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Carbohidratos

Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

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Page 1: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

Carbohidratos  

Page 2: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Carbohydrates  (sugars)  are  abundant  in  nature:  –  They  are  high  energy  biomolecules.  –  They  provide  structural  rigidity  for  organisms  (plants,  

crustaceans,  etc.).  –  The  polymer  backbone  on  which  DNA  and  RNA  are  

assembled  contains  sugars.  

•  The  term,  carbohydrate,  evolved  to  describe  the  formula  for  such  molecules:  Cx(H2O)x.  

 

•  Carbohydrates  are  NOT  true  hydrates.  WHY?  

       IntroducKon  to  Carbohydrates  

Page 3: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Carbohydrates  (sugars)  are  polyhydroxy  aldehydes  or  ketones.  – Consider  glucose,  which  is  made  by  plants:  

   

–  Is  glucose  a  polyhydroxy  aldehyde  or  ketone?  

Page 4: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they
Page 5: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Saccharides  have  multiple  chiral  centers,  and  they  are  often  drawn  as  Fischer  projecKons.  

– Designate  each  chirality  center  in  glucose  as  either  R  or  S.  

ClassificaKon  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 6: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Saccharides  have  mulKple  chiral  centers,  and  they  are  often  drawn  as  Fischer  projecKons.  

•  What  does  the  suffix,  “ose”  mean?  •  Define  the  following  terms:  

–  Aldose  and  ketose  –  Pentose  and  hexose  

Page 7: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Glyceraldehyde  is  a  monosaccharide  with  one  chirality  center.  

– Natural  glyceraldehyde  is  dextrorotatory  (D):  it  rotates  plane  polarized  light  in  the  clockwise  direcKon.  

Page 8: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Naturally  occurring  larger  sugars  can  be  broken  down  into  glyceraldehyde  by  degradaKon.  

 

•  Such  sugars  are  often  called  D-­‐sugars.  

ClassificaKon  of  Monosaccharides      

Page 9: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Recall  that  dextrorotatory  versus  levorotatory  rotation  cannot  be  predicted  by  the  R  or  S  configuraKon.  

       

•  Here,  D  no  longer  refers  to  dextrorotatory.  Rather  it  refers  to  the  R  configuraKon  at  the  chiral  carbon  farthest  from  the  carbonyl.  

ClassificaKon  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 10: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  There  are  four  aldotetroses.  Two  are  shown  below.  

•  What  are  the  other  two  structures?  

   ConfiguraKon  of  Aldoses  

Page 11: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Aldopentoses  have  three  chirality  centers.  The  number  of  isomers  will  be  23.  

 

•  Recall  the  2n    rule.  

•  The  D-­‐sugars  are  naturally  occurring.  

         ConfiguraKon  of  Aldoses  

Page 12: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Ribose  is  a  key  building  block  of  RNA.  – WHAT  is  RNA?    

 

•  Arabinose  is  found  in  plants.  •  Xylose  is  found  in  wood.  

         ConfiguraKon  of  Aldoses  

Page 13: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Based  on  the  2n    rule,  how  many  aldohexoses  are  there?  •  How  many  of  the  aldohexoses  are  D  isomers.  •  Glucose  is  the  most  common  aldohexose.  •  Mannose  and  galactose  are  also  common.  

         ConfiguraKon  of  Aldoses  

Page 14: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Relevant  ketoses  have  between  three  and  six  carbons.  •  For  each  naturally  occurring  D  isomer,  there  is  an  L  enanKomer.  

       ConfiguraKon  of  Ketoses  

Page 15: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

         ConfiguraKon  of  Ketoses  

Page 16: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Carbonyls  can  be  a[acked  by  alcohols  to  form  hemiacetals.  

 

– The  intramolecular  reacKon  is  generally  favored  for  5  and  6-­‐  membered  rings.  WHY?  

Cyclic  Structures  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 17: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  For  the  following  compound,  draw  the  mechanism  and  resulKng  product  that  results  from  acid  catalyzed  ring-­‐  closing  hemiacetal  formaKon.  

Cyclic  Structures  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 18: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Monosaccharides,  like  glucose,  can  also  undergo  ring-­‐closing  hemiacetal  formaKon.  

