Canadian International Development Agency · CIDA’s Strategic Approach to Trade-related Capacity Building (TRCB). CIDA, Policy Branch, draft, 15 August 2003. serve the interests

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GENDER EQUALITY AND TRADE-RELATED CAPACITY BUILDING: A RESOURCE TOOL FOR PRACTITIONERS

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GENDER EQUALITY AND TRADE-RELATEDCAPACITY BUILDING:

A RESOURCE TOOL FOR PRACTITIONERS

1. Background

“[T]rade openness and economic growth do notautomatically translate into poverty reduction andincreased economic equity, especially in the shortterm. Particular individuals and groups withinsociety may be affected differently by tradeliberalization – some gain, some lose. Market-opening policies in developing countries andcountries in transition must be accompanied byother policies and programs that ensure that thebenefits of growth are shared equitably throughoutsociety or, better still, are focussed directly onreducing economic disparities and eliminatingpoverty. Put another way, economic and socialdevelopment must proceed hand in hand.”

CIDA’s Strategic Approach to Trade-related CapacityBuilding (TRCB). CIDA, Policy Branch, draft, 15 August2003.

CIDA, along with other donors, has recentlyincreased efforts to provide greater assistance inthe area of Trade-related Capacity Building(TRCB).1 CIDA defines TRCB as “activitiesthat create the necessary skills and capacitiesamong government, private sector and civilsociety actors to enable them to work together to:analyse, formulate and implement trade policy; tobuild trade-related institutions; to engage intrade and to supply international markets; tonegotiate and implement trade agreements; andto address the need for transitional adjustmentmeasures for sectors and groups of peopleaffected by trade reform.”2

CIDA’s strategic approach to TRCB is based onthe principle that trade should first and foremost

1 Another commonly used term for trade-related

programming is Trade-related Technical Assistance(TRTA). This usually refers to more short-term, focussedassistance. In this document, we use TRCB as a moreinclusive term, which can encompass TRTA.

2 CIDA’s Strategic Approach to Trade-related CapacityBuilding (TRCB). CIDA, Policy Branch, draft, 15 August2003.

serve the interests of human development, andthat CIDA’s assistance should address the needsof developing countries for TRCB while at thesame time strengthening the links between trade,economic growth and poverty reduction. Inhighlighting the human dimensions of trade,CIDA’s approach incorporates a gender-equalityperspective as well as broader issues of humandevelopment and equity. CIDA’s mandate alsorequires that TRCB programming, in addition toany other objectives, pay attention to mitigatingthe negative impacts of trade liberalization onvarious groups in society. This includes supportfor policies and institutions that facilitate socialand business adjustment and support for socialgroups that experience direct or indirect negativeimpacts of trade reforms.

CIDA is committed to integrating gender equalityinto all of its policies, programs and projects,particularly when developing new programmingapproaches.3 The rationale for identifying genderequality as a cross-cutting theme for the Agency– a consideration to be taken into account in allprogramming – is that gender equality is animportant development goal in its own right andis also closely linked with the achievement ofother key goals, such as poverty eradication andeconomic growth.

This document provides a brief introduction togender issues in trade liberalization. The text isfollowed by a table that highlights gender-equality issues, barriers and needs in relation tovarious aspects of TRCB programming andprovides suggestions on how these concerns canbe addressed. A final section lists Internetresources on gender equality and trade.

3 CIDA’s Policy on Gender Equality, CIDA, Policy Branch,

1999. The Agency’s Report on Plans and Priorities, 2002-2003, states that gender mainstreaming efforts will apply“particularly when new programming approaches, such assectoral approaches with partners, are being undertaken.”

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2. Why Gender Equality and Trade?

Gender inequalities, an important but oftenneglected aspect of human development,mediate the relationship between trade policiesand trade performance. Because of pervasivegender discrimination in economic life, men andwomen are generally affected by trade policiesdifferently.

Making Global Trade Work for People. United NationsDevelopment Programme (UNDP), 2003,www.boell.org/docs/UNDPTradeBook2003NEW.pdf (p.41).

While trade liberalization has the potential toimprove opportunities and incomes of somewomen and men, others will face increased riskand insecurity. The one area of general agreementabout the impact of trade liberalization is that theprocess involves change and adjustment. Asstated by the World Bank, trade liberalization“works” by encouraging a shift in labour andcapital, and there will thus be gainers and losers,at least in the short-term.4

No country undertaking trade liberalization doesso from a starting point of equality betweenwomen and men. If women are disproportionatelyexcluded from the benefits of trade liberalization,or bear a heavier burden of the costs ofadjustment, the result will be an increase ingender inequality. This is not only costly forwomen, but it further complicates the challengeof poverty reduction. There is also some evidenceto suggest that gender inequality itself limitsgrowth, which may be a further constraint inachieving pro-poor impacts from tradeliberalization.

Factors affecting the distribution of the costs andbenefits of trade liberalization (i.e., who will gainand who will lose) are the assets and activitieswith which people have to begin. Those whoalready have access to markets, infrastructure andland are more likely to gain than those without.Some may gain through increased demand for thegoods and services they produce. Others maystand to lose because they rely on sectors thatbecome unprofitable, or because they are unableto capitalize on potential gains because of lack ofmarket access or market failure. Gender 4 World Bank (April 2000), Briefing Papers on

Globalization, PREM Economic Policy Group andDevelopment Economics Group,www1.worldbank.org/economicpolicy/globalization/

differences and disparities cut across these factorsin a number of ways. Consider, for example:

• Women and men tend to work in differentsectors and produce different goods. Thus,women and men are likely to be found indifferent industries (e.g., more men in heavyindustry and more women in lightmanufacturing) and in different jobs withinthe same industry (with women at the lowerend of the responsibility and pay scales).Women are also more likely than men to befound in the informal sector. The impacts oftrade liberalization by gender are therefore, inpart, a reflection of the impacts of tradeliberalization by industry and sector.

• Women have more limited assets than men,including land, capital, credit and marketableskills. Disparities in land, capital and creditmay result from law or practice, or both, andare often exacerbated by gender disparities inaccess to education and training. As a result,women may be less able than men to takeadvantage of new employment andentrepreneurial opportunities that may bearise through trade liberalization. Theseconstraints faced by women may also limitthe effectiveness of trade policy changes;they mean that a significant proportion of thepopulation may be unable to respond to theanticipated supply demands.

• Necessary but unpaid family labour is largelyperformed by women. Women continue to beresponsible for a larger share than men of thework necessary to maintain families and thelabour force (e.g., food preparation,household maintenance and care of thechildren and the sick). These tasks are amajor part of women’s workloads. Wheretrade liberalization results in falling incomes,and greater pressures on women to increaseincome-earning activities, the result can beeven greater pressures on women’s time andpossibly health and, thus, an intensification ofother forms of deprivation. Other copingmechanisms could include the withdrawal ofgirls from school to assist with householdwork, with a different set of long-term costs.

There is a growing body of research andinformation about the relationship betweengender equality and the macro-economy,including trade policies and trends. The research

http://www.boell.org/docs/UNDPTradeBook2003NEW.pdf

http://www1.worldbank.org/economicpolicy/globalization/

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increasingly suggests that this is a two-wayrelationship. Macro-economic policies and trendscan have different impacts by gender because ofdifferences in the way that women and men areintegrated into the economy and the market. Atthe same time, gender biases in the functioning ofmarkets may also have an impact on theeffectiveness of macro-economic policy bylimiting the capacity of individuals and theeconomy to respond in the manner anticipated.

