Case and Class Advocacy

Step Four of the Decision Tree

Chapter 11

Advocacy What Is It?

• Advocacy is a term for which there is no universal agreement.

• Several different disciplines claim advocacy as a primary focus of their discipline (law, social work). For other disciplines advocacy is a marginal task (medical advocacy, educational advocacy, political advocacy).

• The need for advocacy cuts across different client populations and service settings.

• Advocates utilize power, authority and influence.

Definition

• To advocate is to engage in reasoned argument on behalf of another; to give voice (to the voiceless); to intercede, defend, or plead the cause of another (Bateman, 1995).

• Step four of the decision tree and chapter 11 present content on case advocacy (direct practice) and class advocacy (indirect practice).

Class Advocacy

• Class advocacy can take the form of policy advocacy or advocacy for reform or social change.

• Class advocacy uses the power and influence of collective action to bring about a just society.

• The three parties in class advocacy are a marginalized population, a change agent system (collective action), and a target system (what and who maintains the status quo).

Case Advocacy

• There are two models of individual or case advocacy : the broker model and the adversarial model.

• In case advocacy there are three parties: the client, the worker and the other party.

• Case advocacy is concerned with individual justice

Advocacy with IndividualsThe Broker Model

• Broker advocacy consists of securing concrete resources or services for clients.

• To broker services, the worker must have knowledge of the language and power structures of specific institutional systems e.g. education, justice, welfare.

• The worker uses networking and negotiation skills to broker services within the system on behalf of the client.

Advocacy With Individuals Adversarial Model

• The adversarial model of case advocacy is used when resources/services have been denied, withdrawn or are non-existent.

• Adversarial advocacy involves three parties: the client, the advocate, and the other side.

• The adversarial model is marked by tension and resistance.

Indicators of the Need for Adversarial Advocacy

• When services or benefits to which people are entitled are not given or are provided in a dehumanizing, confrontational or coercive manner.

• When discriminatory practices occur.• When gaps in services cause undue hardships.• When people lack representation or participation

in decisions that affect their lives.

Core Skills of Adversarial Advocacy

• Assertiveness- Does not violate the rights of those whom advocacy targets e.g. the other side (Assertiveness here is distinguished from aggressiveness).

• Ability to confront those in authority

• Ability to invoke sanctions to secure a client’s right to service.

Characteristics of Effective Advocates

• Leadership-use of authority, influence, power• Expertise in the method of advocacy• Knowledge about the issue being contested• Factual accuracy• Political adeptness• Reputation of professional integrity• Skills in case presentation• A keen moral compass and courage

Consequences of Adversarial Advocacy

• The outcome of adversarial advocacy is usually a win-lose situation. Either side may experience serious consequences.

• The rights of the client are pitted against an organization’s effort to protect resources or defend their position.

• Advocacy can lead to revenge directed at either the client or the worker or both (Bateman, 1995).

• Only a very small proportion of social workers practice adversarial advocacy.

Six Stages of Adversarial Advocacy

• Stage One: Awareness of need for advocacy Usually involves unmet needs for housing, services, money,

or treatment.• Stage Two: Client consents to release information relevant to

the issue being contested. The worker gathers information (facts) as perceived by each side. The worker states the legal or procedural authority for the advocacy request being made.

• Stage Three: Legal research is done to get the law right. Cross checking and interviewing is done to get the facts straight.

Six Stages of Adversarial Advocacy-Continued

• Stage Four: The worker consults with the client. Feedback is provided about the status of the case and options for various courses of action are laid out. The risks and benefits of each option are discussed with the client.

• Stage Five: Consists of active negotiation with those identified as empowered to make decisions.

• Stage Six: If negotiations fail, litigation may be pursued. Litigation enforces rights.

Three Styles of Negotiation

1. Competitive Negotiation: Threats, intimidation, superiority and blame characterize the dialogue. This minimizes the risk of exploitation but makes it harder to reach an agreement.

2. Co-operative Negotiation: Attempts are made to establish common ground and identify shared values. This style is vulnerable to manipulation and exploitation.

3. Principled or Problem-solving negotiation.

Principled NegotiationSix Elements.

1. Negotiate on the merits of the case (don’t bargain)

2. Focus on interests rather than positions.3. Find solutions that produce mutual gain.4. Avoid tricks and posturing.5. Insist that the end result is based on an

objective standard and is fair.6. Don’t let the negotiations get personal.

PowerLevels of Intensity

• Recognize that there are times when a rational argument presented in a highly civil manner does no good.

• In those circumstances, apply power using the principles of least contest and controlled escalation.

