

Shannon Craigo-Snell is Associate Professor ofReligious Studies at Yale University. Patriarchy,Supernatural existential

Andrew Crislip holds the Blake Chair in the Historyof Christianity at Virginia CommonwealthUniversity. Asceticism

Garry J. Crites is Director of Evening and WeekendCourses at Duke University. Fasting

The Revd Dr Anthony R. Cross is Fellow of the Centrefor Baptist History and Heritage at Regent’s ParkCollege, University of Oxford. Joachim of Fiore

Richard Crouter is John M. and ElizabethW. Musser Professor of Religious Studies,Emeritus at Carleton College. Enlightenment

Lawrence Cunningham is the Revd John A. O’BrienProfessor of Theology in the Department ofTheology of the University of Notre Dame.Catholic Theology

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vii

Mary B. Cunningham is Lecturer in Theology at theUniversity of Nottingham. Divine Energies,Iconoclasm

Ivor J. Davidson is Professor of Systematic Theologyat the University of Otago. Catechesis,Catechumen, Council of Chalcedon, Jerome

Douglas J. Davies is Professor in the Study ofReligion at Durham University. The Church ofJesus Christ of Latter-Day Saints

Andrew Dawson is Lecturer in Religious Studies atLancaster University. Base Communities

Juliette Day is Senior Research Fellow in ChristianLiturgy at Blackfriars Hall, Oxford. Canon of Mass

Gavin D’Costa is Professor of Catholic Theology inthe Department of Theology and ReligiousStudies at the University of Bristol. AnonymousChristianity, Inculturation, Religious Pluralism,Karl Rahner

Celia Deane-Drummond is Professor of Theologyand the Biological Sciences and Director of theCentre for Religion and the Biosciences at theUniversity of Chester. Ecotheology

Paul J. DeHart is Associate Professor of Theologyat Vanderbilt University Divinity School.Postliberal Theology

Ralph Del Colle is Associate Professor of Theologyat Marquette University. Mortal Sin, Penance,Venial Sin

Gary Dorrien is the Reinhold Niebuhr Professor ofSocial Ethics at Union Theological Seminary andProfessor of Religion at Columbia University.Social Gospel

Geoffrey D. Dunn is an Australian Research Fellowat the Centre for Early Christian Studies,Australian Catholic University. Tertullian

Mark W. Elliott is Lecturer in Church History in theSchool of Divinity at the University of StAndrews. Nominalism, Pelagianism

Noel Leo Erskine is Professor of Theology andEthics at the Candler School of Theology,Emory University. Caribbean Theology, MartinLuther King

Wendy Farley is Professor in the Department ofReligion at Emory University. Phenomenology

Douglas Farrow is Professor of Christian Thought inthe Faculty of Religious Studies, McGillUniversity. Ascension and Session

Richard Fenn is Maxwell M. Upson Professor ofChristianity and Society at Princeton TheologicalSeminary. Purgatory

Paul S. Fiddes is Professor of Systematic Theologyat the University of Oxford and Director ofResearch at Regent’s Park College, Oxford.Baptist Theology

Stephen Fields, S. J., is Associate Professor ofTheology at Georgetown University. Symbol

Duncan B. Forrester is Honorary Fellow andProfessor Emeritus in the School of Divinityat the University of Edinburgh. PoliticalTheology

Paul Foster is Senior Lecturer in New Testament inthe School of Divinity at the University ofEdinburgh. Logos

Nancy Frankenberry is the John Phillips Professorof Religion at Dartmouth College. NaturalTheology

Mary McClintock Fulkerson is Professor ofTheology at Duke Divinity School. FeministTheology

Simon Gathercole is Lecturer in New TestamentStudies in the Faculty of Divinity at theUniversity of Cambridge. Paul, Quest of theHistorical Jesus

Michelle A. Gonzalez is Assistant Professor ofReligious Studies at the University of Miami.Latino/a Theology, Mujerista Theology

Todd Gooch is Associate Professor in theDepartment of Philosophy and Religion atEastern Kentucky University. Rudolf Otto

Bruce Gordon is Professor of Reformation Historyat Yale Divinity School. Heinrich Bullinger,Conciliarism

Elaine Graham is Grosvenor Research Professor inthe Department of Theology and Religious Studiesat the University of Chester. Practical Theology

Gordon Graham is Henry Luce III Professor ofPhilosophy and the Arts at Princeton TheologicalSeminary. Commonsense Philosophy

Janette Gray, R. S. M., is Lecturer in Theology at theJesuit Theological College, the United Faculty ofTheology, Melbourne. Celibacy

Joel B. Green is Professor of New TestamentInterpretation and Associate Dean for theCenter for Advanced Theological Studies atFuller Theological Seminary. Soul

Niels Henrik Gregersen is Professor of SystematicTheology in the Faculty of Theology at theUniversity of Copenhagen. Nordic Theology

Mike Grimshaw is Senior Lecturer in ReligiousStudies in the School of Philosophy and Religious

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Studies at the University of Canterbury.Post-Christian Theology

David Grumett is Research Fellow in Theology atthe University of Exeter. Nouvelle théologie,Pierre Teilhard de Chardin

Ruben L. F. Habito is Professor of World Religionsand Spirituality at the Perkins School ofTheology, Southern Methodist University.Buddhism and Christianity

Roger Haight, S. J., is Scholar in Residence at UnionTheological Seminary in New York City. Juan LuisSegundo

Douglas John Hall is Emeritus Professor ofChristian Theology at McGill University.Neo-Orthodoxy

The Revd Stuart George Hall is Professor Emeritusof Ecclesiastical History in the University ofLondon at King’s College. Historical Theology

The Revd Dr Harriet A. Harris is Chaplain ofWadhamCollege at the University of Oxford.Orders

John F. Haught is Senior Fellow in Science andReligion at the Woodstock Theological Center,Georgetown University. Natural Science

Nicholas M. Healy is Professor of Theology andReligious Studies and Associate Dean of theCollege of Liberal Arts and Sciences at St John’sUniversity. Apostolic Succession, Thomas Aquinas,Ecclesiology, Infallibility, Marks of the Church,Vatican Council I

The Revd Dr Brian L. Hebblethwaite is Life Fellowof Queens’ College, and formerly Lecturer in thePhilosophy of Religion in the Faculty of Divinity,University of Cambridge. The Transcendentals

Charles Hefling is Associate Professor of Theologyat Boston College. Liturgical Movement

György Heidl is Associate Professor at the Center forPatristic Studies at the University of Pécs.Origenism

S. Mark Heim is the Samuel Abbot Professor ofChristian Theology at Andover NewtonTheological School. Religion

Scott H. Hendrix is Professor Emeritus ofReformation History and Doctrine at PrincetonTheological Seminary. Lutheran Theology, SolaScriptura, Two Kingdoms

Alasdair Heron is Professor of Reformed Theologyat the University of Erlangen. Reformed Theology

Michael Higgins is President and Vice-Chancellorof St Thomas University, New Brunswick.Canonization

Mike Higton is Senior Lecturer in Theology in theDepartment of Theology at the University ofExeter. Adoptionism, Anhypostasis, Christology,Communicatio Idiomatum, Hans Frei,Homoousios, Hypostasis, Hypostatic Union,Incarnation, Neo-Chalcedonianism

Mary Catherine Hilkert is Professor in theDepartment of Theology at the University ofNotre Dame. Edward Schillebeeckx

Harvey Hill is Associate Professor of Religion atBerry College. Modernism

Kenneth Einar Himma is Associate Professor ofPhilosophy at Seattle Pacific University.Ontological Argument

Bradford Hinze is Professor of Theology at FordhamUniversity. Tübingen School (Catholic)

Andrew Hoffecker is Professor of Church History atReformed Theological Seminary. Charles Hodge,Princeton Theology

Christopher R. J. Holmes is Associate Professor ofTheology and Ethics at Providence TheologicalSeminary. Ludwig Feuerbach

Edward Howells is Lecturer in Christian Spiritualityat Heythrop College, University of London.Teresa of Avila

Richard T. Hughes is Senior Fellow of the ErnestL. Boyer Center and Distinguished Professor ofReligion at Messiah College. Restorationism

The Revd Mgr Kevin W. Irwin is Dean of the Schoolof Theology and Religious Studies at the CatholicUniversity of America. Eucharist

Lisa Isherwood is Professor of Feminist LiberationTheologies and Director of the Centre forTheological Partnerships at the University ofWinchester. Queer Theology

Timothy P. Jackson is Professor of Christian Ethicsat the Candler School of Theology, EmoryUniversity. Adoption

Paul D. Janz is Senior Lecturer in SystematicTheology at King’s College London.Metaphysics

Werner G. Jeanrond is Professor of Divinity at theUniversity of Glasgow. Hermeneutics

Willis Jenkins is Margaret A. Farley AssistantProfessor of Social Ethics at Yale Divinity School.Dietrich Bonhoeffer

Robin M. Jensen is the Luce Chancellor’s Professorof the History of Christian Art and Worship atVanderbilt University Divinity School. Icons andIconography