Where trade policy institutions have the capacityto undertake gender-based analyses of tradepolicy measures and impacts as a matter ofroutine, they will be able to support decision-makers with policy advice and options that areconsistent with gender equality objectives. Thiscould be through a combination of enhancingpositive impacts and taking steps to mitigatenegative impacts. Policy approaches can aim formore effective and equitable trade policiesthrough:

4 including measures that enable women aswell as men to benefit from opportunitiesassociated with trade liberalization (i.e.,measures that explicitly take account of thesituation of women and the particularconstraints they face); and

4 mitigating potentially-negative effects onspecific sectors and on women that wouldexacerbate existing gender inequality, throughattention to the timing and phasing in ofliberalization measures to allow for necessaryadjustments and policy measures to supportthat adjustment process.

The capacity to conduct gender-based analysis oftrade policy measures and impacts is therefore animportant aspect of building capacity for tradepolicy in partner countries.

Governments, donors and NGOs are becomingincreasingly aware of the uneven impacts of tradeliberalization and, in particular, the costs,especially in the short term, of compensating forthe negative impacts some groups and regions arelikely to experience in the process. CIDA isalready an active participant in a number ofnational and regional initiatives working toward agreater understanding of the relationship betweentrade and gender and of approaches that would

enhance the positive impacts on women and,therefore, on reducing the gap between womenand men.

INCREASED TRADE READINESS FORENTREPRENEURS IN CAMEROON

Women entrepreneurs in Africa face manyobstacles. They often have limited access to thetraining and information they need to market andsell their products internationally. They must alsocontend with trade policies that do not adequatelytake into account the needs of small and micro-enterprises, which are often run by women.

CIDA is supporting a project of the InternationalTrade Centre to build the capacity of womenentrepreneurs in Cameroon to develop theirbusinesses internationally using new informationand communication technologies (ICTs). Theproject will train women entrepreneurs to useICTs to improve their purchasing and marketingactivities, and will develop on-line databases tohelp women identify and secure sources offinancing for their entrepreneurial activities insectors such as agriculture, food processing andgarments.

ASSESSING TRADE IMPACTS BY GENDER INCHINA

UNIFEM is collaborating with the Government ofChina on a project to investigate the differentialimpact of China's accession to the World TradeOrganization (WTO) on Chinese women and menworking in agriculture and industry. The initiativewill build national capacities for gender-inclusiveresearch, dialogue, advocacy and policy makingin response to issues arising from accession.The project involves Chinese researchers from athink tank within the State Development PlanningCommission (now called the NationalDevelopment Reform Commission), along withresearchers from other Chinese government,non-government and academic organizationsconcerned with women’s issues, and has alsodrawn on input from international experts.The project is notable, not only for its concernwith gender equality and trade, but also becauseit is a rare attempt to assess the human benefitsand costs of trade liberalization in a contextwhere its economic benefits are taken forgranted.Project no. CPR/01/409, China’s Accession to WTO:Challenges for Women in Agriculture and Industry

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3. Types of TRCB Programming and EntryPoints for Gender Equality

The table that follows identifies opportunities toensure that programming contributes to genderequality goals and better development results inthe context of CIDA’s TRCB programming.Relevant gender-equality issues, barriers andneeds were identified by applying a “gender-equality lens” to typical activities included undervarious types of TRCB assistance. Suggestionsare provided on possible ways that these concernscan be addressed and integrated into projectdesign and activities.

Different categorizations of trade policyinitiatives are currently in use, including aframework developed by the WTO and OECDand a somewhat different one that has beendeveloped by CIDA (see “Categorizations ofTrade-related Policy Initiatives” sidebar). Thetable in this document follows a middle groundand is organized as follows:

1. Trade policy and regulation

1A. National trade and development policycapacity

1B. Effective participation in internationaltrade agreements (negotiation,implementation)

1C. Business, social and work forceadjustment related to trade policy

2. Trade development

2A. Trade readiness programs

2B. Transitional adjustments related to tradedevelopment (business, social and workforce)

The table is not comprehensive, but is intended asa starting point when considering gender equalityand TRCB. It is anticipated that this will provideadequate information for CIDA officers to initiatecontext-sensitive gender analysis. This wouldinclude consideration of the specific roles, needsand priorities of women and men related to tradein the particular sector and geographic contextaddressed in the project and the use of thesefindings in designing projects or project elements.

CATEGORIZATIONS OF TRADE-RELATEDPOLICY INITATIVES

Most of the trade codes used by the OECD/WTOdatabase, in particular those contained in thebroad category of "Trade Policy andRegulations", have been designed to enabledonors to report on progress in meeting thespecific negotiation areas identified in the DohaDeclaration. By contrast, CIDA's typology oftrade-related needs is intended to provide ananalytical tool for the spectrum of different kindsof needs. It is neither time-bound, norsubject/sector bound to the areas agreed to atDoha. The classification of the OECD/WTO andthe typology of trade-related needs defined byCIDA are, therefore, a complementary butdifferent way of looking at TRTA/TRCB.

To facilitate use of the attached table for bothinternational reporting and for internal CIDA use,the two systems are briefly summarized below.

The WTO and OECD framework for reportingunder the Doha Development Agenda uses twobroad categories of TRCB (each broken downinto sub-categories):A. Trade policy and regulations:

including support to aid recipients’ effectiveparticipation in multilateral trade negotiations,analysis and implementation of multilateraltrade agreements, trade-related legislation andregulatory reforms, trade facilitation includingtariff structures and customs regimes andsupport to regional trade arrangements.Human resource development in trade is alsoincluded.

B. Trade development:

including business development and activitiesaimed at improving the business climate,access to trade finance, and trade promotionand market development in the productive andservices sectors, including at the institutionaland enterprise level.

The categories in the CIDA framework are:1. National trade and development policy

capacity;2. Trade readiness;3. Effective participation in international trade

agreements; and4. Business, social and work force adjustment

programs and policies.

See Joint WTO/OECD Trade Capacity Building Database(TCBDB, 2003 Data Collection) http://tcbdb.wto.org/trta.aspand CIDA’s Strategic Approach to Trade-related CapacityBuilding (TRCB). CIDA, Policy Branch, draft, 15 August2003.

http://tcbdb.wto.org/trta.asp

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GENDER EQUALITY AND TRADE-RELATED CAPACITY BUILDING

1. TRADE POLICY AND REGULATION1A. NATIONAL TRADE AND DEVELOPMENT POLICY CAPACITY

TYPES OF TRCBPROGRAMMING

GENDER EQUALITY ISSUES,BARRIERS AND NEEDS

POSSIBLE APPROACHES TO INTEGRATINGGENDER-EQUALITY CONSIDERATIONS

Trademainstreaming inPoverty-reductionStrategy Papers(PRSPs) anddevelopment plans

Awareness raising;strengthening trade-policy process;integrating trade indevelopment; andpoverty-reductionstrategies.

4 A better understanding of therelationship between genderequality and trade policy will enabledecision-makers to make moreinformed choices about tradepolicies, including choices aboutthe pace, scope and sequencing oftrade liberalization and thecomplementary measures requiredto enable both women and men tobenefit from new opportunitiesand/or to adjust to the impacts ofchanges in trade regimes.

4 PRSPs and national developmentplans rarely integrate gender-equality concerns.

4 The links between gender, tradeand poverty reduction are not wellenough understood to ensure thattrade-related strategies in PRSPsand development plans will havegender-equitable outcomes.

4 Women are largely absent from thepolicy process: they are rarelyinvolved systematically in thediagnosis of issues and policyformulation.

Policy-development processes:4 Support efforts to integrate sex-disaggregated

data and gender-based analysis in trade-relatedaspects of PRSPs and development plans (i.e.,in both the situation analysis and the measuresproposed).

