Caribou 1

CaribouThis article is about the North American animal. For the Eurasian animal, see Reindeer. For other uses, see Caribou(disambiguation).

Caribou (North America)

Male Porcupine caribou R. t. granti in Alaska

Conservation status

Least Concern  (IUCN 3.1)Scientific classification

Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataClass: MammaliaOrder: ArtiodactylaFamily: CervidaeSubfamily: CapreolinaeGenus: Rangifer

C.H. Smith, 1827Species: R. tarandus

Binomial name

Rangifer tarandus(Linnaeus, 1758)

Subspecies in North America

• R. t. caribou – Canada and U.S• R. t. granti – Alaska, Yukon• R. t. groenlandicus – Nunavut, NWT, western Greenland• R. t. pearyi – Baffin Island, Nunavut, NWTAlso see text

Caribou 2

Approximate range of caribou subspecies in North America. Overlap is possible for contiguous range. 1.Rangifer taranduscaribousubdivided into ecotypes: woodland (boreal), woodland (migratory), woodland (montane), 2.R t Dawsoni extinct 1907, 3. R t

granti, 4.R t groenlandicus, 5.Groenlandicus/Pearyi 6. R t pearyi

Synonyms

reindeer in Europe and Eurasia

The caribou,[1] also known as reindeer and wild reindeer in Europe and Eurasia,[1] of the same species—Rangifertarandus— is a medium size ungulate of the Cervidae family which also includes wapiti, moose and deer. The NorthAmerican range of this Holarctic animal extends from Alaska, through the Yukon, the Northwest Territories,Nunavut, into the boreal forest and south through the Canadian Rockies and the Columbia and Selkirk Mountains.[2]

The caribou is a specialist that is well adapted to cooler climates with hollow-hair fur that covers almost all of itsbody including its nose, and provides insulation in winter and flotation for swimming.[2] Two major subspecies inNorth America, the R. t. granti and the R. t. groenlandicus form large herds and undertake lengthy seasonalmigrations from birthing grounds, to summer and winter feeding grounds in the tundra and taiga. The migrations ofR. t. granti Porcupine herd are among the longest of any terrestrial mammal.[2] The George River caribou herd(GRCH) of the R. t. caribou subspecies in the Ungava area—once the largest Rangifer tarandus herd in theworld—declined to 74 131 animals—a drop of up to 92%.[3] In 2011 the combined Beverly/Ahiak herd in theNorthwest Territories and Nunavut, had approximately 124 000 caribou— at least a 50% drop since 1994; theWestern caribou herd had 325 000 animals and the[4][5] Qamanirjuaq caribou herd which is relatively stable haddeclined from 496 000 in 1994 to 345 000 in 2008.[6] The meta-population of the more sedentary subspecies R. t.caribou or Woodland caribou spans the boreal forest from the Northwest Territories to Labrador. They are shyanimals whose main food source is arboreal lichens[7] of the mature forests[8] and mainly live in marshes, bogs,lakes, and river regions.[9][10] Since it takes hundreds of years for a biomass of tree lichen to be adequate to sustainboreal woodland caribou populations, deforestation is a major factor in the decline of their numbers.[7] The historicrange of the boreal woodland caribou covered over half of present-day Canada,[11] stretching from Alaska toNewfoundland and Labrador and as far south as New England, Idaho, and Washington. The smallest subspecies inNorth America, the Peary Caribou is found in the High and Low Arctic, in the Northwest Territories—particularly,Banks Island and in Nunavut—particularly, Baffin Island.Caribou can reach a speed of 60–80 km/h (37–50 mph). Young caribou can already outrun an Olympic sprinterwhen only a day old.[12]

Ongoing human development of caribou habitat has caused populations of Woodland caribou to disappear from their original southern range. In particular, the caribou was extirpated in many areas of eastern North America in the beginning of the 20th century. Woodland caribou was designated as threatened in 2002.[13] Environment Canada

Caribou 3

reported in 2011 that there were approximately 34 000 boreal caribou in 51 ranges remaining in Canada(Environment Canada, 2011b).[14]

The caribou's favourite winter food is fruticose deer lichen. Seventy percent of the diet of woodland caribou consistsof arboreal lichen which take hundreds of years to grow and are therefore only found in mature forests.[8]

Barren-ground, Porcupine and Peary caribou live in the tundra while the shy Woodland caribou, prefers the borealforest.Although there are many variations in colour and size, Canadian Geographic magazine states that in general,Barren-ground caribou have larger antlers than the woodland caribou subspecies. Barren-ground caribou have largedistinguishing white patches of fur that extend beyond the neck onto the back, a white muzzle and a face that isdarker than the rest of the body. Their fur is sandy-beige in winter and light brown in summer. The Woodlandcaribou have a wider more compact body and wider antlers. The coat is a rich dark brown in summer and dark greyin winter. Both the barren-ground and woodland caribou often have white "socks" above their hooves.[15] On averagethe male weighs 90–110 kg (200–240 lb) and measures .9–1.7 m (3.0–5.6 ft) in shoulder height. The Woodlandcaribou are the largest and the Peary caribou the smallest. The largest Alaskan male caribou can weigh as much as310 kilograms (680 lb).Both sexes grow antlers, though in a some Woodland caribou populations, females lack antlers completely. Antlersare larger in males.

Naming and etymologyFurther information: ReindeerThe name caribou comes, through the French, from the Mi'kmaq xalibu or Qalipu meaning "the one who paws".Marc Lescarbot in his publication in French 1610 [16] used the term "caribou." Silas Tertius Rand translated theMi'kmaq word Kaleboo as caribou in his Mi'kmaq-English.[17][18] The Gwich’in people have over two dozen distinctcaribou-related words.[19]In Inuktitut, spoken in the eastern Arctic, the caribou is known by the name tuktu.[20]

With its range across North America and depth of history, Rangifer tarandus has countless aboriginal names. Thenomadic Naskapi people followed George River Caribou Herd.[21] "By the late 1940s, the pressures of the fur trade,high rates of mortality and debilitation from diseases communicated by Europeans, and the effects of the virtualdisappearance of the herd reduced the Naskapi to a state where their very survival was threatened."[22]

Names for caribou in indigenous languages

caribou syllabicsor

meaning language people region R. t. subspecies andecotype

languagefamily

qalipu one whopaws

Mi'kmaq Mi'kmaq what is now EasternCanada and U.S.

