Week 1b. Morphosyntactic featuresWeek 1b. Morphosyntactic featuresch. 2.1-2.4.1ch. 2.1-2.4.1

CAS LX 522CAS LX 522Syntax ISyntax I

The atoms of the systemThe atoms of the system Syntax tells us which Syntax tells us which

arrangements of words arrangements of words make good sentences. make good sentences. But yet at a certain level But yet at a certain level the words themselves the words themselves don’t seem to matter, don’t seem to matter, they aren’t the basic they aren’t the basic elements of the system.elements of the system.

Rather, it is the set of Rather, it is the set of propertiesproperties each word has each word has that seem to be basic. that seem to be basic. Verb or not a verb, plural Verb or not a verb, plural or not plural…or not plural…

*enthusiastic are students the*enthusiastic are students the the students are enthusiasticthe students are enthusiastic *the student are enthusiastic*the student are enthusiastic *the student is enthusiastic*the student is enthusiastic the students are enthusiasticthe students are enthusiastic *the students is enthusiastic*the students is enthusiastic this coffee is/*are hot.this coffee is/*are hot. these muffins are/*is tasty.these muffins are/*is tasty.

Properties… features…Properties… features… Words have Words have propertiesproperties..

There is an abstract concept of There is an abstract concept of pluralplural, that is , that is morphologically realized in several different ways.morphologically realized in several different ways.

A deer ate my bagel. Deer are funny.A deer ate my bagel. Deer are funny. A dog ate my bagel. Dogs are funny.A dog ate my bagel. Dogs are funny. A goose ate my bagel. Geese are funny.A goose ate my bagel. Geese are funny.

Same “agreement” requirement, regardless of Same “agreement” requirement, regardless of the actual morphological shape.the actual morphological shape.

The abstract property of “plural” (or “singular”) The abstract property of “plural” (or “singular”) seems to be what the grammar is sensitive to.seems to be what the grammar is sensitive to.

(Morphosyntactic) features.(Morphosyntactic) features.

AgreementAgreement In English, the subject and the verb of a In English, the subject and the verb of a

sentence need to sentence need to agreeagree in number and (for in number and (for bebe) person.) person. The dog wants food. The dogs want food.The dog wants food. The dogs want food. The dog is hungry. The dogs are hungry.The dog is hungry. The dogs are hungry. I am hungry. We are hungry.I am hungry. We are hungry.

If the subject is plural (has a plural feature) If the subject is plural (has a plural feature) then the verb must take on a “plural” form.then the verb must take on a “plural” form.

It is crosslinguistically common to have this kind of It is crosslinguistically common to have this kind of agreement relation between subject and verb.agreement relation between subject and verb.

Intuitively, the plural feature is Intuitively, the plural feature is interpretable interpretable on the on the subject, contributes to the meaning, “belongs there” in subject, contributes to the meaning, “belongs there” in some sense. On the verb, the (agreeing) plural feature some sense. On the verb, the (agreeing) plural feature is just a “reflection”, is just a “reflection”, uninterpretableuninterpretable—more on that —more on that later.later.

Data from other languagesData from other languages Il a dit qu’ elle était maladeIl a dit qu’ elle était malade

he[3.sg] have[3.sg] said that she was illhe[3.sg] have[3.sg] said that she was ill‘He said that she was ill.’‘He said that she was ill.’

Ils ont dit qu’ elle était maladeIls ont dit qu’ elle était maladethey[3.pl] have[3.pl] said that she was illthey[3.pl] have[3.pl] said that she was ill‘They said that she was ill.’‘They said that she was ill.’

Standard 3-line format for examples from other Standard 3-line format for examples from other languages (example, gloss, translation).languages (example, gloss, translation).

Why does it matter what other languages do?Why does it matter what other languages do?

What are the features?What are the features? ““Features are just properties”—but some Features are just properties”—but some

properties seem to matter for syntax, some properties seem to matter for syntax, some don’t. So, the features are actually part of our don’t. So, the features are actually part of our theory—features are the theory—features are the relevant relevant properties.properties.

No language says that subject and verb must agree in the No language says that subject and verb must agree in the feature [invented in early September], although there are feature [invented in early September], although there are things that have this property.things that have this property.

