Castoriadis Workers Councils and the Economics of Self Managed Society 1957

8/13/2019 Castoriadis Workers Councils and the Economics of Self Managed Society 1957

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WORKERS' COUNCILS

AND THE ECONOMICS OF SELF-MANAGED SOCIETY1957

CORNELIUS CASTORIADIS[ also known by his pseudonyms: Paul Cardan (English), Pierre Chaulieu (French)

! "n#roduc#ion$he de%elopmen# o& modern socie#y and wha# has happened #o#he working class mo%emen# o%er #he las# 1'' years (and, inpar#icular, since 1917) ha%e compelled us radically #o re%ise

mos# o& #he ideas on which #ha# mo%emen# had been based!e%eral decades ha%e gone by since #he ussian e%olu#ion!From #ha# re%olu#ion i# is no# socialism #ha# emerged, bu# anew and mons#rous &orm o& e*ploi#ing socie#y in which #hebureaucracy replaced #he pri%a#e owners o& capi#al and +#heplan+ #ook #he place o& #he +&ree marke#+! $here are se%eralbasic ingredien#s &or #he re%ision we propose! $he &irs# is #o

assimila#e #he %as# e*perience o& #he ussian re%olu#ion and o&wha# happened #o i#! $he ne*# is #o grasp #he real signi&icanceo& #he ungarian -orkers+ .ouncils and o#her uprisings agains##he bureaucracy! /u# #here are o#her ingredien#s #o #he


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proposed re%ision! 0 look a# modern capi#alism, and a# #he#ype o& con&lic# i# breeds, shows #ha# #hroughou# #he worldworking people are &aced wi#h #he same &undamen#alproblems, oen posed in surprisingly similar #erms! $heseproblems call &or #he same answer! $his answer is socialism, asocial sys#em which is #he %ery opposi#e bo#h o& #hebureaucra#ic capi#alism now ins#alled in ussia, .hina andelsewhere and o& #he #ype o& capi#alism now pre%ailing in #he-es#! $he e*perience o& bureaucra#ic capi#alism allows usclearly #o percei%e wha# socialism is no# and canno# be! 0 closelook bo#h a# pas# prole#arian uprisings and a# #he e%eryday li&eand s#ruggles o& #he working class bo#h Eas# and -es# enables us #o posi# wha# socialism could be and should be!

/asing oursel%es on #he e*perience o& a cen#ury we can andmus# now de&ine #he posi#i%e con#en# o& socialism in a much&uller and more accura#e way #han could pre%iousre%olu#ionaries! "n #oday+s %as# ideological morass, people whocall #hemsel%es socialis#s may be heard #o asser# #ha# +#hey areno longer 2ui#e sure wha# #he word means+! -e hope #o show#ha# #he %ery opposi#e is #he case! $oday, &or #he &irs# #ime, one

can begin #o spell ou# in concre#e and speci&ic #erms wha#socialism could really be like! $he #ask we are abou# #ounder#ake does no# only lead us #o challenge many widely heldideas abou# socialism, many o& which go back #o 3enin andsome #o 4ar*! "# also leads us #o 2ues#ion widely held ideasabou# capi#alism, abou# #he way i# works and abou# #he realna#ure o& i#s crises, ideas many o& which ha%e reached us (wi#h

or wi#hou# dis#or#ion) &rom 4ar* himsel&! $he #wo analyses arecomplemen#ary and, in &ac#, #he one necessi#a#es #he o#her!ne canno# unders#and #he deepes# essence o& capi#alism andi#s crises wi#hou# a #o#al concep#ion o& socialism! For socialismimplies human au#onomy, #he conscious managemen# bypeople o& #heir own li%es! .api#alism bo#h pri%a#e andbureaucra#ic [p1 is #he ul#ima#e nega#ion o& #his au#onomy,

and i#s crises s#em &rom #he &ac# #ha# #he sys#em! necessarilycrea#es #his dri%e #o au#onomy, while simul#aneously beingcompelled #o suppress i#! $he re%ision we propose did no# o&course s#ar# #oday! 6arious s#rands o& #he re%olu#ionary


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mo%emen# and a number o& indi%idual re%olu#ionaries ha%econ#ribu#ed #o i# o%er a period! "n #he %ery &irs# issue o&

Socialisme ou Barbarie [a5 we claimed #ha# #he &undamen#aldi%ision in con#emporary socie#ies was #he di%ision in#o ordergi%ers (dirigeants) and order#akers (excutants)! -ea##emp#ed #o show how #he working class+s own de%elopmen#would lead i# #o a socialis# consciousness! -e s#a#ed #ha#socialism could only be #he produc# o& #he au#onomous ac#iono& #he working class! -e s#ressed #ha# a socialis# socie#yimplied #he aboli#ion o& any separa#e s#ra#um o& ordergi%ersand #ha# i# #here&ore implied power a# #he base and workers+managemen# o& produc#ion!/u#, in a sense, we oursel%es ha%e &ailed #o de%elop our own

ideas #o #he &ull! "# would hardly be wor#h men#ioning #his &ac#were i# no# #ha# i# re&lec#ed a# i#s own le%el #he in&luence o&&ac#ors which ha%e domina#ed #he e%olu#ion o& re%olu#ionary#heory &or a cen#ury, namely #he enormous deadweigh# o& #heideology o& e*ploi#ing socie#y, #he paralying legacy oradi#ional concep#s and #he di&&icul#y o& &reeing onesel& &rominheri#ed me#hods o& #hough#! "n one sense, our re%ision

consis#s o& making more e*plici# and precise wha# has alwaysbeen #he deepes# con#en# o& working class s#ruggles whe#hera# #heir drama#ic and culmina#ing momen#s (re%olu#ion) or in#he anonymi#y o& working class li&e in #he &ac#ory! "n ano#hersense, our re%ision consis#s in &reeing re%olu#ionary #hough#&rom #he accumula#ed clinker o& a cen#ury! -e wan# #o break#he de&orming prisms #hrough which so many re%olu#ionaries

ha%e become used #o looking a# #he socie#y around #hem!ocialism aims a# gi%ing a meaning #o #he li&e and work o&people8 a# enabling #heir &reedom, #heir crea#i%i#y and #he mos#posi#i%e aspec#s o& #heir personali#y #o &lourish8 a# crea#ingorganic links be#ween #he indi%idual and #hose around him,and be#ween #he group and socie#y8 a# o%ercoming #he barriersbe#ween manual and men#al work8 a# reconciling people wi#h

#hemsel%es and wi#h na#ure! "# #hereby reoins #he mos# deeply&el# aspira#ions o& #he working class in i#s daily s#rugglesagains# capi#alis# aliena#ion! $hese are no# longings rela#ing #osome hay and dis#an# &u#ure! $hey are &eelings and #endencies


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e*is#ing and mani&es#ing #hemsel%es #oday, bo#h inre%olu#ionary s#ruggles and in e%eryday li&e! $o unders#and #hisis #o unders#and #ha#, &or #he worker, #he &inal problem o&his#ory is an e%eryday problem!$o grasp #his is also #o percei%e #ha# socialism is no#+na#ionalia#ion+ or +planning+ or e%en an +increase in li%ings#andards+! "# is #o unders#and #ha# #he real crisis o& capi#alismis no# due #o +#he anarchy o& #he marke#+, or #o +o%erproduc#ion+or #o +#he &alling ra#e o& pro&i#+! $aken #o #heir logical conclusion,and grasped in all #heir implica#ions, #hese ideas al#er one+sconcep#s o& re%olu#ionary #heory, ac#ion and organia#ion! $hey#rans&orm one+s %ision o& socie#y and o& #he world!

! $he .risis o& .api#alism

$he capi#alis# organia#ion o& social li&e (bo#h Eas# and -es#)crea#es a cons#an#ly renewed crisis in e%ery aspec# o& humanac#i%i#y! $his crisis appears mos# in#ensely in #he realm o&produc#ion, [n1 al#hough in i#s essence, #he problem is #hesame in o#her &ields, i!e!, whe#her one is dealing wi#h #he&amily, wi#h educa#ion, wi#h cul#ure, wi#h poli#ics or wi#hin#erna#ional rela#ions! E%erywhere, #he capi#alis# s#ruc#ure o&

socie#y imposes on people an organia#ion o& #heir li%es #ha# ise*#ernal #o #hem! "# organies #hings in #he absence o& #hosemos# direc#ly concerned and oen agains# #heir aspira#ionsand in#eres#s! $his is bu# ano#her way o& saying #ha# capi#alismdi%ides socie#y in#o a narrow s#ra#um o& ordergi%ers (whose&unc#ion is #o decide and organie e%ery#hing) and #he %as#maori#y o& #he popula#ion who are reduced #o carrying ou#

(e*ecu#ing) #he decisions o& #hose in power! 0s a resul# o& #his%ery &ac#, mos# people e*perience #heir own li%es as some#hingalien #o #hem! $his pa##ern o& organia#ion is pro&oundlyirra#ional and &ull o& con#radic#ions! ;nder i#, repea#ed crises o&


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one kind or ano#her are absolu#ely ine%i#able! "# is nonsensical#o seek #o organie people, ei#her in produc#ion or in poli#ics, asi& #hey were mere obec#s, ignoring sys#ema#ically wha# #hey#hemsel%es wish or how #hey #hemsel%es #hink #hings shouldbe done! "n real li&e, capi#alism is obliged #o base i#sel& onpeople+s capaci#y &or sel& organia#ion, on #he indi%idual and

collec#i%e crea#i%i#y o& #he producers! -i#hou# #hese i# could no#sur%i%e &or a day! /u# #he whole +o&&icial+ organia#ion o&modern socie#y bo#h ignores and seeks #o suppress #heseabili#ies #o #he u#mos#! $he resul# is no# only an enormouswas#e due #o un#apped capaci#y! $he sys#em does more: i#necessarily engenders opposi#ion, a s#ruggle agains# i# by#hose upon whom i# seeks #o impose i#sel&! 3ong be&ore one

can speak o& re%olu#ion or o& poli#ical consciousness, peoplere&use in #heir e%eryday working li&e #o be #rea#ed as obec#s!$he capi#alis# organia#ion o& socie#y is #hereby compelled no#only #o s#ruc#ure i#sel& in #he absence o& #hose mos# direc#lyconcerned, bu# #o #ake shape agains# #hem! $he ne# resul# isno# only was#e bu# perpe#ual con&lic#! "& a #housand indi%idualsha%e amongs# #hem a gi%en capaci#y &or sel&organia#ion,

capi#alism consis#s in more or less arbi#rarily choosing &iy ohese indi%iduals, o& %es#ing #hem wi#h managerial au#hori#yand o& deciding #ha# #he o#hers should us# be cogs!4e#aphorically speaking, #his is already a 95< loss o& socialini#ia#i%e and dri%e! /u# #here is more #o i#! 0s #he 95' ignoredindi%iduals are no# cogs, and as capi#alism is obliged up #o apoin# #o base i#sel& on #heir human capaci#ies and in &ac# #o

de%elop #hem, #hese indi%iduals will reac# and s#ruggle agains#wha# #he sys#em imposes upon #hem! $he crea#i%e &acul#ieswhich #hey are no# allowed #o e*ercise on behal& o& a socialorder which reec#s #hem (and which #hey reec#) are nowu#ilied agains# #ha# social order! 0 permanen# s#rugglede%elops a# #he %ery kernel o& social li&e! "# soon becomes #hesource o& &ur#her was#e! $he narrow s#ra#um o& ordergi%ers has

hence&or#h #o di%ide i#s #ime be#ween organiing #he work ohose +below+ and seeking #o coun#erac#, neu#ralie, de&lec# ormanipula#e #heir resis#ance! $he &unc#ion o& #he managerialappara#us ceases #o be merely organia#ion and soon assumes