4 Strengthen women’s roles and input in PRSPs,trade policy and trade review processes (e.g., byinvolving women’s organizations at all stages).

Analytical and technical capacities:4 Train government and NGO representatives to

monitor gender-differentiated impacts of tradepolicy in the context of PRSPs/developmentplans.

4 Raise awareness among government officialsand decision-makers about gender disparities inroles, access to and control over resources anddecision-making.

4 Build capacity to analyse the impacts of tradeliberalization by gender and to identify thecompensatory or adjustment measures requiredto promote trade policies that meet developmentobjectives related to gender equality as well aseconomic growth and poverty reduction.

Technical barriersto trade (TBT) andsanitary andphytosanitarymeasures (SPS)

Technicalregulations andproduct standards,(e.g., protection ofhuman health orsafety, or plant lifeand health, or theenvironment).

4 Barriers in accessing trade-relatedtechnical information and trainingare often more significant forwomen than men.

4 Compared with those of men,women-owned export businessesare more often informal and/orsmaller in scale and, therefore, mayface greater difficulty in achievingcompliance with standards andinternational competitiveness.

4 Policy-makers do not haveadequate information and analysisof gender inequalities related tosafety and quality.

4 In some export sectors mostaffected by TBT/SPS, such ashorticulture, women predominate inthe work force; they stand to benefitfrom improvements to standardsbut are also vulnerable to potentialemployment fluctuations caused,for example, by trade disputesrelated to standards.

Analysis and formulation of standards:4 Build capacity of government, NGO and/or

private sector to monitor impacts of rules andstandards on female and male producersrespectively.

4 Promote improvement and regulation of health,safety and working conditions across the food-production supply chain, from farms toprocessing plants to wholesale and retaildistributors, taking into account the particularissues and needs of producers and farm workers(considering men/boys and women/girls).

Information and training for producers:4 Ensure that projects identify and address any

gender-based barriers to training andinformation.

4 Ensure access of female producers/exporters(large and small) to training and information (e.g.,targeted programs and information for femaleproducers/exporters, bringing training toproducers to address mobility restrictions,appropriate language to address educationdisparities).

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4 Ensure that women are reached and women’svoices heard in any public consultations orawareness campaigns.

Compliance by producers:• Provide direct assistance to female and male

low-income producers or SMEs in complying withstandards.

Trade-facilitationprocedures

Simplification andharmonization ofinternational tradeprocedures (e.g.,customs or licensingprocedures,transport formalities,payments,insurance); supportto customsdepartments.

4 For producers in the informal sector(among whom women predominatein most countries), the ability toexport may be compromised byadditional requirements andprocedures; on the other hand, theymay also benefit from simplificationof procedures if this makes tradeless complex.

4 Women traders frequentlyexperience various gender-relateddifficulties in cross-border tradebecause of unequal access toinformation, harassment, safetyissues, etc.

Analysis of impacts of changes in procedures:4 Analyse impacts of changes for women and men

respectively to determine whether there aredifferential impacts by gender for producers andexporters.

Information programs for traders:4 Ensure that any public information programs

address specific needs of female and maletraders, producers and exporters.

Administration of customs departments:4 Train customs officials to address barriers

women face in cross-border trade, includingharassment of female traders by customsofficials.

4 Promote gender equity in human resourcemanagement.

Tariff reforms

Development ofsimple, transparentand low uniform tariffregimes thatminimizediscriminationbetween productionfor domestic orexport markets, andbetween purchasesof domestic andforeign goods.

4 The impacts of tariff reform on maleand female producers and workersmay differ, depending on theirrespective niches in variousindustries, size of enterprises,capacity to export, ability tocompete with imports, etc. (e.g.,where women producers tend toproduce for domestic markets, theymight be disproportionately affectedby increased foreign sourcing andhigher cost of inputs); employmentfor women workers might increasein export-oriented industries butthere may be gender-basedinequalities in the quality ofemployment created (e.g., genderwage gaps might broaden in orderto keep exports competitive).

4 Impacts of tariff reforms on menand women as consumers mayalso vary.

4 Reduced revenue from tariffs mayinduce governments to cut socialspending, with particularconsequences for women in theirproductive and reproductive roles.

Analytic and policy capacity:4 Build capacity to analyse the gender-

differentiated trade and revenue effects of thetariff-reform program (impacts on women andmen as suppliers, producers, exporters, workersand consumers.)

4 Support development of mitigating measuresbased on this analysis.

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Trade andenvironment

Capacity building ontrade andenvironment (e.g.,by increasingnational policycoherence betweentrade andenvironmentagencies).

4 There are some sectors (e.g., non-traditional agriculture/horticulture)where female labour predominatesand where environmental/healthissues such as pesticide use areparticularly critical. Child labour isalso widely used in these sectors inmany countries.

4 Examples of areas where gender-sensitive environmental analysis isparticularly relevant – biodiversity;women’s and men’s access andcontrol over genetic resources;environmental and public healthimplications (positive and negative)of trade intensification (e.g., use ofsafer pesticides in horticulture).

Environmental reviews:4 Ensure that environmental reviews are based on

sex-disaggregated data and take account ofgender differences in roles, activities, resourcesetc. (e.g., by providing technical assistance toreviewing agencies).

Environment and health/safety standards:4 Environmental requirements can be used to

promote better health and safety standards andenforcement for male and female workers(including boys and girls) in industry andagriculture in exporting countries.

Policy coherence:4 Support aimed at increasing policy coherence at

the national level between environment and tradeagencies/ministries must also ensure coherencewith other international agreements, includingthose on gender equality.

1. TRADE POLICY AND REGULATION

1B. EFFECTIVE PARTICIPATION IN INTERNATIONAL TRADE AGREEMENTS (NEGOTIATION,IMPLEMENTATION)




Regional tradeagreements (RTAs)

Support to RTAs;elaboration of rulesof origin andintroduction ofspecial anddifferential treatmentin RTAs; assistanceto developingcountries toparticipateeffectively in RTAnegotiations andprepare to takeadvantage ofagreements(includingnegotiating strategy,negotiations,implementation).

4 Gender equality issues raisedelsewhere are also relevant forRTAs: lack of capacity for analysisand monitoring of gender andsocial implications of agreements,lack of input from women, absenceof women on decision-making andnegotiating teams.

4 Women’s NGOs and advocacygroups in both North and Southhave been active in monitoring thegender equality implications ofvarious RTA processes andadvocating for greater genderresponsiveness and inclusion ofwomen.

Policy decision-making processes:4 Assist governments, NGOs, women’s advocacy

groups and business groups to ensure women’sparticipation and input to RTA negotiations,regional and international trade meetings,seminars, etc.

4 Promote gender equality in staffing of RTAsecretariats and on relevant boards andcommittees.

4 Promote greater participation of women on RTAnegotiating and decision-making bodies.

4 Support existing initiatives such as APECFramework for the Integration of Women,initiatives to integrate gender concerns in FTAA,especially by supporting participation bywomen’s organizations and advocacy groups indeveloping countries.

4 Increase awareness of gender equality-policiesof regional blocs and how these gender-equalitypolicies can be reflected in agenda setting forregional trade policies and priorities.

Capacity for monitoring;4 Capacity-building of governments, NGOs

(including women’s groups) and the privatesector for gender-sensitive monitoring of impactsof RTAs in different member countries.

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WTO accession

Identification ofchanges to laws,regulations andproceduresnecessary tocompletenegotiations on theterms of WTOmembership; WTOawareness.

