9/22/2010 1

IU 193

HIGH TECH TOYS

Carmen S. Menoni

Prof. Electrical & Computer Engineering

Colorado State University

Optics

Communications

Optical storage

Surgery

Visible

lasers

Extreme Ultraviolet

lasers (CSU)

Nano-imaging

82nm82nm

Nano-patterning

9/22/2010 2

Syllabus

• Course description:

Students are introduced to the major scientific breakthroughs that have

made impact in many areas of science and technology. Emphasis will be

given to technologies that made possible the engineering of communication

networks like the internet. Key concepts of waves, light generation and

detection, optical and wireless communication will be covered. Other

technologies that have revolutionized mankind will also be explored.

• Course credits: 1

• Prerequisites: None

• Course Goals: i) To make students appreciate technology and the science

that makes this technology possible in a way that is simple and intuitive; ii)

to instill curiosity; iii) to develop communication skills through written and

oral presentations; iv) to learn the use of the library and specialized search

engines.

•

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• Course Outline:

1. Waves: what are they, how are they generated?

2. Different types of waves: radio, microwave, light signals.

3. Lasers- 50th anniversary

4. Lasers in communication, medicine and industry

5. Silicon technology and its impact.

6. Students turn in their final report and hold their oral presentation

Syllabus

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• Homework: Homework will be assigned each week. It will consist of short research papers

related to the class topics. Every Tuesday the New York Times publishes the ‘Science” section.

Students will be required to pick an article of their choice related to advances in science and

technology and write a short review ( 300 words). No late homework will be accepted.

• Research Paper: Students will form teams of up to three and research on a High Tech Toy of

their interest. They will write an essay ( 1000 words) and compose a power-point presentation

that will be presented in class the last week of classes.

• In-class participation: Students will be expected to pro-actively contribute to discussions at the

small group and whole class levels; to keep a notebook with up-to-date class notes; to be

prepared for class with assignments and required class material. Short quizzes will be given.

• Additional Elective Activities: The instructor of this class has a strong appreciation for the arts

and will share these interests with the students by inviting them to concerts organized by the

Music Department, Art exhibitions by the Art Department, and movies that are part of CSU ASAP

Cinema series.

• Grading: 60 % Homework

• 15 % In-class participation – includes quiz grade

• 25 % Research Paper – written and oral presentation

•

Syllabus

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How and where the Information

Age started? • 1980 – Enquire -first program that linked bits of data

– Tim Berner-Lee created at program at CERN (European Organization for

Nuclear Research) – Code was lost

• 1984 – Tangle – Berners-Lee created this program at CERN to keep track of many projects and incompatible computers

• Computer Web code was written on and Web browser was designed on: – NeXT – (founded by Steve Jobs-Apple Computers) – language

C – it took 3 months to write

– Web browser: WorldWideWeb – could edit web pages and access them

• First server address – Nxoc01.cern.ch – with alias of info.cern.ch

Scientific American, March 12, 2009, M. Fischetti

9/22/2010 6

How and where the Information

Age started?

• First full demonstration

– Christmas Day 1990, operating from Berners-Lee

NeXT machine to the NeXT computer of his partner

and now Web-developer Robert Cailliau

• Content of first Web page:

– The CERN phone directory

• Hits on the pages – August 1991: 100 a day- August 1993 –

10,000 a day

• First U.S. Web server

– April 1991, Stanford University Linear Accelerator Lab

Scientific American, March 12, 2009, M. Fischetti

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How and where the Information

Age started?

• First Web browsers

– WorldWideWeb – Dec. 1990 – NeXT platform - Berners-Lee –

– Erwise – April 1992 – UNIX platform – students at Helsinki University

– Viola, May 1992 – student Pei Wei, UC Berkeley

– Samba, Summer 1992 – Macintosh by Robert Caillau, CERN

– Netscape, Yahoo, Google and ……… Scientific American, March 12, 2009, M. Fischetti

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What are the technologies that make

possible the World Wide Web?

• In class exercise: Students’ input

Satellites Fiber optics and lasers

Cables

Computers

Computer programs

Programming languages and codes

Electrical power

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Mapping the internet

Nodes worldwide

• http://www.technologyreview.com/Infotech/

18944/?a=f The shape of the online universe.