R. t. caribou languagedepth

atihkw language Cree-Montagnais-Naskapi region R. t. caribou

Tuttuttumai[23]

Inupiaqlanguage

Inuipiat people Alaska R. t. granti (WesternArctic caribou herd)

bedzeyhtene[5]

KoyukonAthabaskan

culture Alaska (WesternArctic caribou herd)

R. t. granti

tuntuttumait[5]

Yup'ik Central Alaskan Yup'ikpeople

Alaska (WesternArctic caribou herd)

R. t. granti

Tuktu[24] (Inuktitut Inuit Nunavut(barren-ground) andLabrador

R. t. groenlandicus

Caribou 4

vadzaih[19] caribou Gwich’inlanguage

Gwich’in Northwest Territories(Porcupine River)

R. t. granti

Wëdzey[25] Hän

atíhko caribou Woods Cree Cree Northern Manitoba R t groenlandicus Algonquianlanguages

Taxonomy and evolutionThe species taxonomic name Rangifer tarandus (reindeer, caribou) was defined by Carl Linnaeus in 1758. Thesubspecies taxonomic name, Rangifer tarandus caribou was defined by Gmelin in 1788.Current classifications of Rangifer tarandus, either with prevailing taxonomy on subspecies, designations based onecotypes, and natural population groupings, fail to capture "the variability of caribou across their range in Canada"needed for effective species conservation and management.[26] "Across the range of a species, individuals maydisplay considerable morphological, genetic, and behavioural variability reflective of both plasticity and adaptationto local environments."[27] COSEWIC developed Designated Unit (DU) attribution to add to classifications alreadyin use.[26]

Based on Banfield's often-cited A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer (1961),[28] R. t.caboti(LabradorCaribou), R. t. osborni (Osborn's Caribou—from British Columbia) and R. t. terraenovae(Newfoundland Caribou) were considered invalid and included in R. t. caribou.Some recent authorities have considered them all valid, even suggesting that they are quite distinct. In their bookentitled Mammal Species of the World, American zoologist Don E. Wilson and DeeAnn Reeder agree with ValeriusGeist, specialist on large North American mammals, that this range actually includes severalsubspecies.[29][30][31][32][33]

The woodland caribou's frontally emphasized,flat-beamed antlers are evident in this drawing by

Foresman

Geist (2007) argued that the "true woodland caribou, the uniformlydark, small-manned type with the frontally emphasized, flat-beamedantlers", which is "scattered thinly along the southern rim of NorthAmerican caribou distribution" has been incorrectly classified. Heaffirms that "true woodland caribou is very rare, in very greatdifficulties and requires the most urgent of attention."[34]

In 2005, an analysis of mtDNA found differences between the cariboufrom Newfoundland, Labrador, south-western Canada andsouth-eastern Canada, but maintained all in R. t caribou.[35]

Mallory and Hillis[36] argued that, "Although the taxonomicdesignations reflect evolutionary events, they do not appear to reflectcurrent ecological conditions. In numerous instances, populations ofthe same subspecies have evolved different demographic andbehavioural adaptations, while populations from separate subspecieshave evolved similar demographic and behavioural patterns... "[U]nderstanding ecotype in relation to existingecological constraints and releases may be more important than the taxonomic relationships betweenpopulations."[36]

Caribou 5

EvolutionThe "glacial-interglacial cycles of the upper Pleistocene had a major influence on the evolution" of Rangifertarandus and other Arctic and sub-Arctic species. Much of the Late Pleistocene age was dominated by glaciation(the Wisconsin glaciation in North America and corresponding glacial periods in Eurasia). Rangifer tarandus wasisolated in refugia during the last glacial - the Wisconsin in North America—extending approximately from 85 000BP to 11 000 BP—and the Weishselian.[1] According to research based on mitochondrial DNA, "ancestralpopulations of R. t. caribou likely survived the Wisconsin glaciation in separate refugia located south of thecontinental ice sheet, while other Rangifer tarandus subspecies"—R.t groenlandicus and R. t. granti—"survivednorth of the ice sheet."[35](Røed et al. 1991)[1] Newfoundland caribou are most closely related to other woodlandcaribou (R. t. caribou) from Labrador, Quebec, and Alberta rather than barren-ground caribou (R.t groenlandicus andR. t. granti) from northern Canada and Alaska.[35]

SubspeciesThe canonical Mammal Species of the World (3rd ed.) recognizes fourteen subspecies globally.[37] Two of thesesubspecies are only in North America—Grant’s caribou and Peary caribou. Barren-land caribou are found in westernGreenland, but the larger herds are in Alaska, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut.[37]

subspecies of Rangifer tarandus in North America

subspecies name migratory division[37] range weight of

maleevolution

R. t. caribou(Gmelin,1788)[28]

Woodland caribou (Gmelin,1788) – woodland caribou

sedentary[38] borealforest

Canada and U.S

R. t. granti[28] Porcupine caribou Grant’scaribou

migratory tundra Alaska, Yukon 300 kg(660 lb)

R. t. groenlandicus(Borowski, 1780)[28]

barren-groundcaribou(Borowski, 1780)

migratory tundra Nunavut, NWT, westernGreenland

150 kg(330 lb)

R. t. pearyi (J. A. Allen,1902)[28]

Peary caribou (J. A. Allen,1902)

island species makelocal movements

Banks Island, NWT, HighArctic population (BaffinIsland), Nunavut

smallest

Extinct subspecies of Rangifer tarandus in North America

subspecies name migratory tundra range height ofmale

extinctsince

R. t. dawsoni (Thompson-Seton,1900)[28]

†Queen Charlotte Islandscaribou

extinct no Queen CharlotteIslands

no data 1910

Caribou 6

Subspecies of Rangifer tarandus in North America that are notpart of Banfield's 1961 review[28]

subspecies name migratory tundra range height ofmale

R. tarandus osborni** (J. A. Allen, 1902)[31] Osborn's caribou J. A.Allen, 1902

BritishColumbia)

nodata

R. t. terraenovae**(Bangs, 1896)[37][31]

R. t. caboti**(G. M. Allen, 1914)[37][31]

The table above includes R. tarandus caboti (Labrador caribou), R. tarandus osborni(Osborn's caribou – fromBritish Columbia) and R. tarandus terraenovae (Newfoundland caribou). Based on Banfield's review in 1961,[28]R.tarandus caboti (Labrador caribou), R. tarandus osborni(Osborn's caribou – from British Columbia) and R. tarandusterraenovae (Newfoundland caribou) were considered invalid and included in R. tarandus caribou. However, morerecent authorities[39] have considered them all valid, even suggesting that they are quite distinct.[31] An analysis ofmtDNA in 2005 found differences between the caribou from Newfoundland, Labrador, south-western Canada andsouth-eastern Canada, but maintained all in R. tarandus caribou.[35]

