i 

 

TheSiberianIbex(Caprasibirica,Pallas1776)inMongolia:ASurveyonExploitationandTrade,andConsiderationsforFutureManagement

ii 

 

Authors:

ChoikhandJanchivlamdan

ClaudioAugugliaro

JosefSenn

Consultant:

P.Tsogtsaikhan

16/09/2014,

Ulaanbaatar,Mongolia

iii 

 

ThisstudywasconductedbyGreenInitiativeNonGovernmentOrganisation,R.25,

Building64CSukhbaatardistrict,1stkhooroUlaanbaatar,Mongolia.

Contactdetails:

ChoikhandJanchivlamdan,GreenInitiative(choikhandj@greeninitiativengo@org)

ClaudioAugugliaro,GreenInitiative(c.augugliaro@greeninitaitivengo.org)

JosefSenn,SwissFed.Res.InstituteWSL(josef.senn@wsl.ch)

Coverimage:Siberianibex(Caprasibirica,Pallas1776)trappedbyourcamera

trapping,duringacurrentprojectofbigungulatemonitoringbycameratrapping

inBayanOnjuulsoum,Tovprovince,Mongolia.

iv 

 

Acronyms............................................................................................................x

Glossary.............................................................................................................xi

Acknowledgement........................................................................................xii

Summary........................................................................................................xiii

1. GeneralinformationaboutSiberianIbex........................................1

1.1. Taxonomy..................................................................................................................................1

1.2. Distribution..............................................................................................................................2

1.3. Population.................................................................................................................................3

1.4. ConservationStatus..............................................................................................................4

2. LegalconservationstatusoftheSiberianibex(Caprasibirica,

Pallas1776)inMongolia..............................................................................5

2.1. MongolianLawonFauna,5May2000.........................................................................6

2.2. MongolianLawonHunting,5May2000.....................................................................7

2.3. LawofMongoliaonEnvironmentalProtection,30March1995 (Amended

22 January 1998 and 22 April 2002).............................................................................................8

2.4. LawofMongoliaonHuntingResourceUseandHuntingandTrapping

PermitFees (19May1995)...........................................................................................................9

v 

 

2.5. LawontheRegulationofInternationalTradeinEndangeredAnimaland

PlantSpecies,7November2002.................................................................................................9

2.6. MongolianLawonSpecialProtectedAreas,15November1994..................10

2.7. SummaryoflawsconcerningtheSiberianIbexinMongolia...........................11

3. Challengesofwildlifelawimplementationandenforcement11

3.1. SocialcontextandeconomicimpactofthecashmereindustryinMongolia

14

3.2. Wildlifeuseimportanceandtrade,pastandpresent.........................................17

3.3. Internationaltraderegulationforanewchallenge.............................................19

4. Siberianibexcurrentsituationandaimofthesurvey..............21

4.1. MethodologyadoptedtoinvestigateandcollectdataaboutSiberianibex

management,tradeandthreat..................................................................................................22

4.2. Marketsurvey.......................................................................................................................23

4.3. Facetofaceinterviews.....................................................................................................24

4.4. EstimatingthenumberofSiberianIbexillegallyhunted..................................28

5. Analysisofinformationanddata,collectedduringthesurvey

29

5.1. Marketsurvey.......................................................................................................................29

5.2. SiberianIbexandonlinetrade......................................................................................31

vi 

 

5.3. Facetofaceinterviews.....................................................................................................32

6. Considerationaboutthegeneralissuesinvolvingthewildlife

managementwithparticularfocusonSiberianibex........................35

6.1. Generalissues.......................................................................................................................35

6.2. Siberianibexissues............................................................................................................38

6.3. Finalconsiderations..........................................................................................................40

5. References................................................................................................45

6. ConsultedWebsite................................................................................48

7. Annex‐1.....................................................................................................49

8. Annex‐2.....................................................................................................50

vii 

 

ListofFigures

Figure1‐Siberianibex(Caprasibirica,Pallas1776)trappedbyourcamera

trapping,duringacurrentprojectofbigungulatemonitoringbycameratrapping

inBayanOnjuulsum,Tovprovince,Mongolia...........................................................................1

Figure2‐Thetrendinlivestocknumbers(*1000)from1970to2013.Particularly

importantistheincreasednumberofgoats,influencedbythecashmeretrade.....15

Figure3‐ The signboard of a shop in Gov’-Altai raw material market...............................24

Figure4‐ The Altai mountain, which are the main distribution area of Siberian ibex in

Mongolia...................................................................................................................................................25

Figure5‐ TheshapefilesonspatialdistributionofSiberianIbex,havebeenkindly

suppliedbytheIUCNRedList.Ref.IUCN(InternationalUnionforConservationof

Nature)2008.Caprasibirica.In:IUCN2013.IUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.

Version2013.1......................................................................................................................................26

Figure6-AwomanfromBayadethnicgroup...........................................................................28

Figure7‐Asheepfurusedbysellertoindicatetheirpresenceattherawmaterial

marketofHovdcity.............................................................................................................................30

Figure8‐Itisacoat100%yangirwool,onsaleforthecollection2013‐2014........31

Figure9‐Choikhand(left),theDirectorofGreenInitiative,andClaudioAugugliaro

(right),theGreenInitiativeScientificCoordinator(nexthimourdriverNaia),with

aherderfamilyinHovdProvince.................................................................................................32

Figure10- The graph resumes the answers of the people interviewed...............................33

viii 

 

Figure11‐TwoCorsac(Vulpescorsac)duringthedryingprocess,huntedbylocal

herder........................................................................................................................................................36

Figure12‐ Wonderful landscape in Arkhangai province........................................................37

Figure13‐AnenvironmentofficerofHovdProvincewithaSiberianIbexfouddead

affectedbyscabiesaccordingtohisdiagnosis........................................................................39

ix 

 

ListofTable

Table1‐‐Numberofhuntingpermitsissuedfrom2003andactualhunting............22

Table2‐ Questionnaire used with local community people....................................................27

x 

 

Acronyms

CITES ConventiononInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpeciesofWild FaunaandFlora

ECU EurasianCustomsUnionEU EuropeanUnionIUCN InternationalUnionforConservationofNature MNET MinistryofEnvironment,NatureandTurismNGO NonGovernmentOrganizationUN UnitedNations

WCMC WorldConservationMonitoringCentre

xi 

 

Glossary

Aimagrefersprovincethatisanadministrativeunit.Mongoliahas21provinces.

SoumrefersruraldistrictofMongoliawithintheprovince.Thereisover360

soumsfor21aimagsofMongolia.

Changerefersacommercialagentasmiddlemanbetweenherders,foreigners,and

factoriesetc.

xii 

 

Acknowledgement

WethanktheCITESofSwitzerlandthatfundedthissurvey.Fieldresearchandthe

preparationofthereportwasmanagedbyGreenInitiativeNGOforwhichwe

thanksallthemembers.SpecialthanksgotoDr.MathiasLoertscher,formaking

fundingavailable.ThankstotheCITESManagementAuthorityandtheMinistryof

EnvironmentandTourismofMongolia,forsupportingthissurvey.Thankstothe

EnvironmentOfficeDirectorsofGov‐Altai,Hovd,Bayan‐Olgii,Uvs,Zavhanand

ArkhangaiProvincesfortheircollaboration.ThankstoDustinJohnsonfrom

DalhousieUniversity,Canadaforhiscontributiontothecompilationofthisreport.

Thankstothelocalpeoplethatverykindlygaveusalltheinformationweneeded.

xiii 

 

Summary

CentralAsiahasawidevarietyofcharismaticspecies,whichfindherethelast

hugeuncontaminatedareas,wheretheycansurvivereducingthecontactwiththe

humanspecies.Thewildlifeisofgreatrelevancefortheregion’seconomy,and

newchallengesarefacedwithregulationsforwildlifeuseandtradeinorderto

preventillegalandunsustainablepractices,locallyandinternationally.

TheopenbordersintheregionaleconomicintegrationzonesastheEUandECUin

Eurasia,theonlinetrade,whichhasbeenrapidlydevelopingintherecentyears,

thefasteconomicgrowthoccurringinmanyoftheCentralAsiaStates,may

threatentheconservationofPalearticwildlife.

Mongolia,isasymboloftheCentralAsiaeconomicdevelopmentandmayhave

greaterdifficultiesthanotherscountriestodealwiththerecentglobalandlocal

changes.ItspositionbetweentwosuperpowerslikeRussiaandChina,andbeinga

land‐lockedcountrywithextremelypoorinfrastructureswitharound40%ofthe

populationlivinginthecapitalcityUlaanbaatar,letinferthedifficultyonwildlife

managementandprotectionimplementation.

Thecountryisstilltryingtofindthebestwaytomanageitsnaturalresourcesince

thesocialistsystemcollapsed.Alreadyduringthesocialisttimeuseofwildlifewas

widespread,butunderastrictmanagementbycentralandlocalgovernments.

Aftertheeffectsofthesocialistsystemvanishedinthesecondhalfof1990s,the

wildlifeuseanditsinternationaltrade,wereuncontrolled.Mongoliansdidnot

needvisastoenterChina,andindividualsaswellascompaniesstartedtoexport

anyitemintoamarketwhichwasreadytotakewhateveritemwasoffered.

xiv 

 

NowadaysMongolianwildlifeproductsaresoldallovertheplanet,andthereforeit

isnecessarytoobtainaclearerideaoftheinternationaltradeframework.Itisalso

importanttofocusonspecieswhicharenotprotectedinternationallyandtryto

understandtheirpositionintradeduringthepastsocialistsystemandthenew

consumerismandglobalization.

TheaimofthissurveyistoanalyzetheSiberianIbex(Caprasibirica)trade,

investigatingthepastandcurrentuseandmanagementofthisspecies.

Duringthelasttwodecades,therehasbeenanongoinginternationaltradein

SiberianIbexWool,knownas“Yangir”,whichisoriginallythenameofSiberian

ibexinMongolianlanguage.ThiscurrenttradewithYangirisalsofoundcommonly

oninternetonlineshoppingsites.

Oursurveyconfirmedthatthecurrentstockofcashmerewoolintradeoriginated

fromSiberianIbex,andwithhighprobabilityderivedfromthecollectingsystem

datingbacktothesocialisttimeinthelate1990sandatthebeginoftheXXI

century.

Nevertheless,commercialtradeof“Yangir”cashmereisstillactivemainlyin

WesternEurope.Depletionofthepresentstockcouldrequirenewscenariosfor

restockingtheinternationaltradeinfuture.ThismaythreatenSiberianibex,which

alreadyexperiencedasubstantialdeclineintherecentpastandisdealingwith

manyotherhumanandnaturalthreatsatpresent.