For the purpose of describing the grammar and explaining For the purpose of describing the grammar and explaining syntactic principles, we don’t care about [invented in early syntactic principles, we don’t care about [invented in early September].September].

We have evidence, though, that [plural] matters to syntax.We have evidence, though, that [plural] matters to syntax. We’re looking for the minimal (least We’re looking for the minimal (least

complicated) set of features that suffices to complicated) set of features that suffices to explain the grammar.explain the grammar.

[plural][plural] We know number matters. In English, things We know number matters. In English, things

can be singular or plural. So, a first guess is can be singular or plural. So, a first guess is that nouns have either a [singular] feature or that nouns have either a [singular] feature or a [plural] feature.a [plural] feature. Hypothesis:Hypothesis:

[sg] and [pl] are features a word can have.[sg] and [pl] are features a word can have. Prediction:Prediction:

Four classes of words: [sg], [pl], [sg.pl], [].Four classes of words: [sg], [pl], [sg.pl], []. But we really only have two classes in English.But we really only have two classes in English.

This hypothesis This hypothesis overgeneratesovergenerates—it predicts —it predicts the existence of the actual distinctions, but it the existence of the actual distinctions, but it also predicts other distinctions that don’t also predicts other distinctions that don’t exist.exist.

[plural][plural] We observed the data (nouns can be We observed the data (nouns can be

singular or plural in English), we stated a singular or plural in English), we stated a hypothesis, which made predictions. We hypothesis, which made predictions. We checked the predictions… and it doesn’t checked the predictions… and it doesn’t seem right. So, we’ll revise. The scientific seem right. So, we’ll revise. The scientific method.method.

There is a simpler story we can tell, one There is a simpler story we can tell, one that predicts exactly two classes.that predicts exactly two classes.

[plural] for plurals, [] for singulars.[plural] for plurals, [] for singulars.

Overgeneration / Overgeneration / undergenerationundergeneration

Already we have the basic structure of our Already we have the basic structure of our theory and a means of analysis evaluation.theory and a means of analysis evaluation.

Two independent features [pl] and [sg] Two independent features [pl] and [sg] predict four combinations, predict four combinations, overgeneratesovergenerates.. All attested combinations are predicted.All attested combinations are predicted. Some predicted combinations are not attested.Some predicted combinations are not attested.

An analysis that says “All words are An analysis that says “All words are singular” singular” undergeneratesundergenerates.. All predicted combinations are attested.All predicted combinations are attested. Some attested combinations are not predicted.Some attested combinations are not predicted.

What kind of thing is a What kind of thing is a feature?feature?

If we view a feature like [plural] as being If we view a feature like [plural] as being either there or not, it is a either there or not, it is a privativeprivative feature. feature. Plurals have [plural], singulars don’t.Plurals have [plural], singulars don’t.

We might also view a feature like [plural] as We might also view a feature like [plural] as having one of two values. This is a having one of two values. This is a binary binary valuedvalued feature. feature. Plurals have [+plural], singulars have [Plurals have [+plural], singulars have [plural].plural].

We don’t know from the outset which view is the best for We don’t know from the outset which view is the best for describing syntax, we want to choose the one that best describing syntax, we want to choose the one that best captures the generalizations we see. The two views captures the generalizations we see. The two views dodo make different predictions—about what syntax can “see.”make different predictions—about what syntax can “see.”

DualsDuals For English, either a privative [plural] For English, either a privative [plural]

feature or a binary-valued [±plural] feature or a binary-valued [±plural] feature would work. In English there are feature would work. In English there are two classes for number, singular and two classes for number, singular and plural.plural.

Some languages also have a Some languages also have a dualdual, a , a number reserved for pairs. Classical number reserved for pairs. Classical Arabic, for example, and Hopi.Arabic, for example, and Hopi.

Hopi morphologyHopi morphology Pam taaqaPam taaqa wariwari

that manthat man ran[sg]ran[sg]‘That man ran.’‘That man ran.’

Puma ta’taq-tPuma ta’taq-t yu’tiyu’tithose man[pl] those man[pl] ran[pl]ran[pl]‘Those men ran.’‘Those men ran.’

Puma ta’taq-tPuma ta’taq-t wariwarithose man[pl]those man[pl] ran[sg]ran[sg]‘Those two men ran.’‘Those two men ran.’

In Hopi, the dual is In Hopi, the dual is expressed by expressed by combining singular combining singular and plural.and plural.