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all sor#s o& coerci%e aspec#s! $hose in au#hori#y in a largemodern &ac#ory in &ac# spend less o& #heir #ime in organia#iono& produc#ion #han in coping, direc#ly or indirec#ly, wi#h #heresis#ance o& #he e*ploi#ed whe#her i# be a 2ues#ion o&super%ision, o& 2uali#y con#rol, o& de#ermining piece ra#es, o&+human rela#ions+, o& discussions wi#h shop s#ewards or union

represen#a#i%es! n #op o& all #his #here is o& course #hepermanen# preoccupa#ion o& #hose in power wi#h making sure#ha# e%ery#hing is measurable, 2uan#i&iable, %eri&iable,con#rollable, so as #o deal in ad%ance wi#h any coun#erac#ion#he workers migh# launch agains# new me#hods o& e*ploi#a#ion!$he same applies, wi#h all due correc#ions, #o #he #o#alorgania#ion o& social li&e and #o all #he essen#ial ac#i%i#ies o&

any modern s#a#e!$he irra#ionali#y and con#radic#ions o& capi#alism do no# onlyshow up in #he way social li&e is organied! $hey appear e%enmore clearly when one looks a# #he real con#en# o& #he li&ewhich #he sys#em proposes! 4ore #han any o#her social order,capi#alism has made o& work #he cen#er o& human ac#i%i#y andmore #han any o#her social order capi#alism makes o& work

some#hing #ha# is absurd (absurd no# &rom #he %iewpoin# o& #hephilosopher or o& #he moralis#, bu# &rom #he poin# o& %iew ohose who ha%e #o per&orm i#)! -ha# is challenged #oday is no#only #he +human organia#ion+ o& work, bu# i#s na#ure, i#sme#hods, i#s obec#i%es, #he %ery ins#rumen#s and purpose o&capi#alis# produc#ion! $he #wo aspec#s are o& courseinseparable, bu# i# is #he second #ha# needs s#ressing! 0s a

resul# o& #he na#ure o& work in a capi#alis# en#erprise, andhowe%er i# may be organied, #he ac#i%i#y o& #he worker ins#eado& being #he organic e*pression o& his human &acul#iesbecomes some#hing which domina#es him as an alien andhos#ile &orce! "n #heory, #he worker is only #ied #o #his ac#i%i#y bya #hin (bu# unbreakable) #hread: #he need #o earn a li%ing! /u##his ensures #ha# e%en #he day #ha# is abou# #o s#ar# dawns

be&ore him as some#hing hos#ile! -ork under capi#alism#here&ore implies a permanen# mu#ila#ion, a perpe#ual was#e o&crea#i%e capaci#y, and a cons#an# s#ruggle be#ween #he workerand his own ac#i%i#y, be#ween wha# s=he would like #o do and


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wha# s=he has #o do! From #his angle #oo, capi#alism can onlysur%i%e #o #he e*#en# #ha# i# canno# &ashion reali#y #o i#s moulds!$he sys#em only &unc#ions #o #he e*#en# #ha# #he +o&&icial+organia#ion o& produc#ion and o& socie#y are cons#an#lyresis#ed, #hwar#ed, correc#ed and comple#ed by #he e&&ec#i%esel&organia#ion o& people! -ork processes can only be

e&&icien# under capi#alism #o #he e*#en# #ha# #he real a##i#udeso& workers #owards #heir work di&&er &rom wha# is prescribed!-orking people succeed in appropria#ing #he general principlesrela#ing #o #heir work #o which, according #o #he spiri# o& #hesys#em, #hey should ha%e no access and concerning which #hesys#em seeks #o keep #hem in #he dark! $hey #hen apply #heseprinciples #o #he speci&ic condi#ions in which #hey &ind

#hemsel%es whereas in #heory #his prac#ical applica#ion canonly be spelled ou# by #he managerial appara#us! E*ploi#ingsocie#ies persis# because #hose whom #hey e*ploi# help #hem#o sur%i%e! /u# capi#alism di&&ers &rom all pre%ious e*ploi#ingsocie#ies! la%eowning and &eudal socie#ies perpe#ua#ed#hemsel%es because ancien# sla%es and medie%al ser&s workedaccording #o #he norms o& #hose socie#ies! $he working class

enables capi#alism #o con#inue by ac#ing agains# #he sys#em!/u# capi#alism can only &unc#ion #o #he e*#en# #ha# #hose i#e*ploi#s ac#i%ely oppose e%ery#hing #he sys#em seeks #o imposeupon #hem! [a> $he &inal ou#come o& #his s#ruggle is socialismnamely #he elimina#ion o& all e*#ernallyimposed norms,me#hods and pa##erns o& organia#ion and #he #o#al libera#iono& #he crea#i%e and sel&organiing capaci#ies o& #he masses!

?! /asic @rinciples o& (ocialis# (ocie#y

ocialis# socie#y implies #he organia#ion by people #hemsel%eso& e%ery aspec# o& #heir social li&e! $he es#ablishmen# o&socialism #here&ore en#ails #he immedia#e aboli#ion o& #he


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&undamen#al di%ision o& socie#y in#o a s#ra#um o& ordergi%ersand a mass o& order#akers! $he con#en# o& #he socialis#reorgania#ion o& socie#y is &irs# o& all workers+ managemen# o&produc#ion! $he working class has repea#edly s#aked i#s claim#o such managemen# and s#ruggled #o achie%e i# a# #he highpoin#s o& i#s his#oric ac#ions: in ussia in 19171A, in "#aly in

19', in pain in 19?>, in ungary in 195>! -orkers+ .ouncils,based on #he place o& work, are #he &orm workers+ sel&managemen# will probably #ake and #he ins#i#u#ion mos# likely#o &os#er i#s grow#h! -orkers+ managemen# means #he powero& #he local -orkers+ .ouncils and ul#ima#ely, a# #he le%el o&socie#y as a whole, #he power o& #he .en#ral 0ssembly o&-orkers .ouncil Belega#es! [a7 Fac#ory .ouncils (or .ouncils

based on any o#her place o& work such as a plan#, building si#e,mine, railway yard, o&&ice, e#c!) will be composed o& delega#eselec#ed by #he workers and re%ocable by #hem, a# any #ime, andwill uni#e #he &unc#ions o& delibera#ion, decision and e*ecu#ion!uch .ouncils are his#oric crea#ions o& #he working class! $heyha%e come #o #he &ore&ron# e%ery #ime #he 2ues#ion o& powerhas been posed in modern socie#y! $he ussian Fac#ory

.ommi##ees o& 1917, #he Cerman -orkers+ .ouncils o& 1919,#he ungarian .ouncils o& 195> all sough# #o e*press(wha#e%er #heir name) #he same original, organic andcharac#eris#ic working class pa##ern o& sel&organia#ion! [aA.oncre#ely #o de&ine #he socialis# organia#ion o& socie#y isamongs# o#her #hings #o draw all #he possible conclusions &rom#wo basic ideas: workers+ managemen# o& produc#ion and #he

rule o& #he .ouncils! /u# such a de&ini#ion can only come #o li&eand be gi%en &lesh and blood i& combined wi#h an accoun# o&how #he ins#i#u#ions o& a &ree, socialis# socie#y migh# &unc#ion inprac#ice!$here is no 2ues#ion o& us here #rying #o draw up +s#a#u#es+,+rules+, or an +ideal cons#i#u#ion+ &or socialis# socie#y! #a#u#es,as such, mean no#hing! $he bes# o& s#a#u#es can only ha%e

meaning #o #he e*#en# #ha# people are permanen#ly prepared#o de&end wha# is bes# in #hem, #o make up wha# #hey lack, and#o change wha#e%er #hey may con#ain #ha# has becomeinade2ua#e or ou#da#ed! From #his poin# o& %iew we mus#


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ob%iously a%oid any &e#ishism o& #he +.ouncil+ #ype o&organia#ion $he +cons#an# eligibili#y and re%ocabili#y o&represen#a#i%es+ are o& #hemsel%es 2ui#e insu&&icien# #o+guaran#ee+ #ha# a .ouncil will remain #he e*pression o&working class in#eres#s! $he .ouncil will remain such ane*pression &or as long as people are prepared #o do wha#e%er

may be necessary &or i# #o remain so! $he achie%emen# o&socialism is no# a 2ues#ion o& be##er legisla#ion! "# depends on#he cons#an# sel&ac#i%i#y o& people and on #heir capaci#y #o &indwi#hin #hemsel%es #he necessary awareness o& ends andmeans, #he necessary solidari#y and de#ermina#ion!/u# #o be socially e&&ec#i%e #his au#onomous mass ac#ioncanno# remain amorphous, &ragmen#ed and dispersed! "# will

&ind e*pression in pa##erns o& ac#ion and &orms o& organia#ion,in ways o& doing #hings and ul#ima#ely in ins#i#u#ions whichembody and re&lec# i#s purpose! Dus# as we mus# a%oid #he&e#ishism o& +s#a#u#es+ we should also see #he shor#comings o&%arious #ypes o& +anarchis#+ or +spon#aneis#+ &e#ishism, which in#he belie& #ha# in #he las# resor# working class consciousnesswill de#ermine e%ery#hing, #akes li##le or no in#eres# in #he

&orms such consciousness should #ake, i& i# is really #o changereali#y! $he .ouncil is no# a gi bes#owed by some liber#arianCod! "# is no# a miraculous ins#i#u#ion! "# canno# be a popularmou#hpiece i& #he people do no# wish #o e*press #hemsel%es#hrough i#s medium! /u# #he .ouncil is an ade2ua#e &orm o&organia#ion: i#s whole s#ruc#ure is such #ha# i# enables workingclass aspira#ions #o come #o ligh# and &ind e*pression!

@arliamen#ary#ype ins#i#u#ions, on #he o#her hand, whe#hercalled +ouse o& .ommons+, or +upreme o%ie# o& #he ;+,are by de&ini#ion #ypes o& ins#i#u#ions #ha# canno# be socialis#!$hey are &ounded on a radical separa#ion be#ween #he people,+consul#ed+ &rom #ime #o #ime, and #hose who are deemed #o+represen#+ #hem, bu# who are in &ac# beyond meaning&ulpopular con#rol! 0 -orkers+ .ouncil is designed so as #o

represen# working people, bu# may cease #o &ul&ill #his &unc#ion!@arliamen# is designed so as no# #o represen# #he people andne%er ceases #o &ul&ill #his &unc#ion! [n $he 2ues#ion o&ade2ua#e and meaning&ul ins#i#u#ions is cen#ral #o socialis#


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socie#y! "# is par#icularly impor#an# as socialism can only comeabou# #hrough a re%olu#ion, #ha# is #o say as #he resul# o& asocial crisis in #he course o& which #he consciousness andac#i%i#y o& #he masses reach e*#remely high le%els! ;nder #hesecondi#ions #he masses become capable o& breaking #he powero& #he ruling class and o& i#s armed &orces, o& bypassing #he

poli#ical and economic ins#i#u#ions o& es#ablished socie#y, ando& #ranscending wi#hin #hemsel%es #he hea%y legacy o&cen#uries o& oppression! $his s#a#e o& a&&airs should no# be#hough# o& as some kind o& paro*ysm, bu# on #he con#rary as#he pre&igura#ion o& #he le%el o& bo#h ac#i%i#y and awarenessdemanded o& men in a &ree socie#y!$he +ebbing+ o& re%olu#ionary ac#i%i#y has no#hing ine%i#able

abou# i#! "# will always remain a #hrea# howe%er, gi%en #he sheerenormi#y o& #he #asks #o be #ackled! E%ery#hing which adds #o#he innumerable problems &acing popular mass ac#ion willenhance #he #endency #o such a re&lu*! "# is, #here&ore, crucial&or #he re%olu#ion #o pro%ide i#sel&, &rom i#s %ery &irs# days, wi#ha ne#work o& ade2ua#e s#ruc#ures #o e*press i#s will and &orre%olu#ionaries #o ha%e some idea as #o how #hese s#ruc#ures

migh# &unc#ion and in#errela#e! $here can be no organia#ionalor ideological %acuum in #his respec# and i& liber#arianre%olu#ionaries remain bliss&ully unaware o& #hese problemsand ha%e no# discussed or e%en en%isaged #hem #hey can res#assured #ha# o#hers ha%e! "# is essen#ial #ha# re%olu#ionarysocie#y should crea#e &or i#sel&, a# each s#age, #hose s#ruc#ures#ha# can mos# readily become e&&ec#i%e +normal+ mechanisms

