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B. E./B. Tech. DEGREE EXAIVIINATION NOVEMBER DECEMBER 2017
Seventh Semester
Civil Engineering
CE 6023-INDUSTRIAL WASTE MANAGEMENT
(Regulations 2013)
Answer ALL questions"
PART -. A
1. List the outcome diseases occur due to industrial pollution
It causes irritation of eye, nose, throat respiratory tracts, etc.
It increases mortality rate and morbidity rate.
A variety of particulates mainly pollens, initiate asthmatic attacks.
Chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchitis and asthma are aggravated by high
concentration of SO2, NO2, particulate matter and photo-chemical smog.
2. State four prime merits of effluent treatment plants.
Safe disposal of effluents from Industries
Reduces the cost of treatment and amount of waste to be treated.
Increasing the efficiency of IWM system
Efficient way to remove the hazardous waste effluents.
3. Mention the responsibilities of waste audit team in industry'
Preparing and leading the audit team
Responsible for weighing the bins and the sorted waste, recording data, and
taking notes during the audit.
Responsible for opening the bags and sorting the waste according to the
categorization chosen by the audit coordinator
Responsible for opening the bags and sorting the waste according to the
categorization chosen by the audit coordinator
4. What are the challengers involved in waste audit?
The purpose of a waste audit is to gain a detailed understanding of the types and
weights of material being generated.
Audit results are used to improve the economic and environmental performance
of waste management efforts
There are three major components to the waste audit:
o A. Preparation
o B. Sorting, recording, and cleanup
o C. Analysis and reporting.
5. Specify the hazards occur in electroplating industry.
Heavy metal causing respiratory problems
Health issues regarding skin diseases
Eye irritation and allergy
Affecting the human nervous system.
6. How phosphorus is hazardous to the human life?
Causing Eutropication to the stream and hence spoil the drinking water quality
Reducing the dissolved oxygen content of rivers
Affecting the seafood’s and poisoning the lives
Affecting the natural eco system.
7. What is neutralization in pollution treatment?
Neutralization can be defined as the treatment of industrial waste so that it is neither
too acidic nor too alkaline for safe discharge
8. Define residue management
Safe disposal of residues from the effluent treatment plants and the reduction
methods of these effluents are combined in the treatment of industrial waste
management system is called residue management.
9. What is meant by solidification in waste management?
This refers to a process in which materials are added to the waste to produce a solid. It
may or may not involve a chemical bonding between the toxic contaminant and the
additive.
10. Differentiate effects hazardous and non hazardous waste to affect human life.
Hazardous wastes refer to wastes that may, or tend to, cause adverse health effects on
the ecosystem and human beings. These wastes pose present or potential risks to
human health or living organisms, due to the fact that they:
They are non-degradable or persistent in nature;
They can be biologically magnified;
They are highly toxic and even lethal at very low concentrations.
PART_ B (5x 16=80 Marks)
11.a) Discuss in detail the types of industries and discharges of pollutions from each industry.
TYPES OF INDUSTRIES AND INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
Industry
The production side of business activity is referred as industry.
It is a business activity, which is related to the raising, producing, processing or
manufacturing of products.
The products are consumer's goods as well as producer's goods.
Consumer goods are goods, which are used finally by consumers. E.g. Food grains,
textiles, cosmetics, VCR, etc.
Producer's goods are the goods used by manufacturers for producing some other goods.
E.g. Machinery, tools, equipment’s, etc.
Classification / Types of Industries
Primary Industry
Primary industry is concerned with production of goods with the help of nature.
It is a nature-oriented industry, which requires very little human effort.
E.g. Agriculture, farming, forestry, fishing, horticulture, etc.
Genetic Industry
Genetic industries are engaged in re-production and multiplication of certain spices of
plants and animals with the object of sale.
The main aim is to earn profit from such sale.
E.g. plant nurseries, cattle rearing, poultry, cattle breeding, etc.
Extractive Industry
Extractive industry is concerned with extraction or drawing out goods from the soil, air
or water.
Products of extractive industries come in raw form and they are used by manufacturing
and construction industries for producing finished products.
E.g. mining industry, coal mineral, oil industry, iron ore, extraction of timber and
rubber from forests, etc.
Manufacturing Industry
Manufacturing industries are engaged in transforming raw material into finished
product with the help of machines and manpower.
The finished goods can be either consumer goods or producer goods.
E.g. textiles, chemicals, sugar industry, paper industry, etc.
Construction Industry
Construction industries take up the work of construction of buildings, bridges, roads,
dams, canals, etc.
This industry is different from all other types of industry because in case of other
industries goods can be produced at one place and sold at another place.
But goods produced and sold by constructive industry are erected
Service Industry
In modern times service sector plays an important role in the development of the nation
and therefore it is named as service industry.
The main industries, which fall under this category, include hotel industry, tourism
industry, entertainment industry, etc.
Secondary Industries(sometimes referred to as manufacturing industry)
Involve the manufacture of raw materials, into another product by manual labor or
machines.
Secondary industries often use assembly lines e.g. a car factory.
Tertiary Industries (sometime referred to as Services industry)
Neither produces a raw material nor makes a product.
Instead they provide services to other people and industries.
Tertiary industries can include doctors, dentists, refuse collection and banks.
Quaternary Industries
Involve the use of high tech industries.
People who work for these companies are often highly qualified within their field of
work.
Research and development companies are the most common types of businesses in this
sector.
Goods
All of the companies are linked in one way or another. For example
The raw material cotton is extracted by primary industries
The cotton may then be turned into an item of clothing in the secondary industry.
Tertiary industries may advertise the goods in magazines and newspapers.
The quaternary industry may involve the product being advertised or researched to
check that the item of clothing meets the standards that it claims too.
INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
With the coming of the Industrial Revolution, humans were able to advance further into
the 21st century.
Technology developed rapidly, science became advanced and the manufacturing age
came into view.
With all of these came one more effect, industrial pollution.
Earlier, industries were small factories that produced smoke as the main pollutant.
Since the number of factories were limited and worked only a certain number of hours a
day, the levels of pollution did not grow significantly.
But when these factories became full scale industries and manufacturing units, the issue
of industrial pollution started to take on more importance.
Any form of pollution that can trace its immediate source to industrial practices is
known as industrial pollution.
Industrial pollution takes on many faces.
It contaminates many sources of drinking water, releases unwanted toxins into the air
and reduces the quality of soil all over the world.
Causes of Industrial Pollution
1. Lack of Policies to Control Pollution
Lack of effective policies and poor enforcement drive allowed many industries to
bypass laws made by pollution control board.
It resulted in mass scale pollution that affected lives of many people.
Unplanned Industrial Growth
In most industrial townships, unplanned growth took place wherein those companies
flouted rules and norms and polluted the environment with both air and water pollution.
2. Use of Outdated Technologies
Most industries still rely on old technologies to produce products that generate large
amount of waste.