If we analyzed dual If we analyzed dual as [+pl, +sg] (or as as [+pl, +sg] (or as [pl, sg]), we have a [pl, sg]), we have a kind of explanation kind of explanation for that.for that.

The fourth number?The fourth number? Three numbers are Three numbers are

attested in the world’s attested in the world’s languages: singular, languages: singular, plural, and dual.plural, and dual.

We can handle this by We can handle this by going back to the view going back to the view that [sg] and [pl] are that [sg] and [pl] are independent.independent.

Singular:Singular: [sg][sg] Plural:Plural: [pl][pl] Dual:Dual: [sg, pl][sg, pl]

The fourth possibility should The fourth possibility should be be neitherneither. But there . But there doesn’t seem to be a fourth doesn’t seem to be a fourth number.number.

Hypothesis: General Hypothesis: General constraint on grammars: constraint on grammars: Nouns must have Nouns must have somesome number feature, [sg] is the number feature, [sg] is the default, added in if there is default, added in if there is no number feature already.no number feature already. (We’ll return to this)(We’ll return to this)

Words and languageWords and language Let’s take a moment to lay out the Let’s take a moment to lay out the

general structure of this theory.general structure of this theory.

Knowing a language isKnowing a language is knowing the “words”knowing the “words” knowing how to put them togetherknowing how to put them together knowing how to pronounce themknowing how to pronounce them knowing what they mean in combination.knowing what they mean in combination.

The lexiconThe lexicon To construct a sentence, we start To construct a sentence, we start

with the “words” and put them with the “words” and put them together.together.

We can describe the knowledge of We can describe the knowledge of the words of a language as being a the words of a language as being a list, a mental list, a mental lexiconlexicon. .

InterfacesInterfaces We can view a “word” as a bundle of We can view a “word” as a bundle of

features, as defined by its properties. features, as defined by its properties. The grammar The grammar assemblesassembles words into words into sentences. The sentence is sentences. The sentence is interpretedinterpreted and and pronouncedpronounced.. The assembly process is the grammar The assembly process is the grammar

proper.proper. The system that interprets sentences is The system that interprets sentences is

another cognitive module concerned with another cognitive module concerned with meaning, reasoning, etc. It interprets the meaning, reasoning, etc. It interprets the constructed sentence at the constructed sentence at the interfaceinterface..

The system that determines the The system that determines the pronunciation of sentences is yet another pronunciation of sentences is yet another cognitive module, interpreting the cognitive module, interpreting the constructed sentence at its interface.constructed sentence at its interface.

Lexicon

Grammar

A-Psystem

C-Isystem

TensionTension For English, it seems For English, it seems

that independent [sg] that independent [sg] and [pl] features is and [pl] features is more complicated than more complicated than we need, it seems to we need, it seems to overgenerate.overgenerate.

In the broader picture, In the broader picture, Language needs to Language needs to allow for independent allow for independent [sg] and [pl] features in [sg] and [pl] features in order to accommodate order to accommodate duals in, e.g., Hopi.duals in, e.g., Hopi.

Since we’re striving to explain Since we’re striving to explain the grammatical system the grammatical system underlying all languages, we underlying all languages, we need a hypothesis about what need a hypothesis about what is different in languages with is different in languages with no dual (e.g., English).no dual (e.g., English).

One possibilityOne possibility: The feature [sg] : The feature [sg] is not recorded in the English is not recorded in the English lexicon. lexicon. BookBook [], [], booksbooks [pl]. [pl].

All languages have singulars, but All languages have singulars, but in languages without duals, in languages without duals, singular is the default, the singular is the default, the “number for nouns not specified “number for nouns not specified for number.”for number.”

So languages can differ in So languages can differ in whether they record [sg] in the whether they record [sg] in the lexicon.lexicon.

What What are are the features?the features? Hard to say. A universal set, some used in Hard to say. A universal set, some used in

some languages, but not others? Learned?some languages, but not others? Learned?

Some features seem not to exist, why?Some features seem not to exist, why?

Ockham’s razor again—we want to define Ockham’s razor again—we want to define the simplest set of features we can to the simplest set of features we can to explain the data.explain the data.

CategoryCategory Syntax is concerned with Syntax is concerned with distribution.distribution. Words seem to come in distributional classes.Words seem to come in distributional classes.