4 Changes in laws, regulations,policies and procedures that arenecessary for compliance withWTO membership will havedifferential impacts on women andmen which need to be monitoredand addressed. In particular,legislation and policy thatguarantees women’s rights (e.g.labour rights, pay equity, affirmativeaction) might need to besafeguarded.

4 The Trade Policy Review (TPR)mechanism currently makes noattempt to integrate genderanalysis. Questions of gender biasand gender inequality are relevantwhen considering impacts of tradepolicy reform (e.g. what are theeffects on employment patterns ofwomen and on incomegeneration?).

Policy and legislative analysis and formulation:4 Support sex-disaggregated data collection and

gender-sensitive analysis of the differentialimpacts of changes on women and men, andmitigating measures.

4 Support research and advocacy by governments,national/international NGOs and women’s groupsrelated to gender impacts of accession.

4 Ensure that any new or revised legislation is bothconsistent with WTO regulations and supportsinternational obligations such as CEDAW.

WTO governance, working parties:4 Assistance to enhance and improve the

participation of women and women’s groups in allaspects of WTO governance including genderequity in WTO working-party and decision-making bodies.

4 Support efforts to reform the TPR process tointegrate gender analysis.

Public awareness campaigns:4 Ensure that awareness campaigns address

specific issues and priorities of women and men.

Dispute settlement

Improvedunderstanding ofWTO rights andobligations; accessto legal advisoryservices.

4 There are few if any women ondispute-settlement bodies.

4 Access to dispute settlement andcounsel is unequal and it may wellbe that women are disadvantagedin the process.

Membership of dispute-settlement bodies:4 Support efforts of advocacy groups to increase

female representation on WTO decision-makingand dispute-settlement bodies.

Monitoring of decisions:4 Support women’s groups and advocacy

organizations in monitoring dispute-settlementprocesses and outcomes, analysing implicationsfor female and male producers and traders thatresult from decisions.

Related national frameworks:4 Assistance in ensuring that legal policy,

regulatory and institutional frameworks arechanged to be in full conformity with theseagreements and are appropriate for women andmen.

Trade-relatedintellectualproperty rights(TRIPS)

Negotiations, andpreparation of lawsand regulations, onthe protection andenforcement ofcopyright,trademarks, patents,industrial design,trade secrets;prevention of theirabuse;strengthening ofintellectual propertyoffices.

4 There are concerns that TRIPS willdisadvantage women in a numberof ways. Particular areas ofconcern are:- public health/access to affordable

drugs and devices, includingthose for reproductive health;

- access to genetic resources;- inequalities between men and

women in transfer of technology;- protection and enhancement of

traditional knowledge of womenand men; and

Analysis of impacts:4 Analyse impact of TRIPS rules on women and

men respectively to identify whether there aredifferent impacts in particular sectors.

4 Identify specific barriers faced by femaleproducers and women-owned businesses inrelation to technology, industrial design, etc.

4 Analyse impacts of TRIPS on health of womenand men, girls and boys, including reproductivehealth (e.g., accessibility and cost of drugs andtreatments, impacts on responsibilities of womenas caregivers).

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prevention of theirabuse;strengthening ofintellectual propertyoffices.

- protection for patented ortrademarked imports inpreference to cheaper, morereadily-available and perhapsmore beneficial, local andtraditional products and remedieswill have specific impacts onwomen in their domestic andcommunity roles (e.g., infantformula, generic drugs, traditionalmedicines).

Policy measures:4 Protect female and male indigenous rights and

knowledge (e.g., traditional medicine, geneticresources).

4 Ensure that legislation is both consistent withTRIPS and supports international women’s rightsobligations such as CEDAW.

Agriculture

Implementation ofthe Agreement onAgriculture (AOA).Negotiations onliberalization inagricultural markets;impact analysis.

4 Women are responsible for some60-80 percent of food production indeveloping countries and are theprimary producers for the domesticmarket and for household foodneeds. The AOA focusses onopening markets for agriculturalproducts. If this puts localproducers in competition withcheaper food imports, women willbe particularly affected. If thisresults in lower incomes and lowerproduction, it also has implicationsfor food consumption and foodsecurity.

4 Women may be particularly ill-equipped to compete with importsbecause of their position in small-scale, low-technology operations,their lack of decision-makingpower, unequal land rights, limitedaccess to credit, etc.

4 In some regions, trade changeshave opened new export marketsfor developing countries in areassuch as horticulture, fruits, shellfish,etc., and this has been associatedwith increased demand for labour,particularly female labour. This hasprovided new employment andincome opportunities. However, jobstability and pay levels, as well aspay disparities between womenand men, remain issues to bemonitored.

4 Women, especially rural women,are rarely involved in or have inputto negotiations.

Analysis of impacts/capacity for analysis:4 Capacity development for gender-based

analysis, i.e., effect of gender differences inaccess to and control over resources, land,capital and credit (e.g., discriminatory legal andcustomary barriers to credit or land ownership)and on farmers’ ability to function under AOArules in the different sectors potentially affectedby the AOA.

4 Analyse how male and female farmers andconsumers will be differently affected by cheaperimports and/or removal of domestic supports.

Complementary measures:4 Support improved gender-sensitive social safety

nets and other mitigating measures for ruralpopulations negatively affected by the AOA.

4 Support programs to provide information, trainingand resources to assist both male and femalefarmers in improving their export capacity,access to markets, access to market information,etc., with particular attention to ensuringequitable access to these programs by womenand that the programs address the specificneeds of women farmers.

4 Ensure that changes to subsidies are appliedfairly and do not discriminate against smallfarmers, especially women.

Negotiation processes:4 Ensure rural women’s and men’s voices are

heard by trade negotiators (e.g., by supportingNGOs and advocacy groups’ participation inconsultations).

4 Support communication/input between femaleagricultural producers and trade negotiators.

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Services

Implementation ofthe Agreements onGATS. Negotiationson internationaltrade in services;identification ofmarkets; inventory ofissues affectingtrade in services.

4 There is a need to identify andaddress trade-related issues formale and female workers in theservice sector: jobs, wages andworking conditions for women andmen in service work; gender-basedbarriers to migration, recruitmentpractices, access to information onopportunities and processes, labourand human-rights protection foroverseas workers, cost ofremittances, etc.

4 Critical services such as water,energy and health care may all beopen to trade, with possibleimplications for access, availabilityand costs of services, especially forthe poor. These effects may differfor men and women becausewomen shoulder primaryresponsibilities for household andcommunity management; reducedavailability or affordability ofservices need to be compensatedfor in household level provision andthus are likely to result in increasesin women’s paid and unpaid workand overall time burden.

Impact analyses:4 Analyse differential impacts of GATS on women

and men in different service sectors, e.g. relativeability to compete with foreign providers, relativeability to export services, impacts on women’sand men’s employment, work conditions andwages, and ensure that this analysis is integratedin design of interventions.

4 Analyse impact of trade measures onaccessibility and prices of essential servicessuch as water energy, health care, education,and impact on women’s and men`s productive,domestic and reproductive roles.

Negotiation processes:4 Ensure female participation and representation of

women’s priorities and interests in GATSnegotiations.

Credit markets:4 Ensure that liberalization of domestic credit

market or changes in bank/financial regulationsdo not further constrain women’s access tocredit.

Trade andinvestment

Implications ofcloser multilateralco-operation in thearea of trade andinvestment fordevelopment.Typical activitiesinclude: support toparticipation in theWTO work programon trade andinvestment;dissemination ofknowledge on theprinciples andpractices of existinginternationalinvestmentagreements.

4 There are many concerns about theimpacts of investment regimes onwomen in developing countries.Precise impacts will depend on thenature of the multilateral frameworkthat is negotiated and the ability ofgovernments to maintain theirflexibility to safeguard domesticdevelopment priorities.