Some of the species Rangifer tarandus and subspecies may be further divided by ecotype depending on severalbehavioural factors - predominant habitat use (northern, tundra, mountain, forest, boreal forest, forest-dwelling,woodland, woodland (mountain), woodland (boreal), woodland (migratory), spacing (dispersed or aggregated) andmigration (sedentary or migratory).[40][41][42]

Biology and behaviour

Physical characteristicsIn most caribou subspecies, both males and females sexes grow antlers—unique among cervid species. Some R. t.caribou ecotype females do not have antlers. The antlers typically have two separate groups of points, a lower andupper. There is considerable subspecific variation in the size of the antlers (e.g., rather small and spindly in R. t.Pearyi),[43] but, on average, the bull's antlers are the second largest of any living deer, after the moose. In the largestcaribou—R. t. caribou—antlers of large males can range up to 100 cm (39 in) in width[44] and 135 cm (53 in) inbeam length. They have the largest antlers relative to body size among living deer species.The colour of the fur varies considerably, both individually and depending on season and subspecies. The Pearycaribou are whiter and relatively small; Woodland Caribou are darker brown with unique patches of white fur. TheAlaskan and barren-ground caribou are greyer than the woodland caribou.[43] The coat has two layers of fur: a densewoolly undercoat and longer-haired overcoat consisting of hollow, air-filled hairs.[45][46][45]

Like moose, caribou have specialized noses featuring nasal turbinate bones that dramatically increase the surfacearea within the nostrils. Incoming cold air is warmed by the animal's body heat before entering the lungs, and wateris condensed from the expired air and captured before the deer's breath is exhaled, used to moisten dry incoming airand possibly absorbed into the blood through the mucous membranes.Reindeer hooves adapt to the season: in the summer, when the tundra is soft and wet, the footpads becomesponge-like and provide extra traction. In the winter, the pads shrink and tighten, exposing the rim of the hoof, whichcuts into the ice and crusted snow to keep it from slipping. This also enables them to dig down (an activity known as"cratering") "In the winter, the fleshy pads on these toes grow longer and form a tough, hornlike rim. Caribou usethese large, sharp-edged hooves to dig through the snow and uncover the lichens that sustain them in winter months.Biologists call this activity "cratering" because of the crater-like cavity the caribou’s hooves leave in the snow."[47]

through the snow to their favorite food, a lichen known as reindeer moss.Caribou across North America range in size. In the farthest west, Alaskan caribou females usually measure 162–205 cm (64–81 in) in length and weigh 80–120 kg (180–260 lb).[48] The males (or "bulls") are typically larger

Caribou 7

(although the extent to which varies in the different subspecies), measuring 180–214 cm (71–84 in)in length andusually weighing 159–182 kg (351–401 lb), though exceptionally large males have weighed as much as318 kg(701 lb). Shoulder height typically measure from85 to 150 cm (33 to 59 in), and the tail is14 to 20 cm (5.5 to 7.9 in)long.The knees of many species of reindeer are adapted to produce a clicking sound as they walk.[49][50] The soundsoriginate in the tendons of the knees and may be audible from ten meters away. The frequency of the knee-clicks isone of an array of signals that establish relative positions on a dominance scale among reindeer. "Specifically, loudknee-clicking is discovered to be an honest signal of body size, providing an exceptional example of the potential fornon-vocal acoustic communication in mammals."[50]

Diet

Caribou licking salt from roadway in BritishColumbia

Reindeer are ruminants, having a four-chambered stomach. Theymainly eat lichens in winter, especially reindeer moss—the "only largemammal able to metabolize lichen owing to specialized bacteria andprotozoa in their gut."[51] They also eat the leaves of willows andbirches, as well as sedges and grasses.

Reproduction and life-cycle

Further information: Rut (mammalian reproduction)#CervidaeAs the weather cools in the fall, barren-ground and Porcupine caribouwould leave their summer grounds forming large herds and migratesouth for the winter. They would start mating when large lakes were frozen over. Just prior to mating, the males ofboth caribou were in prime condition, fat and ready to battle for mates. Bulls at this time were more aggressive andthey were usually alone. Male caribou used their antlers to compete with other males during the mating season. "Inpreparation for this, the velvet falls off–or is rubbed off–and the antlers harden." They continued to migrate until thebull caribou had spent the back fat (IOHP 065). After the mating season, the male caribou shed his antlers, growing anew pair the next summer with a larger rack than the previous year. As the antler grows it is covered in thick velvet,filled with blood vessels and spongy in texture. In the woodland caribou, the velvet is brown.[52]

...these antlers get detached every year… Young males lose the velvet from the antlers much more quicklythan female caribou even though they are not fully mature. They start to work with their antlers just as soon asthe velvet starts to fall off. The young males engage in fights with their antlers towards autumn… soon afterthe velvet had fallen off they will be red, as they start to get bleached their colour changes… When the velvetstarts to fall off the antler is red because the antler is made from blood. The antler is the blood that hashardened, in fact the core of the antler is still bloody when the velvet starts to fall off, at least close to the base.—Noah Piugaattuk of Igloolik (IOHP 037)

.

Caribou 8

Social structure, migration and range

Alaskan Caribou aggregation in 1002 Area,Arctic National Wildlife Refuge (April 2008)

Some populations of the North American caribou, for example, manyherds in the subspecies, the barren-ground caribou, and some woodlandcaribou in Ungava and Labrador, migrate the farthest of any terrestrialmammal, travelling up to 5,000 km (3,100 mi) a year, andcovering1,000,000 km2 (390,000 sq mi).[53] Other North Americanpopulations, the woodland caribou (boreal) for example, are largelysedentary. Smaller herds and island herds like R. t. pearsoni makemove least.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Normally travelling about 19–55 km (12–34 mi) a day whilemigrating, the caribou can run at speeds of 60–80 km/h (37–50 mph).Young caribou can already outrun an Olympic sprinter when only a day old.[54] During the spring migration smallerherds will group together to form larger herds of 50 000 to 500 000 animals. During autumn migrations groupsbecome smaller and they begin to mate. During the winter, migratory herds travel to winter feeding grounds alongcoastlines in the tundra above the tree line. Below the tree line they shift to the forest for winter feeding. By spring,groups leave their winter grounds to go to the calving grounds. A caribou can swim easily and quickly, normallyat6.5 km/h (4.0 mph) but if necessary at 10 km/h (6.2 mph), and migrating herds will not hesitate to swim across alarge lake or broad river.