LIST OF CONTR I BUTORS

ix

Darrell Jodock is the Drell and Adeline BernhardsonDistinguished Professor of Religion at GustavusAdolphus College. Adolf von Harnack, Alfred Loisy

Mark D. Jordan is Richard Reinhold NiebuhrProfessor of Divinity at Harvard Divinity School.Body, Sexuality

David G. Kamitsuka is Associate Professor ofReligion at Oberlin College. G. W. F. Hegel

James F. Kay is Joe R. Engle Professor of Homileticsand Liturgics and Director of the Joe R. EngleInstitute of Preaching at Princeton TheologicalSeminary. Rudolf Bultmann, Demythologization

Henry Ansgar Kelly is Professor Emeritus in theDepartment of English at the University ofCalifornia, Los Angeles. Devil

Daren Kemp is a Director of Kempress Ltd and Co-Editor of the Journal of Alternative Spiritualitiesand New Age Studies. Christian Science

Fergus Kerr, O. P., FRSE, is Honorary Fellow in theSchool of Divinity at the University of Edinburghand Editor of New Blackfriars. Thomism

Thomas S. Kidd is Associate Professor of History atBaylor University. Revivalism

Fr George Kilcourse is Professor of Theology atBellarmine University. Thomas Merton

Sebastian C. H. Kim is Professor of Theology andPublic Life in the Faculty of Education andTheology at York St John University. KoreanTheology

Masami Kojiro is Professor of Systematic Theologyat the Tokyo Union Theological Seminary.Japanese Theology

Steven Kraftchick is Director of General andAdvanced Studies and Associate Professor in thePractice of New Testament Interpretation at theCandler School of Theology, Emory University.Myth

Alan Kreider is Professor of Church History andMission at the Associated Mennonite BiblicalSeminary. Conversion

Peter A. Kwasniewski is Professor of Theology andPhilosophy and Instructor in Music at WyomingCatholic College. Teresa of Lisieux

Lai Pan-chiu is Professor and Associate Dean of theFaculty of Arts at the Divinity School of ChungChi College, Chinese University of Hong Kong.Chinese Theology

Dirk G. Lange is Associate Professor of Worship atLuther Seminary. Divine Office, Inclusive Language,Lex orandi lex credendi, Community of Taizé

Jacqueline Lapsley is Associate Professor of OldTestament at Princeton Theological Seminary.Ten Commandments

Emmanuel Y. Lartey is Professor of PastoralTheology, Care and Counseling at the CandlerSchool of Theology, Emory University.Pastoral Theology

Gordon W. Lathrop is Charles A. SchierenProfessor of Liturgy Emeritus at the LutheranTheological Seminary at Philadelphia. Liturgy,Prayer

David R. Law is Reader in Christian Thought at theSchool of Arts, Histories and Cultures, Universityof Manchester. Kenotic Theology

Frederick Lawrence is Professor of Theology atBoston College. Bernard Lonergan

Bo Karen Lee is Assistant Professor of Spiritualityand Historical Theology at Princeton TheologicalSeminary. Hildegard of Bingen

Sang Hyun Lee is the Kyung-Chik Han Professor ofSystematic Theology at Princeton TheologicalSeminary. Asian-American Theology, JonathanEdwards

Mark R. Lindsay is Director of Research at theMelbourne College of Divinity. Israel

Thomas G. Long is the Bandy Professor ofPreaching at the Candler School of Theology,Emory University. Homiletics

Janice Love is Dean and Professor ofChristianity and World Politics at the CandlerSchool of Theology, Emory University. KairosDocument

Robin W. Lovin is Cary Maguire UniversityProfessor of Ethics at Southern MethodistUniversity. Reinhold Niebuhr

Walter Lowe is Professor of Systematic TheologyEmeritus at the Candler School of Theology,Emory University. Immanuel Kant

Morwenna Ludlow is Lecturer in the Department ofTheology of the University of Exeter. ApostolicFathers, Patristics

F. Thomas Luongo is the Eva-Lou Joffrion EdwardsNewcomb Professor at Tulane University.Catherine of Siena

Randy L. Maddox is Professor of Theology andWesley Studies at Duke Divinity School.Methodist Theology

Lois Malcolm is Associate Professor of SystematicTheology at Luther Seminary. Theodicy

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Mark H. Mann is Associate Professor of Theologyand Director for the Wesleyan Center for 21stCentury Studies at Point Loma NazareneUniversity. Rationalism

William E. Mann is Professor in the Department ofPhilosophy at the University of Vermont. Anselmof Canterbury

Neil A. Manson is Assistant Professor of Philosophyat the University of Mississippi. TeleologicalArgument

George M. Marsden is Francis A. McAnaneyProfessor of History at the University of NotreDame. Fundamentalism

Bruce D. Marshall is Professor of Historical Theologyat the Perkins School of Theology, SouthernMethodist University. Judaism and Christianity

Hjamil A. Martinez-Vazquez is Assistant Professorof Religion at Texas Christian University.Bartolomé de Las Casas

Rex D. Matthews is Assistant Professor in thePractice of Historical Theology at the CandlerSchool of Theology, Emory University. JohnWesley, Wesleyan Quadrilateral

William C. Mattison III is Assistant Professor ofSystematic Theology at the Catholic University ofAmerica. Divorce, Marriage

Bruce Lindley McCormack is the Charles HodgeProfessor of Systematic Theology at PrincetonTheological Seminary. Atonement

Joy Ann McDougall is Associate Professor ofTheology at the Candler School of Theology,Emory University. Androcentrism, Sin

Bernard McGinn is Naomi Shenstone DonnelleyProfessor Emeritus of Historical Theology and ofthe History of Christianity in the Divinity Schooland the Committees on Medieval Studies and onGeneral Studies at the University of Chicago.Mystical Theology

Alister McGrath is Professor of Theology, Ministry,and Education at King’s College London.Protestantism

John A. McGuckin is Ane Marie and Bent EmilNielsen Professor in Late Antique and ByzantineChristian History at Union Theological Seminary(New York) and Professor of Byzantine ChristianStudies at Columbia University. EcumenicalCouncils, Origen of Alexandria

Esther McIntosh is Assistant Editor at theInternational Journal of Public Theology and

Research Associate in the Faculty of Education andTheology at York St John University. Personalism

Mark A. McIntosh is Van Mildert Canon Professorof Divinity in the Department of Theology andReligion at the University of Durham. Hans Ursvon Balthasar, Beatific Vision, Contemplation,Faith, John Henry Newman, Spirituality

Steven A. McKinion is Associate Professor ofTheology and Patristics at Southeastern BaptistTheological Seminary. Cyril of Alexandria,Council of Ephesus

The Revd Mgr. Paul McPartlan is Carl J. PeterProfessor of Systematic Theology andEcumenism in the School of Theology andReligious Studies at the Catholic University ofAmerica. Henri de Lubac, Vatican Council II

Néstor Medina teaches Theology at Queen’sTheological College, Queen’s University.Mestizaje

M. Douglas Meeks is the Cal Turner Chancellor’sChair in Wesleyan Studies and Theology atVanderbilt University Divinity School. Hope

Linda Mercadante is Professor of Theology in theB. Robert Straker Chair of Historical Theology atthe Methodist Theological School in Ohio.Theology of Trauma

Paul Middleton is Lecturer in New TestamentStudies in the Department of Theology andReligious Studies at the University of Wales,Lampeter. Martyrdom

Daniel L. Migliore is Charles Hodge Professor ofSystematic Theology Emeritus at PrincetonTheological Seminary. Lord’s Prayer

Bruce Milem is Associate Professor of Philosophyand Coordinator of the Religious StudiesProgram at the State University of New York,New Paltz. Meister Eckhart

R. W. L. Moberly is Professor of Theology andBiblical Interpretation at Durham University.Prophecy

Paul D. Molnar is Professor of Theology at St John’sUniversity. Karl Barth

The Revd Dr Andrew Moore is Fellow of the Centrefor Christianity and Culture at Regent’s ParkCollege, University of Oxford. Realism andAnti-Realism

Susan Hardman Moore is Senior Lecturer inDivinity in the School of Divinity at theUniversity of Edinburgh. Deism

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Christopher Morse is the Dietrich BonhoefferProfessor of Theology and Ethics at UnionTheological Seminary, New York. Soteriology

Christian Moser is a staff member of the Institut fürSchweizerische Reformationsgeschichte at theUniversity of Zurich. Huldrych Zwingli

Rachel Muers is Lecturer in Christian Studies in theDepartment of Theology and Religious Studies atthe University of Leeds. Quaker Theology

Francesca A. Murphy is Reader in SystematicTheology at King’s College in the University ofAberdeen. Aesthetics, Étienne Gilson

David Nash is Reader in History at Oxford BrookesUniversity. Blasphemy

Mark Thiessen Nation is Professor of Theology atEastern Mennonite University. MennoniteTheology

Olga V. Nesmiyanova is Professor at the StPetersburg School of Religion and Philosophy.Russian Theology