4 Foreign direct investment impactson national economies, particularlyby providing jobs for women inexport-oriented sectors. Theseopportunities, however, often arenot gained without some costs(e.g., in labour rights or wage gapsbetween men and women).

Impact analyses:4 Analyse and address differential impacts of

international investment on women-owned,small- and medium-sized businesses supplyingdomestic markets.

Safeguarding workers and producers:4 Support measures to safeguard male and female

workers in foreign-invested industry and exportsectors, as well as in domestic markets(including enforcement of labour standards andanti-discrimination rules, protection of labourrights).

4 Support efforts of developing-countrygovernments to safeguard their right to promotedevelopment of disadvantaged groups or regions(e.g., through programs to nurture women-ownedbusinesses, credit programs, etc.).

Negotiation processes:4 Ensure that women’s voices are heard in

negotiations and policy-making on investment.

11






Tariff negotiations– non-agriculturalmarket access

Implementation ofthe agreement oncontingent traderemedies.Negotiations onreduction orelimination of tariffs,tariff peaks and tariffescalation on non-agricultural products.

4 As with other agreements, thepotential impacts on female andmale producers, workers andbusiness owners are likely to bedifferent and need to be analysedand addressed.

4 Women are likely to be absent fromnegotiating and dispute-settlement

4 bodies, and have inadequate inputto negotiating and dispute-settlement positions.

Analysis of impacts/capacity for analysis:4 Strengthen capacity to analyse and address

differential impacts of tariff changes and marketaccess on female and male non-agriculturalproducers (e.g., do women-owned businesseshave equal capacity to compete with foreignfirms, either locally or overseas?).

Adjustment measures:4 Special assistance to women-owned firms, co-

ops, etc;. in identifying markets and products ofexport interest, product development, trade fairs.

4 Provide support in identifying markets andproducts of interest to women traders/ producers/entrepreneurs.

Negotiation processes:4 Ensure greater representation of women’s

organizations to participate in negotiations.

Rules

Negotiations andpreparation of lawsand regulations onanti-dumping,subsidies,countervailingmeasures andsafeguards;clarification andimprovement ofdisciplines on unfairtrade practices;support toinvestigatingauthorities.

4 Women are largely absent fromrule-making bodies, and haveinadequate input to negotiatingpositions.

4 As with other areas, the potentialimpacts of new or revised laws andregulations on female and maleproducers, workers and businessowners are likely to be different andneed to be analysed andaddressed.

4 Male and female producers andbusiness owners, especially inSMEs and micro-enterprises, maynot have equal access toinformation on potential changes,and little or no input to negotiatingand legal-reform processes.

Analysis of impacts/capacity for analysis:4 Strengthen capacity for analysis of differential

impacts and application of rules to women andmen (e.g.. how will male and female producersbe affected, will there be employment effects formale and female workers, how does thiscompare between males and females, etc.?).

Policy and decision-making processes:4 Ensure that women (through government, NGOs

and advocacy groups) have input to legislation,negotiations and national strategies.

4 Support the establishment of nationalinvestigating authorities that also examine thedifferential impact of rules on women and men.

4 Support participation by both women and men inWTO rules’ negotiations.

Training in trade-negotiationtechniques

Specialized andcustomizedprograms to traintrade negotiators,increase knowledgeand skills in tradecommunication;build capacity toparticipateeffectively ininternational tradenegotiations.

4 Women are significantly under-represented in trade-negotiationteams.

4 Women’s issues and priorities arerarely represented in tradenegotiations.

4 Organizations representing women,the poor and other groups are oftennot included in consultations togenerate negotiating positions thatare consistent with nationaldevelopment plans and tradepolicy, and take a full range ofnational interests into account.

Representation/participation in negotiations:4 Ensure that both women and men are equally

represented in programs aimed at building skillsand knowledge of trade communication.

4 Ensure that women and men have equal accessto training and positions.

4 Remove any barriers to training and promotion offemale personnel.

4 Ensure that processes to develop negotiatingpositions include participation from otherwise-marginalized groups.

Training of negotiators:4 Increase awareness of gender and trade issues

among both male and female negotiators.4 Build the capacity of men and women to

participate effectively in international tradenegotiations.

12


1C. BUSINESS, SOCIAL AND WORK FORCE ADJUSTMENTS RELATED TO TRADE POLICY




Trade andcompetition

Support forprogressivereinforcement ofcompetitioninstitutions,strengthening anti-trust laws andeliminating localmonopolies.

4 There needs to be greaterrecognition that different groups insociety, based on class, gender,race, ethnicity, religion, etc., faredifferently under greatercompetition, and that there mayneed to be mitigating measures toensure that priorities such asequity, poverty reduction andhuman development areaddressed.

Analysis of coherence with development:4 Ensure that analysis of relationships between

competition policy and development is gender-sensitive and based on sex-disaggregated data.

Transparency andgovernmentprocurement

Identification ofnegotiating optionsfor transparency ingovernmentprocurement;preparation of draftlegislation;strengthening ofgovernmentprocurementagencies;modernization ofgovernmentprocurementagencies; WTOAgreement onGovernmentProcurement.

4 Government contracts comprise alarge portion of developingcountries’ GDP and are generallyreserved for domestic suppliers.International competition willpotentially affect women whoprovide low-cost, labour-intensivesupport services (such as hospitalservices, school lunch programs,etc.). Such services are importantsources of income for femaleentrepreneurs and jobs for low-income women. They may haveparticular difficulty complying withnew procedures, or may be unableto compete with internationalproviders.

4 Governments may useprocurement contracts as socialpolicy instruments (e.g., by givingpreference to local firms, quotas forwomen-owned firms, etc.).

Analysis of impacts/capacity for analysis:4 Analyse differential impacts of liberalization on

female and male domestic suppliers.Supporting/protecting domestic suppliers:4 Ensure that competition in government procurement

does not disproportionately affect female domesticsuppliers (e.g., by assisting them to understand andcomply with tendering procedures or procurementregulations).

4 Support efforts to retain preferential treatment ofcertain groups of suppliers for social-policy reasons.

Tradeeducation/training

Human resourcesdevelopment intrade, includesuniversity programsin trade.

4 Women and men do not alwayshave equal access to trainingprograms, because of academicprerequisites, women’s timecommitments, under-representationof women in source groups, etc.

4 Because of different positioning intrade, women’s and men’s trainingneeds may be different in somerespects, although they will overlap.

Analysis and response to particular needs:4 Analyse differential needs of women and men for

trade-related training.4 Promote gender equality in access to training

programs, identifying and addressing any gender-based barriers.

4 Support targetted training programs for womenwhere that need is identified.

13

2. TRADE DEVELOPMENT

2A. TRADE READINESS PROGRAMS




E-commerce

Promotion of information andcommunication technologies(ICTs) for enhancing trade;training and provision ofsoftware and hardware toimprove e-commercecapability.

4 Because of differences ineconomic status, education,jobs and gender roles, womenand men tend to have unequalaccess to ICTs and to trainingfor ICT employment.

4 Support programs that analyse and eliminategender-based barriers to ICTs and training inICT-related industries.

Trade finance

Access to trade finance;reform of financial systems,banking and securitiesmarkets to facilitate trade;laws and regulations thatprotect and promote trade-related investment; financialpolicy and administrativemanagement; monetaryinstitutions; formal sectorfinancial intermediaries;informal and semi-formalsector financialintermediaries (includingmicro-credit, savings andcredit co-operatives, etc.);education/training in bankingand financial services.