Moberly herd has gone from 191 caribou to 35. The Bearhole-Redwillow

Predators

Reindeer standing on snow to avoidblood-sucking insects.

Healthy caribou are faster than their predators—wolves and bears.However, wolves are their natural predators but without wolves—as inthe case in Newfoundland—caribou populations can outfeed theirrange. Wolverines—who are themselves a threatened species in someparts of Canada— can kill adult caribou. Bears prey on caribou but aremost likely to attack weaker animals, such as calves and sick deer.

As carrion, caribou are fed on opportunistically by foxes, ravens andhawks. Blood-sucking insects, such as black flies and mosquitoes, are aplague to caribou during the summer and can cause enough stress toinhibit feeding and calving behaviors.[55] An adult reindeer will loseperhaps about 1 litre (0.26 US gal) of blood to biting insects for everyweek it spends in the tundra.[12]

Ecology

Distribution and habitatOriginally, caribou range spanned the northern conterminous USA from Washington to Maine. In the 19th century, itwas apparently still present in southern Idaho. During the late Pleistocene era, reindeer were found as far south asNevada and Tennessee in North America.According to the Grubb,[37] Rangifer tarandus is "circumboreal in the tundra and taiga" from "Alaska (USA) andCanada including most Arctic islands, and USA (Northern Idaho and the Great Lakes region).[37]

Caribou 9

Rangifer tarandus by country

North America

Approximate range of caribou subspecies in North America. Overlap is possible forcontiguous range. 1.Rangifer tarandus caribou subdivided into ecotypes: woodland

(boreal), woodland (migratory), woodland (montane), 2.R t Dawsoni extinct 1907, 3. Rt granti, 4.R t groenlandicus, 5. Groenlandicus/Pearyi 6. R t pearyi

There are four living subspecies of R.tarandus, locally known in NorthAmerica as caribou—R t. granti(Porcupine Caribou), Rangifer taranduscaribou subdivided into ecotypes:woodland (boreal), woodland(migratory), woodland (montane), R tgranti, R t groenlandicus and R t pearyi.

In North America, because of its vastrange in a wide diversity of ecosystems,the subspecies Rangifer taranduscaribou is further distinguished by anumber of ecotypes, including borealwoodland caribou, mountain woodlandcaribou and migratory woodlandcaribou).[40][41][42]

Populations—caribou that do notmigrate—or herds—those that domigrate—may not fit into narrowecotypes. For example, Banfield's 1961classification of the migratory GeorgeRiver Caribou Herd, in the Ungavaregion of Quebec, as subspeciesRangifer tarandus caribou, woodlandcaribou, remains—although otherwoodland caribou are mainly sedentary.

United States

Although there are remnant populations of R. t. caribou boreal woodland caribou in the northern United States, mostof U.S. caribou populations are in Alaska. There are four herds in Alaska, the Western Arctic herd, Teshekpuk Lakeherd, the Central Arctic herd and the Porcupine herd.

Alaska

Alaska has several herds of R t granti. The largest is the Western Arctic Caribou Herd but the smaller R t granti hasthe longest migration of any terrestrial mammal on earth with a vast historical range. The smaller Central Arctic herd(32 000 in 2002).

Caribou 10

Porcupine caribou herd

Main article: Porcupine caribou

Male Porcupine caribou R. t. granti in Alaska

Migratory caribou herds are named after their birthing grounds, in thiscase the Porcupine River, which runs through a large part of the rangeof the Porcupine herd. Individual herds of migratory caribou once hadover a million animals per herd, and could taking over ten days to crossthe Yukon River, but these numbers dramatically declined with habitatdisturbance and degradation. Though numbers fluctuate, the herdcomprises approximately 169 000 animals (based on a July 2010photocensus). The R. t. granti's Porcupine herd's annual migrations of1,500 miles (2,400 km) are among the longest of any terrestrialmammal.[2] Their range spans approximately 260,000 km2 (64,000,000acres), from Dawson City, Yukon to Aklavik, NWT to Kaktovik,Alaska on the Beaufort Sea. The Porcupine caribou or Grant'scaribou(Rangifer tarandus granti) is a subspecies with a vast rangethat includes northeastern Alaska and the Yukon, and is thereforecooperatively managed by government agencies and aboriginal peoplesfrom both countries.[35] The Gwich'in people, followed the PorcupineCaribou herd—their primary source of food, tools, and clothing—forthousands of years—according to oral tradition, for as long as 20 000years. They continued their nomadic lifestyle until the 1870s.[56] Thisherd is also traditional food for the Inupiat, Inuvialuit, Hän, and Northern Tutchone. There is currently controversyover whether possible future oil drilling on the coastal plains of the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge, encompassingmuch of the Porcupine Caribou calving grounds, will have a severe negative impact on the caribou population orwhether the caribou population will grow.

Unlike many other Rangifer tarandus subspecies and their ecotypes, the Porcupine herd is stable at relatively highnumbers, but the 2013 photo-census was not counted by January 2014.[4] The peak population in 1989 of 178 000animals was followed by a decline by 2001 to 123 000. However by 2010, there was a recovery and an increase to169 000 animals.[4]

Many Gwich'in people, who depend on the Porcupine caribou, still follow traditional caribou management practicesthat include a 1981 prohibition against selling caribou meat and limits on the number of caribou to be taken perhunting trip.[57]

All three herds cross the Brooks Range in their annual migrations. The Western Arctic herd reached a low of 75 000in the mid-1970s. In 1997 the 90,000 WACH changed their migration and wintered on Seward Peninsula whereAlaskan reindeer normally wintered. The reindeer, part of the Reindeer Project herds brought north from Siberia viaAlaska, joined the WACH on their summer migration and disappeared.[58] The WACH reached a peak of 490 000 in2003 and then declined to 325 000 in 2011.[5] In 2008, the Teshekpuk Lake herd had 64 107 animals and the CentralArctic herd had 67 000.

Caribou 11

Reindeer imported to Alaska

Reindeer were imported from Siberia in the late 19th century and from Norway in the early 1900s assemi-domesticated livestock in Alaska.[59] Reindeer interbreed with native caribou subspecies.