•  The  equilibrium  greatly  favors  the  closed  form  called  pyranose.  

Cyclic  Structures  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 19: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they
Page 20: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they
Page 21: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

Anomeric  effect  

•  Which  would  you  predict  to  be  more  stable?    

9

– Beta  67%  ,  alpha  33%,  open  0.01%    

Page 22: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Ketoses  form  both  furanose  (5-­‐membered)  and  pyranose  (6-­‐membered)  rings:  

Cyclic  Structures  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 23: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

Cyclic  Structures  of  Monosaccharides  

•  The  equilibrium  concentrations  in  water  are  above.  

70% β 0.7% 23%-β 2% α 5%-α

Page 24: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  The  furanose  form  takes  part  in  most  biochemical  reacKons.  

Cyclic  Structures  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 25: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Monosaccharides  are  generally  soluble  in  water.  WHY?  •  To  improve  their  solubility  in  organic  solvents,  the  hydroxyl  groups  can  be  acetylated.  

•  WHY  is  pyridine  added  to  the  reacKon?    

•  How  might  acetylaKon  help  in  purificaKon  efforts.  

ReacKons  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 26: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Monosaccharides  can  also  be  converted  to  ethers  via  the  Williamson  ether  synthesis.  

•  Ether  linkages  are  more  robust  than  ester  linkages.  WHY?  

       ReacKons  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 27: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  When  treated  with  an  excess  of  an  alcohol,  the  hemiacetal  equilibrium  can  be  shifted  to  give  an  acetal.  

•  When  a  sugar  is  used,  alpha  and  beta  glycosides  are  formed.  

         ReacKons  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 28: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  The  mechanism  of  glycoside  formaKon  is  analogous  to  the  acetal  formaKon  mechanism.  

•  Only  the  anomeric  hydroxyl  group  is  replaced.  

       ReacKons  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 29: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  The  mechanism  of  glycoside  formation  is  analogous  to  the  acetal  formaKon  mechanism.  

What  factors  would  you  consider  when  trying  to  predict  whether  the  alpha  or  beta  anomer  will  be  the  major  product?  

Page 30: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Under  strongly  basic  conditions,  glucose  and  mannose  interconvert.  

•  Mannose  and  glucose  are  epimers  because  they  only  differ  in  the  configuraKon  of  one  carbon  center.  

           ReacKons  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 31: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Monosaccharides  can  be  reduced  to  ALDITOLs  shifing  the  equilibrium  to  the  right.  HOW?  

– D-­‐sorbitol  or  D-­‐glucitol  are  sugar  subsKtutes.  

         ReacKons  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 32: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  If  the  sugar  has  an  –OH  a[ached  to  the  anomeric  carbon,  then  the  sugar  is  a  reducing  sugar  

•  If  it  has  –OR,  then  it  is  not  a  reducing  sugar  

Reducing  sugars  

Page 33: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

           ReacKons  of  Monosaccharides  

Page 34: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Disaccharides  form  when  two  sugars  connect  through  a  glycosidic  linkage.    

 

–  The  1  à 4  glycosidic  linkage  is  most  common.  

–  The  bottom  ring  is  capable  of  mutarotaKon   at   its   anomeric  posiKon.  

–  Because  the  anomeric  posiKon  of  the  bottom  ring  is  a  HEMIACETAL  rather  than  an  acetal,  it  is  in  equilibrium  with  the  open  form.  Thus,  maltose  is  a  reducing  sugar.  

     Disaccharides  

Page 35: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Cellobiose  is  similar  to  maltose.  WHAT  are  the  differences?  

•  Will  cellobiose  be  a  reducing  sugar?  

           Disaccharides  

Page 36: Carbohydrates+(sugars)+are+polyhydroxy+ aldehydes+or+ketones.+depa.fquim.unam.mx/amyd/archivero/CARBOHIDRATOS1_24341.pdf · • Saccharides+havemu ltiple+chiral+centers,+and+they

•  Lactose  is  another  disaccharide.  

•  Some  people  have  trouble  digesKng  lactose.  

         Disaccharides