&or #he e*pression o& popular will, bo#h in +impor#an# a&&airs+and in e%eryday li&e (which is o& course #he &irs# and &oremos#o& all +impor#an# a&&airs+)! $he de&ini#ion o& socialis# socie#y #ha#we are a##emp#ing #here&ore re2uires o& us some descrip#ion o&how we %isualie i#s ins#i#u#ions, and #he way #hey will &unc#ion!$his endea%or is no# +u#opian+, &or i# is bu# #he elabora#ion ande*#rapola#ion o& his#orical crea#ions o& #he working class, and in

par#icular o& #he concep# o& workers+ managemen#! $he ideaswe propose #o de%elop are only #he #heore#ical &ormula#ion ohe e*perience o& a cen#ury o& working class s#ruggles! $heyembody real e*periences (bo#h posi#i%e and nega#i%e),


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conclusions (bo#h direc# and indirec#) #ha# ha%e already beendrawn, answers gi%en #o problems ac#ually posed or answerswhich would ha%e had #o be gi%en i& such and such a re%olu#ionhad de%eloped a li##le &ur#her! E%ery sen#ence in #his #e*# islinked #o 2ues#ions which implici#ly or e*plici#ly ha%e alreadybeen me# in #he course o& working class s#ruggles! $his should

pu# a s#op once and &or all #o allega#ions o& +u#opianism+! [n?a! "ns#i#u#ions #ha# @eople can ;nders#and and .on#rolel&managemen# will only be possible i& people+s a##i#udes #osocial organia#ion al#er radically! $his in #urn, will only #akeplace i& social ins#i#u#ions become a meaning&ul par# o& #heirreal daily li&e! Dus# as work will only ha%e a meaning whenpeople unders#and and domina#e i#, so will #he ins#i#u#ions o&

socialis# socie#y only become meaning&ul when people bo#hunders#and and con#rol #hem! [n 4odern socie#y is a darkand incomprehensible ungle, a con&usion o& appara#uses,s#ruc#ures and ins#i#u#ions whose workings almos# no oneunders#ands or #akes any in#eres# in socialis# socie#y will onlybe possible i& i#brings abou# a radical change in #his s#a#e o& a&&airs and

massi%ely simpli&ies social organia#ion! ocialism implies #ha##he organia#ion o& a socie#y will ha%e become #ransparen# &or#hose who make up #ha# socie#y! $o say #ha# #he workings andins#i#u#ions o& socialis# socie#y mus# be easy #o unders#andimplies #ha# people mus# ha%e a ma*imum o& in&orma#ion! $his+ma*imum o& in&orma#ion+ is some#hing 2ui#e di&&eren# &rom anenormous mass o& da#a! $he problem isn+# #o e2uip e%erybody

wi#h por#able micro&ilms o& e%ery#hing #ha#+s in #he /ri#ish4useum! n #he con#rary, #he ma*imum o& in&orma#iondepends &irs# and &oremos# in a reduc#ion o& da#a #o #heiressen#ials, so #ha# #hey can readily be handled by all! $his willbe possible because socialism will resul# in an immedia#e andenormous simpli&ica#ion o& problems and #he disappearance,pure and simple, o& mos# curren# rules and regula#ions which

will ha%e become 2ui#e meaningless! $o #his will be added asys#ema#ic e&&or# #o ga#her and dissemina#e in&orma#ion abou#social reali#y, and #o presen# &ac#s bo#h ade2ua#ely and simply!Fur#her on, when discussing #he &unc#ioning o& socialis#


12/91

economy, we will gi%e e*amples o& #he enormous possibili#ies#ha# already e*is# in #his &ield! ;nder socialism people willdomina#e #he working and ins#i#u#ions o& socie#y! ocialism will#here&ore ha%e, &or #he &irs# #ime in human his#ory, #o ins#i#u#edemocracy! E#ymologically, #he word democracy meansdomina#ion by #he masses! -e are no# here concerned wi#h

#he &ormal aspec#s o& #his domina#ion! eal domina#ion mus#no# be con&used wi#h %o#ing! 0 %o#e, e%en a +&ree+ %o#e, may onlybe and oen only is a parody o& democracy! ealdemocracy is no# #he righ# #o %o#e on secondary issues! "# is no##he righ# #o appoin# rulers who will #hen decide, wi#hou# con#rol&rom below, on all #he essen#ial 2ues#ions! or does democracyconsis# in calling upon people elec#orally #o commen# upon

incomprehensible 2ues#ions or upon 2ues#ions which ha%e nomeaning &or #hem! eal domina#ion consis#s in being able #odecide &or onesel&, on all essen#ial 2ues#ions, in &ull knowledgeo& #he rele%an# &ac#s!"n #hese &ew words +in &ull knowledge o& #he rele%an# &ac#s+ lies#he whole problem o& democracy! [n5 $here is li##le poin# inasking people #o pronounce #hemsel%es i& #hey are no# aware

o& #he rele%an# &ac#s! $his has long been s#ressed by #hereac#ionary or &ascis# cri#ics o& bourgeois +democracy+, ande%en by #he more cynical #alinis#s [n> or Fabians! [a9 "# isob%ious #ha# bourgeois +democracy+ is a &arce, i& only becauseli#erally nobody in con#emporary socie#y can e*press an opinionin &ull knowledge o& #he rele%an# &ac#s, leas# o& all #he mass ohe people &rom whom poli#ical and economic reali#ies and #he

real meaning o& #he 2ues#ions asked are sys#ema#icallyhidden! /u# #he answer is no# #o %es# power in #he hands o& anincompe#en# and uncon#rollable bureaucracy! $he answer is so#o #rans&orm social reali#y #ha# essen#ial da#a and &undamen#alproblems are unders#ood by all, enabling all #o e*pressopinions +in &ull knowledge o& #he rele%an# &ac#s+!b! Birec# Bemocracy and .en#ralia#ion$o decide means #o decide &or onesel&! $o decide who is #odecide is already no# 2ui#e deciding &or onesel&! $he only #o#al&orm o& democracy is #here&ore direc# democracy! $o achie%e#he wides# and mos# meaning&ul direc# democracy will re2uire


13/91

#ha# all #he economic and poli#ical s#ruc#ures o& socie#y bebased on local groups #ha# are real, organic social uni#s! Birec#democracy cer#ainly re2uires #he physical presence o& ci#iensin a gi%en place, when decisions ha%e #o be #aken! /u# #his isno# enough! "# also re2uires #ha# #hese ci#iens &orm an organiccommuni#y, #ha# #hey li%e i& possible in #he same milieu, #ha#

#hey be &amiliar #hrough #heir daily e*perience wi#h #hesubec#s #o be discussed and wi#h #he problems #o be #ackled!"# is only in such uni#s #ha# #he poli#ical par#icipa#ion o&indi%iduals can become #o#al, #ha# people can know and &eel#ha# #heir in%ol%emen# is meaning&ul and #ha# #he real li&e ohe communi#y is being de#ermined by i#s own members andno# by some e*#ernal agency, ac#ing +on behal& o&+ #he

communi#y! $here mus# #here&ore be #he ma*imum au#onomyand sel&managemen# &or #he local uni#s! 4odern social li&e hasalready crea#ed #hese collec#i%i#ies and con#inues #o crea#e#hem! $hey are uni#s based on mediumsied or largeren#erprises and are #o be &ound in indus#ry, #ranspor#, building,commerce, #he banks, public adminis#ra#ion, e#c!, wherepeople in hundreds, #housands or #ensohousands spend #he

main par# o& #heir li&e harnessed #o common work, coming upagains# socie#y in i#s mos# concre#e &orm! 0 place o& work is no#only a uni# o& produc#ion: i# has become #he primary uni# o&social li&e &or #he %as# maori#y o& people! "ns#ead o& basingi#sel& on geographical uni#s, which economic de%elopmen# hasoen rendered highly ar#i&icial, #he poli#ical s#ruc#ure o&socialism will be largely based on collec#i%i#ies in%ol%ed in

similar work! uch collec#i%i#ies will pro%e #he &er#ile soil onwhich direc# democracy can nourish as #hey did (&or similarreasons) in #he ancien# ci#y or in #he democra#ic communi#ieso& &ree &armers in #he ;ni#ed #a#es in #he 19#h cen#ury! Birec#democracy gi%es an idea o& #he decen#ralia#ion [p whichsocialis# socie#y will be able #o achie%e! /u# an indus#riallyad%anced &ree socie#y will also ha%e #o &ind a means o&

democra#ically in#egra#ing #hese basic uni#s in#o #he social&abric as a whole! "# will ha%e #o sol%e #he di&&icul# problem ohe necessary cen#ralia#ion, wi#hou# which #he li&e o& amodern communi#y would collapse!

"# i # # li #i h hi h h d & d


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"# is no# cen#ralia#ion as such which has made o& modernsocie#ies such ou#s#anding e*amples o& poli#ical aliena#ion orwhich has led #o minori#ies poli#ically e*propria#ing #hemaori#y! $his has been brough# abou# by #he de%elopmen# o&bodies separa#e &rom and +abo%e+ #he general popula#ion,bodies e*clusi%ely and speci&ically concerned wi#h #he &unc#ion

o& cen#ralia#ion! 0s long as cen#ralia#ion is concei%ed o& as#he speci&ic &unc#ion o& a separa#e, independen# appara#us,bureaucracy is indeed inseparable &rom cen#ralia#ion! /u# in asocialis# socie#y #here will be no con&lic# be#ween cen#ralia#ionand #he au#onomy o& local organia#ions, &or bo#h &unc#ions willbe e*ercised by #he same ins#i#u#ions! $here will be nosepara#e appara#us whose &unc#ion i# will be #o reuni#e wha#! i#

has i#sel& smashed up, which absurd #ask (need we recall i#) isprecisely #he &unc#ion o& a modern bureaucracy! [a1'/ureaucra#ic cen#ralia#ion is a &ea#ure o& all modern e*ploi#ingsocie#ies! $he in#ima#e links be#ween cen#ralia#ion and#o#ali#arian bureaucra#ic rule, in such class socie#ies, pro%okesa heal#hy and unders#andable a%ersion #o cen#ralia#ion amongmany con#emporary re%olu#ionaries! /u# #his response is oen

con&used and a# #imes i# rein&orces #he %ery #hings i# seeks #ocorrec#! +.en#ralia#ion, #here+s #he roo# o& all e%il+ [p? proclaimmany hones# mili#an#s as #hey break wi#h #alinism or3eninism in ei#her Eas# or -es#! /u# #his &ormula#ion, a# bes#ambiguous, becomes posi#i%ely harm&ul when i# leads as i#oen does ei#her #o &ormal demands &or #he +&ragmen#a#iono& power+ or #o demands &or a limi#less e*#ension o& #he powers

o& base groupings, neglec#ing wha# is #o happen a# o#her le%els!-hen @olish mili#an#s, &or ins#ance, imagine #hey ha%e &ound asolu#ion #o #he problem o& bureaucracy when #hey ad%oca#e asocial li&e organied and led by +se%eral cen#ers+ (#he #a#e0dminis#ra#ion, a @arliamen#ary 0ssembly, #he $rade ;nions,-orkers+ .ouncils and @oli#ical @ar#ies) #hey are arguing beside#he poin#! $hey &ail #o see #ha# #his +polycen#rism+ is e2ui%alen#