Inconclusion,monitoringthetradeoftheSiberianIbexproducts,andverifying

thedepletionoftheinitialstockdepletionisnecessary.Wefurtherneedto

investigateifanynewstockofwoolwillfeedthecommerceinfuture.

1 

 

1. GeneralinformationaboutSiberianIbex

Figure1‐Siberianibex(Caprasibirica,Pallas1776)trappedbyourcamera

trapping,duringacurrentprojectofbigungulatemonitoringbycameratrapping

inBayanOnjuulsum,Tovprovince,Mongolia.

1.1. Taxonomy

Currently,foursubspeciesofSiberianIbexarerecognized:C.sibiricasibirica

(Pallas,1776)intheAltaiMountains,C.s.hagenbecki(Noack,1903)inthe

MongolianGobi,C.s.alaiana(Noack,1902)intheTianShanMountains,andC.s.

2 

 

sakeen(Blyth,1842)intheKarakorum,Pamir,andHinduKushmountains

(Fedosenko&Blank,2001)(IUCN,2014).Theyaredifferentiatedprimarilyby

differencesinsize,colour,andhorncharacteristics(Fedosenko&Blank,2001).

Someauthoritiesrecognizeatleastonemoresubspecies,andsomearenotcertain

thatitisaseparatespeciesfromotheribex.AtpresenttheIUCNconsidersit

separate,thoughtaxonomyisstillnotfullyresolved(IUCN,2014).Morebroadly,

thetaxonomyoftheentiregenusishighlydisputed,withvariousauthorities

recognizingbetween1and11species,with8beingthemostcommon

(Kazanskaya,Kuznetsova,&Danilkin,2007).TherecentmitochondrialDNA

analysisfoundthatC.sibiricawasthemostdistantspeciesinthegenus,strongly

supportingtheirstatusasaseparatespecies(Kazanskaya,Kuznetsova,&Danilkin,

2007).

C. s. sibirica is the smallest of the subspecies, no more than 103 kg in weight.

Male horns are 110 to 117 cm long. During winter males are light coloured. C. s.

hagenbecki are similar in size to C. s. sibirica, but have longer horns (74 to 139 cm on

males) with larger ridges, and are more grey or brown. C. s. alaiana is the largest

subspecies, up to 130 kg for males. They have large horns, 100 to 147 cm long on

males. During winter males are darker grey or brown. C. s. sakeen is similar to C. s.

alaiana, but lighter, up to 90 kg for males. Their horns are slightly shorter (102 to 140

cm) but wider. Their colour is also lighter (Fedosenko & Blank, 2001).

1.2. Distribution

TheSiberianibexcanbefoundinportionsofAfghanistan,China,India,

Kazakhstan,Kyrgyzstan,Mongolia,Pakistan,Russia,Tajikistan,andUzbekistan.

Acrossitsrangeitisprimarilyfoundinmountainousandrockyterrain(IUCN,

2014).

3 

 

InAfghanistantheyarefoundthroughoutalargeportionofthecenterofthe

country,intheHinduKushandPamirmountains.InChinatheyarefoundin

limitedportionsofthewestofthecountry,intheAltai,TianShan,Pamir,and

KarakorumrangesinpartsofXinjiang,Gansu,Tibet,andInnerMongolia.InIndia

theyarefoundintheKarakorumandHimalayamountainsinJammuandKashmir,

HimachalPradesh,andLadakh.TheyarefoundinnorthernPakistan,intheinner

Himalayas,HinduKush,andKarakorumranges.InKazakhstantheyarefoundin

smallportionsofthesoutheastofthecountryintheTianShanandAltai

mountains.TheyoccuracrossalmostallofKyrgyzstanandTajikistan,intheHissar,

Pamir,TianShan,andAlatauranges.Theyhavealimitedrangeinfar‐eastern

Uzbekistan,intheTianShan.Theyhaveapatchydistributioninsouth‐central

SiberianRussia,intheAltai,Sayan,andTuvamountains(Fedosenko&Blank,

2001).

InMongolia,theyarefoundinmuchoftheAltaiandGovi‐Altaimountain

ranges,inpartsoftheKhangaiMountains,insomerangesinnorthwestern

Mongolia(subspeciesC.s.sibirica),andinisolatedoutcroppingsandmountainsin

theGobi(subspeciesC.s.hagenbeckii)(Fedosenko&Blank,2001)andTov

province(asweverifiedduringtherecentyears).Thedirectorofthe

environmentalofficeofBayanOlgjitalkedaboutasubspeciesormorphotypeinhis

area.Hereferredtoaso‐called“AltaiYangir”whichhasabiggersizeandmorered

colour,comparedtootheryangirinMongolia.Untilnowthereisnotanyscientific

evidenceforadifferentsubspeciesofCaprasibiricasibiricaintheAltaiMountains.

1.3. Population

Arigorousglobalpopulationestimateisnotavailable,formoststateswhere

thespeciesoccurs(IUCN,2014;LargeHerbivoreNetwork,2014).InChinathereis

alargepopulationintheTianShanMountains,upto50,000individuals.

KyrgyzstanandTajikistanholdanotherlargepopulation,around70,000.Other

4 

 

rangecountrieshavesmallerpopulations.Kazakhstanmayhaveasmanyas

17,000.Indiahasaround10,000ibex,ofwhich6,000areinLadakh.Ithaslikely

declinedseverelyinAfghanistanduetodecadesofcivilconflict,butmaystillbe

numerousintheWakhanCorridor.Pakistan,Russia,andUzbekistanprobablyeach

haveafewthousandindividuals.However,manyofthesepopulationestimatesare

10to20yearsoldandmayhavelackedaccuracyevenatthattime(IUCN,2014).

Mongoliausedtohavealargepopulation,butthemostrecentsurveymadebythe

InstituteofBiology,MongolianAcademyofSciencesin2009,revealed24,371.

Accordingtotheresultofthissurvey,theSiberianIbexpopulationhas

dramaticallydeclinedinMongolia.Thepresentestimateof24,371comparedtothe

80,000inthe“TheMongolianRedDataBook”in1987(Shagdarsurenetal.1987).

1.4. ConservationStatus

Globally,theSiberianibexislistedasLeastConcernintheIUCNRedList,as

itiswidelydistributedandisbelievedtohavelargepopulationswithoutany

significantdecline(Reading&Shank,2008).InAfghanistanhuntinghasbeen

bannedbypresidentialdecree,andtheNationalEnvironmentalProtectionAgency

bannedhuntingandtradingoftheAjarvalleypopulationin2009(LargeHerbivore

Network,2014).InPakistan,ibexhasbeenlistedunderAppendixIIIofCITES

(Species+,2014),andtrophyhuntingprogramsexist.InChina,ibexwaslistedasa

ClassIspeciesundertheWildlifeProtectionLawof19881(IUCN,2014),which

banshuntingortradeinthespecieswithoutgovernmentpermission,andonlyfor

approvedpurposes.InKyrgyzstanandTajikistanthespeciesisfoundinmany

protectedareas,withpopulationsofseveralhundredineach.Alimitedtrophy

huntingprogramexistsinbothcountries(IUCN,2014).Populationsalsoexistin

protectedareasinRussiaandKazakhstan,buttheirlegalstatusoutsideofthese

areascouldnotbedetermined.

1 Retrieved from http://www.china.org.cn/english/environment/34349.htm

5 

 

InMongolia,Siberianibexareprotectedas“Rare”underthe2001revision

(MongolianGovernmentActNo.264)ofthe2000MongolianLawonAnimals.This

designationbanshuntingexceptbypermitforspecificpurposes.Thesepurposes

includeresearch,culturalactivities,controllingpopulationsizeanddisease,and

sporthunting.Huntingquotasaresetbythenationalgovernment,andhunting

permitfeesaresupposedtobebasedontheassessedeconomicandecological

valueoftheanimal.Wheretheyoccurinstrictlyprotectedareasandnational

conservationparks,huntingisbanned.TheyarealsoclassifiedasNearThreatened

underthemostrecentMongolianRedList(Clark,etal.,2006).

2. LegalconservationstatusoftheSiberianibex(Caprasibirica,Pallas1776)in

Mongolia

SeveraldifferentMongolianlawscometogethertoformthelegalbasisfor

conservationofwildlifeinMongolia.Thisdocumentlooksattherelevantpartsof

sixMongolianlaws:

1. The1994LawonSpecialProtectedAreas

2. The1995LawonHuntingResourceUseandHuntingandTrappingPermit

Fees

3. The2000LawonFauna

4. The2000LawonHunting

5. The2002LawontheRegulationofInternationalTradeinEndangered

AnimalandPlantSpecies(implementingCITESinMongolia)

6 

 

6. The2004LawonEnvironmentalProtection

2.1. MongolianLawonFauna,5May2000

TheLawonFauna,alongwiththeConstitutionofMongolia,places

ownershipofallwildlifeinthestate(Article10.1).Twocategoriesofspecifically

protectedwildlifespeciesaredefined:VeryRareandRare:

VeryRarewildlife“havearestrictedcapacitytorecover,alimited

distribution,nousablereserves,andareindangerofextinction”(Article

3.1.2).ThelistofVeryRarewildlifeisincludedaspartofthelaw(Article

7.1).VeryRarefaunamayonlybehuntedortrappedforscientificpurposes

withauthorizationfromthestate,andallotherhuntingandusesare

forbidden(Articles7.2and7.3).Anyproposedindustrialortransport,

constructionoccurringintherangeofVeryRarefaunamustfirstreceive

approvalthroughanenvironmentalimpactassessmentprocess(EIA)

(Article7.4).

Rarewildlife“havealimitedcapacitytorecover,limiteddistribution,havea

smallpopulation,andarepotentiallyindangerofextinction”(Article3.1.3).

ThestatedetermineswhatspeciestolistasRare(Article7.6),andthe

Siberianibexisincludedonthislist(Clark,etal.,2006).

Rarefaunamaybehuntedandtrappedwithapermitfromthestatefor

certainuses:

o Scientific,research,cultural,artistic,andmedicinal(Article7.5.1)

o Afterpaymentofspecialfees(trophyhunting)(Article7.5.2)

7 

 

o Forregulatingnumbersandcontrollinginfectiousdiseases(Article

7.5.3)

Withpermissionfromthestate,faunaotherthanthoselistedasVeryRaremaybe

trappedliveforcertainuses(Articles11.1,12),aslongastheyarenotharmed,no

healthhazardsarecaused,andtheirhabitatisnotdestroyed.Theseusesinclude

theextractionofanimalproducts,suchasantlers,musk,wool,andothersthatdo

notrequirekillingtheanimal(Articles13to15).