To avoid high cost and expenditure, many companies still make use of traditional
technologies to produce high end products.
3. Presence of Large Number of Small Scale Industries
Many small scale industries and factories that don’t have enough capital and rely on
government grants to run their day-to-day businesses often escape environment
regulations
It release large amount of toxic gases in the atmosphere.
4. Inefficient Waste Disposal
Water pollution and soil pollution are often caused directly due to inefficiency in
disposal of waste.
Long term exposure to polluted air and water causes chronic health problems, making
the issue of industrial pollution into a severe one.
It also lowers the air quality in surrounding areas which causes many respiratory
disorders.
5. Leaching of Resources from Our Natural World
Industries do require large amount of raw material to make them into finished products.
This requires extraction of minerals from beneath the earth.
The extracted minerals can cause soil pollution when spilled on the earth.
Leaks from vessels can cause oil spills that may prove harmful for marine life.
Effects and Control of Industrial Pollution
In order to provide daily needs of the growing population, different types of industries
are setup to produce different products.
The industries use raw materials, process them and produce finished products. Besides
the finished products, a good number of by-products are produced.
Out of all the by-products, if some are in huge quantities and the processing is cost
effective, the industrialist preserves the by- products.
If the processing of waste is a cost prohibitive one, then the industrialist throws the
waste into the environment in the form of gas, liquid or solid.
The gases are usually released into the atmosphere, the liquids are discharged into
aquatic bodies like canals, rivers or sea and solid wastes are either dumped on the land
or in aquatic bodies.
There are about 17 industries which are declared to be most polluting.
These include the caustic soda, cement, distillery, dyes and dye intermediaries,
fertilizers, iron and steel, oil refineries, paper and pulp, pesticides and pharmaceuticals,
sugar, textiles, thermal power plants, tanneries and so on.
Due to industrial activities, a variety of poisonous gases like NO, SO2, NO2, SO3, Cl2,
CO, CO2, H2SO4 etc. - volatile chemicals, dusts etc., are liberated into the atmosphere
causing acute pollution problem.
For example, Methyl Isocyanate gas leakage from Union Carbide factory at Bhopal
caused mass killing which is known as Bhopal gas tragedy.
Types of pollution from industries
Sl.No Industry Wastes Produced
Type of
Pollution
1. Caustic Soda Mercury, Chlorine gas Air, water and land
2. Cement dust,
smoke
Particulate matter -
3. Distillery Organic waste Land and water
4. Fertilizer Ammonia, cyanide, oxides of
nitrogen, oxides of Sulphur
Air and water
5. Dye Inorganic waste pigment Land and water
6. Iron and steel Smoke, gases, coal dust, fly ash,
fluorine Air, water and land
OR
12. b)"Environmental legislations for regulating the industry pollutions is not compatible with the
volume and nature of pollutions". Discuss.
Indian Environmental Legislation.
Air Pollution legislation
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Act, 1981, as amended by Amendment
Act, 1987
The Air (Prevention and Control of Pollution) Rules, 1982
This law defined an air pollutant as any solid, liquid or gaseous substance present in the
atmosphere in such concentration as may be or tend to be injurious to human beings or
other living creatures or plants or property or environment.
This Act requires approval prior to operating any industrial plant. Government may
suggest “control equipment” prior to giving its consent to any industry for its operation.
It may include chimney etc.
In case there is any new technology for emission control, then the Board may insist on
this to being installed. Standards specific to industries have been specified.
Penalty
Penalties are minimum of six months imprisonment to a maximum of seven years and
fine up to Rs. 5,000 for every day during which violation continues after conviction
This law makes it clear that when offences are committed by a company, its director,
manager, secretary or other officers could be held guilty and punished accordingly.
As the industries are running on age-old processes, outdated technology, fuel, coal as
their source of energy where there are no proper installations for measurement and
treatment of emissions like SO2, oxides of nitrogen, suspended particulate, etc it
becomes harder and impossible to fulfill the norms of the legislative standards.
Noise Pollution
The state government may categorize the areas into industrial,
commercial, residential or silence areas/zones for the purpose of implementation of
noise standards for different areas.
The state government shall take measures to control noise including noise emanating
from vehicular movements and ensure that the specified noise levels do not exceed.
A person may, if the noise level exceeds the ambient noise standards by 10 dB or more
given in standards against any area/zone, can make a complaint to the authority.
The authority shall act on the complaint and take action against the violator in
accordance with the provisions of these rules and any other law in force.
Norms for noise pollution
Silence zone is defined as an area comprising not less than 100 metres around hospitals,
educational institutions and courts. The silence zones are declared as such by the competent
authority.
Ozone Depletion
The legislation refers to the:
Ozone Depletion Substances (Regulation) Rules, 2000
Ozone (O3) is a form of oxygen in the atmosphere about 20 kms. above the earth’s
surface that efficiently screens out almost all the harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun.
This radiation has the potential to cause skin cancer, eye damage; suppress body’s
immune system; decrease crop yield; cause damage to forests and affect ocean life.
In accordance with the National Strategy for Ozone depletion substances (ODS) phase
out
the GoI - MoEF, have framed comprehensive draft rules, covering various aspects of
production, sale, consumption, Export and import of ODS.
Some of the important provisions of the proposed draft ODS rules, are as follows:
Important provisions of the proposed draft ODS rules
Compulsory to register with MoEF Restriction on production levels
Ban on creating new capacity or expansion of capacity
Export restricted to countries who are signatory to Montreal Protocol
Quantity produced in excess of maximum allowable consumption for the respective
years, if any, to be for export purposes only.
Environment Protection Act
Act and rules related to environment protection
The Environment (Protection) Act, 1986
The Environment (Protection) Rules, 1986
Tolerance limits for industrial effluents
Characteristics Into inland
surface water
Into public
sewer
On land for
irrigation
Into marine Coastal
areas
Colour and odour Colourless Colourless Colourless Colourless
Suspended solids (mg/l ) 100 600 200 -
Dissolved solids (TDS, mg/l
m 2100 2100 2100 -
pH 5.5-9 5.5-9 5.5-9 5.5-9
Temperature 0C Max. 40 45 - 45
Oil and grease mg/l 10 20 10 20
BOD (5 days ) 30 350 100 100
COD 250 - - 250
Hexavalent chromium mg/l 0.1 2 - 1.0
Copper mg/l 3 3 - 3
Zinc mg/l 5 15 - 15
Sulphides mg/l 2 - - 5
Pesticides mg/l Absent Absent Absent Absent
13.a) Explain the waste management approaches in the recent technological developments.
WASTE MANAGEMENT APPROACH
Dealing with waste in India
Waste is an issue that affects us all.
We all produce waste on average, each of the highly populated people living in the
India throws away around half a ton of household rubbish every year.
This is on top of huge amounts of waste generated from activities such as
manufacturing (360 million tons) and construction (900 million tons), while water
supply and energy production generate another 95 million tons.