#o #he absence o& any real and iden#i&iable cen#er, con#rolled&rom below! 0nd as modern socie#y has #o #ake cer#ain cen#raldecisions #he +cons#i#u#ion+ #hey propose will only e*is# onpaper! "# will only ser%e #o hide #he reemergence o& a real, bu#

#his #ime masked (and #here&ore uncon#rollable) +cen#er+ &rom


15/91

#his #ime masked (and #here&ore, uncon#rollable) +cen#er+, &romamid #he ranks o& #he poli#ical bureaucracy!$he reason is ob%ious: i& one &ragmen#s any ins#i#u#ionaccomplishing a signi&ican# or %i#al &unc#ion one only crea#esan enhanced need &or some o#her ins#i#u#ion #o reassemble #he&ragmen#s! imilarly, i& one merely ad%oca#es an e*#ension o&

#he powers o& local .ouncils, one is #hereby handing #hem o%er#o domina#ion by a cen#ral bureaucracy which alone would+know+ or +unders#and+ how #o make #he economy &unc#ion as awhole (and modern economies, whe#her one likes i# or no#, do&unc#ion as a whole)! For liber#arian re%olu#ionaries #o duck#hese di&&icul#ies and #o re&use #o &ace up #o #he 2ues#ion o&cen#ral power is #an#amoun# #o lea%ing #he solu#ion o& #hese

problems #o some bureaucracy or o#her! 3iber#arian socie#y will#here&ore ha%e #o pro%ide a liber#arian solu#ion #o #he problemo& cen#ralia#ion! $his answer could be #he assump#ion o&care&ully de&ined and circumscribed au#hori#y by a Federa#iono& -orkers+ .ouncils and #he crea#ion o& a .en#ral 0ssembly o&.ouncils and o& a .ouncil 0dminis#ra#ion! -e will see &ur#heron #ha# such an 0ssembly and such an 0dminis#ra#ion do no#

cons#i#u#e a delega#ion o& popular power bu# are, on #hecon#rary, an ins#rumen# o& #ha# power! 0# #his s#age we onlywan# #o discuss #he principles #ha# migh# go%ern #herela#ionship o& such bodies #o #he local .ouncils and o#her basegroups! $hese principles are impor#an#, &or #hey would a&&ec##he &unc#ioning o& nearly all ins#i#u#ions in a liber#arian socie#y!c! $he Flow o& "n&orma#ion and Becisions"n a socie#y where #he people ha%e been robbed o& poli#icalpower, and where #his power is in #he hands o& a cen#raliingau#hori#y #he essen#ial rela#ionship be#ween #he cen#er and #heperiphery can be summed up as &ollows: channels &rom #heperiphery #o #he cen#er only #ransmi# in&orma#ion, whereaschannels &rom #he cen#er #o #he periphery #ransmi# decisions(plus, perhaps, #ha# minimum o& in&orma#ion deemed

necessary &or #he unders#anding and e*ecu#ion o& #he decisions#aken a# #he cen#er)! $he whole se#up re&lec#s no# only amonopoly o& decisional au#hori#y, bu# also a monopoly o& #hecondi#ions necessary &or #he e*ercise o& power, $he cen#er

alone has #he +sum #o#al+ o& in&orma#ion needed #o e%alua#e


16/91

alone has #he sum #o#al o& in&orma#ion needed #o e%alua#eand decide! "n modern socie#y, i# can only be by acciden# #ha#any indi%idual or body gains access #o in&orma#ion o#her #han#ha# rela#ing #o his immedia#e milieu! $he sys#em seeks #oa%oid, or a# any ra#e, i# doesn+# encourage such +acciden#s+!-hen we say #ha# in a socialis# socie#y #he cen#ral bodies will

no# cons#i#u#e a delega#ion o& power bu# will be #he e*pressiono& #he power o& #he people we are implying a radical change inall #his! ne o& #he main &unc#ions o& cen#ral bodies will be #ocollec#, #ransmi# and dissemina#e in&orma#ion collec#ed andcon%eyed #o #hem by local groups! "n all essen#ial &ields,decisions will be #aken a# grassroo#s le%el and will be no#i&ied#o #he +cen#er+, whose responsibili#y i# will be #o help or &ollow

#heir progress! 0 #woway &low o& in&orma#ion andrecommenda#ions will be ins#i#u#ed and #his will no# only apply#o rela#ions be#ween #he 0dminis#ra#ion and #he .ouncils, bu#will be a model &or rela#ions be#ween all ins#i#u#ions and #hosewho comprise #hem! -e mus# s#ress once again #ha# we areno# #rying #o draw up per&ec# blueprin#s! "# is ob%ious &orins#ance #ha# #o collec# and dissemina#e in&orma#ion is no# a

socially neu#ral &unc#ion, 0ll in&orma#ion canno# bedissemina#ed i# would be #he sures# way o& smo#hering wha#is rele%an# and rendering i# incomprehensible and #here&oreuncon#rollable! $he role o& any cen#ral bodies is #here&orepoli#ical, e%en in #his respec#!

! (ocialism and #he $rans&orma#ion o& -ork

ocialism will only be brough# abou# by #he au#onomous ac#iono& #he maori#y o& #he popula#ion! ocialis# socie#y is no#hingo#her #han #he sel&organia#ion o& #his au#onomy! ocialismbo#h presupposes #his au#onomy, and helps #o de%elop i#! /u# ihis au#onomy is people+s conscious domina#ion o%er all #heir

ac#i%i#ies i# is clear #ha# we can+# us# concern oursel%es wi#h


17/91

ac#i%i#ies, i# is clear #ha# we can # us# concern oursel%es wi#hpoli#ical au#onomy! @oli#ical au#onomy is bu# a deri%a#i%easpec# o& wha# is #he cen#ral con#en# and problem o& socialism:#o ins#i#u#e #he domina#ion o& mankind o%er #he work process![n7 0 purely poli#ical au#onomy would be meaningless! necan+# imagine a socie#y where people would be sla%es in

produc#ion e%ery day o& #he week, and #hen enoy undays o&poli#ical &reedom! [nA $he idea #ha# socialis# produc#ion or asocialis# economy could be run, a# any par#icular le%el, bymanagers (#hemsel%es super%ised by .ouncils, or o%ie#s, or byany o#her body +incarna#ing #he poli#ical power o& #he workingclass+) is 2ui#e nonsensical! eal power in any such socie#ywould rapidly &all in#o #he hands o& #hose who managed

produc#ion! $he .ouncils or o%ie#s would rapidly wi#her amid#he general indi&&erence o& #he popula#ion! @eople would s#opde%o#ing #ime, in#eres#, or ac#i%i#y #o ins#i#u#ions which nolonger really in&luenced #he pa##ern o& #heir li%es! 0u#onomy is#here&ore meaningless unless i# implies workers+ managemen#o& produc#ion, and #his a# #he le%els o& #he shop, o& #he plan#, o&whole indus#ries, and o& #he economy as a whole! /u#, workers+

managemen# is no# us# a new adminis#ra#i%e #echni2ue! "#canno# remain e*#ernal #o #he s#ruc#ure o& work i#sel&! "# doesn+#mean keeping work as i# is, and us# replacing #he bureaucra#icappara#us which curren#ly manages produc#ion by a -orkers+.ouncil howe%er democra#ic or re%ocable such a .ouncilmigh# be! "# means #ha# &or #he mass o& people, new rela#ionswill ha%e #o de%elop wi#h #heir work, and abou# #heir work! $he

%ery con#en# o& work will immedia#ely ha%e #o al#er! $oday, #hepurpose, means, me#hods, and rhy#hms o& work arede#ermined, &rom #he ou#side, by #he bureaucra#ic managerialappara#us! $his appara#us can only manage #hrough resor# #ouni%ersal, abs#rac# rules, de#ermined +once and &or all+! $heserules co%er such ma##ers as norms o& produc#ion, #echnicalspeci&ica#ions, ra#es o& pay, bonus, and how produc#ion areas

will be organied! $he periodic re%ision o& #hese rules regularlyresul#s in +crises+ in #he organia#ion o& produc#ion! nce #hebureaucra#ic managerial appara#us has been elimina#ed, #hissor# o& s#ruc#ure o& produc#ion will ha%e #o disappear, bo#h in

&orm and con#en#


18/91

&orm and con#en#!"n accord wi#h #he deepes# o& workingclass aspira#ions,already #en#a#i%ely e*pressed a# #he heigh#s o& workingclasss#ruggle, produc#ion norms will be abolished al#oge#her, andcomple#e e2uali#y in wages will be ins#i#u#ed! [a11 $hesemeasures, #aken #oge#her as a &irs# s#ep, will pu# an end #o

e*ploi#a#ion and #o all #he e*#ernally imposed cons#rain#s andcoercions in produc#ion! $o #he e*#en# #ha# work will s#ill benecessary (and #his i#sel& will be a ma##er &or cons#an# re%iewby socie#y as a whole), work discipline will be a ma##er o&rela#ions be#ween #he indi%idual work and #he group wi#h whichs=he works, o& rela#ions be#ween groups o& workers and #heshop as a whole, and o& rela#ions be#ween %arious shops, and

#he Ceneral 0ssembly o& #he Fac#ory or En#erprise! -orkers+managemen# is #here&ore no# #he +super%ision+ o& abureaucra#ic managerial appara#us by represen#a#i%es o& #heworkers! or is i# #he replacemen# o& #his appara#us by ano#her,&ormed o& indi%iduals o& workingclass origin! "# is #he aboli#iono& any separa#e managerial appara#us and #he res#i#u#ion ohe &unc#ions o& such an appara#us #o #he communi#y o&

workers! $he Fac#ory .ouncil isn+# a new managerial appara#us!"# is bu# one o& #he places in which coordina#ion #akes place, a+local head2uar#ers+ &rom which con#ac#s be#ween #he &ac#oryand #he ou#side world are regula#ed! "& #his is achie%ed, i# willimply #ha# #he na#ure and con#en# o& work are alreadybeginning #o al#er! $oday, work consis#s essen#ially in obeyingins#ruc#ions ini#ia#ed elsewhere! -orkers+ managemen# will

mean #he reuni#ing o& #he &unc#ions o& decision and e*ecu#ion!/u#, e%en #his will be insu&&icien# or ra#her, i# will immedia#elylead on #o some#hing else! $he res#i#u#ion o& managerial&unc#ions #o #he workers will ine%i#ably lead #hem #o #acklewha# is, #oday, #he kernel o& aliena#ion, namely #he#echnological s#ruc#ure o& work, which resul#s in workdomina#ing #he workers ins#ead o& being domina#ed by #hem!

$his problem will no# be sol%ed o%ernigh#, bu# i#s solu#ion willbe #he #ask o& #ha# his#orical period which we call socialism!ocialism is, &irs# and &oremos#, #he solu#ion o& #his par#icularproblem!

/e#ween capi#alism and communism #here aren+# ?> #ypes o&


19/91

/e#ween capi#alism and communism #here aren # ?> #ypes o&+#ransi#ional socie#y+, as some ha%e sough# #o make us belie%e!$here is bu# one: socialism! 0nd, #he main charac#eris#ic o&socialism isn+# +#he de%elopmen# o& #he produc#i%e &orces+, or+#he increasing sa#is&ac#ion o& consumer needs+, or +an increaseo& poli#ical &reedom+! $he hallmark o& socialism is #he change i#

will bring abou# in #he na#ure and con#en# o& work, #hrough #heconscious and delibera#e #rans&orma#ion o& an inheri#ed#echnology! For #he &irs# #ime in human his#ory, #echnology willbe subordina#ed #o human needs (no# only #o #he people+sneeds as consumers bu# also #o #heir needs as producers)! $hesocialis# re%olu#ion will allow #his process #o begin! "#scomple#ion will mark #he en#ry o& humani#y in#o #he

communis# era! E%ery#hing else poli#ics, consump#ion, e#c! are conse2uences or implica#ions, which one mus# cer#ainlylook a# in #heir organic uni#y, bu# which can only ac2uire such auni#y or meaning #hrough #heir rela#ion #o #he key problem: #he#rans&orma#ion o& work i#sel&! uman &reedom will remain anillusion and a mys#i&ica#ion i& i# doesn+# mean &reedom inpeople+s &undamen#al ac#i%i#y: #he ac#i%i#y which produces!