This image shows the hierarchical

structure of the Internet, based on the

connections between individual nodes

(such as service providers). Three

distinct regions are apparent: an inner

core of highly connected nodes, an

outer periphery of isolated networks,

and a mantle-like mass of peer-

connected nodes. The bigger the node,

the more connections it has. Those

nodes that are closest to the center are

connected to more well-connected

nodes than are those on the periphery.

Lanet-vi program of I. Alvarez-Hamelin et al.

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The core: At the center of the

Internet are about 80 core nodes

through which most traffic flows.

Remove the core, and 70 percent

of the other nodes are still able to

function through peer-to-peer

connections.

Mapping the internet

Nodes worldwide

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The periphery: At the very

edge of the Internet are 5,000

or so isolated nodes that are

the most dependent upon the

core and become cut off if the

core is removed or shut

down. Yet those nodes within

this periphery are able to stay

connected because of their

peer-to-peer connections.

Mapping the internet

Nodes worldwide

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Providers red

• USA web

http://advice.cio.com/theme

s/CIO.com/cache/Internet_

map_labels_0.pdf

Global internet maps http://www.google.com/imgres?imgurl=http://api.ning.com/files/tkxN4I-yyJH5HfiQkY40TPi9M7UNQSNpyDdqEsAbIJrQK-

nMqXH7Le607NBRdtE0Lt7gqaOrvfG89mj-

Vt8QH48hoPqF7aVJ/globalinternetmaptelegeog.gif&imgrefurl=http://visualthinkmap.ning.com/photo/global-internet-

map&usg=__DR4kglL1Fpopgi1TgwjZmcxxuoo=&h=855&w=1200&sz=172&hl=en&start=0&zoom=1&tbnid=r4O51fwvMo_Z9M:&tb

nh=155&tbnw=218&prev=/images%3Fq%3Dglobal%2Binternet%2Bmap%26um%3D1%26hl%3Den%26client%3Dfirefox-

a%26sa%3DX%26rls%3Dorg.mozilla:en-

US:official%26biw%3D1400%26bih%3D837%26tbs%3Disch:1&um=1&itbs=1&iact=rc&dur=468&ei=gJmHTPrTE4SksQO8j6SMC

g&oei=gJmHTPrTE4SksQO8j6SMCg&esq=1&page=1&ndsp=23&ved=1t:429,r:0,s:0&tx=119&ty=93

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Week 2

• Signals – how do one can transmit

information?

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Waves are perturbations of a

medium in time and space http://www.free-slideshow.com/stock-photos/sparkling_waves/little-waves.jpg

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There are different types of waves

• Waves are disturbances that transmit

energy from one point to another

– Waves in ocean – water is the medium that

moves

– Sound waves –air moves

– There are other types of waves that we can

not see them: ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES

• Can not see them.

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Electromagnetic Waves (the

electromagnetic spectrum)

• These waves originate from moving electrons

• They have been exploited in many applications

Radar

Fiber optics

Welding

Data

storage

X-rays

imaging

CAT scan

imaging Nano-imaging and

patterning (CSU)

Light

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Electromagnetic Waves

• Electrons inside materials, or in gases can

‘wiggle’ when electric forces are acting on

them.

– http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php

?sim=Radio_Waves_and_Electromagnetic_Fi

elds

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Waves

• Waves are characterized by

– Wavelength ( )

– Frequency ( )

– Period - T

– Amplitude

– Speed

– Energy

– Polarization

– Phase

– Coherence

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Wavelength

• Distance between two crests of the wave

r

r

Am

plit

ude

Wavelength is measured in

meters or fractions of a meter

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Waves can be periodic or aperiodic

Periodic

wave

Aperiodic wave

Periodic wave

space

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Period and Frequency

• For periodic waves, we can identify a period, T, by measuring the time taken for a wavelength to pass a given point

• The frequency, , is the inverse of the period i.e.

= 1/T

• and is the number of times per second that an oscillation occurs at any fixed point in space

Am

plit

ude

time

Period is measured in seconds

or fractions of a second

Frequency is inverse of time is

measured in Hertz.