For example, one class of words can appear after the For example, one class of words can appear after the possessive pronoun possessive pronoun mymy (my book, *my at, *my (my book, *my at, *my quickly, *my explode, *my purple). The nouns. One quickly, *my explode, *my purple). The nouns. One class of words is compatible with past tense. The class of words is compatible with past tense. The verbs. One class of words is compatible with verbs. One class of words is compatible with comparative (happier). The adjectives.comparative (happier). The adjectives.

Words can be separated into classes: noun, verb, Words can be separated into classes: noun, verb, adjective, preposition, etc.adjective, preposition, etc. Classes also vary with respect to the kind of Classes also vary with respect to the kind of

morphological endings they can have, and so forth. morphological endings they can have, and so forth. ((Arrival, replacement, destructionArrival, replacement, destruction; ; widen, widen, computerizecomputerize))

Distribution examplesDistribution examples They have no They have no nounnoun.. They can They can verbverb.. They are They are adjectiveadjective.. Very Very adverbadverb, very , very adjectiveadjective..

so long as it makes sense (e.g., with so long as it makes sense (e.g., with gradable adjectives; #they are very absent)gradable adjectives; #they are very absent)

Right Right prepositionpreposition right over the houseright over the house

Nouns and verbsNouns and verbs Nouns have a Nouns have a category featurecategory feature [N]. [N].

Books Books [N, pl].[N, pl]. Verbs have a Verbs have a category featurecategory feature [V]. [V].

Complained Complained [V][V]

Two independent features, four predicted Two independent features, four predicted categories:categories: [N, V][N, V] (adjectives)(adjectives) [ ][ ] (prepositions)(prepositions)

Binary vs. privativeBinary vs. privative There’s something unsettling about saying the There’s something unsettling about saying the

prepositions simply lack category features (neither prepositions simply lack category features (neither nominal nor verbal).nominal nor verbal).

We can soothe ourselves somewhat by adopting We can soothe ourselves somewhat by adopting binary category features instead of privative binary category features instead of privative features:features: [+N, -V][+N, -V] nounnoun [+N, +V][+N, +V] adjectiveadjective [-N, -V] [-N, -V] prepositionpreposition [-N, +V][-N, +V] verbverb

Same predictions, but more in line with our intuition Same predictions, but more in line with our intuition about what “category” should be.about what “category” should be.

[±N, ±V][±N, ±V] The [±N, ±V] category system may seem a bit “out The [±N, ±V] category system may seem a bit “out

of the blue.” But it does yield some descriptive of the blue.” But it does yield some descriptive benefit.benefit.

Consider what Consider what un-un- can attach to: can attach to: untie, unfold, unwrap, unpackuntie, unfold, unwrap, unpack unhappy, unfriendly, undeadunhappy, unfriendly, undead *uncity, *uncola, *unconvention*uncity, *uncola, *unconvention *unupon, *unalongside, *unat*unupon, *unalongside, *unat

Basically, it applies to reversible verbs and Basically, it applies to reversible verbs and adjectives, but not to nouns or prepositions.adjectives, but not to nouns or prepositions.

How can we state that in terms of our category features?How can we state that in terms of our category features?

Russian caseRussian case CaseCase is a morphological form nouns take on is a morphological form nouns take on

depending on where they are in the sentence depending on where they are in the sentence (subject vs. object). English pronouns show this (subject vs. object). English pronouns show this distinction: distinction: I like her, she likes meI like her, she likes me. Some . Some languages (like Russian) show differing case languages (like Russian) show differing case forms on all nouns.forms on all nouns.

When Russian nouns are modified by an adjective, When Russian nouns are modified by an adjective, the adjective is also marked for case.the adjective is also marked for case.

What gets marked for Case in Russian?What gets marked for Case in Russian?Krasivaya dyevushka vsunula chornuyu koshku v pustuyu korobkubeautiful girl put black cat in empty box‘The beautiful girl put the black cat in the empty box’

Lexical and functionalLexical and functional Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs:Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs: These are These are

lexicallexical categories. They carry significant and categories. They carry significant and arbitrary meaning, and they are arbitrary meaning, and they are open-classopen-class (new ones can be invented).(new ones can be invented).