0nd, #his &reedom will no# be a gi bes#owed by na#ure! "# willno# au#oma#ically arise, ou# o& o#her de%elopmen#s! "# will ha%e#o be consciously crea#ed! "n #he las# analysis, #his is #hecon#en# o& socialism! "mpor#an# prac#ical conse2uences &low&rom all #his! .hanging #he na#ure o& work will be #ackled &rombo#h ends! n #he one hand, condi#ions will be crea#ed whichwill allow #he &ulles# possible de%elopmen# o& people+s human

capaci#ies and &acul#ies! $his will imply #he sys#ema#icdisman#ling, s#one by s#one, o& #he whole edi&ice o& #he di%isiono& labor! n #he o#her hand, people will ha%e #o gi%e a wholenew orien#a#ion #o #echnical de%elopmen#s, and #o how #heymay apply #o produc#ion! $hese are bu# #wo aspec#s o& #hesame #hing: man+s rela#ion #o #echni2ue! 3e# us s#ar# by lookinga# #he second, more #angible, poin#: #echnical de%elopmen# as

such! 0s a &irs# appro*ima#ion, one could say #ha# capi#alis##echnology (#he curren# applica#ion o& #echni2ue #o produc#ion)is ro##en a# #he core because i# doesn+# help people domina#e#heir work, i#s aim being #he %ery opposi#e! ocialis#s oen say

#ha# wha# is basically wrong wi#h capi#alis# #echnology is #ha# i#


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y g p gyseeks #o de%elop produc#ion &or purposes o& pro&i#, or #ha# i#de%elops produc#ion &or produc#ion+s sake, independen#ly o&human needs (people being concei%ed o&, in #hese argumen#s,only as po#en#ial consumers o& produc#s)! $he same socialis#s#hen #ell us #ha# #he purpose o& socialism is #o adap#

produc#ion #o #he real consumer needs o& socie#y, bo#h inrela#ion #o %olume and #o #he na#ure o& #he goods produced!& course, all #his is #rue, and any socie#y lies condemned inwhich a single child or adul# goes hungry! /u# #he more&undamen#al problem lies elsewhere! .api#alism does no#u#ilie a socially neu#ral #echnology &or capi#alis# ends!.api#alism has crea#ed a capi#alis# #echnology, &or i#s own

ends, which are by no means neu#ral! $he real essence o&capi#alis# #echnology is no# #o de%elop produc#ion &orproduc#ion+s sake: i# is #o subordina#e and domina#e #heproducers! .api#alis# #echnology is primarily charac#eried byi#s dri%e #o elimina#e #he human elemen# in produc#i%e laborand, in #he long run, #o elimina#e man al#oge#her &rom #heproduc#i%e process! $ha# here, as elsewhere, capi#alism &ails #o

&ul&ill i#s deepes# #endency and #ha# i# would &all #o pieces i& i#achie%ed i#s purpose does no# a&&ec# #he argumen#! n #hecon#rary, i# only highligh#s ano#her aspec# o& #he crisis o& #hesys#em!.api#alism canno# coun# on #he %olun#ary coopera#ion o& #heproducers! n #he con#rary, i# has cons#an#ly #o &ace #heirhos#ili#y (or, a# bes#, indi&&erence)! $his is why i# is essen#ial &or

#he machine #o impose i#s rhy#hm on #he work process! -here#his isn+# possible capi#alism seeks a# leas# #o measure #hework per&ormed! "n e%ery produc#i%e process, work mus##here&ore be de&inable, 2uan#i&iable, con#rollable &rom #heou#side! 0s long as capi#alism can+# dispense wi#h workersal#oge#her, i# has #o make #hem as in#erchangeable as possibleand #o reduce #heir work #o i#s simples# e*pression, #ha# o&

unskilled labor! $here is no conscious conspiracy or plo# behindall #his! $here is only a process o& +na#ural selec#ion+, a&&ec#ing#echnical in%en#ions as #hey are applied #o indus#ry! ome arepre&erred #o o#hers and are, on #he whole, more widely u#ilied!

$hese are #he ones which slo# in wi#h capi#alism+s basic need


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#o deal wi#h laborpower as a measurable, con#rollable andin#erchangeable commodi#y! $here is no capi#alis# chemis#ry orcapi#alis# physics as such bu#, #here is cer#ainly a capi#alis##echnology, i& by #his, one means #ha# o& #he +spec#rum+ oechni2ues a%ailable a# a gi%en poin# in #ime (which is

de#ermined by #he de%elopmen# o& science) a gi%en group (or+band+) will be selec#ed! From #he momen# #he de%elopmen# o&science permi#s a choice o& se%eral possible #echni2ues, asocie#y will regularly choose #hose me#hods which ha%e ameaning &or i#, which are +ra#ional+ in #he ligh# o& i#s own classra#ionali#y! /u# #he +ra#ionali#y+ o& an e*ploi#ing socie#y is no##he ra#ionali#y o& socialism! [n9 $he conscious #rans&orma#ion

o& #echnology will, #here&ore, be a cen#ral #ask o& a socie#y o&&ree workers!4ar*, as is well known, was #he &irs# #o go beyond #he sur&aceo& #he economic phenomena o& capi#alism (such as #hemarke#, compe#i#ion, dis#ribu#ion, e#c!) and #o #ackle #heanalysis o& #he key area o& capi#alis# social rela#ions: #heconcre#e rela#ions o& produc#ion in #he capi#alis# &ac#ory! /u#

G6olume "G o& .api#al is s#ill awai#ing comple#ion! $he mos#s#riking &ea#ure o& #he degenera#ion o& #he 4ar*is# mo%emen#is #ha# #his par#icular concern o& 4ar*+s, #he mos# &undamen#alo& all, was soon abandoned, e%en by #he bes# o& 4ar*is#s, in&a%our o& #he analysis o& #he +impor#an#+ phenomena! $hrough#his %ery &ac#, #hese analyses were ei#her #o#ally dis#or#ed, or&ound #hemsel%es dealing wi#h %ery par#ial aspec#s o& reali#y,

#hereby leading #o udgmen#s #ha# pro%ed ca#as#rophicallywrong! $hus, i# is s#riking #o see osa 3u*embourg de%o#e #woimpor#an# %olumes #o #he 0ccumula#ion o& .api#al, in whichshe #o#ally ignores wha# #his process o& accumula#ion reallymeans as #o #he rela#ions o& produc#ion! er concern in #hese%olumes was solely abou# #he possibili#y o& a global e2uilibriumbe#ween produc#ion and consump#ion and she was &inally led

#o belie%e she had disco%ered a process o& au#oma#ic collapseo& capi#alism (an idea, needless #o say, concre#ely &alse and apriori absurd)! "# is us# as s#riking #o see 3enin, in his"mperialism, s#ar# &rom #he correc# and &undamen#al

obser%a#ion #ha# #he concen#ra#ion o& capi#al has reached #he


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s#age o& #he domina#ion o& #he monopolies and ye#, neglec##he #rans&orma#ion o& #he rela#ions o& produc#ion in #hecapi#alis# &ac#ory, which resul#s precisely &rom such aconcen#ra#ion, and ignore #he crucial phenomenon o& #hecons#i#u#ion o& an enormous appara#us managing produc#ion,

which was, hence&or#h, #o incarna#e e*ploi#a#ion! e pre&erred#o see #he main conse2uences o& #he concen#ra#ion o& capi#alin #he #rans&orma#ion o& capi#alis#s in#o +couponclipping+ren#iers! $he working class mo%emen# is s#ill paying #he priceo& #he conse2uences o& #his way o& looking a# #hings! "n so &aras ideas play a role in his#ory, Hhrushche% is in power in ussiaas a byproduc# o& #he concep#ion #ha# e*ploi#a#ion can only

#ake #he &orm o& couponclipping!/u#, we mus# go &ur#her back s#ill! -e mus# go back #o 4ar*himsel&! 4ar* #hrew a grea# deal o& ligh# on #he aliena#ion ohe producer in #he course o& capi#alis# produc#ion and on #heensla%emen# o& man by #he mechanical uni%erse he hadcrea#ed! /u# 4ar*+s analysis is a# #imes incomple#e, in #ha# hesees bu# aliena#ion in all #his! "n .api#al as opposed #o 4ar*+s

early wri#ings i# is no# brough# ou# #ha# #he worker is (and canonly be) #he posi#i%e %ehicle o& capi#alis# produc#ion, which isobliged #o base i#sel& on him as such, and #o de%elop him assuch, while simul#aneously seeking #o reduce him #o anau#oma#on and, a# #he limi#, #o dri%e him ou# o& produc#ional#oge#her! /ecause o& #his, #he analysis &ails #o percei%e #ha##he prime crisis o& capi#alism is #he crisis in produc#ion, due #o

#he simul#aneous e*is#ence o& #wo con#radic#ory #endencies,nei#her o& which could disappear wi#hou# #he whole sys#emcollapsing! 4ar* shows in capi#alism +despo#ism in #heworkshop and anarchy in socie#y+ ins#ead o& seeing i# as bo#hdespo#ism and anarchy in bo#h workshop and socie#y!$his leads him #o look &or #he crisis o& capi#alism no# inproduc#ion i#sel& (e*cep# inso&ar as capi#alis# produc#ion

de%elops +oppression, misery, degenera#ion, bu# also re%ol#+,and #he numerical s#reng#h and discipline o& #he prole#aria#) bu# in such &ac#ors as o%erproduc#ion and #he &all in #he ra#e o&pro&i#! 4ar* &ails #o see #ha# as long as #his #ype o& work

persis#s, #his crisis will persis# wi#h all i# en#ails, and #his


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wha#e%er #he sys#em no# only o& proper#y, bu# wha#e%er #hena#ure o& #he s#a#e, and &inally wha#e%er e%en #he sys#em o&managemen# o& produc#ion! "n cer#ain passages o& .api#al,4ar* is #hus led #o see in modern produc#ion only #he &ac# #ha##he producer is mu#ila#ed and reduced #o a +&ragmen# o& a man+

which is #rue, as much as #he con#rary [n1' and, wha# ismore serious, #o link #his aspec# #o modern produc#ion and&inally #o produc#ion as such, ins#ead o& linking i# #o capi#alis##echnology! 4ar* implies #ha# #he basis o& #his s#a#e o& a&&airsis modern produc#ion as such, a s#age in #he de%elopmen# oechni2ue abou# which no#hing can be done, #he &amous+realm o& necessi#y+! $hus, #he #aking o%er o& socie#y by #he

producers socialism a# #imes comes #o mean, &or 4ar*, onlyan e*#ernal change in poli#ical and economic managemen#, achange #ha# would lea%e in#ac# #he s#ruc#ure o& work andsimply re&orm i#s more +inhuman+ aspec#s! $his idea is clearlye*pressed in #he &amous passage o& G6olume """G o& .api#al,where speaking o& socialis# socie#y, 4ar* says:+"n &ac#, #he realm o& &reedom ac#ually begins only where labor

which is de#ermined by necessi#y and mundane considera#ionsceases8 #hus, in #he %ery na#ure o& #hings, i# lies beyond #hesphere o& ac#ual ma#erial produc#ion! !!! Freedom in #his &ieldcan only consis# in socialied man, #he associa#ed producers,ra#ionally regula#ing #heir in#erchange wi#h a#ure, bringing i#under #heir common con#rol, ins#ead o& being ruled by i#!!! and,achie%ing #his wi#h #he leas# e*pendi#ure o& energy and under

condi#ions mos# &a%orable #o, and wor#hy o& #heir humanna#ure! /u#, i# none#heless s#ill remains a realm o& necessi#y!/eyond i# begins !!! #he #rue realm o& &reedom, which howe%ercan blossom &or#h only wi#h #his realm o& necessi#y as i#s basis!$he shor#ening o& #he working day is i#s basic prere2uisi#e!+[a1"& i# is #rue #ha# #he+ realm o& &reedom ac#ually begins only

where labor which is de#ermined by necessi#y and mundaneconsidera#ions ceases+ i# is s#range #o read &rom #he pen o& #heman who wro#e #ha# +indus#ry was #he open book o& human&acul#ies+ #ha# &reedom could +#hus+ only be &ound ou#side o&

work! $he proper conclusion which 4ar* himsel& draws in# i #h l i #h # #h l & & d # # h