4 There are discrepanciesbetween men’s and women’saccess to credit and financing,both formal and informal, whichaffect women’s and men’sability to participate in trade.

4 Trade-related employment inthe financial sector may bemore difficult for women toaccess both because of gaps inqualifications and genderdiscrimination.

4 Policy-making processesseldom include women orincorporate women’s issues andpriorities.

Support to entrepreneurs:4 Support programs that address unequal

barriers to trade-related credit and financing forwomen entrepreneurs.

4 Support programs that target sectors in whichwomen predominate as entrepreneurs.

Finance sector employment:4 Endorse employment-equity programs in the

trade finance sector, including trainingprograms.

Policy and negotiation processes:4 Ensure that women’s voices are heard and

women’s needs taken into consideration ininvestment negotiations and policy-making.

4 Ensure that non-formal financial intermediarieshave a place at the table in trade financepolicy-making and negotiations.

Monitoring:4 Support monitoring of trade finance policy and

negotiations by women’s organizations andadvocacy groups.

Sector-based tradepromotion strategy andimplementation

Development of a national,sector-level trade strategy;work force development inexport industries;implementation of sector-specific strategies inagriculture, forestry, fishing,industry, mining, tourism andservices, including “fair-tradeprograms”.

4 Trade liberalization canpotentially expose exportingcountries and investors tointernational pressure toimplement codes of conductand international agreements(e.g., social clauses in tradeagreements, ILO conventions)as well as to strengthenenforcement of nationallegislation in export sectors.This will benefit both male andfemale workers andentrepreneurs but may haveparticular benefits for womenwhose labour rights tend to bemore vulnerable to abuse.

4 Labour rights are increasinglyseen as a trade issue, given thedemand in many countries forgoods that are produced inconformity with basicinternational labour codes andfair-trade standards.

Policy and decision-making processes:4 Ensure that women (producers, workers,

entrepreneurs and policy-makers) andwomen’s advocacy organizations areappropriately involved in consultations anddecision-making on work force development,trade strategies, etc.

Policy and strategy issues:4 Support fair-trade schemes that ensure equal

compensation for male and female producers.4 Support gender-sensitive analysis and planning

of training and work force developmentstrategies and programs, paying particularattention to the needs and priorities of bothwomen and men.

4 Support efforts of NGOs, governments, tradeorganizations, unions and the private sector todevelop codes of conduct and implementinternational agreements.

4 Ensure that export-development strategies arebased on employment equity and elimination ofgender wage gaps.

14






fair-trade standards.4 Trade strategies are often

“gender-blind” – designedwithout consideration for thespecific roles, contributions andneeds of male and femaleentrepreneurs, workers andproducers, and withoutadequate participation ofwomen and women’s groups.

Market analysis anddevelopment

Access to marketinformation; advice onstandards, packaging, qualitycontrol, marketing anddistribution channels inagriculture, forestry, fishing,industry, mining, tourism andservices.

4 Differences between male- andfemale-owned businesses(related to scale of enterprise,international experience,sectoral specializations, etc.)can mean differences betweenwomen’s and men’s access tomarket information as well astheir capacity to respond to thatinformation.

Supporting entrepreneurs:4 Ensure that projects/programs analyse and

address specific needs of male- and female-owned businesses related to market analysisand development.

4 Support gender-sensitive participatory needsassessment and planning to ensure thatwomen-owned businesses are consulted andparticipate in decision-making.

Trade development inagriculture/forestry/fishing

Agriculture/forestry/fishingpolicy and administrativemanagement;agricultural/forestrydevelopment (includingintegrated projects, farmdevelopment); land andwater resources; agriculturalinputs; food and industrialcrop production; agrarianreform; education/ training(formal) and agriculturalextension (non-formal);research; marketing policies;storage and transportation;creation of strategicreserves; plant and post-harvest protection and pestcontrol; agricultural financialservices; co-operatives.

4 The ability of women producersto engage in trade, to expandnon-traditional agriculturalexports and generate sufficientsurplus to re-invest in non-traditional export crops, as wellas to meet subsistence andhousehold needs, is constrainedby a number of factors,including scale of operations,time constraints because ofmultiple roles, unequal accessto credit and gender roles whichact as barriers to businessdevelopment (e.g., in somecultures it is customary forwomen to engage in cropproduction, but not animalhusbandry, or to be barred frommarketing).

Policy formulation4 Mainstream gender analysis in all policy and

program design.4 Support research into gender characteristics of

marketing structures and use findings to designeffective, gender-responsive policies to expandthe production of export and domestic crops.

Services to producers:4 Support women producers in market analysis

and export development.4 Design trade-development programs that take

into account the specific trade-relatedconstraints of women producers in theseindustries.

4 Ensure that training programs and agriculturalextension are tailored to the specific needs andpriorities of women and men.

15






Trade development inindustry

Includes industrial policy andadministration; industrialsector policy, planning andprograms; institution capacitybuilding and advice; SMEdevelopment (direct supportincluding accounting,auditing and advisoryservices); cottage industriesand handicraft; support toindividual industrial sectors;technological research anddevelopment.

4 Women comprise a substantialproportion of the micro- andsmall-enterprise sector but theimportance of this work tends tobe ignored in policy discussions.

4 Strong export performance indeveloping countries hasconsistently relied on low-paid,female labour in export-manufacturing sectors. Wagesand working conditions forfemale workers in export-manufacturing industries areoften poor, sometimescontravening national labourlaws and codes, especially inexport-processing zones.

4 Mainstream gender analysis in all policy andprogram design.

4 Strategies for support to SMEs shouldalsoconsider the micro-enterprise sector, andtake into account the particular constraints andopportunities of women in this sector.

4 Industrial policy programs should emphasizeprotection of labour rights as a long-termstrategy.

Trade development intourism

Includes tourism policy andadministrative management.

4 In developing countries, thetourism work force is highlysegregated by gender/ Tourismis an important source ofemployment for women, butlow-wage, menial jobs tend tobe predominantly female in theinformal sector, while higher-status and better-paying jobs inthe formal sector tend to bepredominantly male.

4 International tourismdevelopment has the potentialto expand avenues ofexploitation of women and girls.

4 Tourism policy is oftenformulated without taking intoaccount the needs and prioritiesof women in the sector.

Policy analysis/capacity for analysis:4 Support capacity for gender analysis and

gender-sensitive tourism development (e.g.,taking into account the segregation of the workforce by gender, and ensure that the jobscreated for both women and men offerreasonable pay, working conditions andpotential for advancement).

Policy/strategy issues:4 Support governments and industry in

developing strategies to avoid the exploitationof women and girls in tourism development,including enforcement of human rights accords.

Trade development inservices

Provision, storage,communication anddissemination of informationand advice that can betraded, including services incommunications, transport,energy, construction,information technologies,education, health, culture,audio-visual, social and legalservices.

4 Services are highly segregatedaccording to gender (e.g., theeducation, health and socialservices sectors are dominatedby women, others by men).Trade development programs,to be effective, must take thesepatterns into account anddevelop strategies appropriateto the circumstances of maleand female service providers.

4 See Section 1B (EffectiveParticipation in InternationalTrade Agreements )? for otherrelevant issues.

Policy analysis/capacity for analysis:4 Build capacity to mainstream gender-sensitive

analysis in all policy and program design andimplementation.

Support to entrepreneurs, employees:4 Ensure that women and men have equal

opportunity to participate in (especially asdecision-makers) and benefit fromprogramming, including provision of specificprogramming for women entrepreneurs inservice sectors.

4 Ensure that women and men have equalaccess to better, well-paying jobs in services(e.g., by supporting work force developmentprograms that emphasize gender equality).