Craig L. Nessan is Academic Dean and Professor ofContextual Theology at Wartburg TheologicalSeminary. Orthopraxis

Peter Neuner is Professor Emeritus at theKatholisch-Theologische Fakultät at theLudwig-Maximilians-Universität in Munich.Joseph Maréchal

Damayanthi Niles is Associate Professor ofConstructive Theology at Eden TheologicalSeminary. D. T. Niles

Paul T. Nimmo is the Meldrum Lecturer inTheology in the School of Divinity at theUniversity of Edinburgh. Scottish Theology

The Hon. John T. Noonan, Jr, is a judge on theUnited States Court of Appeals for the NinthCircuit, with chambers in San Francisco,California. Usury

Simon Oliver is Associate Professor in theDepartment of Theology and Religious Studies atthe University of Nottingham. Radical Orthodoxy

Thomas O’Loughlin is Professor of HistoricalTheology in the Department of Theology andReligious Studies at the University ofNottingham. Celtic Christianity

Roger E. Olson is Professor of Theology at theGeorge W. Truett Theological Seminary, BaylorUniversity. Arminianism

Kenan B. Osborne, O. F. M., is Professor Emeritus ofSystematic Theology at the Franciscan School of

Theology, Graduate Theological Union, Berkeley,California. Confirmation

Gene Outka is Dwight Professor of Philosophy andChristian Ethics at Yale Divinity School. Love

Aristotle Papanikolaou is Associate Professor ofSystematic Theology and Co-Director of theOrthodox Christian Studies Program at FordhamUniversity. Orthodox Theology

David Parker is Edward Cadbury Professor ofTheology and Director of the Centre for theEditing of Texts in Religion at the University ofBirmingham. Biblical Criticism

George L. Parsenios is Assistant Professor of NewTestament at Princeton Theological Seminary.Mount Athos

Paul Parvis is an Honorary Fellow in the School ofDivinity at the University of Edinburgh. Irenaeusof Lyons, Recapitulation

Bonnie Pattison is Adjunct Professor of Theology atWheaton College. Poverty

George Pattison is Lady Margaret Professor ofDivinity at the University of Oxford and a canon ofChrist Church Cathedral, Oxford. S!ren Kierkegaard

Amy Plantinga Pauw is Henry P. Mobley, Jr,Professor of Doctrinal Theology at the LouisvillePresbyterian Theological Seminary. Election

Lori Pearson is Associate Professor of Religion atCarleton College. History of Religion School

Michael Davey Pearson has served as AssistantProfessor of Theology at Solusi University inZimbabwe and is currently writing two books onthe Holy Spirit for Andrews University Press.Adventism

Clark Pinnock is Professor Emeritus of SystematicTheology at McMaster Divinity College.Open Theism

Sarah Pinnock is Associate Professor ofContemporary Religious Thought at TrinityUniversity, San Antonio, Texas. Holocaust

Alyssa Lyra Pitstick is Assistant Professor ofReligion at Hope College. Glory

Paul-Hubert Poirier is Professor in the Faculté deThéologie et de Sciences Religieuses at theUniversité Laval. Gnosticism

Jean Porter is the Revd John A. O’Brien Professor ofTheology at the University of Notre Dame.Natural Law

Robert W. Prichard is Arthur Lee KinsolvingProfessor of Christianity in America and

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Instructor in Liturgy at Virginia TheologicalSeminary. Book of Common Prayer

Inese Radzins is Assistant Professor of Theologyand Dorothea Harvey Professor ofSwedenborgian Studies at the Pacific School ofReligion. Simone Weil

J. Paul Rajashekar is Luther D. Reed Professor ofSystematic Theology and Dean of the LutheranTheological Seminary at Philadelphia.M. M. Thomas

Shelly Rambo is Assistant Professor of Theology atBoston University School of Theology.Anchoritism, Julian of Norwich

Arne Rasmusson is Associate Professor in Theologyand Ethics at Umeå University. Christendom

Paul Rasor is Director of the Center for the Study ofReligious Freedom at Virginia Wesleyan College.Unitarianism

Stephen G. Ray, Jr, is Neal F. and Ila A. FisherProfessor of Systematic Theology at Garrett-Evangelical Theological Seminary. Race

Esther D. Reed is Associate Professor of TheologicalEthics at the University of Exeter. Forgiveness

Fr Alexander Rentel is Assistant Professor of CanonLaw and Byzantine Studies at St Vladimir’sOrthodox Theological Seminary. EcumenicalPatriarchate

Joerg Rieger is Wendland-Cook Endowed Professorof Constructive Theology at the Perkins School ofTheology, Southern Methodist University.Materialism, Sanctification

Cynthia L. Rigby is the W. C. Brown Professor ofTheology at Austin Presbyterian TheologicalSeminary. Barmen Declaration, Barthianism

Michelle Voss Roberts is Assistant Professor in theDepartment of Religious Studies at RhodesCollege. Mechthild of Magdeburg

Richard H. Roberts is Professor Emeritus ofReligious Studies at Lancaster University andEmeritus Visiting Professor in the Department ofReligious Studies at the University of Stirling.Tübingen School (Protestant)

Joan L. Roccasalvo, C. S. J., is Scholar-in-Residenceat Fordham University. Eastern Catholic Churches

Eugene F. Rogers, Jr, is Professor of Religion at theUniversity of North Carolina at Greensboro.Holy Spirit

Philip A. Rolnick is Professor of Theology at theUniversity of St Thomas. Analogy

Paul Rorem is Benjamin B. Warfield Professor ofMedieval Church History at PrincetonTheological Seminary. Dionysius the Areopagite

Christopher Rowland is the Dean Ireland Professorof the Exegesis of Holy Scripture at theUniversity of Oxford. Apocalyptic

Fr Neil J. Roy is a priest of the diocese ofPeterborough, Canada, and teaches liturgy andsacramental theology at the University of NotreDame. Saints

Tinu Ruparell is Assistant Professor and GraduateCoordinator in the Department of ReligiousStudies at the University of Calgary. Pantheism

Norman Russell is an independent scholar andtranslator. He is the author of several works onthe Greek fathers and the translator of textsby several contemporary Greek theologians.Deification

Robert John Russell is Director of the Center forTheology and the Natural Sciences (CTNS) andthe Ian G. Barbour Professor of Theology andScience in Residence at the Graduate TheologicalUnion. Divine Action

Don E. Saliers is the William R. CannonDistinguished Professor of Theology and WorshipEmeritus at Emory University. Theology and Music

Marcel Sarot is UUF Chair for the History andPhilosophy of Theology and Head of theDepartment of Theology at Utrecht University.Diaconate, Patripassianism, PhilosophicalTheology, Theopaschite Controversy

Hans Schwarz is Professor of Systematic Theologyand Director of the Institute of ProtestantTheology at the University of Regensburg.Descent into Hell, Eschatology, Heaven, Hell,Universalism

Fr Johannes M. Schwarz is Visiting Professor at theInternational Theological Institute, Gaming,Austria. Limbo

Fernando F. Segovia is Oberlin Graduate Professorof New Testament and Early Christianity atVanderbilt University Divinity School. LatinAmerican Theology

Frank C. Senn is Pastor of Immanuel LutheranChurch, Evanston, Illinois and has taught atSeabury-Western and Garrett-EvangelicalTheological Seminaries. Liturgical Calendar

James W. Skillen is President of the Center forPublic Justice in Washington, DC. Covenant

LIST OF CONTR I BUTORS

xiii

Natalia Smelova is Researcher in Syriac Studies atthe Institute of Oriental Manuscripts, RussianAcademy of Sciences, St Petersburg. SyriacChristian Theology

J. Warren Smith is Associate Professor of HistoricalTheology at Duke Divinity School. CappadocianFathers

James K. A. Smith is Associate Professor in theDepartment of Philosophy at Calvin College.Deconstruction, Postmodernism

Luther E. Smith, Jr, is Professor of Church andCommunity at the Candler School of Theology,Emory University. Howard Thurman

John Snarey is Professor of Human Developmentand Ethics at the Candler School of Theology,Emory University. William James

W. Becket Soule, O. P., is the former Dean of thePontifical Faculty and Associate Professor ofCanon Law at the Dominican House of Studies inWashington, DC. Canon Law

R. Kendall Soulen is Professor of SystematicTheology at Wesley Theological Seminary.Scriptural Reasoning

Bryan D. Spinks is Professor of Liturgical Studies atYale Divinity School. Sacramentology

Max L. Stackhouse is Professor of ReformedTheology and Public Life Emeritus at PrincetonTheological Seminary. Civil Society

Brian Stanley is Professor of World Christianityand Director of the Centre for the Study ofWorld Christianity in the Faculty of Divinityat the University of Edinburgh. Missiology

Stephen J. Stein is Chancellor’s Professor, Emeritus,in the Department of Religious Studies atIndiana University. Jehovah’s Witnesses

James Steven is Lecturer in Theology and Ministry atKing’s College London. Charismatic Movement