But not all words are of this kind (except maybe But not all words are of this kind (except maybe those on telegramsthose on telegrams11).).

Sentences are held together by little “function Sentences are held together by little “function words” as well. These are the words” as well. These are the functionalfunctional categories. We will discuss these more later.categories. We will discuss these more later. I expect I expect that thethat the CEO CEO willwill want want toto retire. retire.

11Telegram: Ancient form of instant messagingTelegram: Ancient form of instant messaging

Lexical and functionalLexical and functional Functional categories are like the syntactic Functional categories are like the syntactic

“glue” of a sentence, concerned more with “glue” of a sentence, concerned more with grammatical properties.grammatical properties. Determiners: Determiners: thethe, , a(n)a(n) Quantifiers (determiners): Quantifiers (determiners): somesome, , everyevery Demonstratives: Demonstratives: thatthat, , thisthis, , thosethose Possessive pronouns: Possessive pronouns: mymy, , youryour Any old pronouns: Any old pronouns: youyou, , himhim, , theythey Infinitival Infinitival toto Auxiliaries/Modals: Auxiliaries/Modals: havehave, , bebe, , dodo, , cancan, , shouldshould Complementizers: Complementizers: thatthat, , forfor, , ifif

DeterminersDeterminers Determiners generally come before a Determiners generally come before a

noun, and come in a few different types.noun, and come in a few different types. Articles: Articles: thethe, , anan Quantificational determiners: Quantificational determiners: somesome, , mostmost Interrogative determiner: Interrogative determiner: whichwhich Demonstratives: Demonstratives: thatthat, , thisthis Possessive pronouns: Possessive pronouns: my, your, theirmy, your, their

These types are similar to… and different These types are similar to… and different from… one another. For now, we’ll lump from… one another. For now, we’ll lump them together.them together.

Determiners v. adjectivesDeterminers v. adjectives Can we lump determiners together with Can we lump determiners together with

adjectives? Maybe we could have a adjectives? Maybe we could have a simpler theory of categories if we just put simpler theory of categories if we just put determiners and adjectives together.determiners and adjectives together.

They both come before nouns (in English)They both come before nouns (in English) They both seem to “modify” the noun.They both seem to “modify” the noun.

Tall building.Tall building. That building.That building. A building.A building. My building.My building.

Determiners v. adjectivesDeterminers v. adjectives The big fluffy pink rabbitThe big fluffy pink rabbit The my rabbitThe my rabbit The that rabbitThe that rabbit Every my rabbitEvery my rabbit

To properly describe the distribution of these To properly describe the distribution of these elements, we really need to separate them elements, we really need to separate them into two classes. Lumping them together will into two classes. Lumping them together will not give us a simpler descriptive system.not give us a simpler descriptive system. Determiners cannot co-occur with other Determiners cannot co-occur with other

determiners, and must precede any adjectives.determiners, and must precede any adjectives. Adjectives can occur with other adjectives.Adjectives can occur with other adjectives.

PronounsPronouns Pronouns differ from nouns in a couple Pronouns differ from nouns in a couple

of ways (example: case marking), and of ways (example: case marking), and should be considered a should be considered a functionalfunctional category.category.

The pronouns of English express The pronouns of English express personperson, , numbernumber, and , and gendergender.. 1st person:1st person: I, me, we, usI, me, we, us 2nd person:2nd person: youyou 3rd person:3rd person: he, she, him, her, they, them, he, she, him, her, they, them,

itit

Auxiliaries and modalsAuxiliaries and modals Different from verbs: Different from verbs: have, be, do, will, can, have, be, do, will, can,

mightmight.. In questions, auxiliaries “invert” with the subject, verbs In questions, auxiliaries “invert” with the subject, verbs

don’t.don’t. Will you leave? Can you leave? Do you leave often? Will you leave? Can you leave? Do you leave often?

*Leave you often?*Leave you often? Auxiliaries occur before Auxiliaries occur before notnot, verbs don’t., verbs don’t.

You will not leave. You did not leave. *You left not.You will not leave. You did not leave. *You left not. Notice the extra Notice the extra dodo: “: “dodo-support”.-support”.

Auxiliaries are responsible for things like Auxiliaries are responsible for things like tense, mood, modality, aspect, voice. tense, mood, modality, aspect, voice. Grammatical things.Grammatical things.