Thestateisresponsibleforestablishinghuntingquotas,organizingscientific

research,protectingterritory,andmanaginggamereserves(Article6).Peopleand

organizationsareresponsibleforprotectingfaunaduringproductionand

economicactivities(Article6.1.7).Personsororganizationsthatcausedamageto

faunaareliabletopaythegovernmenttwicetheirassessedecologicaland

economicvalue(Article25),andalsofaceadministrativepenalties(Article27).

Repeatoffenses,aswellashuntingVeryRarefaunaorcausingotherharmtothem,

bringcriminalcharges(Article27.2).

2.2. MongolianLawonHunting,5May2000

TheLawonHuntingstatesthathuntingmanagementactivitiesare

necessarytodeterminepopulationsizeanddistributionandmakesurethat

huntingisdonesustainably(Articles4.1and4.2).Huntingmanagementisfinanced

bythestate,andiscarriedoutbyaimagandsoumgovernments(Articles4.4and

4.5).Theymustcarryouthuntingmanagementactivitiesatleastonceeveryfour

years,andeveryyearfollowingcommercialhuntingoperations(Article4.4).Itis

illegaltohuntinanareawherehuntingmanagementhasnotbeencarriedoutin

accordancewiththisschedule,evenifhuntingthatspecieselsewhereislegal

(Article15.1.2).

8 

 

Threetypesofhuntingaredefined:commercial,household,andspecial

(Article6.2).Thestatesetsmaximumhuntingquotasforeachspeciesbyaimag

(Article8.1),andtheneachaimagcansettheirownquotaequaltoorsmallerthan

thequotaapprovedbythestate(Article8.2).Soumgovernmentscanenterinto

contractswithcompaniesforcommercialhunting,whichspecifythenumberof

animalsthatmaybehunted.Suchcompaniesmustuseprofessionalhunters,and

haveandbeabletoimplementamanagementplantoensuresustainableuseofthe

wildlife(Article9).Mongoliancitizensmayhuntandtrapnon‐rareanimalswitha

permit(Article10.1).Thepermithasaspecificvalidityperiod(5daysfor

mammals,3daysforbirdsandfish)andspecifieshowmanyindividualsofa

particularspeciesmaybehunted(Articles10.3and10.4).Specialpermitsare

issuedforhuntingforsport,scientific,cultural,artistic,andmedicinalpurposes,

andmanagementoflocalpopulations(Article11).Permitscanalsobeissuedto

foreigners.PermitsforhuntingRareAnimalscanonlybeissuedbythestate,while

forotherspeciestheycanbeissuedbysoums(Article11.1).

The law also forbids certain hunting methods and activities, such as chasing

wildlife by vehicle or destroying dens (Articles 14 and 15). Hunting seasons are also

defined (Article 13). Rangers are given certain powers to prevent illegal hunting and

confiscate hunting-related property (Article 16.3). Administrative penalties are applied

for violations (Article 16.1), and repeat offenses or illegally hunting rare animals can

lead to criminal charges (Article 16.2).

2.3. LawofMongoliaonEnvironmentalProtection,30March

1995 (Amended 22 January 1998 and 22 April 2002)

TheLawonEnvironmentalProtectioncontainsbroadmeasurestoprevent

damagetotheMongolianenvironment.Ofmostimportanceforibexare:that

naturalresourceuseandpermitfeesmustbebasedonanassessmentofthe

ecologicalandeconomicvalueoftheresource(Articles8.3and8.4);that

9 

 

commercialnaturalresourceuserequiresEIAsandnaturalresourceassessments

(Article7.2);thateconomicentitiesandorganizationsmustmonitorforharmful

environmentaleffectsandbudgetforenvironmentalprotectionandrestoration

activities(Articles25.1.2,31.1.2,and31.1.4);andthatthegovernmentmustcarry

outenvironmentalmonitoringandmaintainanationaldatabaseofmonitoring

reports,data,andstatistics(Articles10and12).

2.4. LawofMongoliaonHuntingResourceUseandHunting

andTrappingPermitFees (19May1995)

Thislawspecifieshowhuntingandtrappingpermitfeesaredetermined,

dependingonwhoisdoingthehuntingandwhatpurposethehuntingisfor.There

arebothresourceusecharges,andpermitfees(Article2).SincetheSiberianibex

islistedasRare,onlyactivitiessuchasmentionedabovearepermitted.For

scientific,cultural,artistic,andmedicinaluses,foraMongolianhunter,thecharge

is20%to40%oftheanimal’seconomicandecologicalvalue(Article5.1.2).For

foreigners,itisequaltotheinternationalmarketvalue,or60%to70%ofthe

economicandecologicalvalue(Article5.1.5).Thepermitfeeis20%to40%of

theireconomicandecologicalvalue(Article5.2.2).Exemptionsexist,suchas

organizedhuntingtocontrolpopulationsorcombatdiseases,orlivetrap‐and‐

releaseforscientificpurposessuchasattachingtrackingcollars(Article6).

2.5. LawontheRegulationofInternationalTradein

EndangeredAnimalandPlantSpecies,7November2002

ThislawenshrinesMongolia’sinternationalobligationsunderCITESinto

nationallaw.CommercialsaleofAppendixIlistedspeciesandtheirderivativesis

banned(Article7.1),andsaleofAppendixIIlistedspeciesandtheirderivatives

10 

 

requiresapermitfromthestate(Article7.3).Itisrequiredthatlegaltradewillnot

threatenthesurvivalofthespeciesatpresentorinfuture(Article7.4).However,

theSiberianibexisnotpresentlylistedunderCITES(exceptunderAppendixIIIby

Pakistan,butthisdoesnotaffectexportfromMongolia)(Species+,2014).

2.6. MongolianLawonSpecialProtectedAreas,15

November1994

Thislawdefinesfourtypesofspecialprotectedareas(Article3)andthe

activitiesthatmaybeundertakeninthem.Thefourtypesare:

1. StrictlyProtectedArea

2. NationalConservationPark

3. NatureReserve

4. Monument

Alltypesofhunting,exceptforscientificresearchandmaintainingpopulation

health,arebannedinstrictlyprotectedareasandnationalconservationparks

(Articles12.1.3and18.1.1).Naturereservesallowtraditional,sustainable,

subsistencehunting(Article21.1),andmonumentsonlybanactivitieswhich

wouldbedetrimentaltothehistoricalornaturalfeaturethatthemonumentwas

createdtoprotect(Article24).

Strictlyprotectedareasandnaturalconservationparksbothhavemultiple

usezones.Instrictlyprotectedareas,legalhuntingactivitiesareonlypermittedin

thelimitedusezone(Article11.1.4),andarebannedintheconservationand

pristinezones(Articles9and10).Thepristinezoneallowsessentiallynohuman

activityexceptfornon‐invasivescientificobservation(Article9).Innational

11 

 

conservationparks,legalhuntingactivitiescanbedoneinthelimiteduseand

travelandtourismzones,butnotinthespecialzone(Articles15to17).

2.7. SummaryoflawsconcerningtheSiberianIbexin

Mongolia

Basedonthereviewedlaws.Thefollowingpointsareimportantforthe

conservationoftheSiberianibex:

SiberianibexarelistedasRarebythegovernmentinMongolia,meaning

thattheycanonlybehunted,withpermission,fromthestate,forscientific,

cultural,artistic,andmedicinalpurposes;ortocontrolpopulationsizeand

health;orfortrophyhunting.

Thestatesetsquotasforhowmanyibexmaybehuntedforvarious

purposes,andissupposedtobasefeesontheireconomicandecological

value.

Themethodsandtimesforhuntinganimalsarerestricted

WhereSiberianibexoccurwithinstrictlyprotectedareasandnational

conservationparks,theymayonlybehuntedforresearchorpopulation

health,ornotatall,dependinguponthezone.

SiberianibexarenotlistedunderCITESAppendixIorII,sonopermitsare

requiredforinternationaltradewiththemortheirproductsfromMongolia.

3. Challengesofwildlifelawimplementationandenforcement

12 

 

Mongoliafacessignificantchallengesinimplementingandenforcingitswildlife

laws.Thelegalframeworkitselfisrelativelywelldeveloped,thoughithasa

numberofimportantflaws,andthereislimitedcapacitytoenforceiton

Mongolia’svastground(Wingard&Zahler,2006).Broadly,therearethreemain

challenges:dividedmanagementauthority,lackoffinancesformonitoringand

enforcement,andlackofenforcementcapacity.

Thereareseveralmajorproblemswithhowmanagementpowersaredistributed

intheMongoliangovernment.Mostmanagementactivitiestakeplaceonthe

ground,bytheaimagandsoumgovernments,baseduponnationalpolicies.

Wildlifeutilisationquotasaresetbythenationalgovernment,butinaproblematic

way.TheInstituteofBiologyintheAcademyofSciencesisresponsiblefor

conductingwildlifesurveys,andtheythenmakearecommendationtotheMinistry

oftheEnvironmentandGreenDevelopment(MEGD)ontheappropriatequota

level.However,theInstituteisunder‐fundedandunder‐staffed.Scientistsoften

havetorelyonexternalgrantsforconductingresearch,andfewbiologistscoverall

mammal,bird,andfishspeciesinMongoliathatcanbehuntedandfished.MEGD

thensetstheofficialquota.However,theycansetithigherorlowerthanthe

proposalfromtheInstitute,andlackthestaffwithexpertisetoassesstheproposal

andensurethatthefinalquotaisscientificallybased.SpecieslistedasRareunder

theLawonFauna,whichrequireapermitfromthecentralgovernmenttohunt,

andhuntingactivitiesforspecialpurposes,havetheirquotassetbytheCabinet

Ministrytoguardagainstcorruption,sincethiscoverstrophyhunting.However,

theCabinetMinistryalsolacksthescientificexpertisetoproperlysetquotas.

QuotasettingforCITES‐listedspeciesisalsoflawed,andinincontradictiontothe

conventionoftheconvention,asfinaldecisionsondisputesrestwiththe

administrativebody,notwiththescientificbody.