The Right Revd Dr Kenneth W. Stevenson is theformer Bishop of Portsmouth, England.Blessing, Sacrifice

Dan R. Stiver is Professor of Theology at LogsdonSeminary, Hardin-Simmons University. ReligiousLanguage

Jonathan Strom is Associate Professor of ChurchHistory at the Candler School of Theology,Emory University. Pietism

George W. Stroup is J. B. Green Professor of Theologyat Columbia Theological Seminary. NarrativeTheology

Elizabeth Stuart is Professor of Christian Theology atthe University of Winchester. Anointing of the Sick

Phillip H. Stump is Professor of History atLynchburg College. Council of Constance

Marjorie Hewitt Suchocki is Professor Emerita atthe Claremont School of Theology.Process Theology

R. S. Sugirtharajah is Professor of BiblicalHermeneutics at the University of Birmingham.Colonialism and Postcolonialism

Steven Sutcliffe is Lecturer in Religion and Societyin the School of Divinity at the University ofEdinburgh. New Age

John Swinton is Professor in Practical Theology andPastoral Care at the University of Aberdeen.Disability Theology

Mark Lewis Taylor is the Maxwell M. UpsonProfessor of Theology and Culture at PrincetonTheological Seminary. Paul Tillich

M. Thomas Thangaraj is the D. W. and Ruth BrooksAssociate Professor of World Christianity,Emeritus, at the Candler School of Theology,Emory University. South Asian Theology

John E. Thiel is Professor of Religious Studies atFairfield University. Tradition

Deanna Thompson is Associate Professor ofReligion and Chair of the Department of Religionat Hamline University. Cross and Crucifixion

N. J. Thompson is Lecturer in Church History at theUniversity of Aberdeen. Martin Bucer

Susannah Ticciati is Lecturer in SystematicTheology at King’s College London. Job

Terrence N. Tice is Emeritus Professor of Philosophyat the University of Michigan. FriedrichSchleiermacher

David Tombs is Lecturer and ProgrammeCo-ordinator in Reconciliation Studies at theIrish School of Ecumenics. Liberation Theology

Joseph Torchia, O. P., is Professor of Philosophy atProvidence College. Manichaeism

Jonathan Tran is Assistant Professor of ChristianEthics at Baylor University. Excommunication,Secularization, Tolerance, Virtue Ethics

Daniel J. Treier is Associate Professor of Theology atWheaton College. Doctrine, EvangelicalTheology, Wisdom

Carl R. Trueman is at Westminster TheologicalSeminary. Assurance, Federal Theology, Ordosalutis, Puritanism

LI ST OF CONTR I BUTOR S

xiv

Christopher Tuckett is Professor of New Testamentat Pembroke College, University of Oxford. Johnthe Evangelist

Lucian Turcescu is Associate Professor of HistoricalTheology at Concordia University, Montreal,Canada. Sobornicity, Dumitru Stăniloae

Max Turner is Professor of New TestamentStudies at the London School of Theology.Pentecost

Cornelis P. Venema is President and Professor ofDoctrinal Studies at Mid-American ReformedSeminary. Predestination

Medi Volpe is an Honorary Lecturer at DurhamUniversity. Dorothee Soelle

Andrew Walker is Professor of Theology, Culture,and Education at King’s College, London.Charismatic Movement

Lee Palmer Wandel is Professor in the Departmentof History at the University of Wisconsin,Madison. Humanism

Bernd Wannenwetsch is University Lecturer inEthics at the University of Oxford. Just War,Virtue

Kevin Ward is Senior Lecturer in African ReligiousStudies at the University of Leeds. AnglicanTheology, Thomas Cranmer, Richard Hooker

Patricia A. Ward is Professor of French andComparative Literature at Vanderbilt University.Quietism

Brent Waters is Stead Professor of Christian SocialEthics and the Director of the Stead Center forEthics and Values at Garrett-EvangelicalTheological Seminary. Bioethics, Procreation

Francis Watson is Chair of Biblical Interpretation atDurham University. Scripture

Darlene Fozard Weaver is Associate Professor ofTheology and Religious Studies and Director ofthe Theology Institute at Villanova University.Conscience

Stephen H. Webb is Professor of Religion andPhilosophy at Wabash College. Animals

Timothy P. Weber is Visiting Professor of ChurchHistory at Fuller Theological Seminary, ColoradoSprings, Colorado. Premillennialism

John Webster is Professor and Chair of SystematicTheology at the University of Aberdeen. DivineAttributes

Timothy J. Wengert is Ministerium of PennsylvaniaProfessor of the History of Christianity at theLutheran Theological Seminary at Philadelphia.Martin Luther

Merold Westphal is Distinguished Professor ofPhilosophy at Fordham University. Atheism

David Wetsel is Professor in the School ofInternational Letters and Cultures at ArizonaState University. Blaise Pascal

The Very Revd Stephen R. White is the Dean ofKillaloe in County Clare, Ireland. Agnosticism

Jane Williams is Tutor in Theology at St MellitusCollege, London. Angels

Stephen N. Williams is Professor of SystematicTheology at Union Theological College, Belfast.Friedrich Nietzsche

Thomas Williams is Associate Professor in theDepartment of Religious Studies at the Universityof South Florida. John Duns Scotus, Voluntarism

Ben Witherington III is Professor of NewTestament Interpretation at Asbury TheologicalSeminary. Dispensationalism

John Witte, Jr, is Jonas Robitscher Professor of Lawand Director of the Center for the Study of Lawand Religion at Emory University. Law

Susan K. Wood is Professor of Theology atMarquette University. Laity

Thomas Worcester, S. J., is Associate Professor ofHistory at the College of the Holy Cross. Papacy

A. D. Wright is Reader in Ecclesiastical History atthe University of Leeds. Council of Trent

N. T. Wright is the Bishop of Durham. ResurrectionRandall C. Zachman is Professor of Reformation

Studies in the Department of Theology of theUniversity of Notre Dame. John Calvin

LIST OF CONTR I BUTORS

xv

Editors

Ian A. McFarland is Associate Professor ofSystematic Theology at Emory University’sCandler School of Theology and a Lutheran laytheologian. He is a member of the AmericanAcademy of Religion and of the Nashville-basedWorkgroup for Constructive Theology. His mostrecent book is The Divine Image: Envisioningthe Invisible God (2005).

David A. S. Fergusson is Professor of Divinityand Principal of New College at the Universityof Edinburgh. He has served as President ofthe Society for the Study of Theology (2000–2)and President of the UK Association ofUniversity Departments of Theology andReligious Studies (2005–8). He is a Fellowof the Royal Society of Edinburgh. His mostrecent book is Faith and Its Critics:A Conversation (2009).

Karen Kilby is Associate Professor of SystematicTheology and Head of the Department ofTheology and Religious Studies at the Universityof Nottingham. She is President of the CatholicTheological Association of Great Britain.Her most recent book is Karl Rahner: Theologyand Philosophy (2004).

Iain R. Torrance is President of Princeton TheologicalSeminary and Professor of Patristics. Formerly heheld a Personal Chair in Patristics and ChristianEthics at the University of Aberdeen and served aterm as Dean of the Faculty of Arts and Divinity.He was Moderator of the General Assembly ofthe Church of Scotland (2003–4). He has beenco-editor of Scottish Journal of Theology since1982 and edits the Cambridge monograph serieson Contemporary Issues in Theology. His interestsare in early Christianity, and he is the author ofChristology after Chalcedon (1988).

xvi

Acknowledgements

The Cambridge Dictionary of Christian Theology hasbeen over five years in the making, and many peoplehave contributed towards seeing it through to com-pletion. First in the list of those to whom thanks aredue comes Kate Brett at Cambridge University Press,who was instrumental both in helping to conceivethis project and for shepherding it through the earlystages of development, not least through countlesshelpful suggestions of possible contributors for indi-vidual entries. We are also immensely grateful forthe dedicated service of Rosanna Christian, PetraMichalkova, and Joanne Tunnicliffe, who handledwith cheerful aplomb the mostly thankless task oforganizing contracts for over two hundred contribu-tors, as well as for Laura Morris, who managed aseamless transition in supervising the project whenKate moved to a new post at CUP.Many thanks, too, are owed to the research assist-

ants who helped along the way. Kristine Suna-Korotranslated the article on Russian theology for us.Vance West collated entries from dozens of theologicalreference works as we struggled to come up with a

final list of entries for the Dictionary. Over the finaltwo years of the project, Diane Kenaston proofreadvirtually every article, rendering especially invalu-able service (inter alia) in tracking down dates forsome of the less well-known figures mentioned invarious entries. And Maegan Gilliland and BradleyEast provided sterling service in correcting the finalproofs.It goes without saying, however, that all this work

behind the scenes would have been to no purposewithout the co-operation of our many contributors.Given the many other demands on a scholar’s time,composing articles for a reference volume is truly awork of supererogation, and we are correspondinglygrateful for the participation of so many colleagues,who willingly condensed their expertise on complextopics into agonizingly restrictive word limits forthe benefit of our readers. We have especially appre-ciated their grace and patience in dealing with thequibbles of four editors, and we hope that they findin the final product a tool that justifies their trust inus along the way.