Altogether, India produces up to 3 billiontons of waste every year.
All this waste has a huge impact on the environment, causing pollution and greenhouse
gas emissions that contribute to climate change, as well as significant losses of
materials a particular problem for the India which is highly dependent on exported raw
materials.
The amount of waste we are creating is increasing and the nature of waste itself is
changing, partly due to the dramatic rise in the use of hi-tech products.
This means waste now contains an increasingly complex mix of materials, including
plastics, precious metals and hazardous materials that are difficult to deal with safely.
Indian waste management policies aim to reduce the environmental and health impacts
of waste and improve India’s resource efficiency.
The long-term goal is to turn our country into a recycling society, avoiding waste and
using unavoidable waste as a resource wherever possible.
The aim is to achieve much higher levels of recycling and to minimize the extraction of
additional natural resources.
Proper waste management is a key element in ensuring resource efficiency and the
sustainable growth of Indian economies.
Working to minimize the negative impacts of waste while maximizing the benefits of
good waste management, and the role individuals, households, businesses and local and
national governments have to play.
The Challenges of Waste
Whether it is re-used, recycled, incinerated or put into landfill sites, the management of
household and industrial waste comes at a financial and environmental cost.
First, waste must be collected, sorted and transported before being treated which can
prove expensive and result in greenhouse gas emissions and pollution of air, soils and
water.
One major challenge is the fact that a large amount of the waste generated each year
some 100 million tonsis hazardous, containing heavy metals and other toxin
These substances make the waste particularly difficult to treat as special processes are
needed to deal with the hazardous components.
Our country is working to reduce the hazardous materials used in products which then
end up in our waste, as well as ensuring that hazardous waste is dealt with in the safest
way possible.
Waste treatment facilities are being improved across the India to make sure hazardous
material can be dealt with safely.
There is also a risk that hazardous waste is exported abroad where it may be dealt with
in unsafe conditions.
Several types of chemicals have been banned and the use of other materials has been
significantly restricted.
The India’s Approach to Waste Management
Waste management approach has evolved over the last 30 years through a series of
environmental action plans and a framework of legislation that aims to reduce negative
environmental and health impacts and create an energy and resource efficient economy.
This led to the development of a long-term strategy on waste.
The 2015 Thematic Strategy on Waste Prevention and Recycling resulted in the
revision of the Waste Framework Directive, the cornerstone of India’s approach to
waste management
It includes targets for IndianState Members to recycle 50% of their municipal waste and
70% of construction waste by 2020.
The Directive introduces a five-step waste hierarchy where prevention is the best
option, followed by re-use, recycling and other forms of recovery, with disposal such as
landfill as the last resort.
OR
12. b) Discuss the scope and functions of recycle and reuse management in pollution management.
RECYCLE, REUSE AND BYPRODUCT RECOVERY
3Rs offer an environmentally friendly alternative to deal with growing generation of
wastes and its related impact on human health, economy and natural ecosystem
Stages in product life cycle
1. Extraction of natural resources Processing of resources
2. Design of products and selection of inputs
3. Production of goods and services
4. Distribution
5. Consumption
6. Reuse of wastes from production or consumption
7. Recycling of wastes from consumption or production
8. Disposal of residual wastes
Eco Efficiency and the Important Of 3Rs
Eco-efficiency is the delivery of competitively priced goods and services that satisfy
human needs and bring quality of life.
While progressively reducing ecological impacts and resource intensity throughout the
life cycle, to a level at least in line with Earth's estimated carrying capacity.
Seven elements or steps companies can make to improve Eco efficiency
i. Reduce material intensity
ii. Reduce energy intensity
iii. Reduce dispersion of toxic substances
iv. Enhance the ability to recycle
v. Maximize use of renewable resources
vi. Extend product durability
vii. Increase service intensity
Transitioning to more resource efficient economy One way economy
In one way economy, a little effort is made to reduce the amount of materials consumed in
production &hence the wastes areproduced.
Also little effort is made to reuse or recycle those wasteswhich mainly go for landfill.
More resource efficient economy
Greater resource efficiency by reducing consumption and waste ofmaterials, and by reusing
and recycling by products.
By implementingmeasures on both the production and consumption sides, countries may be
able to reduce (per unit of product) both the quantity of theresource extraction stream
The quantity and environmentalimpact of the residual materials flow that ultimately reaches
disposalsites.
Closed-loop economy
In closed-loop economy, nearly all outputs either become inputs to other manufacturing
processes or are returned to natural systems as emissions rather than as pollutants, e.g., a
closed-cycle processing plant takes in freshwater and does not discharge any liquid effluents.
Rather, the water is constantly recycled and possibly utilized in the final product itself
14. a) Elaborate in detail the pollution control process among various industries with illustrations.
Two major pieces of legislation establish as a national goal the elimination of the
discharge of pollutants.
They provide for the development of definite guidelines for effluent discharge
from all point sources, public and private.
They also provide for Federal financial assistance in the form of capital subsidies
to communities attempting to achieve these guidelines.
Many communities are designing upgraded or new wastewater treatment
facilities.
The magnitude of the public investment required in wastewater treatment during
the next few years makes it imperative that relevant decision makers have a
thorough understanding of the issues involved.
One particular issue is industrial participation in the municipal wastewater
treatment system.
Industrial discharges often significantly alter the total flow and concentrations of
various wastewater constituents, such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
suspended solids, and heavy metals, to be treated by municipal treatment facilities
These factors are important in deter- mining the size and type of treatment
processes required to meet the increasingly stringent standards being imposed on
communities, so specific attention must be paid to the expected level of industrial
participation during the planning and design stages of the new construction
Planning for the joint treatment of domestic and industrial wastewater is a crucial
element in the design of cost-effective treatment systems.
The impact of joint treatment on the various participants and their corresponding
responses will be important in determining the type and size of facilities required.
The municipality is required to provide joint treatment when certain conditions
are met, but it has considerable flexibility in making use of such policy
instruments as pricing strategies and pretreatment requirements to encourage or
discourage joint treatment.
The municipality will compare the additional benefits and costs of joint treatment
in order to determine its policies.
Inclusion of industrial wastes in municipal wastewater treatment systems can,
however, lead to additional system costs.
Many industrial wastewaters, while compatible with common treatment
processes, are more highly concentrated, in terms of constituents such as BOD
and suspended solids, than normal domestic sewage.
The inclusion of these wastes, therefore, may require longer detention times
and/or equipment with larger capacities, resulting in higher per unit treatment
costs.
Chart of a Poultry Processing Plant
Potable water
Scalding
Washing
Final washing
36 Grading, weighing & packing
1. Product
2. By-product
3. Potable water
4. Process water
5. Wastewater
6. Final product
7. Final wastewater collection & control
OR
13.b) Describe the origin, characteristics and treatment of pharmaceutical plant waste
management.