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cer#ain o#her places is #ha# #he realm o& &reedom s#ar#s whenwork becomes &ree ac#i%i#y, bo#h in wha# mo#i%a#es i# and in i#scon#en#! "n #he dominan# concep#, howe%er, &reedom is wha#isn+# work, i# is wha# surrounds work, i# is ei#her +&ree #ime+(reduc#ion o& #he working day) or +ra#ional regula#ion+ and

+common con#rol+ o& e*changes wi#h a#ure, which minimiehuman e&&or# and preser%e human digni#y! "n #his perspec#i%e,#he reduc#ion o& #he working day cer#ainly becomes a +basicprere2uisi#e+, as mankind would &inally only be &ree in i#sleisure! $he reduc#ion o& #he working day is, in &ac#, impor#an#,no# &or #his reason howe%er, bu# #o allow people #o achie%e abalance be#ween #heir %arious #ypes o& ac#i%i#y! 0nd, a# #he

limi#, #he +ideal+ (communism) isn+# #he reduc#ion o& #heworking day #o ero, bu# #he &ree de#ermina#ion by all o& #hena#ure and e*#en# o& #heir work! ocialis# socie#y will be able #oreduce #he leng#h o& #he working day, and will ha%e #o do so,bu# #his will no# be i#s &undamen#al preoccupa#ion! "#s &irs# #askwill be #o #ackle +#he realm o& necessi#y+, as such, #o #rans&orm#he %ery na#ure o& work! $he problem is no# #o lea%e more and

more +&ree+ #ime #o indi%iduals which migh# well only beemp#y #ime so #ha# #hey may &ill i# a# will wi#h +poe#ry+ or #hecar%ing o& wood! $he problem is #o make o& all #ime a #ime o&liber#y and #o allow concre#e &reedom #o &ind e*pression increa#i%e ac#i%i#y!$he problem is #o pu# poe#ry in#o work! [n11 @roduc#ion isn+#some#hing nega#i%e, #ha# has #o be limi#ed as much as possible

&or mankind #o &ul&ill i#sel& in i#s leisure! $he ins#i#u#ion o&au#onomy is also and, in #he &irs# place #he ins#i#u#ion o&au#onomy in work! ;nderlying #he idea #ha# &reedom is #o be&ound +ou#side #he realm o& ma#erial produc#ion proper+ #herelies a double error! Firs#ly, #ha# #he %ery na#ure o& #echni2ueand o& modern produc#ion renders ine%i#able #he domina#ion ohe produc#i%e process o%er #he producer, in #he course o& his

work! econdly, #ha# #echnology and in par#icular modern#echnology &ollows an au#onomous de%elopmen#, be&ore whichone can only bow! $his modern #echnology would, moreo%er,possess #he double a##ribu#e o&, on #he one hand, cons#an#ly

reducing #he human role in produc#ion and, on #he o#her hand,o& cons#an#ly increasing #he produc#i%i#y o& labor From #hese


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o& cons#an#ly increasing #he produc#i%i#y o& labor! From #hese#wo ine*plicably combined a##ribu#es would resul# a miraculousdialec#ic o& #echnological progress: more and more a sla%e in#he course o& work, man would be in a posi#ion enormously #oreduce #he leng#h o& work, i& only s=he could organie socie#y

ra#ionally!-e ha%e already shown howe%er #ha# #here is no au#onomousde%elopmen# o& #echnology! & #he sum #o#al o& #echnologieswhich scien#i&ic de%elopmen# makes possible a# any gi%enpoin# in #ime, capi#alis# socie#y brings #o &ul&illmen# #hosewhich correspond mos# closely #o i#s class s#ruc#ure, whichpermi# capi#al bes# #o s#ruggle agains# labor! "# is generally

belie%ed #ha# #he applica#ion o& #his or #ha# in%en#ion #oproduc#ion depends on i#s economic +pro&i#abili#y+! /u# #here isno such #hing as a neu#ral +pro&i#abili#y+: #he class s#ruggle in#he &ac#ory is #he main &ac#or de#ermining +pro&i#abili#y+! 0 gi%enin%en#ion will be pre&erred #o ano#her by a &ac#ory managemen#i&, o#her #hings being e2ual, i# enhances #he +independen#+progress o& produc#ion, &reeing i# &rom in#er&erence by #he

producers! $he increasing ensla%emen# o& people in produc#ion&lows essen#ially &rom #his process, and no# &rom somemys#erious curse, inheren# in a gi%en phase o& #echnologicalde%elopmen#! $here is, moreo%er, no magic dialec#ic o& sla%eryand produc#i%i#y: produc#i%i#y increases in rela#ion #o #heenormous scien#i&ic and #echnical de%elopmen# which is a# #hebasis o& modern produc#ion and i# increases despi#e #he

sla%ery, and no# because o& i#! la%ery implies an enormouswas#e, due #o #he &ac# #ha# people only con#ribu#e anin&ini#esimal &rac#ion o& #heir capaci#ies #o produc#ion! (-e arepassing no a prioriudgmen# on wha# #hese capaci#ies migh#be! owe%er low #hey may es#ima#e i#, #he manager o& Fordsand #he ecre#ary o& #he ussian .ommunis# @ar#y would ha%e#o admi# #ha# #heir own par#icular ways o& organiing

produc#ion only #apped an in&ini#esimal &rac#ion o& i#)!ocialis# socie#y will #here&ore no# be a&&lic#ed wi#h any kind oechnological curse! a%ing abolished bureaucra#ic capi#alis#rela#ionships i# will #ackle a# #he same #ime #he #echnological

s#ruc#ure o& produc#ion, which is bo#h #he basis o& #heserela#ionships and #heir e%er renewed produc#


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rela#ionships and #heir e%errenewed produc#!

1! $E F0.$I .;."3@ossible .omposi#ion and @roceduresJ Belega#es &rom %arious shops, depar#men#s, and o&&ices o&

a gi%en en#erprise (say 1 delega#e per 1'' or '' workers)!J 0ll delega#es elec#ed and immedia#ely re%ocable by body#hey represen#!J 4$ BE3EC0$E E40" 0$ $E" D/8 a ro#a#ingminori#y would ensure con#inui#y!J Fac#ory .ouncil mee#s, say, 1 or hal&days each week!(ugges#ed Func#ionsJ .oordina#ion be#ween shops, depar#men#s, and o&&ices o& agi%en en#erprise!J 4ain#enance o& rela#ions wi#h o#her economicorgania#ions, whe#her in same indus#ry (%er#ical coopera#ion)or same locali#y (horion#al coopera#ion)!J 4ain#enance o& rela#ions wi#h ou#side world, in general!J Be#ermina#ion o& how #o achie%e gi%en produc#ion #arge#,

gi%en #he general means alloca#ed by #he plan!J rgania#ion o& work in each shop or depar#men#!J E%en#ually, changes in #he s#ruc#ure o& #he means o&produc#ion!! $E CEE03 0E4/3IJ 0ll #hose who work in a gi%en en#erprise (manual workers,o&&ice workers, #echnicians, e#c!)!

J ighes# decisionmaking body &or all problems rela#ing #o#he &ac#ory [p as a whole!J 4ee#s regularly (say, days a mon#h) or more oen i&mee#ing wan#ed by speci&ied number o& workers, delega#es, orshops!J Becides on 2ues#ions #o be submi##ed #o Fac#ory .ouncil &or&ur#her elabora#ion, discussion, e#c!

J 0mends, reec#s, re&ers back, or endorses all bu# rou#inedecisions o& #he Fac#ory .ouncil!J Elec#s delega#es (- E40" 0$ -H) #o #he cen#ral0ssembly o& Belega#es! [p5


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5! -orkers+ 4anagemen#: $he Fac#ory

a! Func#ions"# is well known #ha# workers can organie #heir own work a##he le%el o& a workshop or o& par# o& a &ac#ory! /ourgeoisindus#rial sociologis#s no# only recognie #his &ac#, bu# poin# ou##ha# +primary groups+ o& workers oen ge# on wi#h #heir obbe##er i& managemen# lea%es #hem alone, and doesn+#cons#an#ly #ry #o inser# i#sel& in#o #he produc#ion process! owcan #he work o& #hese %arious +primary groups+ or o& %ariousshops and sec#ions be coordina#edK /ourgeois #heore#icianss#ress #ha# #he presen# managerial appara#us whose &ormal

ob i# is #o ensure such a coordina#ion is no# really up #o #he#ask: i# has no real grip on #he workers, and is, i#sel&, #orn byin#ernal s#resses! /u# ha%ing +demolished+ #he presen# se#up by#heir cri#icisms, modern indus#rial sociologis#s ha%e no#hing #opu# in i#s place! 0nd, as beyond #he +primary+ organia#ion o&produc#ion, #here has #o be a +secondary+ organia#ion, #hey&inally &all back on #he e*is#ing bureaucra#ic appara#us,e*hor#ing i# +#o unders#and+, +#o impro%e i#sel&+, +#o #rus# people

more+, e#c!, e#c! [n1 $he same can be said o& +re&ormed+ or+de#alinied+ leaders in #he Eas#ern /loc!-ha# no one seems prepared #o recognie (or e%en #o admi#) is#he capaci#y o& working people #o manage #heir own a&&airsou#side o& a %ery narrow radius! $he bureaucra#ic mind canno#see in #he mass o& people employed in a &ac#ory or o&&ice anac#i%e subec#, capable o& managing and organiing! "n #he

eyes o& #hose in au#hori#y, bo#h Eas# and -es#, as soon as onege#s beyond a group o& #en, &ieen or #wen#y indi%iduals, #hecrowd begins #he mob, #he #housandheaded ydra #ha# can+#


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capi#alis# s#ruc#ure o& #he &ac#ory generally resul#s inconsiderable o%ers#a&&ing o& #hese areas and a socialis#


29/91

considerable o%er s#a&&ing o& #hese areas and a socialis#reorgania#ion would probably resul# in a big economy o& laborin #hese &ields! ome o& #hese depar#men#s would no# onlydiminish in sie, bu# would wi#ness a radical #rans&orma#ion oheir &unc#ions! "n #he las# &ew years +commercial sec#ions+

ha%e e%erywhere grown enormously! "n a planned socialis#economy, #hey would be mainly concerned wi#h, on #he onehand, ob#aining supplies, and on #he o#her, wi#h deli%eries!$hey would be in con#ac# wi#h similar depar#men#s in supply&ac#ories and wi#h s#ores, dis#ribu#ing #o consumers! nce #henecessary #rans&orma#ions had been brough# abou#, o&&iceswould be considered +workshops+ like any o#hers! $hey could

organie #heir own work and would rela#e, &or purposes o&coordina#ion, wi#h #he o#her shops o& #he &ac#ory! $hey wouldenoy no par#icular righ#s by %ir#ue o& #he na#ure o& #heir work!$hey ha%e, in &ac#, no such righ#s #oday, and i# is as a resul# o&o#her &ac#ors (#he di%ision be#ween manual and +in#ellec#ual+work, #he more pronounced hierarchy in o&&ices, e#c!), #ha#persons &rom among #he o&&ice s#a&&, may &ind #heir way in#o

#he ranks o& managemen#!?! +$echnical+ &unc#ions$hese are, a# presen#, carried ou# be people ranging &romconsul#an# engineers #o drasmen! ere, #oo, modern indus#ryhas crea#ed +collec#i%es+ in which work is di%ided up andsocialied, and in which 9'< o& #hose in%ol%ed do us# as#hey+re #old! /u#, while poin#ing #his ou# in rela#ion #o wha# goes

on wi#hin #hese par#icular depar#men#s, we mus# recognie#ha# #hese depar#men#s carry ou# managerial &unc#ions inrela#ion #o #he produc#ion areas! nce produc#ion #arge#s ha%ebeen de&ined, i# is #his collec#i%e #echnical appara#us whichselec#s ways and means, looks in#o #he necessary changes in#he #ooling, de#ermines #he se2uence and #he de#ails o& %ariousopera#ions, e#c! "n #heory, #he produc#ion areas merely carry

ou# #he ins#ruc#ions issued &rom #he #echnical depar#men#s!;nder #he condi#ions o& modern mass produc#ion a comple#esepara#ion cer#ainly e*is#s be#ween #hose who draw up #heplans and #hose who ha%e #o carry #hem ou#!