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Preface

There is no shortage of Christian theological refer-ence works in print. Moreover, the proliferation ofweb-based resources (most notably the increasinglycomprehensive Wikipedia) means that basic infor-mation about even the most obscure theologicalterms is rarely more than a few mouse clicks away.Under these circumstances the production of yetanother theological dictionary may seem unneces-sary at best and reactionary at worst. Consequently,before embarking upon this project, we discussed atsome length what possible justification there could befor The Cambridge Dictionary of Christian Theology.In part we were encouraged by our sister publica-

tion, Robert Audi’s Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy,which is widely recognized as having achieved remark-able compactness and accessibility without sacrificingaccuracy or comprehensiveness. At the same time, werecognized that the extraordinarily pluriform characterof contemporary Christian theology, including but alsocutting across traditional confessional and juridicalboundaries, raised particular challenges. Nevertheless,it seemed to us that there was a place – and, indeed, aneed – for a single-volume reference work that was atonce comprehensive in its coverage of topics, inclusivein the many perspectives of its contributors, and, mostimportantly, committed to a specifically theologicalexamination of each topic considered. In short, wewanted a text that would exhibit what Hans Frei oncereferred to as a ‘generous orthodoxy’: coherent andcapacious, but neither partisan nor blinkered.In order to achieve these aims, we sought to enlist

the services of a broad range of prominent theologianswriting in English. Given the many commitmentsscholars face we have been able to reach this goal onlyvery imperfectly, but we are all the more grateful forthe generosity of the many colleagues who agreed tocontribute to this volume. In enlisting their services,we judged it important to give the Dictionary a struc-ture that would allow their individual contributionsto be combined most effectively for the reader. Thus,while the Dictionary’s specifically theological (asopposed to historical or sociological) focus includesa comprehensive coverage of relevant topics, no lessimportant than the range of material included is its

level of integration. While the Dictionary is formattedconventionally, we have tried to ensure that the lengthand focus of individual articles make it as easy aspossible for the reader tomove betweenmultiple entriesin order to gain awell-rounded, appropriately contextualunderstanding of related theological concepts.Entries range from a minimum of 250 to a max-

imum of 2,000 words in length. We settled on theminimum length of 250 words on the grounds that animportant feature of a theological dictionary shouldbe that it devotes enough space to terms and conceptsto allow the reader to see how they are actually usedin theological conversation. We have therefore notincluded any purely lexical entries. At the same time,we have opted for an upper limit of 2,000 words asan appropriate means of preserving the concisionexpected in a dictionary, which, we felt, would beeroded if individual entries were to encroach uponthe length of a book chapter. Nevertheless, these longerentries contribute to the distinctive character of theDictionary, since they provide a framework throughwhich the various shorter entries are integrated bothwith one another and with larger conceptual fields.

core entries

We have conceived the 2,000-word articles as ‘coreentries’. Although they comprise only about 10 percent of the total number of listings, they take uparound a quarter of the total volume of text. As such,they are designed to provide the conceptual ballast forthe volume as a whole, serving as the superstructurearound and in terms of which many of the otherentries are conceived and composed. The core entriesfall into five basic categories that together map theterritory of systematic theology from distinct, thoughcomplementary, conceptual perspectives:! traditional doctrinal topics or loci (e.g., creation,ecclesiology, revelation);

! confessional orientations (e.g., Catholic, Lutheran,Orthodox);

! theological styles (e.g., evangelical, feminist, liberal);! Christianity’s relation to other faith traditions(e.g., Buddhism, Hinduism, Islam);

! academic disciplines (e.g., biblical theology, histor-ical theology, systematic theology).

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The inclusion of core entries on Christianity’srelation to other faith traditions (as well as a rangeof articles of varying lengths on theologies emergingfrom non-western regions) is a feature driven bythe recognition that the startling growth of ChristianChurches in Asia, Africa, and Latin America,together with patterns of migration, make it likelythat theology in the twenty-first century will cease tobe dominated by western academic elites and that itwill be increasingly conducted in close proximitywith other religions.The core entries include basic lexical orientation to

the subject matter, historical and cultural contextual-ization, summary of key developments in the historyof the topic, identification of continuing points oftension or debate, and evaluation of future prospects.Furthermore, core-entry authors were encouraged touse the comparatively large amount of space allottedto provide their own perspective on the topic as wellas coverage of the basic conceptual terrain. The coreentries were commissioned prior to the other articles,so that their content could be used by the editors toguide the composition of shorter articles on relatedtopics. In this way, shorter entries are used to providedefinition of and orientation to technical terms, free-ing authors of core entries to sketch the main con-tours of their assigned topic without the need tomake frequent explanatory digressions.Needless to say, while the range of material

covered by the core entries is large, it is not exhaust-ive. Some selection has inevitably been required inorder to control the overall size of the volume, inline with our judgement of the relative significanceof topics for the field as a whole. Thus, while all themajor doctrinal loci feature in core entries, somesignificant theological styles (e.g., narrative andQueer theologies) have been assigned fewer than2,000 words. Similarly, slightly shorter entries (gen-erally between 1,500 and 1,750 words) have beenallotted to other important topics that do not fallunder any of the broader core-entry categories (e.g.,baptism, monasticism, and philosophical traditionsthat have been important influences in the shapingof Christian thought). Finally, entries on the theolo-gies associated with particular geographical regionsvary widely in length and are, inevitably, somewhatarbitrary, though we have endeavoured to identifycoherent centres of theological production bothwithin (e.g., Scottish theology) and outside (e.g.,South Asian theology) more established North

Atlantic academic contexts. All these classes of art-icles function analogously to core entries, in thatthey have been used to help focus discussion onrelated topics.

biographical entries

Biographical entries fall into a separate category.Though in many cases individual theologians aredirectly relevant to the material covered in coreentries and/or shorter articles relating to particulartheological concepts or movements, we judged itimportant to treat significant thinkers in a morefocused and deliberate manner. At the same time,because the number of figures who might qualify forentry is almost limitless, it was necessary to imposefairly severe limits on the number of figures grantedindividual entries. We have followed the practiceof the New Dictionary of National Biography andthe Religion in Geschichte und Gegenwart in notassigning separate entries to living persons (thoughliving theologians are in many cases mentioned inother articles). Even with this means of exclusion,however, the list of those who might have beenincluded remains vast, and we acknowledge adegree of unavoidable arbitrariness in the selectionof those to be included.In order to provide as balanced a list of figures as

possible, we have tried to prioritize those theolo-gians whose influence on the shape of central doc-trines (e.g., Athanasius, Irenaeus), the subsequenthistory of the tradition (e.g., Aquinas, Luther, Pala-mas), or contemporary theology (e.g., Barth, Rah-ner) is widely recognized. Since the sociologicalcomplexion of Christian culture up to the twentiethcentury virtually guarantees that these criteria willproduce a list that is overwhelmingly male andEuropean, we have also endeavoured to include asignificant number of women and persons of colourwhose voices, though not as prominent in trad-itional academic theology, indicate something ofthe genuine, if often unacknowledged, diversity ofChristian thought over the centuries.In order to allow the maximum amount of space

to subject entries, the vast majority of biographicalentries have been set at either 250 or 500 words,though a few major figures have been assigned1,000 words or more. Although the article’s assignedlength will constrain what is possible in each indi-vidual case, all entries include a summary of thefigure’s life, reference to the debates or controversies

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PREFACE

in which he or she was involved and the major ideaswith which he or she is associated, identification ofhis or her most important works, and an evaluationof his or her influence.

using the dictionary

As already noted, articles are arranged alphabetically,with each entry clearly identified in bold type andsmall capitals (e.g., APOLOGETICS). Core entries arefurther set apart by being printed in all capital letters(e.g., CREATION). Small capitals without boldfaceare employed within articles as a means of cross-referencing: when the reader comes across a term insmall capitals in the body of an article (e.g., SCRIP-TURE), this indicates that the term has an article of itsown elsewhere in the Dictionary. Occasionally, cross-referencing is indicated by the addition of theconventional designations, ‘see’ or ‘see also’. Becausethe core entries provide the conceptual centre ofgravity for the text, readers are encouraged to referto them in order to acquire a fuller sense of howconcepts covered in related shorter entries mesh withthe larger themes of Christian theological discourse.Most entries include a brief bibliography of

between one and six works. Obviously, given theenormous amount of writing available on almostevery one of the entry topics, these bibliographiescould be extended almost indefinitely, but strin-gency was necessary in order to meet the require-ments of a one-volume reference work. The itemslisted at the end of the articles are, correspondingly,proposed in the vein of ‘suggestions for furtherreading’ for those wishing to pursue the topic ingreater depth. In addition to these more formalbibliographic entries, however, two further sorts ofreferences to other works are found in the Diction-ary. First, biographical entries in particular generallyinclude in the body of the article the titles and datesof the most important texts authored by the figureexamined. Second, within all articles works citedare referenced by an abbreviated title and (where aportion of text is quoted) page, paragraph, orsection numbers in parentheses. The full titles, ori-ginal composition/publication dates, and (whererelevant) the English translations (ET) from whichthe citations were taken are listed alphabetically byauthor (or, where no author is indicated, by title) inthe ‘References’ pages at the end of the volume.