Pharmaceutical waste is synonymous with drug waste unused or expired drugs unused or expired
prescription and over-the counter human drugs, veterinary drugs, diagnostic agents, and nutritional
supplements.
Scrap: Materials like rejected foils, bottles, cans, tins etc. which have a resale value.
Trash: This material is to be discarded or disposed of by suitable means and don’t have a resale
value. e.g. dust, unsalable materials.
PHARMACEUTICAL WASTE
All unsealed syrups, creams, ointment or eye drops (expired or unexpired) All cold chain
damaged unexpired pharmaceuticals that should have been stored in a cold chain but were
not (for example: insulin, polypeptide hormones, gamma globulins and vaccines) o All bulk
or loose tablets and capsules. If unexpired these should only be used when the container is
still sealed, properly labeled or still within the original unbroken blister packs;
TYPES OF PHARMACEUTICAL WASTE
1. Controlled substances (Special disposal needed):
Cytotoxic waste:
Cytotoxic substances and residues (includes all items contaminated by such substances, or used
in the delivery of chemotherapy for cancer treatment, and unused or discarded preparations).
Following category of drugs were also required some special consideration required for disposal
Narcotics, Psychotropic substances; Anti-infective drugs, Antiseptics and disinfectants etc..
2. Chemical Wastes:
Includes Pharmaceutical wastes (includes outdated, contaminated and discarded medicines)
3. Potentially infectious wastes (Biomedical wastes):
Includes Microbiology and Biotechnology Waste Wastes from laboratory cultures, stocks or
specimens of microorganisms, live or attenuated vaccines, human and animal cell culture used in
research and infectious agents from research and industrial laboratories Wastes from the
production of biological, toxins, and dishes and devices used for the transfer of cultures)
Sharp wastes includes
Needles
Scalpels
Blades
IV spikes
Other sharp objects that are potentially contaminated with infectious and/or chemical agents and
which may cause puncture or cuts
4. Other pharmaceuticals:
(a) solids, semi-solids and powders:
o – tablets, capsules, granules, powders for injection,
o mixtures, creams, lotions, gels, suppositories, etc.
(b) liquids:
o – solutions, suspensions, syrups, etc.
(c) ampoules:
o – Aerosol canisters: including propellant-driven
o sprays and inhalers
14.a) What is the purpose and objectives of neutralization of waste? How could neutralization
acid waste can be done?
Definition
“Neutralization” can be defined as the treatment of industrial waste so that it is neither too acidic
nor too alkaline for safe discharge. _ There are several possible reasons that an industry neutralized
its wastewater during the twentieth century and will continue to do so:
Reasons
1. To make industrial waste compatible (in terms of pH) with municipal sewage when joint
treatment is practiced
2. To continue reason no. 1; more specifically, to make certain that its pH does not kill or
otherwise inactivate the microorganisms that are being used to biologically oxidize the organic
matter content
3. To prevent corrosion of pipelines and equipment leading from the industry to its ultimate
destination
4. To comply with effluent standards for excessive acid or alkaline conditions in sewers or
receiving waters.
5. To continue reason no. 4; more specifically, to make certain that the waste discharge pH does
not kill fish or otherwise affect other organisms in receiving waters,_Excessively acid or alkaline
wastes should not be discharged into a receiving stream without treatment.
A stream even in the lowest classification—that is, one classified for waste disposal and/or
navigation—is adversely affected by low or very high pH values.
_This adverse condition is even more critical when sudden slugs of acids or alkalis are imposed
upon the stream.
1. Mixing Wastes
Mixing of wastes can be accomplished within a single plant operation or between neighboring
industrial plants. Acid and alkaline wastes may be produced individually within one plant and
proper mixing of these wastes at appropriate times can accomplish neutralization, although this
usually requires some storage of each waste to avoid slugs of either acid or alkali
2. Limestone Treatment for Acid Wastes
Passing acid wastes through beds of limestone was one of the original methods of neutralizing
them. The wastes can be pumped up or down through the bed, depending on the head available and
the cost involved, at a rate of about 1 gallon/min (gpm) per square foot (ft2) or less. Neutralization
proceeds chemically according to the following typical reaction Disposing of the used limestone
beds can be a serious drawback to this method of neutralization, because the used limestone must
be replaced by fresh limestone at periodic intervals, with the frequency of replacement depending
on the quantity and quality of acid wastes being passed through a bed.
When there are extremely high acid loads, foaming may occur, especially when organic matter
is also present in the waste.
3. Lime-Slurry Treatment for Acid Wastes
Mixing acid wastes with lime slurries is an effective procedure for neutralization.
The reaction is similar to that obtained with limestone beds.
In this case, however, lime is used up continuously because it is converted to calcium sulfate
and carried out in the waste.
4. Caustic-Soda Treatment for Acid Wastes
Adding concentrated solutions of caustic soda or sodium carbonate to acid wastes in the proper
proportions results in faster, but more costly, neutralization. Smaller volumes of the agent are
required, because these neutralizers are more powerful than lime or limestone. Another advantage is
that the reaction products are soluble and do not increase the hardness of receiving waters.
Both these neutralizations take place in two steps and the end-products depend on the final pH
desired. For example, one treatment may require a final pH of only 6, and thus, NaHSO would
make NaHSO4 up the greater part of the products; another treatment may require a pH of 8, with
most of the product being Na2SO4
OR
15. b) Suggest a suitable process for a waste management for a municipal administration with
example.
1) Component separation (hand sorting, screening, magnetic separation, air classification for
lighter materials such as paper and plastic). It is much more efficient to separate wastes at the
source.
2) Volume reduction (baling, shredding, incineration). Incineration may reduce volume by more
than 90%. However, engineers should realize that incineration is not a popular option by many
local communities.
3) Size reduction (Shredding, grinding)
4) Resource recovery (composting, energy recovery, material recovery)
SCREENING
Screening is the most common form of separating solid wastes, depending on their size by the
use of one or more screening surfaces. Screening has a number of applications in solid waste
resource and energy recovery systems The most commonly used screens are rotary drum screens
and various forms of vibrating screens. Most MSW composting facilities first convey the waste
into a bag-opener and screen or trommel to separate different sizes of waste. Fine materials,
including soil, grit, and much of the organic wastes, fall through the screen as "unders".
Plastic films and large paper products are retained on the screen as "overs" and may possibly
be recycled or marketed as a refuse derived fuel (RDF), which is burned for energy recovery. With
materials segregated to a relatively uniform size, it becomes much more practical to hand separate
recyclables and contaminants as they move along conveyor lines. Previewing of the waste stream
and manual removal of large sized materials is necessary, prior to most types of separation or size
reduction techniques.
MANUAL SEPERATION
This is done to prevent damage or stoppage of equipment such as shredders or screens, due to
items such as rugs, pillows, mattresses, large metallic or plastic objects, wood or other construction
materials, paint cans, etc. As materials are conveyed from one separation system to another, the
conveyors can utilize magnetic belts, rollers or overhead magnets to separate the ferrous metals
from the rest of the stream.