Canada

Nunavut

The barren-ground caribou subspecies R. t. groenlandicus,,[28] a long-distance migrant, includes large herds in theNorthwest Territories and in Nunavut, for example the Beverly, the Ahiak and Qamanirjuaq herds. In 1996 thepopulation of the Ahiak herd was approximately 250 000 animals.

Ahiak, Beverly, Qamanirjuaq herds

The Ahiak, Beverly, Qamanirjuaq herds are barren-ground caribou.

The Beverly herd of barren-ground caribou,Thelon River, Nunavut.

"The Beverly herd’s crossing of the Thelon River to its traditionalcalving grounds near Beverly Lake was part of the lives of the Deneaboriginal people for 8 000 years, as revealed by an unbrokenarchaeological record of deep layers of caribou bones and stone toolsin the banks of the Thelon River (Gordon 2005)."[60] The Beverly Herd(located primarily in Saskatchewan, Northwest Territories; portions inNunavut, Manitoba, Alberta) and the Qamanirjuaq Herd (locatedprimarily in Manitoba, Nunavut; portions in southeastern NWT,northeastern Saskatchewan) fall under the auspices of the Beverly andQamanirjuaq Caribou Management Board. The Beverly herd, whoserange spans the tundra from northern Manitoba and Saskatchewan andwell into the Northwest Territories and Nunavut, had a peak population in 1994 of 276 000[61][62] or 294 000,[4] butby 2011 there were approximately 124 000 caribou in the Beverly herd and 83,300 in the Ahiak herd. The calvinggrounds of the Beverly caribou herd are located around Queen Maud Gulf but the herd shifted its traditional birthingarea. Caribou management agencies are concerned that deterioration and disturbance of habitat along with "parasites,predation and poor weather"[63] are contributing to a cycling down of most caribou populations. It was suggested theAhiak and Beverly herds switched calving grounds and the Beverly may have moved "near the western Queen MaudGulf coast to the north of the herd’s "traditional" calving ground in the Gary Lakes area north of Baker Lake." The"Beverly herd may have declined (similar to other Northwest Territories herds), and cows switched to theneighbouring Ahiak herd to maintain the advantages of gregarious calving."[64] By 2011 there were approximately124,000 caribou in the combined Beverly/Ahiak herd which represents a "50% or a 75% decline from the 1994population estimate for the Beverly Herd."[4]

The barren-ground caribou population on Southampton Island, Nunavut declined by almost 75%, from about 30 000caribou in 1997 to 7,800 caribou in 2011.[4][65]

Caribou 12

Peary caribou

Main article: Peary caribou

The Peary caribou is a relatively small and palesubspecies found in the tundra of far northern

North America.

The R. t. pearyi (Peary caribou), the smallest of the species, known asTuktu in Inuktitut, are found in the High Arctic of Nunavut and theNorthwest Territories. The Peary caribou a Canadian endemicsubspecies and appears to be of postglacial origin. They remain at lownumbers after severe declines and all populations are listed asendangered by COSEWIC. On Baffin Island, the largest Arctic island,the population of Peary caribou peaked in the early 1990s toapproximately 60 000 to 180 000.[66] By 2012, in northern BaffinIsland caribou numbers were considered to be at a "low in the cycleafter a high in the 1990s" and in south Baffin Island, the populationwas estimated estimated as between 1 065 and 2 067.[67]

Northwest Territories

There are four barren-ground caribou herds in the Northwest Territories—Cape Bathurst, Bluenose West, BluenoseEast and Bathurst.[4] The Bluenose East caribou herd began a recovery with a population of approximately 122 000in 2010.[68] which is being credited to the establishment of Tuktut Nogait National Park.[69] According to T. Davison2010, CARMA 2011, the three other herds "declined 84-93% from peak sizes in the mid-1980s and 1990s.[4]

R. t. caribou

Main article: Boreal woodland caribouThe subspecies R. t. caribou commonly known as Woodland caribou, is divided into ecotypes: boreal woodlandcaribou, (also known as forest-dwelling, woodland caribou (boreal), mountain woodland caribou and migratorywoodland caribou) Caribou are classified by ecotype depending on several behavioural factors - predominant habitatuse (northern, tundra, mountain, forest, boreal forest, forest-dwelling), spacing (dispersed or aggregated) andmigration (sedentary or migratory).[40][41][42]

In Canada, the national meta-population of the sedentary boreal ecotype spans the boreal forest from the NorthwestTerritories to Labrador. They prefer lichen-rich mature forests and mainly live in marshes, bogs, lakes, and riverregions. The historic range of the boreal woodland caribou covered over half of present-day Canada, stretching fromAlaska to Newfoundland and Labrador and as far south as New England, Idaho, and Washington. Woodland caribouhave disappeared from most of their original southern range. The boreal woodland woodland was designated asthreatened in 2002.[13] In 2011 there were approximately 34 000 boreal caribou in 51 ranges remaining in Canada.

George River caribou herd (GRCH)

Main article: George River (Quebec)The migratory George River caribou herd (GRCH), in the Ungava region of Quebec and Labrador in eastern Canadawas once the world's largest herd with 800 000–900 000 animals. Although it is categorized as a subspecies Rangifertarandus caribou,[28] the Woodland caribou, the GRCH is migratory and like the barren-ground caribou it's ecotypemay be tundra caribou, Arctic, northern of migratory, not forest-dwelling and sedentary like most Woodland caribouecotypes. It is unlike most woodland caribou in that it is not sedentary. Since the mid-1990s, the herd declinedsharply and by 2010, it was reduced to 74,131—a drop of up to 92%.[3] A 2011 survey confirms a continuing declineof the George River migratory caribou herd population. By 2012 it was estimated to be about 27,600 animals, downfrom 385 000 in 2001 and 74 131 in 2010."[3][63][4]

Caribou 13

Leaf River caribou herd (LRCH)

Caribou crossing Leaf River Leaf River and caribou

The Leaf River caribou herd (LRCH), another migratory forest-tundra ecotype of the boreal woodland caribou, nearthe coast of Hudson Bay, increased from 270 000 individuals in 1991 to 628 000 in 2001.[70] By 2011 the herd haddecreased to 430 000 caribou.[4][71][72] According to an international study on caribou populations, the George Riverand Leaf River herds, and other herds that migrate from Nunavik, Quebec and insular Newfoundland, could bethreatened with extinction by 2080.[63]

Queen Charlotte Islands caribou

Main article: Queen Charlotte Islands caribouThe extinct Queen Charlotte Islands caribou (R. tarandus dawsoni) from the Queen Charlotte Islands was believed torepresent a distinct subspecies. It became extinct at the beginning of the 20th century. However, recent DNAanalysis from mitochondrial DNA of the remains from those reindeer suggest that the animals from the QueenCharlotte Islands were not genetically distinct from the Canadian mainland reindeer subspecies.