Where material is cited from a modern or morecontemporary edition of an older work, the date ofthe more recent edition is given in square bracketsafter the original publication date.There are also a number of other, miscellaneous

editorial conventions we have adopted in the Dic-tionary that the reader should note. First to note arethe conventions we have adopted for biblical quota-tions. All such quotations are taken from the NewRevised Standard Version, unless otherwise indi-cated, using the abbreviations for biblical and apoc-ryphal books followed by the Journal of BiblicalStudies; to save space we have also abbreviated theOld and New Testaments as OT and NT respectively.Second, throughout the volume we have chosen touse only Arabic numerals when referencing pre-modern texts (e.g., Against Heresies 3.20.3 meansBook 3, Chapter 20, Section 3; The City of God 5.6–9means Book 5, Chapters 6–9; Summa theologiae1.93.2–4 means Part I, Question 93, Articles 2–4,and so forth). Third, we have uniformly referred tothe Church of Rome as ‘Catholic’ rather than‘Roman Catholic’. Although we realize that thisdecision begs some significant ecclesiological ques-tions, it was the easiest way to ensure consistencyand economy of expression across a volume includ-ing contributors from a range of confessional trad-itions. (For similar reasons, we refer to theChalcedonian Churches of the East as ‘Orthodox’rather than as ‘Eastern Orthodox’.) Finally, we havesought to provide dates for all figures mentionedwithin articles who do not have an article of theirown elsewhere in the Dictionary. In most cases wehave used dates of birth (if known) and death(where applicable), or, where both are unknown,fl. (Latin floruit, ‘flourished’). For popes and mon-archs, we have opted to use the dates of their reigns(indicated by the letter ‘r.’). There are, however, twoexceptions to this last convention. First, because theonset of the Roman emperor Constantine I’s reigncan be marked in several different ways, we haveused his birth and death rather than reign dates.Second, in referring to the competing claimants tothe papal throne during the Great Western Schism of1378–1415, we have used birth and death dates toavoid confusion with respect to overlapping reigns,as well as disputed judgements regarding particularclaimants’ canonical status.

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ABBA The biblical record indicates that abba, the Ara-maic word for ‘father’, was the form of address used byJesus for God (see, e.g., Matt. 11:25–6; 26:39, 42; Luke23:34, 46; John 11:41; 12:27–8; 17:5, 11, 21, 24–5). Thisusage appears to have been regarded as significantenough that it is one of the few pieces of Aramaic thatis preserved untranslated in the Gospels (Mark 14:36).Jesus commended the same form of address to hisdisciples (Matt. 6:9; Luke 11:2; cf.John 20:17), and, again, its signifi-cance was such that it appears tohave been preserved even amongGreek-speaking communities in itsAramaic form (Rom. 8:15; Gal. 4:6).While scholars disagree over

whether or not Jews customarilyaddressed God as ‘Father’ beforeJesus’ time (cf. Isa. 63:16; Jer. 3:19),there seems little question that Jesus’use of the term was regarded by hisfollowers as distinctive. The canon-ical evangelists understand Jesus’ use of ‘Father’ ascorrelative of his own status as ‘Son’ (Matt. 11:27; John17:1; cf. Matt. 3:17; 17:5 and pars.). From this perspec-tive, later developed explicitly in the doctrine of theTRINITY, God’s identity as ‘Father’ does not refer to ageneric relationship between Creator and creature, butrather to a unique relationship with God’s own co-eternal Word (John 1:1; see LOGOS), who, as ‘Son’,enjoys an intimacy with God that has no creaturelyparallel (John 1:18). Thus, while Jesus is intrinsicallyGod’s Son, other human beings are children of Godonly by ADOPTION through Jesus’ Spirit (Rom. 8:23; Gal.4:5; see HOLY SPIRIT).

IAN A. MCFARLAND

ABORTION Abortion is one of today’s most contestedmoral issues, with many anti-abortionists taking anabsolutist stand on the basis of the sanctity of innocenthuman life and the personhood of the unborn child,and many feminists taking an opposing stand on thebasis of a woman’s right to choose and her right topersonal bodily autonomy. Between these polarizedpositions, there is a wide range of more nuancedhistorical and contemporary debates.Christian attitudes to abortion are informed by

SCRIPTURE and, in Catholic tradition, by NATURAL LAW.Yet it is difficult to derive an unambiguous conclusionfrom the diverse biblical passages which refer to life inthe womb (e.g., Ps. 139:13–16), and to God’s breathingof life into the human form (e.g., Gen. 2:7). Similarly,natural law lends itself to different interpretations asfar as early human development is concerned, andthere is ongoing debate regarding the personal identityand moral status of the embryo. Christianity hasalways regarded abortion as a serious SIN, and the earlyChurch vigorously opposed practices of infanticide and

abortion in surrounding cultures. Until the nineteenthcentury, however, there was a distinction in the Cath-olic theological tradition between early and late abor-tion in terms of the moral gravity of the act, relating todebates about when the soul enters the body(‘ensoulment’).Although early abortion was not criminalized under

English common law, during the nineteenth centurylegislative changes in Britain and theUSA resulted in the criminalizationof all abortion in response to pres-sure from the medical profession. Inthe late nineteenth century the Cath-olic Church stopped distinguishingbetween early and late abortion,and it is now the most absolutist ofall religions on this issue. With theliberalization of abortion law insome countries since the 1960s(most famously, the 1973 decisionof the US Supreme Court in Roe v.

Wade), and with the more recent emergence of cam-paigns for women’s reproductive rights, the Catholichierarchy has sought to use its political influence wher-ever possible to block or abolish the legalization ofabortion.Modern Catholic teaching leaves open the question

as to when the embryo acquires personhood, but itinsists that the embryo must be accorded full humandignity from conception. Abortion might be permis-sible to save the mother’s life, but only if the death ofthe fetus is an indirect rather than a direct conse-quence of the procedure (an ethical position knownas the doctrine of double effect). Other Churches andreligions such as Judaism and Islam adopt a morecasuistic approach: although abortion is generallyregarded as wrong, particular cases must be evaluatedbefore a judgement can be made.Abortion is a unique moral dilemma. There is

widespread concern about high abortion rates anddisputes about time limits for legal abortion arecommon in countries such as the UK and the USA.Significant ethical questions arise with regard to abor-tion on grounds of fetal disability, and scientific devel-opments in embryology and biotechnology bringwith them the risk of the commodification of humanembryos and maternal bodies. Feminist pro-choicearguments sometimes show insufficient concern forquestions regarding the dignity and vulnerability ofthe unborn child and the psychological wellbeing ofwomen who are traumatized by abortion. On the otherhand, the World Health Organization estimates thatsome 70,000 women die every year as a result of illegalabortions, and anti-abortion campaigners sometimesappear to be indifferent or even hostile towards theoften profound suffering caused to women byunwanted pregnancies.

A

1

In view of the intractability of these issues, thetraditional distinction between early and late abortionmight serve society and the law well. For those whoinsist that there is no such distinction, the debatemight more justly and effectively be conducted onmoral grounds than through the law and politics.However, the ultimate credibility of any position mightdepend upon the extent to which it respects the moralauthority of women and allows them to speak forthemselves, recognizing that this will inevitably havea significant impact on an ethical debate from whichwomen have historically been excluded, and yet whichhas such profound implications for women’s lives.

R. M. Baird and S. E. Rosenbaum, eds., The Ethics ofAbortion: Pro-Life Vs. Pro-Choice (Prometheus, 2001).

G. F. Johnston, Abortion from the Religious and MoralPerspective: An Annotated Bibliography (Praeger, 2003).

TINA BEATTIE

ABRAHAM The biblical figure of Abraham, whose story isfound in Gen. 11:27–25:10, is foundational for Judaism,Christianity, and Islam, to the extent that together theyare sometimes named the three ‘Abrahamic’ religions.As the recipient of the COVENANT of circumcision, Abra-ham is regarded by Jews as the first Jew; his repudi-ation of idolatry for the worship of the one God meansthat he is sometimes described as the first Muslim inIslam (though formally most Muslims would accordthis honour to Adam). While Abraham has never beenpopularly designated as the first Christian, his signifi-cance for the theology of PAUL has given him a centralrole in the doctrine of JUSTIFICATION, especially asdeveloped in PROTESTANTISM.In Galatians 3 and Romans 4, Paul cites Gen. 15:6

(‘And [Abraham] believed the Lord; and the Lordreckoned it to him as righteousness’) to argue thatAbraham is the prototype of those who are justifiedby FAITH apart from works of the LAW. In this way, Paulargues, Abraham is ancestor not only of the Jews byvirtue of his reception of the covenant of circumcision,but also of Gentile Christians, who, like Abraham, arereckoned righteous by virtue of their faith, apart fromeither circumcision (which was commanded only after-wards; Rom. 4:10–11) or the works of the Mosaic law(which was given hundreds of years later; Gal. 3:17). Inthis way, Abraham, as ‘the ancestor of all who believewithout being circumcised . . . and likewise the ances-tor of the circumcised’ (Rom. 4:11–12), points to theovercoming of the division between Jew and Gentile inthe Church.