MAGNETIC SEPERATION
Magnetic separation efficiency is sensitive to the depth of waste, as small ferrous items will not
stick to the magnet if they are buried in non-ferrous materials, while larger ferrous items can drag
non-ferrous items like paper and plastic along.
A minimum of two stages of magnetic separation are usually needed to achieve efficient ferrous
recovery. Magnetic separation is effective with iron and most steel, but does not separate
aluminum, copper, and other non-ferrous metals.
EDDY CURRENT SEPERATION
Consumer electronics can be difficult to separate magnetically, depending on the ratio of ferrous to
non-ferrous materials. Eddy current separation systems have been developed to separate non-
ferrous metals. This technology works by exerting repulsive forces on electrically conductive
materials. These systems should be located after magnetic separation to minimize contamination
by ferrous materials. Aluminum is the primary metal recovered from MSW, although some copper
and brass will also be separated.
Cans literally jump off the conveyor into a waiting bin Eddy separators, while they do not achieve
perfect removal of aluminum, do produce a relatively marketable aluminum by-product. This
technique has been in use for a number of years in industrial operations for segregating various
components from dry mixture.
AIR CLASSIFICATION
Air separation is primarily used to separate lighter materials (usually organic) from heavier
(usually inorganic) ones. The lighter material may include plastics, paper and paper products and
other organic materials. Generally, there is also a need to separate the light fraction of organic
material from the conveying air streams, which is usually done in a cyclone separator.
In this technique, the heavy fraction is removed from the air classifier (i.e., equipment used for air
separation) to the recycling stage or to land disposal, as appropriate. The light fraction may be
used, with or without further size reduction, as fuel for incinerators or as compost material.
15.a) Explain the process of incineration and solidification of treatment of hazardous waste.
Solidification and stabilisation:
In hazardous waste management, solidification and stabilisation (S/S) is a term normally used
to designate a technology employing activities to reduce the mobility of pollutants, thereby making
the waste acceptable under current land disposal requirements.
Solidification and stabilisation are treatment processes designed to improve waste handling and
physical characteristics, decrease surface area across which pollutants can transfer or leach, limit
the solubility or detoxify the hazardous constituent. To understand this technology, it is important
for us to understand the following terms:
Solidification:
This refers to a process in which materials are added to the waste to produce a solid. It may or
may not involve a chemical bonding between the toxic contaminant and the additive.
Stabilisation:
This refers to a process by which a waste is converted to a more chemically stable form.
Subsuming solidification, stabilisation represents the use of a chemical reaction to transform the
toxic component to a new, non-toxic compound or substance.
Chemical fixation:
This implies the transformation of toxic contaminants to a new non-toxic compound. The term
has been misused to describe processes, which do not involve chemical bonding of the
contaminant to the binder.
Encapsulation:
This is a process involving the complete coating or enclosure of a toxic particle or waste
agglomerate with a new substance (e.g., S/S additive or binder). The encapsulation of the
individual particles is known as micro-encapsulation, while that of an agglomeration of waste
particles or micro-encapsulated materials is known as macro-encapsulation.
In S/S method, some wastes can be mixed with filling and binding agents to obtain a
dischargeable product. This rather simple treatment can only be used for waste with chemical
properties suitable for landfilling.
With regard to wastes with physical properties, it changes only the physical properties, but is
unsuitable for landfilling. The most important application of this technology, however, is the
solidification of metal-containing waste.
S/S technology could potentially be an important alternative technology with a major use being
to treat wastes in order to make them acceptable for land disposal. Lower permeability, lower
contaminant leaching rate and such similar characteristics may make hazardous wastes acceptable
for land disposal after stabilisation.
Incineration:
Incineration can be regarded as either a pre-treatment of hazardous waste, prior to final
disposal or as a means of valorising waste by recovering energy. It includes both the burning of
mixed solid waste or burning of selected parts of the waste stream as a fuel. The concept of treating
hazardous waste is similar to that of municipal solid waste
(ii) Pyrolysis: This is defined as the chemical decomposition or change brought about by heating
in the absence of oxygen. This is a thermal process for transformation of solid and liquid
carbonaceous materials into gaseous components and the solid residue containing fixed carbon and
ash. The application of pyrolysis to hazardous waste treatment leads to a two-step process for
disposal.
In the first step, wastes are heated separating the volatile contents (e.g., combustible gases,
water vapour, etc.) from non-volatile char and ash. In the second step volatile components are
burned under proper conditions to assure incineration of all hazardous components
To elaborate, pyrolysis is applicable to hazardous waste treatment, as it provides a precise
control of the combustion process. The first step of pyrolysis treatment is endothermic and
generally done at 425 to 760C.
The heating chamber is called the pyrolyser. Hazardous organic compounds can be volatilised
at this low temperature, leaving a clean residue. In the second step, the volatiles are burned in a
fume incinerator to achieve destruction efficiency of more than 99%.
Separating the process into two very controllable steps allows precise temperature control and
makes it possible to build simpler equipment. The pyrolysis process can be applied to solids,
sludges and liquid wastes.
OR
15.b) Hazardous waste management has become essential in today social life pattern betterment" "
Discuss with illustration.
Hazardous wastes
Hazardous wastes refer to wastes that may, or tend to, cause adverse health effects on the
ecosystem and human beings. These wastes pose present or potential risks to human health or
living organisms, due to the fact that they: are non-degradable or persistent in nature; can be
biologically magnified; are highly toxic and even lethal at very low concentrations.
The above list relates only to the intrinsic hazard of the waste, under uncontrolled release, to
the environment, regardless of quantity or pathways to humans or other critical organisms (i.e.,
plants and animals).
The criteria used to determine the nature of hazard include toxicity, phytotoxicity, genetic
activity and bio-concentration. The threat to public health and the environment of a given
hazardous waste is dependent on the quantity and characteristics of the waste involved.
Wastes are secondary materials, which are generally classified into six categories as inherently
waste: like materials, spent materials, sludges, by-products, commercial chemical products and
scrap metals.
Solid wastes form a subset of all secondary materials and hazardous wastes form a subset of
solid waste. However, note that certain secondary materials are not regulated as wastes, as they are
recycled and reused.
Characteristics of hazardous wastes
The regulations define characteristic hazardous wastes as wastes that exhibit measurable
properties posing sufficient threats to warrant regulation. For a waste to be deemed a characteristic
hazardous waste, it must cause, or significantly contribute to, an increased mortality or an increase
in serious irreversible or incapacitating reversible illness, or pose a substantial hazard or threat of a
hazard to human health or the environment, when it is improperly treated, stored, transported,
disposed of, or otherwise mismanaged.