T

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Prefixes used in units of

wavelength, Time and Frequency

Prefix Symbol Value Wavelength

(m)

Time (sec) Frequency

(Hz)

Tera T 1012 THz

Giga G 109 GHz

Mega M 106 MHz

kilo k 103 kHz

milli m 10-3 mm ms

micro 10-6 m s

nano n 10-9 nm ns

pico p 10-12 pm ps

femto f 10-15 fs

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Comparison of wavelengths across the

electromagnetic spectrum to other objects

http://mc2.gulf-pixels.com/wp-content/uploads/2009/07/Electromagnetic-Spectrum2.jpg

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Speed

• The speed of a wave is calculated from

the distance it travels in one period ( )

divided by the period

Am

plit

ude

distance

on off c: speed of

electromagnetic signals in

vacuum is 3x108 m/s

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations

/sims.php?sim=Wave_Interference

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Energy

• Waves carry energy –

– Fluence in Joules per square cm is used to

measure energy density

– Intensity in Watts per square cm is used to

measure power density

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Polarization

• In electromagnetic signals the electric field

oscillates in specific directions. This is

called polarization. We exploit this to filter

light for example with sunglasses.

http://www.colorado.edu/physics/2000

/applets/polarized.html

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Phase and coherence

ALL SIGNALS REACH

MAXIMUM AT THE

SAME TIME AND

SAME LOCATION IN

SPACE – SIGNALS

HAVE SAME PHASE.

THESE SIGNALS ARE

COHERENT distance

These two signals are

not in phase –

They are INCOHERENT

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Light emitters for communication systems

LIGHT EMITTING DIODES AND LASERS

• SOURCES OF MONOCHROMATIC (ONE

COLOR) LIGHT

• POWERED BY ELECTRICITY OR

OTHER LIGHT SOURCES , THEY

GENERATE LIGHT

– LIGHT EMITTING DIODES: INCOHERENT

LIGHT

– LASERS –(Light Amplification by Stimulated

Emission of Radiation): COHERENT LIGHT

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LIGHT GENERATION How is light made?

atom

Add

energy

Add

energy

Material –

could be a

gas, solid or

liquid

Material –

could be a

gas, solid or

liquid

After some time

Light is emitted

Atom

electron

nucleus

1Atom

electron

nucleus

1

electron

nucleus

electron

nucleus

1 22

333

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LIGHT GENERATION VIA

ELECTRICAL DISCHARGE

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Neon_Lights_

and_Other_Discharge_Lamps

Filament

atom electron

Gas

Light out

+ - battery

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LIGHT EMITTING DIODES

+ -

battery

Solid

material

current Light out

Solid State Materials:

semiconductors such as GaN, AlGaN

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Applications: solid state lightening

http://www.osram-os.com

Roadside illumination Landscape illumination

LEDs

consume

less

electricity

and last

much

longer than

light-bulbs

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Applications: solid state lightening

Car designer Fioravanti’s Yak concept

vehicle demonstrates the potential of LED-

style headlamps.

Electronic Design • May 13, 2002

Osram LEDs are prominent in this latest

Ford car.

http://optics.org

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LASER: Principle of operation

Energy

mirrors

With mirrors the light emitted is

highly directional and coherent

Light out

http://phet.colorado.edu/simulations/sims.php?sim=Lasers

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Laser diodes used for

communications

• They are small and efficient

• They operate in the infrared range (1.3-1.5

m for long haul communications)

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• The emission wavelength of the laser is

selected to minimize absorption and

dispersion in the fiber optics that carry the

signal generated by the laser

Laser diodes used for

communications

Attenuation: amplitude

of pulse decreases as it

travels through the fiber length

length

Dispersion: pulse

broadens in wavelengths

as it travels through the

fiber

Fiber optics are glass cables

capable to transmit light

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Light is transmitted by the

process of total internal

reflection. That is the light is

reflected from the inner walls

of the fiber.

http://communication.howstuffworks.com/fibe

r-optic-communications/fiber-optic.htm

Fiber optics communication

system

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Fiber spool Signal in

Signal out

Laser diode-

output

modulated Receiver

and

amplifier

station

(Er-doped

amplifiers)

Detector

Photodiode Band Description Wavelength Range

O band original 1260 to 1360 nm

E band extended 1360 to 1460 nm

S band short wavelengths 1460 to 1530 nm

C band conventional ("erbium window") 1530 to 1565 nm

L band long wavelengths 1565 to 1625 nm

U band ultralong wavelengths 1625 to 1675 nm

Advantages of fiber optics http://communication.howstuffworks.com/fiber-optic-communications/fiber-optic4.htm

• Less expensive - Several miles of optical cable can be made cheaper than

equivalent lengths of copper wire. This saves your provider (cable TV, Internet) and

you money.