Wildlifemanagementandconservationactivitiesareseverelyunderfundedin

Mongolia.Feesforwildlifeuseandhuntingpermitsaresupposedtohelpfinance

conservationandmanagement.However,thelegalframeworkfordistributionof

13 

 

thesefeesisinsomecasespoorlydesigned,andinotherssimplynotimplemented,

denyingsignificantrevenuestoMNETandlocalgovernments,especiallyfrom

trophyhuntingpermitsales.Thistranslatesintodifferencesofmillionsofdollars.

ThelargestchallengefacingwildlifelawinMongoliaisenforcement.Much

enforcementactivityfallstolocalgovernments,wholackthefunding,staff,and

trainingtoproperlyenforcelawsovervastareasofland.Singlerangersmaybe

responsibleforpatrollingthousandsofsquarekilometers,andmayhavetohave

theirowncarandbuytheirownpetrol.Staffresponsibleforborderandairport

security,whoareimportantforhaltingillegalinternationaltrade,aresimilarly

under‐fundedandunder‐trained.(Wingard&Zahler,2006).Consequently,many

peoplehuntwithoutalicense,asitisunlikelytheywillbecaught(Pratt,

Macmillan,&Gordon,2004).Muchofthewildlifetradetakesplaceunderground.A

numberofotherissuesalsochallengewildlifelawandpolicyinMongolia.Many

aspectsofthelegalregimeareinflexible,preventingthemfrombeingeasily

adaptedtomeetchangingenvironmentalandeconomicconditions.Forinstance,

specieslistedasVeryRareundertheLawonFaunaarewrittendirectlyintothe

federalstatute,meaningnewspeciescanonlybelistedbythenationallegislature,

makingwhatshouldbeascientificdecisionapoliticalone.Huntingandfishing

seasonsarealsodirectlywrittenintostatutes,buttheseneedtobeabletobe

easilysetbywildlifemanagementofficialstorespondtoconditions.Wildlife

surveysareonlymandatedeveryfouryears,whichistooinfrequentlyfor

adequateadaptivemanagement.Feesforviolationsofwildlifelawsarealso

directlywrittenintothestatute,makingmanyofthemtoolowandineffectiveat

disincentivizingillegalbehavior(Wingard&Zahler,2006).Mongolialacksan

effectivenationalpasturemanagementframework,whichhasasignificantimpact

onmanyspeciesofwildlifethatshareforage,waterandhabitatwithdomestic

livestock,suchasargali,Siberianibex,Asiaticwildass,andwildBactriancamel

(Sheehy,Sheehy,Johnson,Damiran,&Fiamengo,2010).

14 

 

3.1. Socialcontextandeconomicimpactofthecashmere

industryinMongolia

Mongolia has long produced some of the finest cashmere in the world, due to its harsh,

cold winters and large areas of rangeland. Cashmere comes from the inner hairs of the

winter coat of goats, and the climate in Mongolia is ideal for making these hairs

especially fine and soft. Cashmere quality is based on the diameter of the fibers (the

thinner the fibers, the softer the resulting product); their length (long fibers make

stronger textiles); their colour (white fibers can easily be dyed to other colours, while

brown and grey are valuable for textiles with a natural appearance); crimp (how much

the fibers curl; curlier fibers produce stronger textiles); and yield (the percentage of a

given amount of raw cashmere that is actual cashmere fibers, rather than contaminants).

Based on these criteria, Mongolian cashmere is superior to Chinese in certain factors

(length and diameter), and much better than cashmere from other countries such as Iran

and Afghanistan (Songwe & Magvan, 2003).

Mongolia has long been the world’s second largest producer of Cashmere after China.

China also dominates the manufacture of finished cashmere items, though important

high-end brands are still located in Italy and the UK (Lecraw, Eddleston, & McMahon,

2005). The cashmere trade is an important contributor to the Mongolian economy,

providing support to as much as a third of the population (Songwe & Magvan, 2003). In

2013, cashmere was the country’s second largest export category after minerals, earning

over 105 million US$, or 6% of exports. In 2013 cashmere exports were also 49%

higher than in 2012 (Bank of Mongolia, 2013).

During the socialist period in Mongolia, herders had set quotas of raw cashmere that

were supplied to state-controlled companies. Cashmere was exported from Mongolia,

primarily to other countries in the Soviet sphere of influence, in various forms including

finished products. One of the main cashmere companies in Mongolia, Gobi, was

established as a state owned enterprise during that time.

15 

 

After the end of the socialist system in 1990, the state-owned herds of goats were

privatized through a voucher system. The economic collapse that followed the transition

to democracy led many new herders to enter livestock raising, as they saw it as an easy

way to make a livelihood (Songwe & Magvan, 2003). Without state controls on the

number of livestock that could be privately owned, herds were rapidly expanded.

Especially the number of goats in Mongolia went from 5 million in 1990 to 11 million

in 1998 (Lecraw, Eddleston, & McMahon, 2005), and to over 19 million in 2013.

Figure2‐Thetrendinlivestocknumbers(*1000)from1970to2013.Particularly

importantistheincreasednumberofgoats,influencedbythecashmeretrade.

Thisgrowthcancausesevereissuesintheenvironmentintermsofcompetition

withwildspeciessincegoatscanreachareasfreefromotherlivestock.

However,anumberofeconomicfactorsconspiredtoreducethecompetitiveness

oftheMongoliancashmereindustry,evenastheamountofcashmereproduced

16 

 

soared.Duringthe1990sthegovernmentinstitutedabanontheexportofraw

cashmeretoencouragedevelopmentofdomesticprocessorsandproductmakers

toincreasetheportionofthevaluechaininMongolia.Thishoweveronly

encouragedthedevelopmentoftheprocessingsector,allowingthemtoavoidthe

exportbanbyslightlyupgradingthecashmerebeforeexportingit,ratherthan

keepingitin‐countrytoproducefinishedproducts.Italsoledtocashmeretraders

notofferingpricedifferentialsforcashmerequality.This,combinedwithalackof

knowledgeandmarketingskillsamongmanyherders,especiallynewentrantsto

thefield,ledtoadecreaseincashmerequalityasherdersprioritizedmakingmore

cashmere(Songwe&Magvan,2003).Agoatthatproduceshigherqualitycashmere

alsoproducesless,soifthepricedifferentialisnotsufficientlyhigh,productionof

highqualitycashmerebyherdersisnotincentivized,aswasthecaseinMongolia

inthelate1990s(Lecraw,Eddleston,&McMahon,2005).

Theexportbanwasreplacedwitha4000tugrik/kgexporttaxonrawcashmerein

1997whenMongoliajoinedtheWorldTradeOrganization.However,thistax,

linkedtoweakgovernmentenforcementofbordercontrols,ledtorampant

smugglingtoChina.UptohalfofMongolia’srawcashmereproductionwas

smuggledtoChinain2004(Lecraw,Eddleston,&McMahon,2005).Chinese

economicpoliciesandconditionsallowedChinesetraderstopayhigherprices

thanMongoliantradersforrawcashmerewhileremainingprofitable.Comparedto

China,Mongoliafacedproblemsofhighinterestratesonloans,highcostofdoing

businessduetotaxesandwagelevels,andexpensivemaintenanceofequipment

duetoalackofdomesticmanufacturersandmechanics.

Duringtheearly2000s,theMongoliancashmereindustrywasbesetwithahostof

otherproblems.Alackofregulationofinputstothecashmereindustry,principally

grazinglandandwaterfromwells,causedthelivestockpopulationtoexceedthe

country’scarryingcapacity.Thiscausedsignificantamountsofdesertificationand

soildegradation.Theindustryitselfwaspoorlystructured.Livestockraisingwas

seenasmoreofatraditionalactivityandsafetynetthanindustry,sopublicand

17 

 

privatesectorinstitutionstosupportithadnotbeendeveloped(Songwe&

Magvan,2003).TheprincipalcashmerecompanyinMongolia,Gobi,wasstill

partiallygovernmentowned,whichledtoaskewingofpolicyinitsfavour,andwas

hemorrhagingmoney.Othercompanieswerealsoperformingpoorly,andmost

wererunningwellbelowcapacity(Lecraw,Eddleston,&McMahon,2005).Poor

transportinfrastructuremadeitdifficultforherderstogettheirproductsto

market,decreasingthepricestheycouldcommand(Chimedtseren,2006).

Sincethen,thesituationseemstohaveimproved,thoughnoin‐depthstudiesafter

2005areavailable.Gobiwasfullyprivatizedin2007,andhassincebecomethe

world’sfifthlargestcashmerecompany,exportingbothprocessedcashmereand

finishedproducts,andsellingtoalargedomesticmarket(WorldIntellectual

PropertyOrganization,n.d.).In2013,thegovernmentapproved$45millionUSin

loanstothecashmereindustrytoencourageitsdevelopmenttoreduceeconomic

relianceontheminingsector.Theseloansareexpectedtogenerateupto30,000

jobs(Kohn,2013).TherehavealsobeeneffortstobrandMongoliancashmere

abroad,includingthecreationoftheMongolianFiberMarkSocietyin2002to

certifythequalityandoriginofMongoliancashmereproducts,aswelltheethical

andenvironmentallyfriendlynatureoftheirmanufacture(WorldIntellectual

PropertyOrganization,n.d.),andthelaunchingofagovernmenteffortin2011to

marketMongoliancashmereandleatherinthehigh‐endmarket(Kohn,2013).

3.2. Wildlifeuseimportanceandtrade,pastandpresent

“Membersoflocalcommunities,relyonthenaturalresourcesfortheirfodder,

fuelwood,water,andfoodandthusexploitthemwithoutrestraint”(Agrawaland

Gibson,1999).

18 

 

Wildlifeareintrinsictoeverydaylivelihoodandhouseholdbudgetsofindigenous

andlocalcommunitiesoutoftheurbanizedsystem(Agrawal&Gibson,1999).

Theseassumptionsarethemainpoints,whichletusinferimmediately,ontheone

sidetheimportanceofwildlifeforlocalcommunities,ontheothersidetheissues

relatedtotheconservationofthewildlife.

Sincehisexistence,Homosapienshasusedwildlifetosurvive.Already,duringthe

stoneage,groupsofhuntersandgatherershaddifferentlandusepatterns,

dependingontheirabilitytoprocurethefood(Kusimba,1999).

Throughouthishistory,H.sapiensinfluencedthebiologicalcommunity

composition,sometimescausingthelocalorglobalextinctionofonespecies,other

times,increasingthebiodiversity,asevidencedbythesuccessoftheofthe

intermediatedisturbancehypothesis(Connell,1978),inturnrootedinthemodel

ofCaswell(1978)ofthenon‐equilibriumpopulationsdynamicinacommunity.