Principles of Least Contest and Controlled Escalation

• Least contest refers to applying the minimum degree of conflict that will bring about the desired result.

• Controlled escalation refers to arriving at an optimal outcome with a minimal expenditure of strategic resources.

Levels of PowerIntensity

• Level 1: low conflict, marked by discussion

and persuasion.

• Level 2: moderate conflict- prodding

• occurs.

• Level 3: high conflict –some coercion

occurs.

Case Scenario and Advocacy Schema

• The case advocacy scenario “K” presented in this chapter illustrates the move from broker advocacy to moderate conflict adversarial advocacy.

• The decision schema at the end of the chapter guides the practitioner in the use of case advocacy.

Class AdvocacyJust and Humane Society

There are two types of social work class

advocacy:

(1) public policy advocacy

(2) rights advocacy-reform and social

change through social activism.

Public Policy Advocacy

• Public policy advocacy is a collective strategy used to address inequalities in the distribution of goods and services including the resources of wealth, power, health, knowledge and services.

• Fairness and equality demand that distribution of goods and services not be left to: a) those in power, b) chance, or c) a flawed economic system.

Rights Advocacy

• Rights advocacy addresses discriminatory and oppressive environments through social activism.

• The goal of social activism is to reform or change those structural barriers that contribute to an unjust society.

• In policy and rights advocacy, the social problems are unbounded. There is less clarity as to the source of the problem and its solution.

• The timeframe for resolution of social problems is uncertain.

Declarative Knowledge Needed for Policy Advocacy

1. Descriptive content on social welfare policies and programs; past and current

2. Content on the political & organizational; processes that influence policy development and implementation.

3. Analytical frameworks for evaluating policies for their structure and function

4. Value frameworks for determining the desired end-goals of policy initiatives; theories of social justice.

Declarative Knowledge for Policy Advocacy- Continued

5. Research competency in documenting needs/resources and evaluating policy-based program outcomes.

6. Knowledge of economics.

7. Skill in the use of group dynamics, leadership and organizing.

Sociology of Social Problems

• Texts on social problems usually provide quantitative data documenting the prevalence and incidence of large scale social problems such as poverty, crime, health/illness, aging, urban blight, racism, gender discrimination, etc.

• Such data is usually accompanied by an argument of social causality

Social Causality

• In broad strokes, the argument for social causality states that social problems result from oppressive and discriminatory practices associated with existing societal structures and their functions e.g.

the link between capitalism and poverty.• To understand social causality, students must have

knowledge of social forces that contribute to the dysfunction of societal institutions.

• This content is taught in sociology 101 and/or in the human behavior and social environment sequence in the foundation year.

The Normative Basis of Social Welfare Public Policy

• It is important to understand the normative

(value and ideological) base of social policy. • According to Popple and Leighninger (2000)

two dominant value streams have influenced American social policies:

(1) capitalist-puritan

(2) humanist-positivist-utopian

Capitalist-Puritan Norm

• The values of reciprocity (link between work and benefits) and individualism (personal responsibility) characterize this norm.

• This value stream holds that individuals are responsible for their own success or failure.

• It holds that material prosperity is achieved through hard work.

• The primary purpose of society is to maintain law and order to protect the acquisition of wealth and property.

Capitalist-Puritan Norm -Continued

• It holds that the free market, though flawed, is the best mechanism for economic growth.

• Social policies are therefore needs-based and means-tested

• This value stream holds that those who are unsuccessful or deviant should be provided temporary and limited assistance.

Humanitarian-Positivist-UtopianNorm

• Humanitarianism holds that the primary purpose of society is to fulfill the material and emotional needs of the citizenry.

• Positivism holds that scientific knowing can understand and correct flawed or dysfunctional social dynamics; progress is possible.

• Utopianism holds that individuals and society are ultimately perfectible; change is possible.

• This value stream holds that structural barriers limit individual opportunities.

Theories of Social Justice

• Public social policy is based on the norm of re-distributive social justice.

• As a grand abstraction, social justice refers to an ideal system of government, economic production and distribution, and freedom from discrimination and oppression.

• Ideas (ideologies) about just social goals are derived from philosophy, theology, and political science.

Theories of Social Justice

• Norms (desired end-goals) that direct the redistribution of wealth in a society are driven by competing value-based definitions of the “good” society.

• There are four major theories of re-distributive social justice: (1) egalitarianism, (2) utilitarianism,

(3) contractarianism, (4) libertarianism.