Conservation statusWoodland caribou have disappeared from most of their original southern range and was designated as threatened in2002 by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC).[13] Environment Canadareported in 2011 that there were approximately 34 000 boreal caribou in 51 ranges remaining inCanada.(Environment Canada, 2011b).[14] "According to Geist, the "woodland caribou is highly endangeredthroughout its distribution right into Ontario."[37]

In 2002 the Atlantic-Gaspésie population of the Woodland caribou was designated as endangered by COSEWIC.The small isolated population of 200 animals was at risk from predation and habitat loss.In 1991 COSEWIC assigned "endangered status" to the Banks Island and High Arctic populations of Peary caribou.The Low Arctic population of Peary caribou was designated as threatened. By 2004 all three were designated as"endangered."[73] In spite of voluntary hunting quotas—for example in Sachs Harbour—This caribou is a Canadianendemic subspecies.

Numbers have declined by about 72% over the last three generations, mostly because of catastrophic die-offlikely related to severe icing episodes. The ice covers the vegetation and caribou starve. Voluntary restrictionson hunting by local people are in place, but have not stopped population declines. Because of the continuingdecline and expected changes in long-term weather patterns, this subspecies is at imminent risk of extinction.—COSEWIC 2004

Caribou 14

According to IUCN Rangifer tarandus as a species is not endangered because of its overall large population and thewidespread range. However, in North America subspecies R.t. dawsoni is extinct.[73] R. t. Peary is endangered, R. t.caribou are designated as threatened and some individual populations are endangered. While the subspecies R. t.granti and R. t. groenlandicus are not designated as threatened, many individual herds—including some of thelargest—are declining and there is much concern at the local level.[4]

Rangifer tarandus is "endangered in Canada in regions such as south-east British Columbia at the Canadian-USAborder, along the Columbia, Kootenay and Kootenai rivers and around Kootenay Lake. Rangifer tarandus isendangered in the United States in Idaho and Washington.There is strong regional variation in Rangifer herd size, By 2013 many caribou herds in North America had"unusually low numbers" and their winter ranges in particular were smaller than they used to be.[4] Caribou numbershave fluctuated historically, but many herds are in decline across their range.[74] There are many factors contributingto the decline in numbers.[75]

Relationship with humansHumans started hunting caribou in the Mesolithic and Neolithic periods.Rangifer tarandus hunting by humans has a very long history, and they "may well be the species of single greatestimportance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting."[76] "In North America and Eurasia the species haslong been an important resource—in many areas 'the' most important resource—for peoples inhabiting the northernboreal forest and tundra regions. Known human dependence on caribou/wild reindeer has a long history, beginningin the Middle Pleistocene[77][78] and continuing to the present.... The caribou/wild reindeer is thus an animal that hasbeen a major resource for humans throughout a tremendous geographic area and across a time span of tens ofthousands of years."[76]

In the traditional lifestyle of the Inuit people, Northern First Nations people, Alaska Natives, the caribou is animportant source of food, clothing, shelter, and tools.

First Nations and Inuit oral historiesThere is an Inuit saying from the Kivalliq region,[79]

The caribou feeds the wolf, but it is the wolf who keeps the caribou strong.—Kivalliq region

Elder Chief of Koyukuk and chair for the Western Arctic Caribou Herd Working Group, Benedict Jones orK’ughto’oodenool’o’ represents the of the Middle Yukon River, Alaska. His grandmother was a member of theCaribou Clan, who travelled with the caribou as a means to survive. In 1939, they were living the traditional lifestyle at one of their hunting camps in Koyukuk near the location of what is now the Koyukuk National WildlifeRefuge. His grandmother made a pair of new mukluks in one day. K’ughto’oodenool’o’ recounted story told by anelder, who "worked on the steamboats during the gold rush days out on the Yukon." In late August the cariboumigrated from the Alaska Range up north to Huslia, Koyukuk, and the Tanana area. One year the steamboat wasunable to continue they ran into a caribou herd numbering estimated at a million animals, migrating across theYukon. "They tied up for seven days waiting for the caribou to cross. "They ran out of wood for the steamboats, andhad to go back down 40 miles to the wood pile to pick up some more wood. On the tenth day, they came back andthey said there was still caribou going across the river night and day."[5]

Caribou 15

In mythology and artAmong the Inuit, there is a story of the origin of the caribou,[80]

Once upon a time there were no caribou on the earth. But there was a man who wished for caribou, and he cuta hole deep in the ground, and up this hole came caribou, many caribou. The caribou came pouring out, untilthe earth was almost covered with them. And when the man thought there were caribou enough for mankind,he closed up the hole again. Thus the caribou came up on earth.—Canada's Arctic 2002a

Inuit artists from the barren lands, incorporate depictions of caribou—and items made from caribou antler andskin— in carvings, drawings, prints and sculpture.Contemporary Canadian artist Brian Jungen's, of Dunne-za First Nations ancestry, commissioned installation entitled"The ghosts on top of my head" (2010–11) in Banff, Alberta, depicts the antlers of caribou, elk and moose.[81]

I remember a story my Uncle Jack told me – a Dunne-Za creation story about how animals once ruled theearth and were ten times their size and that got me thinking about scale and using the idea of the antler, whichis a thing that everyone is scared of, and making it into something more approachable and abstract.—Brian Jungen 2011 [82]

Tomson Highway, CM[83] is a Canadian and Cree playwright, novelist, and children's author, who was born in aremote area north of Brochet, Manitoba. His father, Joe Highway, was a caribou hunter. His 2001 children's bookentitled Caribou Song/atíhko níkamon was selected as one of the "Top 10 Children’s Books" by the Canadiannewspaper The Globe and Mail. The young protagonists of Caribou Song, like Tomson himself, followed thecaribou herd with their families.