(i) Ignitability (EPA Waste Identification Number D001):
A waste is an ignitable hazardous waste, if it has a flash point of less than 60C; readily catches
fire and burns so vigorously as to create a hazard; or is an ignitable compressed gas or an oxidiser.
A simple method of determining the flash point of a waste is to review the material safety data
sheet, which can be obtained from the manufacturer or distributor of the material. Naphtha, lacquer
thinner, epoxy resins, adhesives and oil based paints are all examples of ignitable hazardous
wastes.
(ii) Corrosivity (EPA Waste Identification Number D002):
A liquid waste which has a pH of less than or equal to 2 or greater than or equal to 12.5 is
considered to be a corrosive hazardous waste.
Sodium hydroxide, a caustic solution with a high pH, is often used by many industries to clean
or degrease metal parts. Hydrochloric acid, a solution with a low pH, is used by many industries to
clean metal parts prior to painting. When these caustic or acid solutions are disposed of, the waste
is a corrosive hazardous waste.
(iii) Reactivity (EPA Waste Identification Number D003):
A material is considered a reactive hazardous waste, if it is unstable, reacts violently with
water, generates toxic gases when exposed to water or corrosive materials, or if it is capable of
detonation or explosion when exposed to heat or a flame. Examples of reactive wastes would be
waste gunpowder, sodium metal or wastes containing cyanides or sulphides.
(iv) Toxicity (EPA Waste Identification Number D004):
To determine if a waste is a toxic hazardous waste, a representative sample of the material must
be subjected to a test conducted in a certified laboratory. The toxic characteristic identifies wastes
that are likely to leach dangerous concentrations of toxic chemicals into ground water.
Classification
From a practical standpoint, there are far too many compounds, products and product
combinations that fit within the broad definition of hazardous waste. For this reason, groups of
waste are considered in the following five general categories:
(i)Radioactive substance: Substances that emit ionising radiation are radioactive. Such
substances are hazardous because prolonged exposure to radiation often results in damage to living
organisms. Radioactive substances are of special concern because they persist for a long period.
The period in which radiation occurs is commonly measured and expressed as half-life, i.e., the
time required for the radioactivity of a given amount of the substance to decay to half its initial
value.
(ii) Chemicals: Most hazardous chemical wastes can be classified into four groups: synthetic
organics, inorganic metals, salts, acids and bases, and flammables and explosives. Some of the
chemicals are hazardous because they are highly toxic to most life forms. When such hazardous
compounds are present in a waste stream at levels equal to, or greater than, their threshold levels,
the entire waste stream is identified as hazardous.
(iii) Biomedical wastes: The principal sources of hazardous biological wastes are hospitals and
biological research facilities. The ability to infect other living organisms and the ability to produce
toxins are the most significant characteristics of hazardous biological wastes.
(iv) Flammable wastes: Most flammable wastes are also identified as hazardous chemical
wastes. This dual grouping is necessary because of the high potential hazard in storing, collecting
and disposing of flammable wastes. These wastes may be liquid, gaseous or solid, but most often
they are liquids. Typical examples include organic solvents, oils, plasticisers and organic sludges.
(v) Explosives: Explosive hazardous wastes are mainly ordnance (artillery) materials, i.e., the
wastes resulting from ordnance manufacturing and some industrial gases.
vi) Household hazardous wastes: Household wastes such as cleaning chemicals, batteries,
nail polish etc in MSW constitute hazardous waste. Especially batteries contain mercury which are
alkaline which is dangerous enough to kill people.
Part A
1. Population Equivalent:
Population equivalent or unit per capita loading, (PE), in waste-water treatment
is the number expressing the ratio of the sum of the pollution load produced during 24
hours by industrial facilities and services to the individual pollution load in household
sewage produced by one person in the same time.
2. Effluents Standards
Characteristics Into inland
surface water
Into public
sewer
On land for
irrigation
Into marine Coastal
areas
Colour and odour Colourless Colourless Colourless Colourless
Suspended solids (mg/l ) 100 600 200 -
Dissolved solids (TDS, mg/l
m 2100 2100 2100 -
pH 5.5-9 5.5-9 5.5-9 5.5-9
Temperature 0C Max. 40 45 - 45
Oil and grease mg/l 10 20 10 20
BOD (5 days ) 30 350 100 100
COD 250 - - 250
Hexavalent chromium mg/l 0.1 2 - 1.0
Copper mg/l 3 3 - 3
Zinc mg/l 5 15 - 15
Sulphides mg/l 2 - - 5
Pesticides mg/l Absent Absent Absent Absent
3. Cleaner Production
“The continuous application of an integrated preventive environmental strategy
applied to processes, products, and services to increase overall efficiency and reduce
risks to humans and the environment.”
4.By product Recovery;
The final product and all marketable byproducts should be as environmentally
appropriate as possible. Health and environmental factors must be addressed at the
earliest point of product and process design and must be considered over the full
product life-cycle, from production through use and disposal.
5.Wastes from Textiles Industry
Textile wastewater includes a large variety of dyes and chemical additions that
make the environmental challenge for textile industry not only as liquid waste but also
in its chemical composition. Main pollution in textile wastewater come from dyeing and
finishing processes. These processes require the input of a wide range of chemicals and
dyestuffs, which generally are organic compounds of complex structure.
6.Reclamation of waste water:
Safe disposal of effluents from Industries
Reduces the cost of treatment and amount of waste to be treated.
Increasing the efficiency of IWM system
Efficient way to remove the hazardous waste effluents.
7. What is neutralization in pollution treatment?
Neutralization can be defined as the treatment of industrial waste so that it is neither
too acidic nor too alkaline for safe discharge
8.Residue management
Safe disposal of residues from the effluent treatment plants and the reduction methods
of these effluents are combined in the treatment of industrial waste management
system is called residue management.
9. Hazardous wastes
Hazardous wastes refer to wastes that may, or tend to, cause adverse health effects on the
ecosystem and human beings. These wastes pose present or potential risks to human health or living
organisms, due to the fact that they:
They are non-degradable or persistent in nature;
They can be biologically magnified;
They are highly toxic and even lethal at very low concentrations.
10. Hazardous waste Disposal
Possible percolation of toxic liquid waste to the ground water;
Dissolution of solids followed by leaching and percolation to the ground water;
Dissolution of solid hazardous wastes by acid leachate from solid waste, followed by
leaching and percolation to the ground water;
Potential for undesirable reactions in the landfill that may lead to the development of
explosive or toxic gases;
Part B
11.a) Characteristics of Waste generated from various industries
CHARACTERISTICS OF INDUSTRIAL WASTES
The purposes of pollution control endeavors should be
To protect the assimilative capacity of surface waters.
To protect shellfish, finfish and wildlife.
To preserve or restore the aesthetic and recreational value of surface waters.
To protect humans from adverse water quality conditions.
THE PHYSICAL, CHEMICAL AND BIOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE
WASTEWATER.
The quality that must be maintained in the environment to which the wastewater is to be
discharged or for the reuse of the wastewater.