16


2B. TRANSITIONAL ADJUSTMENTS RELATED TO TRADE DEVELOPMENT(BUSINESS, SOCIAL AND WORK FORCE ADJUSTMENT)




Business supportservices andinstitutions

Support to trade andbusinessassociations, unions,chambers ofcommerce; legal andregulatory reformaimed at improvingbusiness andinvestment climate;private-sectorinstitution capacity-building and advice;trade information.

4 Labour rights of both men andwomen may be affected by tradeliberalization (e.g., equity legislationmay be waived or ignored to attractinvestment or to keep productioncosts low).

4 Women working in the informalsector and as home-based workersare particularly vulnerable to rights’abuses.

4 Women workers in export-processing zones and in theindustrial agriculture/horticulturesector have specific needs withregards to labour rights.

4 Strong export performance indeveloping countries hasconsistently relied on low-paid,female labour in manufacturingsectors. As a result, the issue ofwages and working conditions fordeveloping countries has importantgender-equality dimensions.

4 Labour rights are increasingly seennot only as an issue of rights, butalso as a trade issue, given thedemand in many countries forgoods that are produced inconformity with basic internationallabour codes and fair-tradestandards. Trade liberalization canexpose exporting countries andinvestors to international pressureto implement codes of conduct andinternational agreements (e.g.,social clauses in trade agreements,ILO conventions) as well as tostrengthen enforcement of nationallegislation in export sectors.

Protection of labour rights:4 Support efforts of unions, NGOs, government and

private sector to protect labour rights in the contextof improving the business and investment climate.

4 Ensure protection of rights of women workers inhome-based production and the informal sectorlinked to industrial agriculture, manufacturing andservice activities globally.

4 Ensure the specific needs and issues of womenworkers in export-processing zones and industrialagriculture are addressed.

Public/privatesector networking

Tools andmechanisms forimproved dialogueand resourcesharing betweenpublic and privatesector (and withinthe private sector) atthe national, regionaland global levels,including trade fairs.

4 Women-owned businesses andwomen’s organizations (e.g.,professional groups, womenentrepreneurs) may be excludedfrom dialogue- and resource-sharing unless explicitly brought into planning and decision-making.

Participation in networking;4 Ensure that women’s organizations, professional

and entrepreneur groups are included in dialogueand decision-making.

4 Support participation of women’s organizations innational, regional and global activities (e.g., tradefairs).

17


2B. TRANSITIONAL ADJUSTMENTS RELATED TO TRADE DEVELOPMENT(BUSINESS, SOCIAL AND WORK FORCE ADJUSTMENT)




Business andlabour adjustments

May include specialcapital funds and/orcredit, help with newbusinessdevelopment,business culture andtechnologicalcapacity; work forceadjustment, trainingand mobilityprograms; andchanges to industrialand employmentpolicy.

4 Business and labour forceadjustments cut across allcategories of TRCB insofar as theydeal with uneven access to thebenefits of trade liberalization,including gender inequalities.Smaller, poorer, developingcountries have particular difficultyfostering sustainable business andemployment opportunities,especially for small- and medium-sized enterprises (the majority ofwomen-owned enterprises).Responses to these needs willhave to be tailored to the specificneeds of different occupationalgroups, as identified throughgender-sensitive economic andsocial analysis.

Policy and program analysis and planning:4 Ensure that gender analysis is mainstreamed in all

policy and program analysis, development andimplementation.

4 Tailor programs to specific needs and constraints ofwomen and men in the target groups, as identifiedby gender-sensitive analysis and participatoryneeds-assessment.

Social groups

Social safety netsand other policiesthat address gender-differentiatedproblems oflandholding,housing, health,education andemploymentopportunities.

4 Social groups under stress frompoverty may be adversely affectedby trade liberalization. Within thesegroups, women may be particularlyvulnerable. To minimize negativeimpacts, there will be a need forsocial safety nets and other policiesthat address gender-differentiatedproblems of landholding, housing,health, education, social servicesand employment opportunities.Countries may wish to include intheir social safety nets policiesaddressing the distinct needs ofwomen as a group, as well aswomen and men among thedisabled, members of national andcultural minorities, the rural andurban poor and other vulnerablegroups.

Policy analysis/capacity for analysis:4 Support gender-responsive policy analysis and

development.4 Build a capacity to integrate gender-equality issues

in the analysis and planning of all trade-relatedsocial safety net programs.

4 Support programs that address the specific impactsand needs of poor women and men related to tradeliberalization.

18

SELECTED RESOURCES

Web sites ongender andtrade

4 International Gender and Trade Network: www.genderandtrade.net. On this website,see “On-line Learning Project” on GATS designed to develop the capacity of NGOs andcitizens to analyse the gender dimensions of trade in services.www.genderandtrade.net/EconoLit/Literacy.html, also periodic bulletins found atwww.genderandtrade.net/Bulletins/Bulletins.html which includes, for example, an issueon gender and the Multilateral Investment Agreement (MIA) (March 2003).

4 United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM), Trade Liberalisation andWomen website: www.undp.org/unifem/trade/index.htm

4 WIDE Network Women in Development Europe: www.eurosur.org/wide4 Women Working Worldwide (WWW): www.poptel.org.uk/women-ww/4 Informal Working Group on Gender and Trade (IWGGT), “Gender, Trade and the

WTO”: www.poptel.org.uk/women-ww/gender_trade_and_the_wto.htm

Gender andtrade policy

4 Çagatay, Nilüfer, 2001. Trade, Gender and Poverty, United Nations DevelopmentProgram (UNDP).www.undp.org/mainundp/propoor/docs/pov_tradegenderpoverty_doc.pdf

4 Evers, Barbara, 2002. Gender, International Trade and the Trade Policy ReviewMechanism: Conceptual Reference Points for UNCTAD, Globalisation and PovertyResearch Programme (IDS and DFID), Paper prepared under project #2, “Linking theWTO to the Poverty Reduction Agenda”. www.gapresearch.org/governance/publications.html

4 Fontana, Marzia, et. al., 1998. Global Trade Expansion and Liberalisation: GenderIssues and Impacts, BRIDGE Report No. 42, Institute of Development Studies,University of Sussex. www.ids.ac.uk/bridge/Reports/re42c.pdf

4 Sparr, Pamela, 2002. A Gender Primer of Trade and Investment Policies, NorthAmerica Gender and Trade Network - U.S.NAGT-US Economic Literacy Series, No. 2.www.genderandtrade.net/EconoLit/primer.pdf

4 UNCTAD Secretariat, 2002. Mainstreaming Gender to Promote Opportunities Throughthe Increased Contribution of Women to Competitiveness, Note by the UNCTADSecretariat Commission on Enterprise, Business Facilitation, and Development, SixthSession, Geneva, 18-22 February. www.unctad.org/en/docs//c3d44.en.pdf

4 Women’s Rights, the World Trade Organization and International Trade Policy. AWIDFacts and Issues, Women’s Rights and Economic Change, No. 4 (August 2002).www.awid.org/publications/primers/factsissues4.pdf

Gender andmacro-economicpolicies(includingtrade)

4 Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO), 2002. WomenChallenging Globalization: A gender perspective on the United Nations InternationalConference on Financing for Development, March 18-22, 2002, Monterrey, Mexico.www.wedo.org/ffd/ffdreport.htm

4 Women’s Environment and Development Organization (WEDO) and UNDP, 2003.Financing for Development Gender Policy Briefing Kit. www.wedo.org/ffd/kit.htm