Canadian iconThe Canadian 25-cent coin, or "quarter" features a depiction of a caribou on one face. The caribou is the officialprovincial animal of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, and appears on the coat of arms of Nunavut. A cariboustatue was erected at the center of the Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial, marking the spot in France wherehundreds of soldiers from Newfoundland were killed and wounded in the First World War and there is a replica inBowring Park, in St. John's, Newfoundland's capital city.Wikipedia:Citation needed

Notes[1][1] Flagstad 2003.[2][2] Eder 2011, p. 81.[3][3] Nunatsiaq News 2013.[4] Russell & Gunn 2013.[5][5] Western Arctic Caribou Herd Working Group 2012.[6][6] Campbell 2010.[7][7] McCloskey 2011, p. 76.[8][8] CPAWSNWT 2010.[9][9] Natural Resources Canada 2000, p. 14.[10] Culling & Culling 2006, p. 1.[11][11] Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society and The David Suzuki Foundation 2013.[12][12] Hoare 2009.[13][13] COSEWIC 2011.[14][14] Environment Canada 2012, p. 9.[15][15] Canadian Geographic 2007.[16] http:/ / www. gutenberg. org/ cache/ epub/ 21221/ pg21221. txt[17][17] Rand 2006.[18][18] Rand 1888, p. 98.[19][19] First Voices 2014.

Caribou 16

[20][20] Spalding 1998.[21] http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ language/ nsk[22] http:/ / www. ethnologue. com/ language/ nsk[23] syllabics & Western Arctic Caribou Herd Working Group 2012.[24][24] Bennett 2008, p. 63.[25] http:/ / www. firstvoices. com/ en/ Han/ words[26][26] COSEWIC 2011, p. 3.[27][27] COSEWIC 2011, p. 10.[28][28] Banfield 1961.[29][29] Geist 1998.[30] Wilson & Reeder 2005.[31][31] Geist 2007.[32][32] Integrated Taxonomic Information System (ITIS) 2013.[33] The Integrated Taxonomic Information System list Wilson and Geist on their experts panel.[34][34] Geist 2007, p. 25.[35] Cronin, MacNeil & Patton 2005.[36] Mallory & Hillis 1998, p. 49.[37][37] Grubb 2005.[38][38] The George River and Leaf River caribou herds are classified as woodland but are also migratory with tundra as their primary range[39] Grubb (2005) argued that these North American the R. t.dawsonisubspecies in the Woodland Caribou division, that the R. tarandus osborni

subspecies in the Populations transitional between caribou and tarandus division and the subspecies R. t. caboti, R. t. groenlandicus, R. t.pearsoni and R. t. terraenovae in the Tarandus division, Barren-ground Caribou and the subspecies R. t. pearyi in the Platyrhynchus divisionshould be considered valid based on Banfield (Banfield) and considerably modified by Geist (1998).

[40][40] Bergerud 1996.[41][41] Festa-Bianchet et al. 2011.[42][42] Mager 2012.[43][43] Reid 2006.[44][44] Canadian Parks and Wilderness Society (CPAWS) 2004.[45][45] Bennett 2008, p. 116.[46][46] According to Inuit elder, Marie Kilunik of the Aivilingmiut, Canadian Inuit preferred the caribou skins from caribou taken in the late

summer of fall when their coats had thickened. They used for winter clothing "because each hair is hollow and fills with air trapping heat."(Marie Kilunik, Aivilingmiut, Crnkovich 1990:116).

[47][47] Project Caribou nd.[48] Caribou at the Alaska Department of Fish & Game (http:/ / www. adfg. alaska. gov/ index. cfm?adfg=caribou. main). Adfg.state.ak.us.

Retrieved on 2011-09-16.[49][49] Banfield 1966.[50][50] Bro-Jørgensen 2008.[51][51] McCloskey 2011, p. 73.[52][52] Canada's Arctic 2002.[53] Caribou Migration Monitoring by Satellite Telemetry (http:/ / www. mrnf. gouv. qc. ca/ english/ wildlife/ maps-caribou/ ). Mrnf.gouv.qc.ca.

Retrieved on 2011-09-16.[54][54] Hoare 2009, p. 45.[55] Caribou Foes: Natural Predators in the Wilderness (http:/ / www. learner. org/ jnorth/ tm/ caribou/ Predators. html). Learner.org. Retrieved

on 2011-09-16.[56][56] Gwich'in Council International (GCI) 2010.[57][57] Arctic Circle nd.[58] http:/ / maisonneuve. org/ article/ 2009/ 10/ 26/ curse-deer/[59] King, Irving H.(1996). The Coast Guard Expands, p. 86–91. Naval Institute Press, Annapolis, Maryland. ISBN 1-55750-458-X.[60] Gunn & Russell 2013.[61][61] Varga 2013a.[62][62] CBC 2008.[63][63] Varga 2013.[64] Campbell, M., J. Boulanger, D. S. Lee, M. Dumond. and J. McPherson, 2012: Calving ground abundance estimates of the Beverly and

Ahiak subpopulations of barren-ground caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) –June 2011. Technical summary to be replaced byTechnical Report Series, No. 03-2012, Government of Nunavut. 111 pp

[65] Campbell, M., J. Boulanger, and D. Lee, unpublished: Demographic Effects of an Outbreak of Brucella suis On Island BoundBarren-Ground Caribou (Rangifer tarandus groenlandicus) Southampton Island Nunavut. Unpublished data presented at the 13th ArcticUngulate Conference, 22–26 August 2011, Yellowknife, Northwest Territories, Canada

[66][66] Ferguson, M. A. D., and L. Gauthier, 1992: Status and trends of Rangifer tarandus and Ovibos moschatus in Canada. Rangifer, 12, 127-141

Caribou 17

[67] Jenkins, D. A., J. Goorts, and N. Lecomte. Cited 2012: Estimating the Abundance of South Baffin Caribou Summary Report 2012.Unpublished Report, Estimating the Abundance of South Baffin Caribou Summary Report 2012 (http:/ / env. gov. nu. ca/ sites/ default/ files/final_summary_report_last_version. pdf)

[68][68] (Adamczewski, J., J. Boulanger, B. Croft, T. Davison, H. Sayine-Crawford, and B. Tracz, In preparation: A Comparison of Calving andPost-calving Photo-surveys for the Bluenose-East Herd of Barren-ground Caribou in the Northwest Territories, Canada in 2010. Departmentof Environment and Natural Resources, Manuscript Report No. 245, 62 pp.)