The applicable environmental standards or discharge requirements that must be met.
The main chemical characteristics of wastewater are divided into two classes, inorganic
and organic.
Physical characteristics
The principal physical characteristics of wastewater are its solids content, colour, odour
and temperature.
The total solids in a wastewater consist of the insoluble or suspended solids and the
soluble compoundsdissolved in water.
Volatile solids are presumed to be organicmatter, although some organic matter will not
burnand some inorganic salts break down at high temperatures.
The organic matter consists mainly ofproteins, carbohydrates and fats.
Solids may be classified in another wayas well those that are volatilized at a high
temperature(600ºC) and those that are not.
The former areknown as volatile solids, the latter as fixed solids.
Usually, volatile solids are organic.
Colour is a qualitative characteristic that can be used to assess the general condition of
wastewater.
If the colour is dark grey or black, the wastewater istypically septic, having undergone
extensive bacterial decomposition under anaerobic conditions.
Theblackening of wastewater is often due to the formation of various sulphide,
particularly, ferrous sulphide.
The determination of odour has become increasingly important.
The odour of fresh wastewater is usually not offensive, but a variety of odorous
compounds are released when wastewater is decomposed biologically under anaerobic
conditions.
The principal odorous compound is hydrogen sulphide (the smell of rotten eggs).
The temperature of wastewater is commonly higher than that of the water supply
because warmmunicipal water has been added.
The temperature of wastewater will vary from season to season and also with
geographic location.
Chemical characteristics
Inorganic chemicals
The principal chemical tests include free ammonia, organic nitrogen, nitrites, nitrates,
organic phosphorusand inorganic phosphorus.
Nitrogen and phosphorus are important because these two nutrients areresponsible for
the growth of aquatic plants.
Trace elements, which include some heavy metals,are not determined routinely, but
trace elementsmay be a factor in the biological treatment ofwastewater.
All living organisms require varyingamounts of some trace elements, such as iron,
copper, zinc and cobalt, for proper growth.
Organic chemicals
The tests may be divided into those used to measure gross concentrations of organic
matter greater than about 1 mg/l.
Laboratory methods commonly used today to measure gross amounts of organic
matter(greater than 1 mg/l) in wastewater include
Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
Total organic carbon (TOC).
ORGANIC POLLUTANTS
Effluent from industrial sources contains a wide variety of pollutants, including organic
pollutants.
Primary and secondary sewage treatment processes remove some of these pollutants,
particularly oxygen-demanding substances, oil, grease and solids.
Others, such as refractory (degradation- resistant) organics (organochlorides, nitro
compounds etc.) and salts and heavy metals, are not efficiently removed.
Soaps, detergents and associated chemicals are potential sources of organic pollutants.
Water contaminated with these compounds must be treated using physical and chemical
methods, including air stripping, solvent extraction, ozonation and carbon adsorption.
OR
11.b) Effects of Industrial effluents on Streams, Land and animals
Effects of Industrial Pollution
On human health
It causes irritation of eye, nose, throat respiratory tracts, etc.
It increases mortality rate and morbidity rate.
A variety of particulates mainly pollens, initiate asthmatic attacks.
Chronic pulmonary diseases like bronchitis and asthma are aggravated by high
concentration of SO2, NO2, particulate matter and photo-chemical smog.
Certain heavy metals like lead may enter the body through lungs and cause poisoning.
On animal health
In case of animals, the pollutants enter in two steps.
Accumulations of the airborne contaminants in the vegetation forage and prey animals.
Subsequent poisoning of the animals when they eat the contaminated food.
In case of animals, three pollutants namely fluorine, arsenic and lead are responsible for
most livestock damage.
On plants
Industrial pollution has been shown to have serious adverse effects on plants.
In some cases, it is found that vegetation over 150 Km. away from the source of
pollutants have been found to be affected.
The major pollutants affecting plants are SO2, O3, MO, NO2, NH3, HCN, Ethylene,
Herbicides, PAN (Peroxy Acetyl nitrate) etc.
In the presence of pollutants, the healthy plants suffer from neurosis, chlorosis,
abscission, epinasty etc.
CONTROL OF INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION
Control at Source:
It involves suitable alterations in the choice of raw materials and process in treatment of
exhaust gases before finally discharged.
Increasing stock height up to 38 meters in order to ensure proper mixing of the
discharged pollutants.
Selection of Industry Site
The industrial site should be properly examined considering the climatic and
topographical characteristics before setting of the industry.
Treatment of Industrial Waste
The industrial wastes should be subjected to proper treatment before their discharge.
Plantation
Intensive plantation in the region considerably reduces the dust, smoke and other
pollutants.
Stringent Government Action:
Government should take stringent action against industries which discharge higher
amount of pollutants into the environment than the level prescribed by Pollution
Control Board.
12.a) Industrial Waste Audit
WASTE AUDIT
Purpose
The purpose of a waste audit is to gain a detailed understanding of the types and
weights of material being generated.
Audit results are used to improve the economic and environmental performance of
waste management efforts
There are three major components to the waste audit:
A. Preparation
B. Sorting, recording, and cleanup
C. Analysis and reporting.
When undertaking an audit, one person should be designated as the audit coordinator.
This person is responsible for preparing and leading the audit.
When first beginning to conduct waste audits, it is advisable to seek assistance from
regional waste education officers if they are available.
The audit coordinator must ensure that all preparations are carried out before
participants begin auditing and measuring waste
Preparation
Identify which material streams will be audited.
Use the materials stream categorization guide to help.
Ensure that the waste is sorted into separate piles based on waste stream, day collected,
or source location if auditing specific areas or buildings.
Choose an adequate sample size for the audit.
The % of waste audited will depend on total waste generation of the organization larger
numbers yield more accurate results.
Locate a suitable facility for storing the waste and conducting the audit.
Verify the number of participants who will be helping with the audit and obtain the
required safety materials.
Choose an auditing procedure that best suits the needs of the firm.
Obtain the materials required for that method.
Conduct a training session with the audit participants.
Training requirements will differ according to chosen audit type.
Give the people who are data recording the auditing packages and have them review the
sheets and ask any questions before sorting begins.
Assign groups according to the chosen audit type.
Procedures
There are significant differences between auditing methods.
There is also some flexibility in how the audits are performed.
The audit coordinator can adjust the procedures as required to best suit the needs of the
firm.
Types of auditing
1. Differences between auditing methods
2. Bulk auditing (large audits)
3. Individual bag contamination rate auditing
4. Individual bag & sub-categorization auditing
Roles Explained
Audit Coordinator:
This person is responsible for preparing and leading the audit.
They must ensure that all preparations are carried out before participants begin auditing
and measuring waste.
If possible, the audit coordinator should play a role in forming or overseeing the waste
management plan for the organization.
It would be beneficial of this person read the waste management manual to understand
the purpose of the audit and the role of waste characterization studies in waste
management.