• Thinner - Optical fibers can be drawn to smaller diameters than copper wire.

• Higher carrying capacity - Because optical fibers are thinner than copper wires,

more fibers can be bundled into a given-diameter cable than copper wires. This

allows more phone lines to go over the same cable or more channels to come

through the cable into your cable TV box.

• Less signal degradation - The loss of signal in optical fiber is less than in copper

wire.

• Light signals - Unlike electrical signals in copper wires, light signals from one fiber

do not interfere with those of other fibers in the same cable. This means clearer

phone conversations or TV reception.

• Low power - Because signals in optical fibers degrade less, lower-power transmitters

can be used instead of the high-voltage electrical transmitters needed for copper

wires. Again, this saves your provider and you money.

• Digital signals - Optical fibers are ideally suited for carrying digital information, which

is especially useful in computer networks.

• Non-flammable - Because no electricity is passed through optical fibers, there is no

fire hazard.

• Lightweight - An optical cable weighs less than a comparable copper wire cable.

Fiber-optic cables take up less space in the ground.

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Network of fiber optics communications

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http://www.eweek.com/c/a/IT-Infrastructure/Google-Helps-Finance-Latest-TransPacific-

Fiber-Optic-Cable-Project-307642/

http://www.eweek.com/c/a/IT-Infrastructure/Google-Helps-Finance-Latest-TransPacific-Fiber-Optic-

Cable-Project-307642/

Other applications of lasers http://www.laserfest.org/lasers/video-life.cfm

• Medicine

– Surgery, dermatology

• Biology

– Imaging/Microscopy

• Optics

– Interferometry, holography, microscopy, spectroscopy

• Atmospheric science

– Ranging and probing, LIDAR (light detection and ranging

• Materials science

– Cutting, welding, engraving, cleaning, lithography

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Movie from Laserfest

Lasers in medicine

• Optical Coherence Tomography – http://www.laserfest.org/lasers/innovations.cfm

– Optical Coherence Tomography is like ultrasound. The laser light penetrates below surface

of the human tissue and is reflected back. The laser reflection from the tissue is recorded

back. An image is constructed from the data. Multiple scans over a region yields a 3-D

image.

• Surgery

– Eye surgery – Excimer lasers (UV) sculpt the cornea (LASIK) –

Catarat removal

– Blood-less surgery (green laser cauterizes/ ligates vessels as it

cuts)

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Lasers used in material science

Ceramic Process Type of Laser Wavelength

Scribing, Drilling and

Profiling Fired Substrates

(Alumina, AlN, BeO)

CO2 10.9 m -10-100 W

Scribing, Drilling and

Profiling Green Substrates

CO2/UV-

DiodePumpedSolidSt

ate

10.9/0.2 m

Selective Material Removal YAG/Green/UV-DPSS

Marking/Serializing CO2 /YAG/Green/ UV-

DPSS

10.9/1.06/0.52/0.24

m

Lithography Excimer 0.197 m

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Lithography- How to make a Silicon

chip

• Photolithography is the technology used to print

semiconductor chips

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Samsung Flash Memory 30 Gb-

Prints 30 nm lines

System is like a microscope. It forms

a demagnified image of the mask

Lithography is an ultra-clean

process • In the US, Intel and GlobalFoundries

(previously AMD) fabricate chips

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http://wn.com/Silicon_Wafer_Processing_Animation

Cleanroom

What controls size of the small feature

that can be printed?

• UV lithography is reaching its limits

•

where k process dependent constant, NA is the

numerical aperture of the lens that focuses the light into

the wafer and creates the image of the mask

• NA of a lens can not be greater than 1. But it can be

increased using immersion. This is the way that current

chips with critical dimensions CD of 32 nm are preinted

using 196nm wavelength light from an excimer laser.