Infinitival Infinitival toto I like I like toto go to the movies. go to the movies.

Kind of looks like a preposition, but it’s not. Prepositions Kind of looks like a preposition, but it’s not. Prepositions take nouns, take nouns, toto as a P has a kind of contentful meaning as a P has a kind of contentful meaning (endpoint of a path). Infinitival (endpoint of a path). Infinitival toto takes (bare) verbs only, takes (bare) verbs only, means nothing (apart from “untensed”).means nothing (apart from “untensed”).

It might be more like a modal: It might be more like a modal: To To and modals (and modals (can,can, mightmight, , shouldshould) seem to appear in the same place (between the ) seem to appear in the same place (between the subject and a bare verb form).subject and a bare verb form).

I like that John I like that John cancan pick up his own dry-cleaning. pick up his own dry-cleaning. I’d like for John I’d like for John toto pick up his own dry-cleaning. pick up his own dry-cleaning.

ComplementizersComplementizers Pat will leave.Pat will leave. I heard I heard thatthat Pat will leave. Pat will leave. I wonder I wonder ifif Pat will leave. Pat will leave. I am anxious I am anxious forfor Pat to leave. Pat to leave.

It is perfectly possible to It is perfectly possible to embedembed a sentence inside a sentence inside another one. When we do this, it is indicated with another one. When we do this, it is indicated with a a complementizercomplementizer (introducing a (introducing a complement complement clauseclause).).

The P The P forfor v. the C v. the C forfor ForFor is of course a preposition ( is of course a preposition (I looked for I looked for

you for three hoursyou for three hours), but not when it is ), but not when it is introducing clauses.introducing clauses. He headed right for the back row.He headed right for the back row. *He’d like right for the class to be over.*He’d like right for the class to be over. *He expressed interest in the class to be *He expressed interest in the class to be

over.over. Who would you vote for in the election?Who would you vote for in the election? *Who are you anxious for to win the *Who are you anxious for to win the

election?election?

The D The D thatthat v. the C v. the C thatthat Same kind of thing holds for Same kind of thing holds for thatthat..

I liked I liked thatthat movie. movie. I heard I heard thatthat the movie involved guinea the movie involved guinea

pigs.pigs.

Sometimes you can replace Sometimes you can replace forfor clauses clauses with with that that clauses.clauses. It is important It is important that Pat votesthat Pat votes.. It is important It is important for Pat to votefor Pat to vote..

RegroupingRegrouping Lexical categories:Lexical categories:

N: noun N: noun A: adjectiveA: adjective V: verbV: verb P: prepositionP: preposition We started a feature decomposition of these by We started a feature decomposition of these by

proposing that they are labels for feature bundles like proposing that they are labels for feature bundles like [±N, ±V], which can characterize certain natural [±N, ±V], which can characterize certain natural classes across categories.classes across categories.

But there are many more than four categories.But there are many more than four categories. Aux: auxiliaryAux: auxiliary D: determinerD: determiner C: complementizerC: complementizer PRN: pronounPRN: pronoun Adv: adverbAdv: adverb T: modalsT: modals ……

So, we would need more features to make all of So, we would need more features to make all of the distinctions.the distinctions.

We won’t pursue that, however (we’ll just use the labels, like N, We won’t pursue that, however (we’ll just use the labels, like N, V, A, P, D, T, C, etc.).V, A, P, D, T, C, etc.).

Feature groupingFeature grouping Features themselves seem to be grouped.Features themselves seem to be grouped.

And this is the way we’ll think of them for much of the And this is the way we’ll think of them for much of the course.course.

Consider: Consider: category.category. [±N] is a feature, [±V] is a feature. There must be others [±N] is a feature, [±V] is a feature. There must be others

to handle D, T, C, etc. But to handle D, T, C, etc. But together together they constitute the they constitute the syntactic category.syntactic category.

We can write this like We can write this like [Cat:+N-V][Cat:+N-V], and in fact , and in fact we’ll generally just write we’ll generally just write [N][N] as a shorthand as a shorthand for that.for that.

We’ll see other groupings. E.g., Number could be We’ll see other groupings. E.g., Number could be [Number:sg,pl] (for dual). Although number will in fact be [Number:sg,pl] (for dual). Although number will in fact be part of a larger grouping including gender and person.part of a larger grouping including gender and person.