IAN A. MCFARLAND

ABSOLUTION: see PENANCE.

ACCOMMODATION The concept of accommodation is a cor-ollary of the DOCTRINE of REVELATION and refers broadlyto the processes by which God, though utterly

transcendent of and thus intrinsically inaccessible tohuman investigation or knowledge, works within cre-ation to make the divine self knowable to humankind.Accommodation thus refers to divine condescension tocreaturely capacities and includes the use of any finitereality as a vehicle for divine self-disclosure. Mostfrequently, however, accommodation is associated spe-cifically with God’s use of SCRIPTURE as a vehicle ofrevelation scaled to the capacities of an unsophisticatedaudience. Thus, J. CALVIN, following a tradition goingback to ORIGEN (Cels. 4.71) and AUGUSTINE (Gen. lit.1.18.36), characterized the Bible’s use of anthropo-morphic language for God as analogous to a nurse’suse of baby talk to communicate with an infant (Inst.1.13.1).Within this hermeneutical context, accommodation

frequently serves as a tool of Christian APOLOGETICS.Calvin, for example, invoked divine condescension toaccount for discrepancies between biblical and scien-tific cosmologies (CGen. 6:14), as did G. Galilei (1564–1642) in his defence of heliocentrism (Opere 1.198–236). Divergence between Christian practice and thecultic and legal provisions of the OT is also explainedin terms of accommodation, in line with Jesus’ teachingthat divorce was permitted by Moses only as a conces-sion to hard-heartedness (Matt. 19:8). In Catholicthought accommodation is also used for the applica-tion of biblical texts to persons or circumstances otherthan those implied by their immediate context (e.g.,the extension to all believers of God’s promise toMoses, ‘I will be with you’, in Exod. 3:12).See also INERRANCY.

IAN A. MCFARLAND

ACCULTURATION: see INCULTURATION.

ACEDIA: see SEVEN DEADLY SINS.

ADIAPHORA Derived from the Greek for ‘indifferentthings’, ‘adiaphora’ (singular: ‘adiaphoron’) was usedin ancient Stoic philosophy for things (e.g., wealth) thatwere neither commanded as virtues nor proscribed asvices. In Christian theology it refers analogously toaspects of Church practice regarded as permissiblebut not obligatory. The category is implicit in PAUL’spleas for toleration of diverse behaviours in the congre-gations to which he writes (e.g., eating or abstainingfrom meat; Rom. 14:1–4). In the second centuryIRENAEUS likewise opposed papal demands for liturgicaluniformity on the grounds that differences in practicesof fasting did not preclude unity in faith (Eusebius, EH5.24). The German Lutheran P. Meiderlin (1582–1651)appears to be responsible for perhaps the most well-known statement of this need to distinguish betweenwhat is and is not necessary in the Church: ‘In essen-tials, unity; in inessentials, liberty; in all things, char-ity’ (Paraenesis 128).

ABRAHAM

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Although Meiderlin’s formula has been taken up by awide range of Christians from Moravians to Catholics(see Pope John XXIII, Ad Petri, §72), the topic ofadiaphora achieved its greatest theological prominenceduring the REFORMATION, when Lutheran theologiansdebated the permissibility of submitting to certainCatholic practices judged to be adiaphora (e.g., theepiscopal ordination of ministers) in the furtheranceof Church unity. In adjudicating this controversy, theBOOK OF CONCORD affirmed that adiaphora played theimportant role of maintaining good order and discip-line in the Church; but while its authors conceded thatin questions of adiaphora every effort should be madeto avoid giving offence, they also insisted that, whenthe threat of persecution is present, compromise onadiaphora is forbidden, lest it appear that the practicesin question are required and not a matter of Christianfreedom (FC, Ep. 10).Although the intra-Lutheran debates of the sixteenth

century were not marked by disagreement over whatcounted as adiaphora, the criteria for distinguishingbetween essential and inessential matters remain apoint of contestation among Christians, dependinglargely on the role they grant TRADITION as a guarantorof ORTHODOXY. The Protestant tendency to regard SCRIP-TURE as the sole source of essential teaching reflects aview of tradition as fallible and, thus, subject to cor-rection and change. The authors of the WestminsterConfession of Faith (1647), following the Book ofConcord’s equation of adiaphora with ecclesial ritesand ceremonies, distinguish between those thingsnecessary for salvation, which are ‘either expressly setdown in Scripture, or by good and necessary conse-quence may be deduced from Scripture’, and ‘circum-stances concerning the worship of God, andgovernment of the Church . . . which are to be orderedby the light of nature, and Christian prudence’ (1.6). Bycontrast, Orthodox, Catholic, and some Anglican Chris-tians would include the content of the classical CREEDS,the decrees of ecumenical COUNCILS, and the apostolicsuccession of bishops in the list of essentials, reflectinga greater willingness to treat practices sanctioned bytradition as permanently binding on the Church.

IAN A. MCFARLAND

ADOPTION Adoption as an ongoing, socially sanctionedpractice does not exist in OT LAW. Three acts of adoption– of Moses (Exod. 2:10), Genubath (1 Kgs 11:20), andEsther (Esth. 2:7, 15) – are referred to, but these alltake place outside Palestine and thus in contexts for-eign to Jewish rule and custom. Torah tradition as suchsimply does not admit that someone who is not one’sbiological child can be rendered one’s son or daughterby legal fiction. It was PAUL who first introduced thenotion of adoption into Christian theology.The NT Greek word translated by the NRSV as

‘adoption’ is huiothesia, from huios (‘son’) and tithēmi

(‘to put or place’). The term appears five times in Paul’sepistles (Rom. 8:15, 23; 9:4; Gal. 4:5; Eph. 1:5), but notonce in the Gospels. Construed literally, huiothesia isgendered and connotes a legal placing or taking in as amale heir (i.e., one who may inherit) someone who isnot one’s biological son. One can readily see why Paul –that liminal figure at the dividing line between thehistorical Jesus and the HOLY SPIRIT, Jew and Gentile,Roman and barbarian – would have been attracted toadoption metaphors. Paul knew himself to have beenan outsider graciously allowed in (1 Cor. 15:8–10; cf. 1Tim. 1:12–14), and he saw in his personal experiencesa model of a fatherly God’s salvific way with the widerworld: ‘When the fullness of time had come, God sentHis Son, born of a woman, born under the law, in orderto redeem those who were under the law, so that wemight receive adoption as children’ (Gal. 4:4–5).See also OBLATION.

TIMOTHY P. JACKSON

ADOPTIONISM Adoptionism is the idea that the humanbeing Jesus of Nazareth has some existence prior tounion with the divine LOGOS, such that the union issomething that happens to a particular human being.Some Ebionites, for instance, seem to have seen Jesusas a ‘mere man’ who fulfilled the LAW and was thereforeanointed by the HOLY SPIRIT (see EBIONITISM). Somethingsimilar appears to have been taught in second-centuryRome by Theodotus of Byzantium (fl. 180) and others,and later Paul of Samosata (d. ca 275) also seems tohave emphasized the distinct existence of the man whowas united to God’s Word. The fourth-century theolo-gian Marcellus of Ancyra (d. ca 375) is sometimeswrongly accused of adoptionism (though he couldspeculatively imagine the Word withdrawing from thehuman Jesus and the latter nevertheless continuing toexist); but one of his followers, Photinus of Sirmium (fl.350), who stressed the unity of the Logos and theFather and downplayed the unity between the Logosand Jesus’ humanity, argued that the Logos descendedupon and eventually departed from Jesus. Considerablylater, at the end of the eighth century, Elipandus ofToledo (ca 715–ca 800) and Felix of Urgel (fl. 800) drewupon distinctive Spanish liturgical traditions to author-ize talk of the ‘adoptive man’ in Christ (‘Spanish adop-tionism’). They were opposed by Beatus of Liebana (ca730–ca 800) and Alcuin of York (ca 735–804) whoargued that ‘adoption’ language must be reserved forthe Church’s identity as child of God, in order not toobscure the difference between that relationship andthe HYPOSTATIC UNION between Jesus’ humanity and God.

MIKE HIGTON

ADVENT: see CALENDAR, LITURGICAL.