;p #o a poin#, all #his is based on some #hing real! $oday, bo#hspecialia#ion and #echnical and scien#i&ic compe#ence are #he


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p ppri%ilege o& a minori#y! /u# i# doesn+# &ollow in #he leas# #ha# #hebes# way o& using #his e*per#ise would be #o lea%e #o +e*per#s+#he righ# #o decide #he whole o& produc#ion! .ompe#ence is,almos# by de&ini#ion, res#ric#ed in i#s scope! u#side o& his=her

par#icular sec#or, or o& #he par#icular process which s=heknows, #he #echnician is no be##er e2uipped #o #ake aresponsible decision #han anyone else! E%en wi#hin his=her own&ield, his=her %iewpoin# is oen limi#ed! e=she will oen knowli##le o& #he o#her sec#ors and may #end #o minimie #heirimpor#ance al#hough #hese sec#ors ha%e a de&ini#e bearing onhis own! 4oreo%er and #his is more impor#an# #he

#echnician is separa#ed &rom #he real process o& produc#ion!$his separa#ion is a source o& was#e and con&lic# in capi#alis#&ac#ories! "# will only be abolished when +#echnical+ and+produc#i%e+ s#a&& begin #o coopera#e in a #horough way! $hiscoopera#ion will be based on oin# decisions #aken by #he#echnicians and by #hose who will be working on a gi%en #ask!$oge#her, #hey will decide on #he me#hods #o be used!

-ill such coopera#ion work smoo#hlyK $here is no in#rinsicreason why unsurmoun#able obs#acles should arise! $heworkers will ha%e no in#eres# in challenging #he answers which#he #echnician, in his capaci#y as #echnician, may gi%e #o purely#echnical problems! 0nd, i& #here are disagreemen#s, #hese willrapidly be resol%ed in prac#ice! $he &ield o& produc#ion allows o&almos# immedia#e %eri&ica#ion o& wha# #his or #ha# person

proposes! $ha#, &or #his or #ha# ob or #ool, #his or #ha# #ype o&me#al would be pre&erable (gi%en a cer#ain s#a#e o& knowledgeand cer#ain condi#ions o& produc#ion) will seldom be a ma##er&or con#ro%ersy! /u#, #he answers pro%ided by #echni2ue onlyes#ablish a general &ramework! $hey only sugges# some o& #heelemen#s which will, in prac#ice, in&luence produc#ion! -i#hin#his gi%en &ramework, #here will probably be a number o& ways

o& organiing a par#icular ob! $he choice will ha%e #o #ake in#oaccoun# on #he one hand cer#ain general considera#ions o&+economy+ (economy o& labor, o& energy, o& raw ma#erials, o&plan#) and on #he o#her hand and #his is much more

impor#an# considera#ions rela#ing #o #he &a#e o& man inproduc#ion! 0nd on #hese 2ues#ions, by de&ini#ion, #he only


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people who can decide are #hose direc#ly in%ol%ed! "n #his area,#he speci&ic compe#ence o& #he #echnician, as a #echnician, isnil! [n1? $he ul#ima#e organia#ion o& produc#ion can,#here&ore, only be %es#ed in #he hands o& #he producers

#hemsel%es! $he producers will ob%iously #ake in#o accoun#%arious #echnical poin#s sugges#ed by compe#en# #echnicians!"n &ac#, #here will probably be a cons#an# #oand&ro, i& onlybecause #he producers #hemsel%es will en%isage new ways o&organiing #he manu&ac#ure o& produc#s! $hese sugges#ions willpose new #echnical problems, abou# which #he #echnicians will,in #urn, ha%e #o pu# &orward #heir commen#s and e%alua#ions

be&ore a oin# decision could be #aken +in &ull knowledge o& #herele%an# &ac#s+! /u# #he decision in #his case as in o#hers willbe in #he hands o& #he producers (including #he #echnicians) o&a gi%en shop (i& i# only a&&ec#s a shop) or o& #he &ac#ory as awhole (i& i# a&&ec#s #he whole &ac#ory)!$he roo#s o& possible con&lic# be#ween workers and #echnicianswould #here&ore no# be #echnical! "& such a con&lic# emerged i#

would be a social con&lic#, arising &rom a possible #endency ohe #echnicians #o assume a domina#ing role, #herebycons#i#u#ing anew a bureaucra#ic managerial appara#us! -ha#would be #he s#reng#h and possible e%olu#ion o& such a#endencyK -e can+# here discuss #his problem in any dep#h! -ecan only reemphasie #ha# #echnicians don+# cons#i#u#e amaori#y or e%en an essen#ial par# o& #he upper s#ra#a o&

modern economic or poli#ical managemen#! "nciden#ally, #obecome aware o& #his ob%ious &ac# helps one see #hrough #hemys#i&ying charac#er o& argumen#s which seek #o pro%e #ha#ordinary people canno# manage produc#ion because #hey lack#he +necessary #echnical capaci#y+! $he %as# maori#y oechnicians only occupy subordina#e posi#ions! $hey only carryou# a di%ided work, on ins#ruc#ions &rom abo%e! $hose#echnicians who ha%e +reached #he #op+ are no# #here as#echnicians, bu# as managers or organiers! 4odern capi#alismis bureaucra#ic capi#alism! "# isn+# and ne%er will be a#echnocra#ic capi#alism! $he concep# o& a #echnocracy is an

emp#y generalia#ion o& super&icial sociologis#s, or a day dreamo& #echnicians con&ron#ed wi#h #heir own impo#ence and wi#h


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#he absurdi#y o& #he presen# sys#em! $echnicians don+#cons#i#u#e a class! From #he &ormal poin# o& %iew, #hey are us#a ca#egory o& wageearners! $he e%olu#ion o& moderncapi#alism, by increasing #heir numbers and by #rans&orming

#hem in#o people who carry ou# &ragmen#ed andin#erchangeable work, #ends #o dri%e #hem closer #o #heworking class! .oun#erac#ing #hese #endencies, i# is #rue, are#heir posi#ion in #he wages and s#a#us hierarchies and, also#he scan#y chances s#ill open #o #hem o& +mo%ing up+! [a1? /u##hese channels are gradually being closed as #he numbers oechnicians increases and as bureaucra#ia#ion spreads wi#hin

#heir own ranks! "n parallel wi#h all #his, a re%ol# de%elopsamong #hem, as #hey con&ron# #he irra#ionali#ies o&bureaucra#ic capi#alism and e*perience increasing di&&icul#iesin gi%ing &ree rein #o #heir capaci#ies &or crea#i%e or meaning&ulwork! ome #echnicians already a# #he #op, or on #heir way#here, will side s2uarely wi#h e*ploi#ing socie#y! $hey will,howe%er, be opposed by a growing minori#y o& disa&&ec#ed

colleagues, ready #o work wi#h o#hers in o%er#hrowing #hesys#em! "n #he middle, o& course, #here will be #he grea#maori#y o& #echnicians, #oday apa#he#ically accep#ing #heirs#a#us o& sligh#ly pri%ileged employees! $heir presen#conser%a#ism sugges#s #ha# #hey would no# risk a con&lic# wi#hreal power, wha#e%er i#s na#ure! $he e%olu#ion o& e%en#s maye%en radicalie #hem! "# is #here&ore mos# probable #ha#

workers+ power in #he &ac#ory, aer ha%ing swep# aside a smallnumber o& #echnical bureaucra#s, will &ind suppor# in asubs#an#ial number o& o#her #echnicians! "# should succeed,wi#hou# maor con&lic#, in in#egra#ing #he remainder in#o #hecoopera#i%e ne#work o& #he &ac#ory!! $ruly managerial &unc#ions$he people +consul#ed+ by a .ompany .hairman or 4anagingBirec#or, be&ore s=he #akes an impor#an# decision, usuallynumber less #han a doen, e%en in #he mos# impor#an# &irms!$his %ery narrow s#ra#um o& managemen# has #wo main #asks!n #he one hand, i# has #o make decisions concerning

in%es#men#, s#ocks, ou#pu#, e#c!, in rela#ion #o marke#&luc#ua#ions and #o long#erm prospec#s! n #he o#her hand, i#

& &


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has #o +coordina#e+ #he %arious depar#men#s o& #he &irm,seeking #o iron ou# di&&erences be#ween %arious segmen#s ohe bureaucra#ic appara#us!ome o& #hese &unc#ions would disappear al#oge#her in a

planned economy, in par#icular, all #hose rela#ed #o &luc#ua#iono& #he marke#! #hers would be considerably reduced:coordina#ing #he di&&eren# shops o& a &ac#ory would be mucheasier i& #he producers organied #heir own work, and i&di&&eren# groups, shops, or depar#men#s could direc#ly con#ac#each o#her! #ill o#her &unc#ions migh# be enhanced, such asgenuine discussions o& wha# migh# be possible in #he &u#ure, or

o& how #o do #hings, or abou# #he presen# or &u#ure role o& #heen#erprise in #he o%erall de%elopmen# o& #he economy!b! "ns#i#u#ions;nder socialism +managerial+ #asks a# &ac#ory le%el could becarried ou# by #wo bodies:a! $he Fac#ory .ouncil, composed o& delega#es &rom #he%arious shops and o&&ices, all o& #hem elec#ed and ins#an#ly

re%ocable! "n an en#erprise o& say 5,''' #o 1',''' workerssuch a .ouncil migh# number ?'5' people! $he delega#eswould remain a# #heir obs! $hey would mee# in &ull session asoen as e*perience pro%ed i# necessary (probably on one or#wo hal&days a week $hey would repor# back con#inuously #o#heir workma#es in shop or o&&ice and would anyway probablyha%e discussed all impor#an# ma##ers wi#h #hem pre%iously!

o#a#ing groups o& delega#es would ensure con#inui#y! ne ohe main #asks o& a Fac#ory .ouncil would be #o ensure liaisonand #o ac# as a con#inuous regula#ing locus be#ween #he&ac#ory and #he +ou#side world+!b! $he Ceneral 0ssembly o& all #hose who work in #he plan#,whe#her manual workers, o&&ice workers or #echnicians! $hiswould be #he highes# decisionmaking body &or all problemsconcerning #he &ac#ory as a whole! Bi&&erences be#weendi&&eren# sec#ors would be #hrashed ou# a# #his le%el! $hisCeneral 0ssembly would embody #he res#ora#ion o& direc#democracy in#o wha# should, in modern socie#y, be i#s basic

uni#: #he place o& work! $he 0ssembly would ha%e #o ra#i&y allbu# rou#ine decisions o& #he Fac#ory .ouncil! "# would be

d # #i h ll g d # d


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empowered #o 2ues#ion, challenge, amend, reec# or endorseany decision #aken by #he .ouncil! $he Ceneral 0ssembly will,i#sel&, decide on all sor#s o& 2ues#ions #o be submi##ed #o #he.ouncil! $he 0ssembly would mee# regularly say, on one or

#wo days each mon#h! $here would, in addi#ion, e*is#procedures &or calling such Ceneral 0ssemblies, i& #his waswan#ed by a gi%en number o& workers, or o& shops, or o&delega#es!For summaries o& #he composi#ion and &unc#ions o&+ #hesebodies, and o& #heir rela#ions wi#h o#her basic uni#s, see /asic;ni#s 1, /asic ;ni#s , $he Fac#ory .ouncil and Ceneral

0ssembly, and .ouncil: .en#ral 0ssembly o& Belega#es!