4 Theories of Social Justice-Continued

A. Egalitarianism- desire for equal and/or equity in the distribution of society’s goods.

B. Utilitariansim-desire for the greatest good for the greatest number.

C. Contractarianism- justifies some inequality as long as the redistribution does not widen the gap between the rich and the poor.

D. Libertariansim- holds that no re-distribution should occur.

Public Opinion and Political Referendum

• Social welfare policies and programs reflect ideological beliefs.

• Social welfare policies and programs vie for support in the arena of public opinion and political referendum.

• Competition over scarce resources leads to conflict and negotiated trade-offs between population subgroups within a society.

• Value conflicts are not resolved by science.• Power aligns with the desired end goals of policy.

Rights Advocacy

• According to this model of practice. both oppressed and oppressor are in need of liberation.

• Rights advocacy works for a just society based on gender and racial equality, multi-cultural acceptance, celebration of alternative life styles as well as an appreciation for ages and the differently abled.

• Rights advocacy has led to several movements: civil rights, women’s rights, gay rights, welfare rights, workers rights, and rights of the disabled. l

Rights AdvocacyTwo Strategies

• Rights advocacy relies on two major tools of empowerment:

(1) consciousness raising

(2) social action.

Consciousness Raising

• Empowerment results from the validation of shared experiential histories and views.

• Knowledge of group dynamics is essential in consciousness raising.

• In consciousness raising people are brought together to dialog, reflect and act (praxis)

Consciousness RaisingDialectic Dialog

Dialectic dialog:1. Challenges the images of social reality2. Examines ideas, beliefs, and assumptions

that people take for granted3. Examines individual and collective

motives, interests and needs4. Identifies values and ideologies that guide

dominant and dominated group relations.

Consciousness RaisingReflection

• Reflection requires members to locate themselves in position; as both oppressor and as oppressed

• Reflection requires members to examine how they contribute to and maintain an oppressive status quo.

• Reflection requires members to consider becoming activists by joining others in pursuit of social justice.

Social Activism

• Social activism is the ability to join with others (form alliances) to exercise power as participants in a political or reform process.

• The ability to confront oppression and exert influence other others through social activism enhances personal power and an individual’s sense of well-being

• Power is increased through collective activism.

Political Social Work

• Political action is a distinguishing feature of social work class advocacy practice.

• According to Gil, conventional politics pursues important short-term goals.

• Social policy advocates provide expert testimony and influence legislation through lobbying activities. Some are elected to political office.

• Policy advocates write, issue and/or respond to legislative alerts.

Rights Advocacy

• Rights activists pursue the root causes of oppression and injustice by seeking fundamental transformation in the key institutions of society.

• Rights activists seek to influence and change ideological beliefs.

Institutional Oppression

• According to Gil, domination of exploited groups has been institutionalized in the form of economic, social, psychological, and cultural systems that establish privileged conditions of living for certain social classes and racial groups and not for others.

• Those who have stewardship over life-sustaining natural and human resources shape the circumstances of living and the relative power of individuals and social classes.

Institutional PracticesDiscrimination

• Societal institutions organize work and production, oversee the exchange and distribution of resources, regulate civil and political rights and responsibilities, and govern and set norms for reproduction, socialization and social control

• Perceptions of relative status and prestige become internalized through socialization & indoctrination.

• This process is at the core of discrimination.

ValuesCompetition and Self-Interest

• Values such as competition and self-interest foster inequality; the consequence of which is the creation of an occupationally, spatially, stratified society.

• Those who are privileged possess greater shares of available goods and services and enjoy different levels of rights, responsibilities, and liberty.

• Minor inequalities in exchanges tend to become legitimized and institutionalized.

Social Transformation

• Rights advocacy depends on social activists who pursue fundamental social transformations.

• According to Gil, policy advocacy and the activities of the United Nations are necessary and ethically valid efforts that reduce the intensity of injustice and oppression

• In contrast, social transformation is a lengthy, persistent process that seeks to change the root cause of oppression and injustice.

Social TransformationContinued

• Social transformation involves the development of critical consciousness.

• It uses small and large groups to engage in social activism; This activism is often referred to as social movements

• It seeks to change fundamental perceptions, attitudes and behavior through counter-cultural education.

Evidence

• Armed Conflict-Liberation According to Gil, the agents and victims of oppression do

change but the root causes that produce oppression do not.• Public Policies and Programs Formative (process) and summative (outcome) evaluation

studies determine the efficacy of public policies and programs. See chapter 15.

• Activist Research Research can be used to oppress or liberate.

Decision Schema

The two decision schemas at the end of the chapter guide the practitioner is using case advocacy and class advocacy.

The schemas summarize the content of this chapter.