Inthelastcenturythewildlifeuseforlivelihoodturnedintotrophyand

commercialhunting.Itcausedthedramaticconsequencesforthebiodiversity,

especiallywhenaspeciesbecameatargetforinternationalinterest.Nowadays,

annualinternationalwildlifetradeisestimatedtobeworthbillionsofdollarsand

includehundredsofmillionsofplantandanimalspecimens.Thetradeisdiverse,

rangingfromliveanimalsandplantstothewildlifeproductsderivedfromthem.

Environmentandspecieswithalowresiliencearemoresusceptibletothe

exploitation.Particularlythelasthalfcenturyhasseenthelocalandtheglobal

extinctionofabignumberofspecies,andtheinternationaltradehasbeenoneof

themaindrivers.

19 

 

3.3. Internationaltraderegulationforanewchallenge

Amongstthemeasurestakentoregulatetheinternationaltradeofwildlifespecies,

theWashingtonConventionorTheConventiononInternationalTradein

EndangeredSpeciesofwildfloraandfauna(CITES)isthemostcomprehensive

regulatoryinstrumenttargetingwildlifetradeacrossnationalborders(Phelpset

al.,2010).

TheaimofCITESistoregulateandmonitortheinternationaltradein

selectedspeciesofplantsandanimalsbymeansofapermittingsystemandto

ensurethatinternationaltradedoesnotthreatentheirsurvival(www.cites.org).

AspecimenofaCITES‐listedspeciesmaybeimportedorexported(orre‐

exported)fromastatepartytotheConventiononlyiftheappropriatedocument

hasbeenobtainedandpresentedforclearanceattheportofentryorexit

(www.cites.org).AstateforwhichtheConventionhasenteredintoforceiscalleda

PartytoCITESand,currently,thereare180Parties(www.cites.org).

ThePartiesareresponsibletoregulatethetradeofCITES‐listedspeciesin

accordancewiththerestrictionsandincompliancewiththemechanismofthe

Convention.MongoliaispartofCITESsince1996(eventheregulationlawwas

approvedin2002).

Newformsoftrade,oftencannotbemonitoredsoeasily,aswellasthe

illegaltradeontheInternet.Itispossibleforanumberofillegalwildlifeandplant

tradeactivitiestooperate.Web‐relatedcrimewasdiscussedatthe12thUN

CongressonCrimePreventionandCriminalJustice(Salvador,Brazil,12‐19April

2010)andtheResolutionadoptedbythecongressstated:

“Wenotethatthedevelopmentofinformationandcommunicationstechnologies

andtheincreasinguseoftheInternetcreatenewopportunitiesforoffendersand

facilitatethegrowthofcrime”.

20 

 

Itcanconcernspeciesalreadyprotectedandotherswhicharenot.

Withthegrowingnumberoftradersandconsumers,itisachallengetocategorize

andenforcethewildlife‐relatedlegislation,andfurtherinstrumentstomonitor

Internettradearenecessary(Salvador,Brazil,12‐19April2010).

AssessingtheeffectivenessofCITEScompliancemechanismsaredifficult

(Marss,2004;Reeve,2006).

OverthelastfewyearstheCITESSecretariathasseriouslyconsideredthe

problemsrelatedtothemonitoringofinternettrade.TheSecretariat,inAugust

2007(NotificationNo2007/026)specificallyaskedtheManagementAuthoritiesof

rangestatestoprovide,byDecemberofthesameyear,informationabout:

a)ThescaleandnatureofwildlifetradeconductedviatheInternetthatapparently

involvestheircountry;

b)Anyrealorperceivedproblemsrelatingtosuchtrade,includingillicittrade;

c)ThenatureandeffectivenessofanymeasuresthatPartieshavetakentoregulate

thetradeinwildlifeviatheInternet,includingtheuseofcodesofconduct;and

d)Anychangesintraderoutes,speciesintradeandmethodsofshipmentthathave

beenobservedasaresultofincreaseduseoftheInternettopromotetradeinwildlife.

In2009,inVancouver,the“WorkingGrouponE‐commerceofthe

SpecimensofCITES‐listedSpecies”wasestablished(CITES,2009a).Theworking

groupwasformedwiththepurposeoffindingoutthetradetrendoverthewebfor

CITESlistedspeciesanddevisingappropriatetoolstotackletheillegaltradeonthe

internet.However,subsequentresearchrevealedseveralobstaclesintracking

transactionsactuallycarriedout(UNEP‐WCMC,2009).

21 

 

Amarketonthewebsurpassedeverygeographicalbarrierandescapedthe

controlfromthecompetentauthorities,ahighriskforthoseplantsprotectedby

theConvention.Particularlyatriskarethederivedpart,whichinsomecasescan

bemailedbypostandormixedwithlookalikeproducts,thusescapecontrols.

Astudypublishedin2013revealedthattheinternetplaysanimportant

roleinCITES‐listedspeciestradeandmostofthistradeiscarriedoutinthe

absenceofCITEScomplianceandbeyondthecontrolofthecompetentauthorities

(Sajevaetal.,2013).Itletsimaginethatnotprotectedspeciestradecanbeaffected

enormouslybythissystem.

4. Siberianibexcurrentsituationandaimofthesurvey

Overlasttwodecades,theSiberianibexwool,hasbeentradedmainlyinthe

Europeanmarket,commerciallyknownas“Yangirwool”,fromtheMongolian

language.Itispossibletoverify,justtyping“Yangir”onanyresearchengine,to

findthesalesonline.Manufacturersstatethatthiswoolisasideproductofibex

hunting,i.e.thatthewoolisobtainedfromanimals,whichwereshotfortrophies.

Toobtain1kgofIbexcashmereisrequiredaround15specimens(Toninetal.

2002).ThroughoutthemajorSiberianIbexpopulationthenumberofissuedlegal

huntingpermitswerefoundasfewhundredthatcouldnotsatisfyandmeetthe

quantityofproductsonthemarket.Itishardtobelievethattheglobalmarketis

poweredfromfewtensofkgofwool(whichonly10kgshouldcomefrom

Mongolia)forannualconsumption.Fromtheseassumptions,itwasnecessary,to

aimthissurveytotheexplorationofthecurrentandpasttradesystemofwild

animalsproductsandparticularlyaboutSiberianIbex,inMongolia.

22 

 

Anotherimportantissueonwhichwefocusedinthisresearchistheestimationof

theotherthreatsinvolvingSiberianibex.Infact,theillegalhuntingmaybeoneof

thereasonsinfluencingtheSiberianibexpopulationdecreaseduringthelasttwo

decades.Then,wetriedtoestimatethecurrenthuntingandhousehold

consumptionofSiberianIbexinMongolia.Finally,thestudytriestoclarifythegaps

betweenthenationallawanditsimplementation,identifyingthecauseofthepoor

implementation.Onceidentifiedthepointsmentionedabove,thisreportaimsto

addressthenationalauthoritiesinadoptingapolicyfortheSiberianIbex

conservation,aswellasastrategyforthelegalimplementation.

4.1. Methodologyadoptedtoinvestigateandcollectdata

aboutSiberianibexmanagement,tradeandthreat

Inthefirstpartoftheinvestigation,wefocusedoncollectingdataconcerningthe

SiberianIbex’spastandcurrenttradeandhunting,includingitsmanagement

policy.WeconsultedtheMinistryofEnvironmentandGreenDevelopmentof

MongoliainordertocollectdataaboutthelawsregulatingSiberianIbex

conservationandhuntingpermitsissued.We obtained a list of the tourist companies

who got permits to hunt (Annex II) and the number of permits issued in the last 10 years

(updated until 2013).

AwebsurveywasconductedduringAugust2013.Googlewasusedasthe

searchengine,andthefollowingkeywordswereentered:“Yangir,Caprasibirica,

Yangirwool,Caprasibiricawool,Yangirsales,andCaprasibiricasales”,

Thewebsiteaddress,brand/factorynames,locations,pricesanditems(only

whenthepricewasspecifiedperitem,ifyouselecttheitem)wererecordedfor

eachsellerfound.

23 

 

Basedonthisinformationweplannedthefieldsurveyillustratedinthe

followingparagraph.

4.2. Marketsurvey

BetweenMarchandMay2014,membersofourteamvisitedthreeofthe

mainmarketsforanimalproducttrade:Narantuul,betterknownastheBlack

Market,inUlaanbaatar;Mercury,whichislocatedclosetotheUlaanbaatartrain

station;andEmeelt,whichislocated45kilometrestothewestofUlaanbaatar.

Eachmarketwassurveyed8timesduringthe12weeksperiod.

Ourinvestigatorsconductedobservationalsurveysandrandomlyposed

somequestiontotheshopowners.WhenthequestionsconcernedtheYangir’s

cashmere,theinvestigatorsjustaskediftherewasanyavailabilityorwhereitcan

befound.

Weavoidedpretendingtobeinterestedinpurchasinglargevolumesto

avoidinfluencingtheseller'sanswers.

Thesameprotocolwasadoptedintheuniquevisitwemadetothemain

rawmaterialmarketofeachprovinceinoursurvey:Govi‐Altai,Hovd,BayanOlgii,

Uvs,ZavhanandArkhangai.

24 

 

Figure3‐ The signboard of a shop in Gov’-Altai raw material market

4.3. Facetofaceinterviews

BetweenAprilandJuly2014(intwostages),wefocusedoncollectingdata

frominterviewsconcerningthepastandcurrenttradeandhuntingoftheSiberian

Ibex,inthespecies'smajordistributionarea.

25 

 

Figure4‐ The Altai mountain, which are the main distribution area of Siberian ibex in

Mongolia

Theinterviewswiththelocalcommunitiesweredoneinsixprovinces:Govi‐Altai,

Hovd,BayanOlgii,Uvs,ZavhanandArkhangai.Theseprovincesarelocatedin

centralandwesternMongolia,andhostalmosttheentireMongolianSiberianIbex

population.Thefollowingmapshowstheinterviewareasandthedistributionof

SiberianIbexinMongolia.

26 

 

Figure5‐ TheshapefilesonspatialdistributionofSiberianIbex,havebeenkindly

suppliedbytheIUCNRedList.Ref.IUCN(InternationalUnionforConservationof

Nature)2008.Caprasibirica.In:IUCN2013.IUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.

Version2013.1.

Thequestionsforthelocalcommunityweredevelopedtoenable

explorationofthecurrentsituationofSiberianIbexconservation,illegaluseand

tradeinMongolia.