ADVENTISM Adventism grew out of the Millerite move-ment, whose members expected the return of Christ in

ADVENTISM

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judgement in 1844. When this did not occur as pre-dicted (the ‘Great Disappointment’), numerous clergyand LAITY combined their shared FAITH into a newmovement. Its adherents adopted the name ‘Seventh-Day Adventist’ in 1860 and established its highestadministrative body, the General Conference, in 1863.Seventh-Day Adventists have a representative four-tieradministrative structure: congregations; conferences;union-conferences; and General Conference, whichincludes thirteen world divisions.Since J. N. Andrews (1829–83) became the first

missionary in 1874, Adventists have grown into oneof the world’s ten largest Christian denominations.Facilitators in Adventism’s growth include its commit-ment to education (operating the largest educationalsystem within PROTESTANTISM); preventive and curativehealth systems, hospitals, orphanages, and retirementhomes (Adventist health practices contribute to anadded life expectancy of six to ten years over thegeneral American population); worldwide television,radio broadcasting, and publishing; and practicalinvolvement in local communities through AdventistCommunity Services and the Adventist Disaster andRelief Agency, which facilitates humanitarian aidworldwide; and programs to counter AIDS in manydeveloping countries.Adventists come from the REFORMATION traditions of

SOLA SCRIPTURA, solus Christus, sola fide, and sola gratia,and hold the DOCTRINES of an eternal TRINITY, literal six-dayCREATION and young earth, stewardship of the earth,tithing, God’s moral LAW as binding on all humanity,traditional Christianmarriage, respect for life, Holy Com-munion (see EUCHARIST), and spiritual gifts (see CHARISM).Adventists are also part of the Arminian/Wesleyan trad-ition (see ARMINIANISM), believing in FREE WILL; restorationof the complete individual in the image of God throughChrist (JUSTIFICATION); and the ministry of the HOLY SPIRIT(SANCTIFICATION and personal holiness).Other Adventist doctrines include: adult BAPTISM by

immersion; holding both OT and NT as of equal rele-vance; historicist interpretation of biblical PROPHECY;premillennial ESCHATOLOGY (see PREMILLENNIALISM); a tem-porary and literal great controversy between Christ andthe DEVIL (viz., good and evil), concluding with thecreation of a new earth; a literal HEAVEN; mortality of thesoul, with immortality given as God’s gift at Christ’sPAROUSIA (Ezek. 20:12, 20; 1 Cor. 15:52–4); the immi-nent, literal second coming of Christ; a future, tempor-ary HELL; the seventh-day sabbath of both testaments asrelevant today; and strict separation of Church andState derived from Revelation 14.Adventism also holds that the prophetic gift (1 Cor.

12:10) is one of God’s gifts to the Church, and wasevidenced through E. G. White (1827–1915). This con-viction is understood in the context of a belief thatnon-canonical prophetic gifts throughout history havebeen lesser lights pointing humanity to God’s greater

light (i.e., Christ as revealed in SCRIPTURE). A product ofearly Methodism, White held that her writings were toexalt Scripture, never to replace it, and to encourageadherence to it as God’s perfect standard of truth (seeMETHODIST THEOLOGY). Her view, and that of Adventismmore generally, is that salvation is effected by one’ssubmission to God’s will as revealed in Scripture.See also SABBATARIANISM.G. R. Knight, Reading Ellen White (Review and Herald,

1997).N. J. Vyhmeister, ‘Who Are Seventh-Day Adventists?’ in

Handbook of Seventh-Day Adventist Theology, ed.R. Dederen Commentary Reference Series 12 (Reviewand Herald, 2000), 1–21.

MICHAEL DAVEY PEARSON

AESTHETICS, THEOLOGICAL Theological aesthetics addressesthe place of beauty in Christian life. In classical meta-physics, beauty is taken to be an element of all reality,and therefore often numbered among the TRANSCENDEN-TALS. Because it cuts across (or ‘transcends’) categoriza-tion, and is thus, like truth and goodness, a property ofbeing, beauty is an attribute of God. The beauty of Godis the foundation of theological aesthetics. While good-ness and truth are universal properties of being, thegoodness of reality is best observed in individual moralacts, and truth is most easily analyzed in particulartrue judgements. Likewise, the finite, particular beau-tiful object, or ‘aesthetic beauty’, is our central meansof access to transcendental beauty. Works of art captureaesthetic beauty in a lasting and socially transmissibleform. Hence, works of art, and the aesthetic sensibilityrequisite to their appreciation, play a significant role intheological aesthetics. The high-intensity beauty ofworks of art represents the presence and appeal ofdivine beauty in all created reality.The most influential modern proponent of theo-

logical aesthetics is the Swiss H. U. von BALTHASAR.Balthasar composed a trilogy which began with theo-logical aesthetics (The Glory of the Lord: A TheologicalAesthetics), moved thence to theological ethics (Theo-Drama), and ended with a theological consideration oftruth (Theo-Logic). By presenting his theology in thissequence, he affirmed the need to anchor the theo-logical senses and imagination in beauty before moral-izing theologically or knowing theological truth. Theordering of Balthasar’s trilogy reverses that of I. KANT’sphilosophical Critiques, which begin with judgement,move to ethics, and are completed by aesthetics. Itlikewise reverses the tendency of modern SYSTEMATICTHEOLOGY to work largely on a conceptual and moralplane, including aesthetics only as superficial, rhet-orical decoration. For theological aestheticians, humanimagination naturally desires the supernatural beautyof God because God calls it through beauty, whichis gratuitously rooted in reality and graciously perme-ates it.

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The aesthetic is what is sensorily perceived. One sideof the western Christian attitude to aesthetic imagin-ation is summed up in AUGUSTINE’s adage, ex umbris etimaginibus in veritas (‘out of shadows and images intotruth’, Ep. 75). This marked an attitude to aestheticbeauty which lasted from the patristic era to the nine-teenth century, when the adage was carved over thedoorway of J. H. NEWMAN’s oratory in Birmingham.While formally adhering to this deprecation of theimagination and sensory images as obstacles to tran-scendental Truth, medieval THOMISM in its own waybegan with the ‘aesthetic’, by making sensation thefirst step in cognition, and by appealing to ‘congruence’(convenientia) as a sign of theological plausibility. TheFranciscan Bonaventure (1221–74) likewise subordin-ates the senses to the ‘spiritual’ but gives beauty afoothold by transforming Francis of Assisi’s (1181/2–1226) Christocentric spirituality into a theology inwhich all reality is systematically envisaged as theexpression of Christ. Many modern Christians havebeen motivated to make this starting point and foot-hold explicit in reaction to the way in which post-Kantian philosophy has heightened the early Christiandepreciation of the aesthetic sensibility by removing itstheological basis: for much modern thought the purerthe philosophical reason of the aesthetic and sensory,the more attenuated its grip on reality and revelation.In response to this depreciation of the sensory

imagination, Balthasar countered that one reason forbeginning with beauty was ‘APOLOGETIC’: unless one isfirst touched by its beauty, one will not grasp or begrasped by the Christian REVELATION at its most elemen-tal level, and thus fail fully to recognize and desire thereality of the goodness and truth of the TRINITY. Ratherthan eliminating the senses and imagination, one mustbaptize them. In line with this perspective, it is import-ant to note that the most successful works of apologet-ics of modern times have been, in a broad sense,exercises in theological aesthetics. Works which haveused beauty and imagination in service to revealedtruth include those of G. MacDonald (1824–1905),C. S. Lewis (1898–1963), and J. R. R. Tolkien (1892–1973). Ever since J. Butler’s (1692–1752) Analogy ofReligion (1736), British theology has appealed to thereader’s sense of harmony and congruity. In the nine-teenth century, Romantic writers like S. T. Coleridge(1772–1834), MacDonald, and G. M. Hopkins (1844–89) explicitly turned to imagination as a witness to thesupernatural, and used mythology, fairy tales, andpoetry as a way of expressing Christian truths insymbolic, imaginatively attractive forms. Newman’sidea of ‘real assent’ (which he originally called‘imaginative assent’), meaning assent to truth in theparticular and concrete, is in the tradition of Britishempiricism. In this way, Romantic Christians of thenineteenth and early twentieth century (includingNewman) effectively proposed a new, more positive

interpretation of Augustine’s ‘out of shadows andimages into truth’. Balthasar saw Hopkins and Lewisas exponents of an originally Anglican tradition whichaimed to achieve supernatural realism throughimagination.Theological aesthetics is not a purely theoretical

discipline. It has the practical and pastoral mission ofeducating the religious sensibility and physical sensesto appreciate revealed beauty. Hence, art remains itsmost significant secular medium, and the ecclesial taskof enabling WORSHIP to engender LOVE for divine beautybelongs to the vocation of theological aesthetics. Animportant development in practical theological aesthet-ics has been the increased interest in Christian litera-ture, from F. O’Connor (1925–64) to R. Hansen(b. 1947), religious film (e.g., the Orthodox movie,The Island, 2005), and Christian popular music (e.g.,S. Stevens, b. 1975). Journals which link Christianityand contemporary aesthetics include Image: A Journalof Art and Religion; B. Nicolosi (b. 1964) trains Chris-tian filmmakers at ‘Act One’, in Hollywood; and a dozenmajor universities offer MA programmes in ‘Theologyand the Arts’. To the extent tha