[69] N.W.T. park may be contributing to caribou herd recovery: Bluenose West herd has seen first increase in size in 20 years (http:/ / www. cbc.ca/ news/ canada/ north/ n-w-t-park-may-be-contributing-to-caribou-herd-recovery-1. 1281276) CBC News. 19 December 2012

[70][70] Couturier et al. 2004.[71][71] Nunatsiaq News 2011.[72][72] Nunatsiaq News 2013a.[73][73] COSEWIC 2013.[74][74] Walker 2009.[75] Vors & Boyce 2009.[76][76] Burch Jr 1972.[77][77] Banfield 1961, p. 170.[78][78] Kurtén 1968, p. 170.[79] McCloskey & 2011 page 73.[80][80] Canada's Arctic 2002a.[81][81] Hornsby 2011.[82] http:/ / www. banffcentre. org/ blog/ 2011/ 08/ 25/ the-ghosts-on-top-of-my-head-iconic-sculpture-creates-campus-focal-point/[83] Tomson Highway (http:/ / www. thecanadianencyclopedia. com/ index. cfm?PgNm=TCE& Params=A1ARTA0010891) at The Canadian

Encyclopedia.

• Banfield rejected this classification in 1961. However, Valerius Geist and others considered it valid.

Further reading• "Caribou Census Complete: 325,000 animals" (http:/ / westernarcticcaribou. org/ wp-content/ uploads/ 2012/ 08/

CT2012_FINAL_0628_lowresolution. pdf) (PDF), Caribou Trails: News from the Western Arctic Caribou HerdWorking Group (Nome, Alaska: Western Arctic Caribou Herd Working Group), August 2012, retrieved 14January 2014 This 15 page well-illustrated and highly informative August 2012 edition of the Western ArcticCaribou organization newsletter, reported the 2011 census results of the WACH, which is Alaska's largest caribouherd.

Citations

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areas-of-concern/ caribou-mountains), Alberta Wilderness, n.d., retrieved 19 December 2013• Banfield, Alexander William Francis (1961), "A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer",

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bucknell. edu/ msw3/ browse. asp?id=14200328) (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press.ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC  62265494 (http:/ / www. worldcat. org/ oclc/ 62265494).

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Caribou 23

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Caribou 24

External links• Species at Risk in Canada Registry (http:/ / www. registrelep-sararegistry. gc. ca/ default_e. cfm)• List of Species at Risk in Canada, by category (http:/ / www. registrelep-sararegistry. gc. ca/ species/ schedules_e.

cfm?id=1)• Species at Risk in Canada (http:/ / www. hww. ca/ en/ issues-and-topics/ species-at-risk-in-canada. html) at

Hinterland Who's Who• Frequently Asked Questions about Caribou (http:/ / arctic. fws. gov/ carcon. htm) from the Arctic National

Wildlife Refuge]• Caribou and You (http:/ / www. caribouandyou. ca) – Campaign by CPAWS to protect the Woodland caribou, a

species at risk in Canada• Newfoundland Five-Year Caribou Strategy Seeks to Address Declining Populations (http:/ / www. releases. gov.

nl. ca/ releases/ 2008/ env/ 0207n06. htm)• Rangifer tarandus on the IUCN Red List (http:/ / www. iucnredlist. org/ details/ 29742/ 0)Reindeer herding and husbandry in North America• Reindeer Research Program - Alaska reindeer research and industry development (http:/ / reindeer. salrm. uaf.

edu/ )• Adaptations To Life In The Arctic (http:/ / reindeer. salrm. uaf. edu/ about_reindeer/ adaptations/ index.

php#Adaptations To Life In The Arctic) –Instructional slide-show, University of Alaska• Rangifer (http:/ / www. ub. uit. no/ baser/ rangifer/ ) – world's only scientific journal dealing exclusively with

husbandry, management and biology of Arctic and northern ungulates• 1935 Reindeer Herding in the Northwest Territories (http:/ / www. pwnhc. ca/ timeline/ index_winIFix.

asp?forward=http:/ / www. pwnhc. ca/ timeline/ 1925/ Reindeer_1935. htm#Scene_1)• General information on Caribou and Reindeer (http:/ / www. nps. gov/ archive/ bela/ html/ rangifer. htm)• Human Role in Reindeer/Caribou Systems (http:/ / www. rangifer. net/ rangifer/ index. cfm)• Works related to Caribou at Wikisource

Article Sources and Contributors 25

Article Sources and ContributorsCaribou  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?oldid=615345680  Contributors: Anaxial, BD2412, BDD, Badagnani, Bgwhite, BigRockFan, CambridgeBayWeather, EdJF, Frze, GogoDodo, Goustien, Graham87, Hamish59, Impy4ever, Jonesey95, KConWiki, Neelix, Nyttend, Oceanflynn, Papyrus-winged ninja Akil, Paranoid Android1208, PierreAbbat, Reywas92, Rob984,Scchipli, UltraCaution, Xnatedawgx, 13 anonymous edits

Image Sources, Licenses and ContributorsFile:Caribou.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caribou.jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: Dean Biggins (U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service)file:Status iucn3.1 LC.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Status_iucn3.1_LC.svg  License: unknown  Contributors: Clindberg, Foomin10, Ismukhammed, Kelson,Palosirkka, Pengo, ZxxZxxZ, 8 anonymous editsFile:Rangifer tarandus Map NA.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rangifer_tarandus_Map_NA.svg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike3.0,2.5,2.0,1.0  Contributors: CephasFile:Caribou (PSF).jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caribou_(PSF).jpg  License: unknown  Contributors: G8w, Igno2, Ksd5, Michel Deschenes, Oksmith, PatríciaRFile:Reindeer licking salt from roadway.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reindeer_licking_salt_from_roadway.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Joseph NHall (talk).File:Herd of Caribou.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Herd_of_Caribou.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: United States Fish and Wildlife ServiceFile:Reindeer-on-the-rocks.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Reindeer-on-the-rocks.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:User:UspnFile:Rentier fws 1.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Rentier_fws_1.jpg  License: Public Domain  Contributors: Blue Elf, Common Good, Factumquintus, Jarble, Kelly,Kersti Nebelsiek, TOR, 4 anonymous editsFile:Caribou Thelon River 1978.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caribou_Thelon_River_1978.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Original uploader was Hayne at en.wikipediaFile:Mech 06.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Mech_06.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors: L. David MechImage:Caribou crossing Leaf River.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caribou_crossing_Leaf_River.jpg  License: GNU Free Documentation License  Contributors:Lester KovacImage:Caribou at the campsite.jpg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Caribou_at_the_campsite.jpg  License: Creative Commons Attribution-Sharealike 3.0  Contributors:Lester Kovacfile:Wikisource-logo.svg  Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=File:Wikisource-logo.svg  License: logo  Contributors: ChrisiPK, Guillom, INeverCry, Jarekt, Leyo, MichaelMaggs,NielsF, Rei-artur, Rocket000, Steinsplitter

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