Thequestionsforthelocalcommunityweredevelopedtoenable

explorationofthecurrentsituationofSiberianIbexconservation,illegaluse,and

tradeinMongolia.

Thequestionnairewasdevelopedonthebasisoffourmainconcerns:

27 

 

1. Personaldetailsofinterviewees(name,age,profession,placeofbirth,

residentialstatus2).

2. Interviewee'sknowledgeaboutSiberianIbex.

3. Interviewee'sknowledgeabouthuntingofSiberianIbex.

4. Interviewee'sknowledgeaboutuseofSiberianIbex.

Thetablebelowshowsthequestionsaskedtotheinterviewees (Note: In the

interview, yangir refers to Siberian Ibex).

Are you a fixed resident in this soum3 or do you move by the season?

Do you know about Yangir? Does it occur in this area?

Do you know if yangir is hunted in this area?

Is yangir hunting common in this area (period, the number of specimens

hunted)?

Is it hunted by foreigners or by local people?

In the last 10-20 years have you noticed an increase or decrease numbers of

yangir?

Do you know what the use of the hunted specimens is?

Have you ever hunted yangir?

Table1‐ Questionnaire used with local community people.

2 Residential status criteria is unlike the concept of city or settled village address. This is to explore whether a person is from this specific area or moved in from outside that area. 3 Soum is a smallest administrative unit as a sub-unit of province.

28 

 

Eachanswerwascataloguedintwoormorecategoriesestablishedforeach

question.

Figure6-AwomanfromBayadethnicgroup

4.4. EstimatingthenumberofSiberianIbexillegally

hunted

HumanpopulationandagedatawerecollectedfromtheMongolianStatistical

InformationServiceandtheCIAWorldFactbook.Thepercentageofmalesover19

yearsoldwascalculated,asthatistheaverageageforyoungmentostarthunting

alone.Thispercentageforeachaimagwasthencalculated.Theaimagpopulation

dataarefrom2013,whilethesexratioandagegrouppercentagesarefrom2014.

Thelackofinformationofsexratioandageclassesforeachaimagcouldcause

somenegativebiasintheestimation.Otherdata,suchasthenumberofillegal

29 

 

hunterswhohuntyangirandtheaveragenumberofyangirhuntedeachyearby

eachhunter,arederivedfromoursurvey.

Where:Niu=Numberofillegaluses(meaningthenumberofyangirhunted

illegallyeachyear);j=Aimag(Province);Nj=Numberofmalesover19yearsold,

livingintheAimagj;Nihs=Numberofillegalhunterssurveyed(allwereover19);

Nms=Numberofmalessurveyed(allwereover19);Ay=Averageofyangir

huntedeachyearbyeachillegalhunter(threeyearbasis).

5. Analysisofinformationanddata,collectedduringthesurvey

5.1. Marketsurvey

Comparedtotheprevioussituationdescribedin“Silentsteppe:theillegal

wildlifetradecrisis”(Wingardatal,2006),todaythesituationofillegalwildlife

tradeinMongoliahasimproved,atleastintheinternalmarket.Duringourmarket

surveywefounditdifficulttofindwildlifeproducts,exceptforthespeciesfor

whichhuntingisallowedandarecommonlyonsale,likewolf(Canislupus),corsac

fox(Vulpescorsac)andmarmot(Marmotasibirica).Itispossibletofindoilfrom

badgerandveryrarelyfrommanul(Otocolobusmanul),whichaccordingtothe

illegaltradersarebecomingveryrare.

Nevertheless,ourinvestigationwasmainlyfocusedonSiberianIbexproducts,

particularlyitscashmere.Onlytwoselleroffered,respectively,meatandhorns

6

Niu= ∑ (Nj*[Nihs/Nms]*Ay)

j=1

30 

 

(twopairs)fromIbex.TheywereintheBlackMarketinahiddenarea.Wedidnot

findsellerswhosellyangircashmere.Allofthemknewthatitisillegal.

Figure7‐Asheepfurusedbysellertoindicatetheirpresenceattherawmaterial

marketofHovdcity.

Somesheepfurplacedonthesideoftheroadindicatesacashmereseller.

Thismethodisthemostwidespreadfromthesellersintherawmaterialmarket.

Ourinvestigationwasextendedtoalimitednumberofcashmereagents

(change)whoconfirmedthepastinternationaltradeofyangircashmereandthatit

isnolongerpossiblebecausethespeciesislistedas“rare”underMongolianlaw.

Butwhenourteammemberpretendedtobeinterestedinbuyingalargequantity

ofyangircashmereforaforeigncompany,oneofthechangeshowedinterestin

sellingyangircashmere,askingthequantityweneededandpromisingtoprovide

it.

31 

 

5.2. SiberianIbexandonlinetrade

Inashortsurveyonyangirproductonlinetradewefoundawideofferof

yangirproductfromdifferentcountries(AnnexI).

Twowebsitesofferedbowandarrows,butthemajorityofsalesproductswere

itemsthatderivedfromwool.Thereweretendifferentonlineshopsoffering

productsmadeofYangirwool.Amongthewoolproducts,wefounditemslike

shawl,stole,coatandblanket.Pricesdependonthesizeandweightofitemsthat

consumedlargequantitiesofYangirwool.

Themoreexpensiveitemsweremadeof100%Yangirwool.

Figure8‐Itisacoat100%yangirwool,onsaleforthecollection2013‐2014.

InTable1,thewordsinboldlettersspecifiedthethreefactoriesfromEngland,

ItalyandFrance.Thesefactoriesarefoundassupplierstotheotherssellersinthe

EuropeenUnionandelswhere.Germanyhadthelargestnumberofsellers,butall

ofthemweresuppliedbyoneoftheproducersasrevealedintheAnnex1.

32 

 

Thisindicatesthatyangircashmereisstillwidelytradedoutsideofthe

species’distributionarea.

5.3. Facetofaceinterviews

Atotalof104personswereinterviewed.Theaverageageofthe

intervieweeswas44,6yearsold(min.24,max75).42%ofthoseinterviewedwere

under40yearsold.93,8%ofthoseinterviewedweremale,andtheremaining

6,2%werefemale.Allthepersonsinterviewedwerefixedresidentsinthe

interviewareaandmostofthemmoveafewkilometersseasonally(1‐3km).

Figure9‐Choikhand(left),theDirectorofGreenInitiative,andClaudioAugugliaro

(right),theGreenInitiativeScientificCoordinator(nexthimourdriverNaia),with

aherderfamilyinHovdProvince.

33 

 

Thenumberofinterviewsforeachprovincewasasfollow:20inGovi‐Altai,

21inHovd,25inBayanOlgii,6inUvs,6inDzayhanand26inArkhangai

province4.

Allthepersonsinterviewedwereforthcominginansweringourquestions.

Theresultisdisplayedinthegraphbelow.

Figure10- The graph resumes the answers of the people interviewed.

Allthepersonsinterviewedansweredthattheyarefixedresidentsintheareaand

moveonlyafewkilometers(1‐5km)twiceayear.EveryoneknowsaboutSiberian

Ibexand102/104answeredthattheyhaveseenitoftenduringtheirlife.

4 Province is an administrative unit. Mongolia has 21 provinces.

34 

 

Around35%oftheintervieweesrespondedthatibexhuntingisoccurringintheir

areatodayaswellasinthepast.Halfoftheintervieweesansweredthathunting

wascommononlyinthepastandtheremainingdenythathuntingoccursinthe

area(eveninthepast)orcannotanswerbecausetheydonotknow.Everyonewas

awarethatMongolianlawdoesnotallowibexhunting,exceptforalimitednumber

fortourcompanies.Amongtheinterviewees30/104answeredthatyangirhunting

iscommoninthearea.

Theyalsogavesomeinformationaboutthehuntingperiodandthenumberof

specimenspotentiallyhunted.Generally,therightperiodforhuntingisOctober,

duringtherutting‐estrusperiod.Incertaincases,itcouldbehuntedduringthe

earlyspringforthepurposeofmakingawarmcoat,asibexfuristhickeratthat

time.

Thehunterswhoadmittedthattheyhuntillegallywere10intotalinthesix

provincessurveyed.Someofthemdeclaredthattheyhuntatleastonespecimenof

yangireveryyear.Insomecasesthehuntersusedtohunttogetherandinsome

casestheysaidtheydonothunttheyangireveryyear.Theaveragenumberof

yangirhunted,consideringthefactsmentionedabove,rangesfrom0,3to0,67

yangirperyearpereachhunter,dependingfromtheprovince.Thelocal

environmentofficersconfiscatedfrompoachersonlyafewspecimensperyear(1‐

3).

Fromtheresponse,itwasfoundthatboththelocalpopulationandforeigners

continuehuntingyangirincentralandwesternMongolia.

Thereisdiscordanceregardingthepopulationtrend.Themajorityofthe

intervieweesexpressedtheiropinionthatthepopulationwasstableoverthelast

20years.Theanswerswereinfluencedbytheageoftheinterviewees,sincealarge

majorityofunder40respondentsansweredthattheyangirpopulationisstable.

Thenextlargestpartoftheinterviewees(32,7%)statedthattheibexpopulation

35 

 

hasdecreasedandtherest(18,3%)ofthemthinkthattheibexpopulationhas

increasedinthelast20years.

ThisdiscrepancymayduetothedifferencesbetweenIbexpopulationswhichoccur

insidetheprotectedareaandthosewhichliveoutside.Alltheintervieweesover45

recognizedthatinthepastyangirpopulations,aswellasthoseofotherungulates

andingeneralofallwildlife,havedeclinedseriously.

86ofthe104intervieweesrespondedabouttheuseofyangir.Theyansweredthat

therearemultiplecommonusesforSiberianIbexinMongolia.Theusesmentioned

aremeat,blood,horns,andskin.49%oftheintervieweesansweredthatthey

knowaboutthebrushingofcashmerefromtheibex,butthiswasonlydoneinthe

past.

Ofthe104interviewees,97weremaleandallofthemwereover23yearsold.The

majorityofthehunterswhohuntillegallywerefoundinArkhangaiprovince

whereweconductedmoreinterviewsthaninotherprovinces.Fromour

estimationthetotalnumberofSiberianibexillegallyhuntedis4526individuals

peryear.Thisisaverylargenumberinapopulationthatin2009wasestimatedto

be24,371specimens.

6. Considerationaboutthegeneralissuesinvolvingthewildlifemanagementwith

particularfocusonSiberianibex

6.1. Generalissues

Asmentioned,thegeneralsituationofillegalwildlifetradeseemsimproved

inrecentyears.Themarketchainforthetargetspeciesofhuntingfollowsthe

samesystem:localpeoplesellproductsforafewdollarstotraders,whichwillbe

soldatamuchhigherpriceinthemarkets.