4 Commonwealth Secretariat Guides to Gender Mainstreaming (prepared to supportaction in response to the call by Commonwealth Heads of Government for furtherefforts to mainstream gender in all policy and program initiatives), including guidesrelated to Trade and Industry, Finance, Development Planning, available from:www.thecommonwealth.org/gender/publications/gender_manage_pdfs.htm

Gender andPoverty-reductionStrategyPapers(PRSPs)

4 Bamberger, Michael, Mark Blackden, Lucia Fort, V. Manoukian, 2000. “Chapter 10:Gender” in World Bank, Poverty Reduction Strategy Sourcebook.www.worldbank.com/poverty/strategies/chapters/gender/gender.htm

4 Bell, Emma. 2003. Gender and PRSPs: with experiences from Tanzania, Bolivia,Vietnam and Mozambique, BRIDGE Report No. 67, Institute of Development Studies,University of Sussex. www.ids.ac.uk/bridge/reports/re67.pdf

http://www.genderandtrade.net

http://www.genderandtrade.net/EconoLit/Literacy.html

http://www.undp.org/unifem/trade/index.htm

http://www.eurosur.org/wide

http://www.poptel.org.uk/women-ww/

http://www.poptel.org.uk/women-ww/gender_trade_and_the_wto.htm

http://www.undp.org/mainundp/propoor/docs/pov_tradegenderpoverty_doc.pdf

http://www.gapresearch.org/governance/publications.html

http://www.ids.ac.uk/bridge/Reports/re42c.pdf

http://www.genderandtrade.net/EconoLit/primer.pdf

http://www.unctad.org/en/docs//c3d44.en.pdf

http://www.awid.org/publications/primers/factsissues4.pdf

http://www.wedo.org/ffd/ffdreport.htm

http://www.wedo.org/ffd/kit.htm

http://www.thecommonwealth.org/gender/publications/gender_manage_pdfs.htm

http://www.worldbank.com/poverty/strategies/chapters/gender/gender.htm

http://www.ids.ac.uk/bridge/reports/re67.pdf

http://www.genderandtrade.net/Bulletins/Bulletins.html

19

4 UNIFEM, 2001. Contribution to the World Bank and IMF PRSP Review.www.worldbank.com/poverty/strategies/review/unifem1.pdf

4 Zuckerman, Elaine and Ashley Garrett, 2003. Do Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers(PRSPs) Address Gender? A Gender Audit of 2002 PRSPs: A Gender ActionPublication. www.genderaction.org

4 Zuckerman, Elaine, 2002. Poverty Reduction Strategy Papers and Gender, BackgroundPaper for the Conference on Sustainable Poverty Reduction and PRSPs – Challengesfor Developing Countries and Development Cooperation, Berlin, May 13-16, 2002.www.genderaction.org

Gender andregionalagreements

APEC4 Gibb, Heather, 2002. Review of Gender Integration in APEC: Overview. www.nsi-

ins.ca/ensi/pdf/gender_integration.pdf4 APEC Framework for the Integration of Women in APEC and Ad Hoc Advisory Group

on Gender Integration (advisory group focuses on effective implementation and hasalso undertaken a sex-disaggregated data project.www.gender.go.jp/english_contents/apec/frame_work/a.html and www.nsi-ins.ca/ensi/pdf/gender_integration.pdf

FTAA4 White, M. and A. Spieldoch, 2003. Analysis of FTAA Text from a Gender Perspective.

www.igtn.org/FTAA/FTAAResources.htm -----4 International Gender and Trade Network (IGTN) gender analysis of the latest FTAA

agreement (with observations that are relevant to all multilateral trade agreements).www.igtn.org/FTAA/FTAAResources.htm

Selectedsector-specificreferences

4 Barrientos, Stephanie, 1999. “Ethical Trade and Gender: Exports of Non-traditionalHorticultural Products”, in UNCTAD, Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender:Papers prepared in support of the themes discussed at the Pre-UNCTAD X ExpertWorkshop on Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender (Geneva, 12-13 July 1999),pp. 189-196. www.unctad.org/en/docs/poedm_m78.en.pdf See also DFID-IDSresearch project on Ethical Trade in African Horticulture: Gender, Rights andParticipation. www.eti.org.uk/pub/resources/othpub/pdfs/ids-gender.pdf

4 Dejene, Yeshiareg, 2001. Women ’s Cross-Border Trade in West Africa, USAIDWomen in Development Technical Assistance (WIDTECH) Project.www.usaid.gov/wid/pubs.htm

4 Bhattacharya, Debapriya, 1999. “The post-MFA challenges to the Bangladesh textileand clothing sector,” in UNCTAD, Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender:Papers prepared in support of the themes discussed at the Pre-UNCTAD X ExpertWorkshop on Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender (Geneva, 12-13 July 1999),pp. 197-232. www.unctad.org/en/docs/poedm_m78.en.pdf

4 Glipo, Arze, 2003. An Analysis of the WTO-AOA Review from the Perspective of RuralWomen in Asia (Paper presented at the International Workshop on the Review of theWTO-AOA on February 19-21, 2003, Geneva, Switzerland).http://igtn.org/Asia/Asia_AoA.pdf See also the gender analysis of the AOA frameworkby IGTN at www.igtn.org/Bulletins/Feb03.htm

Gender andindustry andenterprisedevelopment

4 Riba, Matfobhi, 1999. “The Technology for Women in Business (TWIB) Program inSouth Africa,” in UNCTAD, Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender: Papersprepared in support of the themes discussed at the Pre-UNCTAD X Expert Workshopon Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender (Geneva, 12-13 July 1999), pp. 309-310. www.unctad.org/en/docs/poedm_m78.en.pdf

4 Ruffing, Lorraine and Günter Fischer, 1999. “ Mainstreaming Gender in EnterpriseDevelopment” in UNCTAD, Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender: Papersprepared in support of the themes discussed at the Pre-UNCTAD X Expert Workshopon Trade, Sustainable Development and Gender (Geneva, 12-13 July 1999), pp. 333-342. www.unctad.org/en/docs/poedm_m78.en.pdf

http://www.worldbank.com/poverty/strategies/review/unifem1.pdf

http://www.genderaction.org

http://www.genderaction.org

http://www.nsi-ins.ca/ensi/pdf/gender_integration.pdf

http://www.gender.go.jp/english_contents/apec/frame_work/a.html

http://www.nsiins.ca/ensi/pdf/gender_integration.pdf

http://www.igtn.org/FTAA/FTAAResources.htm

http://www.igtn.org/FTAA/FTAAResources.htm

http://www.unctad.org/en/docs/poedm_m78.en.pdf

http://www.eti.org.uk/pub/resources/othpub/pdfs/ids-gender.pdf


http://igtn.org/Asia/Asia_AoA.pdf

http://www.igtn.org/Bulletins/Feb03.htm



20

Acknowledgments:

CIDA`s Gender Equality Division, Policy Branch wishes to thank Dr. Linda Hershkovitz for herexcellent work researching and writing this paper. Julie Delahanty, Senior Policy Advisor for theDivision provided leadership and guidance in developing the paper. We would also like torecognize the contributions of Johanna Schalkwyk and Carole Houlihan and our CIDAcolleagues who gave so much of their valuable time to this project, especially Lucie Bazinet, Ok-kyung Pak, Gul Joya Jafri, Josée Simard, Marie Powell, Alla Laporte, Blanka Pelz, Paul Mably,Mark Gawn, Sean Boyd, Susan Steffen, Anne Van Dusen and Kerry Max.

Gender Equality DivisionPolicy BranchCIDA

August 2003

Documents

Canadian International Development Agency · CIDA’s Strategic Approach to Trade-related Capacity Building (TRCB). CIDA, Policy Branch, draft, 15 August 2003. serve the interests