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Moore’s law The number of transistors that can be placed inexpensively on an

integrated circuit has doubled approximately every two years

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EUV Lithography will print 16nm features

and below – In production in 2014

• ASML making the printing tools with EUV

sources engineered by CYMER – Print

wavelength: 13.5 nm

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Elements of Printing process

• Wafer: Silicon ultrapolished and flat

• Mask: Glass with a pattern of Cr that is

fabricated with electron beam lithography

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Mask

Aligner

The lithographic process

• Process to transfer the mask pattern into the wafer

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Smallest periodic lines printed

on resist using EUV Lithography • Center of X-Ray Optics, Lawrence

Berkeley lab. - Sematech

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Nm period lines

on a mask are

needed to print

the gates of

transistors on a

chip

The transistor

In December 1947 three researchers demonstrated a device that

would change the way humankind works and plays

Scientific American: The Solid-State Century, 1997

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INVENTORS Shockley

(seated), Bardeen (left) and

Brattain (right) were the

first to demonstrate a solid-

state amplifier

1947

Late 50’s

Transistor is a device that can:

Control current –(switch)

Amplify current

What transistors have enabled

• Vacuum tube technology Transistor technology

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AM/FM readio from 50’s

AM/FM radio 2010

Transistors on a chip

• A transistor is used for switching, relaying, and amplifying electrical signals. In the

hydraulic world, this would be equivalent to a valve that can be opened and closed

with a separate pressure input, with a second one-way check valve on the output side

of the assembly. As more pressure is applied onto the control line, more fluid is

allowed to flow through the valves.

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METAL OXIDE FIELD EFFECT

TRANSISTOR

By applying a

voltage to the gate,

it is possible to

control the flow of

electrons from the

source to the drain

This is the

workhorse of data

processing

Microprocessors (CPU)

• A collection of transistors, and other elements, such as resistors,

capacitors diodes make up an electronic circuit or IC.

• A micro-processor is an IC that incorporatesfunctions. There is a

complex architecture design in the IC. The micro-processor or CPU

is the heart of a computer.

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IBM RS/6000

Microprocessors (CPU)

• Microprocessors can only receive and process data in the form of 0

(no signal) or 1 (signal above a certain threshold). This is a BIT.

• All information to be processed by the microprocessor is first

digitized and then converted into a binary signal.

• Decimal: 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

• BCD: 0000 0001 0010 0011 0100 0101 0110 0111 1000 1001

• The INTEL 4004 was the first microprocessor – It consisted of a four–chip

architectural with : a ROM (READ ONLY MEMORY) chip for storing the

programs, a dynamic RAM (RANDOM ACCESS MEMORY) chip for storing

data, a simple I/O device and a 4-bit central processing unit (CPU)

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Microprocessor evolution

Name Date Transistors

Microns (width

of transistor

gate)

Clock speed

(maximum rate

chip can be

clocked

Data width

(length of nibs)

MIPS (Millions of

Instructions per

second)

8080 1974 6,000 6 2 MHz 8 bits 0.64

8088 1979 29,000 3 5 MHz 16 bits

8-bit bus 0.33

80286 1982 134,000 1.5 6 MHz 16 bits 1

80386 1985 275,000 1.5 16 MHz 32 bits 5

80486 1989 1,200,000 1 25 MHz 32 bits 20

Pentium 1993 3,100,000 0.8 60 MHz 32 bits

64-bit bus 100

Pentium II 1997 7,500,000 0.35 233 MHz 32 bits

64-bit bus ~300

Pentium III 1999 9,500,000 0.25 450 MHz 32 bits

64-bit bus ~510

Pentium 4 2000 42,000,000 0.18 1.5 GHz 32 bits

64-bit bus ~1,700

Pentium 4

"Prescott" 2004 125,000,000 0.09 3.6 GHz

32 bits

64-bit bus ~7,000

9/22/2010 58

Present technology in

high volume

manufacturing

Gate width: 32 nm

Intel newest technology

9/22/2010 59

Processor Clock

Speed(s)

Intro

Date(s)

Mfg.

Process

Transistor

s

Addressab

le Memory

Cache Bus

Speed

Typical

Use

Intel®

Core™2

Extreme

Q9000

2 GHz Dec-08 45nm 410 million 64 GB 6 MB 1066 MHz Enthusiast

Notebook

Intel®

Core™2

Duo

processor

T9800

2.93 GHz Dec-08 45nm 410 million 64 GB 6 MB 1066 MHz Mobile PC