36 

 

Figure11‐TwoCorsac(Vulpescorsac)duringthedryingprocess,huntedbylocal

herder.

Duetothehugeterritory,thelackofpavedroads,andmainlytothesmall

numberofinhabitants,checkingforillegalhuntingisalmostimpossibleforlocal

authorities.Publicinstitutions,especiallyatthesoumlevel,lackqualifiedstaffand

thenumberofbiologists/ecologistsinvolvedistoolowforterritorieswithareas

oftenover75000km2.EachProvinceofthissizehasonlyafewemployeesatthe

provincialenvironmentoffice,andtwoorthreepersonsareactiveineachsoum

(theaverageisabout15soumsperprovince).

Furthermore,theenvironmentallawshavesomegapsanddonotfitwith

theterritories’needs.

For example, we recorded the highest number of illegal hunting in Arkhangai.

37 

 

Figure12‐ Wonderful landscape in Arkhangai province.

WerecordedthehighestlevelofillegalhuntinginArkhangai.Thiscouldbe

duetothefactthatArkhangaiisaforestedarea,wheretherehasbeenasignificant

applicationoftherevisedMongolianlawonforest(GovernmentBulletin,2012,No.

22)anditsforestmanagementframework.WehavenotyetstudiedtheMongolian

LawonForestindepth,andherewewillreportonlytheperspectivesoflocal

people.Theydescribedtousthatthelawestablishesthatlocalpeoplemust

manageanduselocalforestresources,butthatmismanagementiscommon.They

saidthatsincethelawdoesnotspecifyanycriteriaforenvironmentalmonitoring

andthatthereisnotaspecificrequirementtoensureasustainableuseofforest

resources,localpeopleorganizedveryclosedandauthoritariangroupswhichdo

nothavethecompetencetoconductenvironmentalmonitoringandmanagement,

38 

 

andtheyhavefullcontroloftheirarea.Theresultisenvironmentaldegradation

andimpoverishment(andprivateagreementsbetweenlocalherdersandwood

companiesorothers,oftenforeigners).Eventhehunterswhodeclaredthat

sometimestheyhuntillegallycomplainedofthisunsustainablesituation,andof

very“sadistic”practicesusedonnew‐bornwildanimals,totrackandhuntthem

oncetheybecomeadults(includingcarnivoressuchaswolvesandthreatened

speciessuchastheSiberianmuskdeer).

Theimpressionisthatthesituationofhiddenhuntingandprobablytradeis

stilldelicateandmaybeworsening.

6.2. Siberianibexissues

Duringthelastdecadeyangir(Caprasibirica)hasbeencommerciallytradedinthe

globalmarket.ItssaleisstillverywidespreadontheInternet.Bow,arrows,and

woolaresoldinmarketsandsuchitemsalsocanbefoundontheInternet.

Itwasnecessarytoconductaninvestigationinordertounderstandwhatisgoing

onandhowtheSiberianibexareorhavebeensuppliedtothemarket.

InMongoliatheSiberianIbexwaslistedontherarespecieslistin1995.Therare

specieslistlaterwasapprovedbytheGovernmentResolutionNo.264in2001.The

useofrarespeciesisregulatedbytherelevantgovernmentauthoritiesin

Mongolia.

AccordingtotheArticle175oftheCriminalCodeofMongolia,rarespeciesand

theirproductstransferredandtransportedwillbeconsideredasillegal.Aperson

whocarriesitemsfromrarespecieswillbechargedforcriminalactivity.Underthe

MongolianLawonFaunaandLawonHunting,thehuntingofrarespeciesrequires

aspecialpermitissuedbythegovernment.

39 

 

Poachinghaslikelybeenreducedduringrecentyears,butitstilloccursanditis

notveryeasytodeterminethevolumesincerecentlylocalherdersareaware

aboutthehuntinglawandpenaltyfeeforillegalhunting,whichmakesthemafraid

toadmitpoaching.

Anotherthreatwidespreadinthelast7to8yearsisanepidemicaffectingtheAltai

ibexpopulation,reportedbythedirectorsofenvironmentalofficesinHovd

province.AccordingtothemtheibexpopulationisbeingaffectedbySarcoptes

scabiei,andanimalsarefoundsickordead.

Figure13‐AnenvironmentofficerofHovdProvincewithaSiberianIbexfoud

deadaffectedbyscabiesaccordingtohisdiagnosis.

TheysaidthattheMinistryofEnvironmentdidnotgiveenoughassistance

tosolvetheproblemandintheprovincetherealackofskillandfundstoconfront

40 

 

theissue.Localhunterssuggestedshootingintotheair,makingtheibexrunand

sweattohelpcombatthedisease(thisisaverycommonideaamonghunters;in

theiropinionshootinghelpsthepopulation’shealthandfitness).Neverthelessthey

excludeshootinginprotectedareas.Thelocalherderscontinuouslyaskforhelp

fromthelocalenvironmentofficebecausetheirlivestockisofteninfectedby

scabies.Itisdifficulttoestimatethesizeoftheproblem,butitmayinfluence

Siberianibexmortality,anditisstillunknownwhattheeffectonIbexpredators

likesnowleopardmaybe,sincesometransmissiontootherpredatorsspeciesin

otherpartsoftheworldhasbeenfound(Penceatal.2002).GreenInitiativeNGO

startedanintensivecontactwiththeHovdenvironmentofficeandaskedfora

comprehensivereporttoexaminethepastandcurrentsituation.

6.3. Finalconsiderations

Basedonthedatawecollected,severalpossiblehypothesesemergedto

explainthecurrentinternationaltradeofyangirproducts.

Woollenmillcompanies,whicharesellingproductsmadeofyangir

cashmere,maystillbeusingastockofwoolcollectedbeforethetradewas

restricted.

Dr.Tonin,whoanalyzedahugestock(1000kg)ofAsiaticIbexcashmere

thatarrivedinEuropein2002,saiditwasprobablycollectedfromvarious

countriesincentralAsia.Itispossiblethatinsocialistandpost‐socialisttimes

woolwascollectedamongthecountriesunderRussianinfluence.Fromour

investigationitispossibletoassumethatinthepasttherewasacollectionof

yangircashmereinMongolia,probablysenttotheUlaanbaatarmarketsandlater

tointernationaltrade(asconfirmedbytheenvironmentofficerwhoorganizedthe

officialhunting,whichwasalsoformeat,attheendof1990s).Sincesocio‐

economicconditionshavechangedsincethe1990s,agentswerereplacedbythe

41 

 

”Change”5andtheycontinuedthecashmeretrade.Localherderstoldusthat

changecaneasilyrecognizetheyangir’scashmerebytouchingit.

Theenvironmentdirectorsoftheprovinceswheretheinvestigationtook

placesaidthatuntilthesecondhalfofthe1990s,huntingofhundredsofyangir

wasauthorizedandthelocalgovernmentorganizedofficialhunting.Thiswasto

providefoodforthearmyandsecondaryschools.Theskinwithwoolandskulls

weresentdirectlytoUlaanbaatar.

Bothlocalherdersandenvironmentofficersmentionedhybridization

betweenSiberianibexanddomesticgoats,thoughitisnotverywidespread.Its

purposeistoimprovethequalityofcashmereinMongolia.

Fromourinvestigation,itseemsthatthetradeinyangircashmerefrom

Mongoliahasstopped.Inourinvestigation,wesawhowonlyolderherders(over

45)knowaboutyangircashmereuseandtrade,whilealltheunder40herdersdo

notknowaboutit(exceptaveryfewinterviewees).Likely,thestockinEuropewas

largeenoughtosatisfythesmallnichemarketforthesenewandexpensive

products.

Fromthissurvey,weassumedthatinternationaltradeofyangircashmere

probablyinvolvedseveralcountries,includingMongolia,duringsocialistandpost‐

socialisttimes.Today,thistradeisnotsignificant.However,theavailabilityof

traderswhoarewillingtosellit,asweverified,couldmeanthatoncethe

internationalstockofyangircashmereisfinished,thetradecouldberesumed.The

productsmadeofyangircashmerearestillofferedonlinebyEuropeanbrandsin

thenewcollectionfor2013‐2014.

5 Change is a commercial agent and middleman between herders and foreigners, factories etc.

42 

 

AlthoughtheinternationaltradeofSiberianibexcashmereandthethreatit

posesistemporarysuspended,theillegalhuntingbylocalhunterscanbeaserious

threattothespecies.Weestimatethat4526specimensarehuntedinthemain

distributionareaoftheMongolianIbexpopulationeachyear.Ofcourse,this

estimationissusceptibletosomebias.Forinstance,sincewewereinterestedin

interviewinghunters,sometimeswefoundthembythesuggestionsof

neighbouringfamilies(6‐7%ofthehuntersinterviewed).Thiscouldcauseaslight

overestimationduetothehighernumberofhuntersinterviewedcomparedto

theirpercentageofthetotalpopulation.Ontheotherhand,themajorityofthe

interviewees(around70%)admittedthattheystillregularlyhuntSiberianIbex.

Thelocalpeoplewhoconfessthehuntingwerethepeoplewhoknowthe

interviewerwellandcollaboratewithourNGO.Thiscouldmeanan

underestimationduetothefactthatunknownhunterscouldbeafraidtoreveal

theircrimetoastranger,especiallytoanNGOworker.Wereasonablyconcluded

thatthenumberofSiberianibexillegallyhuntedhasahigherchancetobe

underestimatedoratleastreliable(assuggestedbytheanswersofthemajorityof

thehunterswhodeclaredthattheyhuntonlylegally).

Inconclusion,herdersandlocalenvironmentalofficersreportedadecrease

inyangirpopulationcomparedtothepast,whichcanbevalidatedbythe

populationsurveyresultsoftheInstituteofBiology,MongolianAcademyof

Sciences,in2009.Accordingtotheresultofthissurvey,theSiberianIbex

populationhasdramaticallydeclinedinMongolia.Theestimateoftheibex

populationwas24,371,comparedtothe80,000estimatesfrom“TheMongolian

RedDataBook”in1987(Shagdarsurenetal.1987).

Aswereported,multiplereasonsarelikely,fromyangircashmeretradein

therecentpasttoongoingillegalhuntingforlocalconsumptiontolocalscabies

epidemicsthatmaystillbeundetected.