>! $he .on#en# o& -orkers+ 4anagemen# a#Fac#ory 3e%el

"# will help us #o discuss #his problem i& we, ra#herschema#ically, di&&eren#ia#e be#ween #he s#a#ic and #he

dynamic aspec#s o& workers+ managemen#, be#ween wha# willbe immedia#ely possible, a# #he %ery onse# o& socialis#produc#ion, and wha# will become possible aer a rela#i%elyshor# in#er%al, as socialis# produc#ion de%elops and as humandomina#ion o%er all s#ages o& #he produc#i%e process rapidlyincreases! For #he sake o& clari#y, we will &irs# describe workers+managemen# a# &ac#ory le%el in a s#a#ic way! -e will #hen

consider how i# will de%elop, and how #his de%elopmen#, i#sel&,will cons#an#ly e*pand #he areas o& local &reedom!a! "mmedia#e .on#en#3ooked a# in a s#a#ic way, #he o%erall plan migh# alloca#e #o a

gi%en en#erprise a #arge# #o be achie%ed wi#hin a gi%en #ime (wewill e*amine &ur#her on how such #arge#s migh# be de#erminedunder condi#ions o& genuinely democra#ic planning) $he


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under condi#ions o& genuinely democra#ic planning)! $hegeneral means #o be alloca#ed #o #he en#erprise (#o achie%e i#s#arge#) would also be broadly ou#lined by #he plan! Fore*ample, #he plan migh# decide #ha# #he annual produc#ion o& a

gi%en &ac#ory should be so many &ridges, and #ha# &or #hispurpose suchandsuch a 2uan#i#y o& raw ma#erials, power,machinery, e#c!, should be made a%ailable!een &rom #his angle, workers+ managemen# implies #ha# #heworkers+ collec#i%e will i#sel& be responsible &or deciding how aproposed #arge# could bes# be achie%ed, gi%en #he generalmeans a%ailable! $he #ask corresponds #o #he +posi#i%e+

&unc#ions o& #he presen# narrowlybased managerial appara#us,which will ha%e been superseded! $he workers will de#ermine#he organia#ion o& #heir work in each shop or depar#men#!$hey will ensure coordina#ion be#ween shops! $his will #akeplace #hrough direc# con#ac#s whene%er i# is a 2ues#ion o&rou#ine problems or o& shops engaged in closely rela#edaspec#s o& #he produc#i%e process! "& more impor#an# ma##ers

arose, #hey would be discussed and sol%ed by mee#ings o&delega#es (or by oin# ga#herings o& workers) o& #wo or moreshops or sec#ions! $he o%erall coordina#ion o& #he work wouldbe under#aken by #he Fac#ory .ouncil and by #he Ceneral0ssembly o& #he Fac#ory! ela#ions wi#h #he res# o& #heeconomy, as already s#a#ed, would be in #he hands o& #heFac#ory .ouncil! 0s #he whole #hing becomes real in #he handso& #he workers o& a gi%en plan#, a cer#ain +gi%e and #ake+ willundoub#edly occur be#ween +#arge#s se#+ and +means #o beused+! "# mus# be remembered, howe%er, #ha# #hese +means+ areusually #he produc# o& some o#her &ac#ory! +$arge#s se#+ and+means o& produc#ion a%ailable &or achie%ing #hem+ do no#,howe%er, be#ween #hem rigidly or e*haus#i%ely de&ine all #hepossible me#hods #ha# could be used! pelling #hese me#hodsou# in de#ail, and deciding e*ac#ly how an obec#i%e will beachie%ed, gi%en cer#ain ma#erial condi#ions, will be #he area inwhich! workers+ managemen# will &irs# opera#e! "# is animpor#an# &ield, bu# a limi#ed one, and i# is essen#ial #o be &ully

aware o& i#s limi#a#ions! $hese limi#a#ions s#em &rom (andde&ine) #he &ramework in which #he new #ype o& produc#ion willha%e #o s#ar# "# will be #he #ask o& socialis# produc#ion


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ha%e #o s#ar#! "# will be #he #ask o& socialis# produc#ioncons#an#ly #o e*pand #his &ramework and cons#an#ly #o pushback #hese limi#a#ions on au#onomy!0u#onomy, en%isaged in #his s#a#ic way, is limi#ed, &irs# o& all, in

rela#ion #o #he &i*ing o& #arge#s! $rue, #he workers o& a gi%enen#erprise will par#icipa#e in de#ermining #he #arge# o& #heir&ac#ory inso&ar as #hey par#icipa#e in #he elabora#ion o& #heo%erall plan! /u#, #hey are no# in #o#al or sole con#rol o& #heobec#i%es! "n a modern economy, where #he produc#ion o&mos# en#erprises bo#h condi#ions and is condi#ioned by #ha# o&o#hers, #he de#ermina#ion o& coheren# #arge#s canno# as a rule

be %es#ed in indi%idual en#erprises, ac#ing in isola#ion! "# mus#be under#aken by (and &or) a number o& en#erprises, general%iewpoin#s pre%ailing o%er par#icular ones! -e will re#urn #o #hispoin# la#er! "ni#ial au#onomy will also be limi#ed in rela#ion #oa%ailable ma#erial means! $he workers o& a gi%en en#erprisecanno# au#onomously de#ermine #he means o& produc#ion #heywould pre&er #o use, &or #hese are bu# #he produc#s o& o#her

en#erprises or &ac#ories! $o#al au#onomy &or e%ery &ac#ory, inrela#ion #o means, would imply #ha# each &ac#ory couldde#ermine #he ou#pu# o& all #he o#hers! $hese %ariousau#onomies would immedia#ely neu#ralie one ano#her! $hislimi#a#ion is, howe%er, a less rigid one #han #he &irs# (#helimi#a#ion in rela#ion #o #arge#s)! 0l#era#ions o& i#s owne2uipmen#, proposed by #he user&ac#ory, migh# oen beaccommoda#ed by #he producer&ac#ory, wi#hou# #he la##ersaddling i#sel& wi#h a hea%y e*#ra load! n a small scale, #hishappens e%en #oday, in in#egra#ed engineering &ac#ories (car&ac#ories, &or ins#ance) where a subs#an#ial par# o& #he #oolingu#ilied in one shop may be made in ano#her shop o& #he same&ac#ory! .lose coopera#ion be#ween plan#s making machine#ools and plan#s using #hem, could 2uickly lead #o considerablechanges in #he means o& produc#ion ac#ually used!b! (ubse2uen# @ossibili#ies3e# us now look a# workers+ managemen# a# &ac#ory le%el as i#migh# de%elop, i!e!, in i#s dynamic aspec#! ow would i#

con#ribu#e #o #rans&orming socialis# produc#ion, i!e!, #o i#sprimary obec#i%eK E%ery#hing we ha%e sugges#ed so &ar, willnow ha%e #o be looked a# again $he limi#s o& au#onomy will be


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now ha%e #o be looked a# again! $he limi#s o& au#onomy will be&ound #o ha%ewidened %ery considerably! $he change will be mos# ob%ious inrela#ion! #o #he means o& produc#ion! ocialis# socie#y will

immedia#ely ge# #o grips wi#h #he problem o& a consciousa##ack on #he #echnology inheri#ed &rom capi#alism! ;ndercapi#alism, #he means o& produc#ion are planned and madeindependen#ly o& #he user and o& his=her pre&erences(manu&ac#urers, o& course, pre#end #o #ake #he user+s %iewpoin#in#o accoun#, bu# #his has li##le #o do wi#h #he real user: #heworker on #he shop &loor)! /u#, e2uipmen# is made #o be

produc#i%ely used! $he %iewpoin# o& #he +produc#i%e consumers+(i!e!, o& #hose who will use #he e2uipmen# #o produce #hegoods) is o& primary impor#ance! 0s #he %iews o& #hose whomake #he e2uipmen# are also impor#an#, #he problem o& #hes#ruc#ure o& #he means o& produc#ion will only be sol%ed by #heli%ing coopera#ion o& #hese #wo ca#egories o& workers! "n anin#egra#ed &ac#ory, #his would mean permanen# liaison

be#ween #he corresponding shops! 0# #he le%el o& #he economy,as a whole, i# would #ake place #hrough normal permanen#con#ac#s be#ween &ac#ories and be#ween sec#ors o& produc#ion![n1 $his coopera#ion will #ake #wo &orms! .hoosing andpopulariing #he bes# me#hods, and ra#ionaliing and e*#ending#heir use, will be achie%ed #hrough #he horion#al coopera#iono& .ouncils, organied according #o branch or sec#or o& indus#ry(&or ins#ance, #e*#iles, #he chemical indus#ry, building,engineering, elec#rical supply, e#c!)! n #he o#her hand, #hein#egra#ion o& #he %iewpoin#s o& #hose who make, and o& #hosewho u#ilie, e2uipmen# (or, more generally, o& #hose who makeand #hose who u#ilie in#ermedia#e produc#s) will re2uire #he%er#ical coopera#ion o& .ouncils represen#ing #he di&&eren#s#ages o& a produc#i%e process (s#eel indus#ry, machine #oolindus#ry and engineering indus#ry, &or ins#ance)! "n bo#h cases,#he coopera#ion will need #o &ind embodimen# in s#able &orms,such as .ommi##ees o& Fac#ory .ouncil represen#a#i%es (orwider con&erences o& producers) organied bo#h horion#ally

and %er#ically! $here would be room &or e*#reme &le*ibili#y andmany new &orms will almos# cer#ainly e%ol%e!.onsidering #he problem &rom #his dynamic angle which, in


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.onsidering #he problem &rom #his dynamic angle which, in#he las# resor#, is #he really &undamen#al one one can see, a#once, #ha# #he areas o& au#onomy ha%e considerably e*panded!0lready a# #he le%el o& indi%idual &ac#ories (bu# more

signi&ican#ly a# #he le%el o& coopera#ion be#ween &ac#ories), #heproducers are beginning #o in&luence #he s#ruc#ure o& #hemeans o& produc#ion! $hey are, #hereby, reaching a posi#ionwhere #hey are beginning #o domina#e #he work process: #heyare no# only de#ermining i#s me#hods, bu# are now alsomodi&ying i#s #echnological s#ruc#ure! $his &ac# now begins #oal#er wha# we ha%e us# said abou# #arge#s! $hree2uar#ers o&

modern produc#ion consis#s o& in#ermedia#e produc#s, o&+means o& produc#ion+ in #he wides# sense! -hen producersdecide abou# #he means o& produc#ion, #hey are par#icipa#ing,in a %ery direc# and immedia#e way, in decisions abou# #he#arge#s o& produc#ion! $he remaining limi#a#ion, and i# is animpor#an# one, &lows &rom #he &ac# #ha# #hese means o&produc#ion (wha#e%er #heir e*ac# na#ure) are des#ined, in #he

las# analysis, #o produce consumer goods! 0nd #he o%erall%olume o

Documents

Castoriadis Workers Councils and the Economics of Self Managed Society 1957