43 

 

Thismakesnecessarymonitoringofthepopulationandtheepidemic,as

wellasthemonitoringofproductsmadefromyangircashmereofferedonline,in

ordertounderstandifinternationaltradefromSiberianibexrangecountrieswill

occurinthefuture.

ThemainproblemthatMongoliafacestodayistheenforcementofthe

environmentallaws.Humanpopulationdensityisverylow(i.e.0,41people/km2in

theGovi‐Altai)andconsequentlythenumberofpeopleinvolvedinenvironmental

workisverysmall.Thequalificationandexpertiseofthepeopleinvolvedin

administration/managementisoftentoolow,andnotsuitabletomakesound

decisionsonenvironmentalprotection.Veryoftennewgraduatesinecologyor

biologydonotevenknowabout“binomialnomenclature”,especiallythosefrom

privateuniversities,andtheyreturntotheirsoumandbecomeresponsiblefor

environmentalaffairswithoutanyfurthertrainingandqualification.Themain

problemisthecentralizedsystemofenvironmentalmanagement.Fewpublic

institutionsandfewpeoplehavethepowertotaketherangeofactionnecessary

forsafeguardingtheenvironmentoverMongolia’svastterritory.

ThebestexperienceswithenvironmentalmanagementinMongoliaare

fromNGOormodelecosystemmanagementprograms,suchasthoseatKhustai

NationalParkandIkhNartNaturalReserve.

A model ecosystem management program, using expertise from

government and non‐government organizations, is the best solution. Criteria to

measurethequalificationsofNGOsandtheirpersonnelarenecessary, based on the

value of the publication in international scientific journals and others, to measure the

qualification for the NGOs and their members (something almost unknown in Mongolia

if out of the Academy of Science at present), with the purpose to improve the

management at soum level.

Insummary,inoursurveyandresearchweinvestigated:

44 

 

theinternationaltradeofyangircashmere,itscurrentsituationandthe

potentialfuturechanges;

thehighlevelofillegalhuntingofSiberianibex;

thenaturalthreatofthescabiesepidemic,whichisworthyoffurther

investigation.

Fortheseandotherenvironmentalissues,westronglyencouragethenational

authoritiestofavoura“modelecosystemmanagementprogram”atthesoumlevel.

Itwillbesuccessfulifimplementedatthesoumlevel,byNGOsandgovernment

organizations,whichhaveatleastsomeexpertiseandwell‐qualifiedpersonnelto

planandmanagetheprogram.Itistheonlysolutionthatwillenableacapillary,

constant,andearnestmanagementofthecountry’senvironment.

45 

 

5. References

AgrawalA.,andGibsonC.C.(1999).EnchantmentandDisenchantment:TheRole

ofCommunityinNaturalResourceConservation.WorldDevelopment27,629‐649.

Caswell,H.(1978).Predator‐Mediatedcoexistence:anonequilibriummodel.The

Americannaturalist112,127‐154.

Clark,E.,Javzansuren,M.,Dulamtseren,S.,Baillie,J.,Batsaikhan,N.,Samiya,R.,&

Stubbe,E.(.(2006).MongolianRedListofMammals.London:ZoologicalSocietyof

London.

ConnellJ.H.(1978).Diversityintropicalrainforestsandcoralreefs.Science199,

1302‐1310.

Fedosenko,A.,&Blank,D.(2001).Caprasibirica.MammalianSpecies(675),1‐13.

Kazanskaya,E.,Kuznetsova,M.,&Danilkin,A.(2007).Phylogeneticreconstructions

inthegenusCapra(Bovidae,Artiodactyla)basedonthemitochondrialDNA

analysis.RussianJournalofGenetics,43(2),181‐189.

doi:10.1134/S1022795407020135

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KusimbaS.B.(2005).WhatIsaHunter‐Gatherer?VariationintheArchaeological

RecordofEasternandSouthernAfrica.JournalofArchaeologicalResearch13,

337‐366.

Lecraw,D.J.,Eddleston,P.,McMahonA.2005.Avaluechainanalysisofthe

Mongoliancashmereindustry.MongoliaEconomicPolicyReformand

CompetitivenessProject(EPRC)

Marrs, R.H.,2004.PolicingInternationalTradeinEndangeredSpecies.TheCITES

TreatyCompliance:RosalindReeve.BiologicalConservation115:171‐171(1).

Pence,D.B.,UeckermannE.,2002.Sarcopticmangeinwildlife.Rev.sci.tech.Off.

Int.Epiz.,2002,21(2),385‐398.

Phelps,J.,Webb,E.L.,Bickford,D.,Nijman,V.,Sodhi,N.S.,2010.Boosting CITES

Through Research. Science330:1752–1753.

Pratt,D.,Macmillan,D.,&Gordon,I.(2004).Localcommunityattitudestowildlife

utilizationinthechangingeconomicandsocialcontextofMongolia.Biodiversity

andConservation,13(3),591‐613.doi:10.1023/B:BIOC.0000009492.56373.cc

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Reading,R.&Shank,C.(2008).Caprasibirica.In:IUCN2013.IUCNRedListof

ThreatenedSpecies.

Version2013.1.<www.iucnredlist.org>.Downloadedon27March2013.

Reeve,R.,2006.WildlifeTrade,sanctionsandcompliance:lessonsfromtheCites

regime.InternationalAffairs82:881‐897.

Sajeva,M.,Augugliaro,C.,Smith,J.M.,Oddo,E.,2013.RegulatingInternetTradein

CITESSpecies.ConservationBiology27(2):429‐430.

Sheehy,D.,Sheehy,C.,Johnson,D.,Damiran,D.,&Fiamengo,M.(2010).Livestock

andwildlifeintheSouthernGobiRegionwithspecialattentiontowildass.

Washington,D.C.:TheWorldBank.

Songwe,V.,Magva,B.2003.FromGoatstoCoats:InstitutionalReformin

Mongolia’sCashmereSector.WorldBank,EastAsiaandPacificRegion,Poverty

ReductionandEconomicManagementUnit

Wingard,J.,&Zahler,P.(2006).Silentsteppe:theillegalwildlifetradecrisisin

Mongolia.Washington,D.C.:TheWorldBank.

48 

 

6. ConsultedWebsite

en.nso.mn

www.cites.org

www.cia.gov

IUCN.(2014).TheIUCNRedListofThreatenedSpecies.Retrievedfrom

http://www.iucnredlist.org/

LargeHerbivoreNetwork.(2014).Siberianibex‐Caprasibirica.Retrievedfrom

www.lhnet.org/siberian‐ibex

Species+.(2014).Caprasibirica.Retrievedfrom

www.speciesplus.net/#/taxon_concepts/65566/legal

49 

 

7. Annex‐1

ListofYangiritemsofferedonlineandtheirsellers/producers(August2013)

ItemPricein

euroBrand/Factory Location Website

Shawland

stole 1074

BrundeVian‐

Tiran France

http://www.brundeviantiran.com/en/nat

ural‐fibres.cfm?i_fib=33‐Yangir‐blanket‐

shawl

Shawl

andstole Scabal UK

http://www.scabal.com/sbnames.php?cat

egory=special&id=120

Shawl

andstole MatthiasAull Germany http://aull.de/Yangir

Coat

ColomboTextile

Company Italy

https://www.lanificiocolombo.it/Azienda

/FibreNobili_it.html

Blanket 2693 CasaeNatura Italy

http://www.lacasaeconaturale.it/promoz

ioni/416‐piumini‐trapunte‐coperte

Various elegantline US

http://www.elegantlinenspc.com/Wool‐

Blankets.htm

Stole 360 cashmereblues Germany http://cashmereblues.com/catalog12/

Blanket

sweet‐dreams‐

collection‐sa France

http://www.sweet‐dreams‐collection‐sa‐

francais.com/

Various

willemsen‐

duesseldorf Germany

http://www.willemsen‐

duesseldorf.de/exklusive‐

fasern/Yangir/Yangir.html

Various TobiasPatitz Germany

http://www.tobiaspatitz.com/seiten/blac

k‐label/06‐Yangir.html

Bowand

arrows 390 e‐mongol.com Mongolia

http://www.shop‐e‐

mongol.com/en/arrows‐mens‐size‐

han0801081‐xml‐267‐1761.html

Bowand

arrows exodeco

http://www.exodeco.com/en/articles‐

deco.php?catnom=tools&locnom=mongoli

a&cat=25&loc=431

50 

 

8. Annex‐2

ListofcompaniesthatgotthepermitstohuntSiberianIbexinMongoliain2006‐

2012

Companies which obtained the hunting permit in 2006-20121 "Монгол сафари" ХХК2 "Монгол тур" ХХК3 "Женесис" ХХК4 "Нью тур" ХХК5 "Алхана трэйд" ХХК6 "Аттон-аммон" ХХК7 "Эдельвайс" ХХК8 "Санни Гоби Тур" ХХК9 "Адьяа энд алтай" ХХК10 "Монгол хаан трэвэль" ХХК11 "МАТ" ХХК12 "Нью жуулчин турс" ХХК13 "Монгол райзен" ХХК14 "Монголиан Оутфиттерс Консерциум" ХХК15 "Монгол хантинг энд турс" ХХК16 "Зэрэглээт" ХХК17 "Түвшинтоур" ХХК18 "Эрүүл интернэшнл" ХХК19 "Agula tour" Co.,Ltd20 "Тийн магнер трэвел" ХХК21 "Жуулчин говь" ХХК22 "Солонга лайн" ХХК23 "Чингэс лэнд тур" ХХК24 "Монгол Алтай травел" ХХК25 "Гүрү" ХХК26 "Планет интернэшнл" ХХК27 "Amazing steppes" Co., Ltd28 "Зэрэглээ" ХХК29 "Яагд энд тур" ХХК30 "Look моngolia" Co., Ltd31 "Хан Сол" ХХК32 "Газар Эко" ХХК33 "Хүрэн булаг" ХХК34 "Ар монгол трэвл" ХХК35 "Хаан ус" ХХК36 "Сайхан сэтгэл" ХХК37 "Ариун цэн" ХХК38 "МБМХ" ХХК39 "Сэлэнгэ сутай" ХХК40 "Холистик" ХХК41 "Тулга импорт" ХХК42 "Ихрэс" ХХК43 "НБ Интернейншл" ХХК44 "Эко ертөнц" ХХК45 "Нар туг" ХХК46 "Дархан-Өргөө" ХХК47 "Хархорин" ХХК48 "Мэргэнван" ХХК49 "Хоёр загал жуулчин" ХХК50 "Монгол шинэ тив" ХХК