Data Recorders
This position involves weighing the sorted contents of the audit.
They will be responsible for weighing the bins and the sorted waste, recording data, and
taking notes during the audit.
They may also be tasked with taking pictures.
Data recorders should ideally have experience in recording experimental data.
It is important that the data recorder fully understands their role and the importance of
good record keeping because if the audit.
Sorters
These people are responsible for opening the bags and sorting the waste according to
the categorization chosen by the audit coordinator.
In audits with no diversion team, the sorters will dispose of their own waste according
to the proper materials stream in a designated diversion area.
Diversion team
These people areC
This ensures the highest level of diversion is achieved at the end of the audit.
Once they empty the contents of the bins, they return them to the sorting teams.
If there are enough sorting bins and sorting teams, it can make the audit go much
quicker with a dedicated disposal team.
If there are not enough audit participants or sorting bins for this, the sorters on the
sorting teams can dispose of the waste themselves.
Cleanup
All waste should be disposed of properly according to local area sorting requirements.
This will need to be done on an ongoing basis throughout the audit.
For bulk auditing no additional sorting step is required for disposal.
Any waste residues or spills should be cleaned up immediately.
Team leaders should give data to the audit coordinator and explain any unclear data on
the sheets.
The audit coordinator should briefly look over the data to ask any questions they may
have about recorded data while data recorders are on hand.
Materials and equipment should be returned to the audit coordinator
Analysis and Reporting
Enter the data values into the excel spreadsheet auditing tool.
The tool will only allow manipulation of cells which require data entry and these cells
are highlighted in yellow.
If you wish to alter the tool, you must first unprotect the sheet
Once all the data is entered, enter the % of waste audited and the % of waste that has
been sub-categorized.
The detailed sub-categorization data will automatically be added to the larger data set
for contamination.
It will also be represented graphically
Summary tables will be automatically produced showing the projected annual waste
production values and contamination rates based on the contamination data set and the
sub-categorization data.
12.b) Volume and Strength reduction
VOLUME AND STRENGTH REDUCTION
The information presented is a pathway to effective and sustainable water and
wastewater management from start to finish. This information is organized into five
sections:
Segment Profile
A discussion of water usage and wastewater effluent trends, where to find information
on regulatory drivers, examples of non-regulatory drivers, and risks and opportunities
for cost savings.
Data Management
A guide to identifying the components of water and wastewater information,
establishing key performance indicators and goals, managing water and wastewater
data, and benchmarking progress toward goals.
Best Practices
Guidance on best practices to reduce water usage and wastewater generation focusing
on opportunities in the brewing process, including packaging, warehousing, utilities,
and food service/events.
Onsite Wastewater Treatment
An overview of drivers for onsite wastewater treatment and example technologies.
Case Studies
Selected brewery examples which provide more detail of water and wastewater reduction
programs.
Water Usage &Wastewater Generated By Craft Brewers
Beer is about 95% water in composition; however, the amount of water used to produce
a container of beer is far greater than the amount of water contained in the beer that is
actually packaged and shipped out.
Although water usage varies widely among breweries and is dependent upon specific
processes and location.
Most craft brewers receive their water from municipal suppliers, while a few use well
water as an alternative source.
In addition to the water used in production, wastewater generation and disposal presents
another improvement opportunity for brewers.
Most breweries discharge 70% of their incoming water as effluent.
Effluent is defined as wastewater that is generated and flows to the sewer system.
In most cases, brewery effluent disposal costs are much higher than water supply costs.
In many communities, breweries may be the largest consumer of water and the largest
source of organic effluent that must be treated by the municipal treatment plant.
This presents unique supply and cost concerns.
Water awareness and conservation practices provide an effective mechanism for
brewers to reach out into communities.
Outreach efforts have a number of benefits, including building brand image and being
recognized as an important part of the community.
Within a brewery, there are four main areas where water is used:
Brew house
Cellars
Packaging
Utilities.
In addition, ancillary operations such as food service and restrooms contribute to water
usage.
Risk of (local) water pollution
Effective Data Management System
Data management is more than just a component of a successful program
It is a necessity for a successful business strategy.
There are both risks and opportunities in water and wastewater management.
Making informed business decisions to minimize risk and maximize opportunity
requires effective data management.
From establishing a data collection routine and ensuring the data is accurate, to creating
key performance indicators and setting goals.
13.a) Tannery Industry
SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS
Air pollution is the presence of substances in air in sufficient concentration and for sufficient
time, injurious to human, plant or animal life, or to property.
Air pollutants arise from both man-made and natural processes.
Pollutants are also defined as primary pollutants resulting from combustion of fuels and
industrial operations and secondary pollutants, those which are produced due to reaction of
primary pollutants in the atmosphere.
The ambient air quality may be defined by the concentration of a set of pollutants which may
be present in the ambient air we breathe in.
These pollutants may be called criteria pollutants.
Emission standards express the allowable concentrations of a contaminant at the point of
discharge before any mixing with the surrounding air.
Pollutants Sources
Suspended particulate Matter,
SPMa
Automobile, power plants, boilers, Industries requiring
crushing and grinding such as quarry, cement.
Chlorine Chlor-alkali plants.
Fluoride Fertilizer, aluminum refining
Sulphur dioxide Power plants, boilers, sulphuric acid manufacture, ore
refining, petroleum refining.
Lead
Ore refining, battery manufacturing, automobiles. Oxides of
nitrogen, Automobiles, power plants, nitric NO, NO2
(NOX) acid manufacture, also a secondary pollutant
Peroxyacetyl nitrate, PAN Secondary pollutant
Ammonia Fertilizer plant
Formaldehyde Secondary pollutant
Ozonea Secondary pollutant
Carbon monoxide Automobiles
Hydrogen sulphide Pulp and paper, petroleum refining.
By combustion sources is meant operations where primarily fossil fuels, coal, natural gas,
petrol, diesel and furnace oil are burnt to obtain energy.
This includes power plants, industrial boilers, domestic heating and automobiles.
Automobiles
In urban areas automobiles form a significant source of a number of air pollutants, namely,
particulates, NOx, hydrocarbons, carbon monoxide and lead.
These pollutants are produced when fuel is burnt under less than ideal conditions.
Non-uniform oxygen supply within the combustion chamber and lower flame temperature
leads to incomplete combustion releasing CO, HC and unburnt particles in the exhaust.
Tetraethyl lead is added to petrol as anti-knock additive.
Where such petrol is used lead is emitted in the exhaust fumes as inorganic particulates.
Raw materials include lime, silica, aluminum and iron. Lime is obtained from calcium
carbonate.
Other raw materials are introduced as sand, clay, shale, iron are and blast furnace slag.
The process consists of mining, crushing, grinding, and calcining in a long cylindrically shaped
oven or kiln.
Air pollutants can originate at several operations as listed below
Source Emission
Raw material crushing, grinding Particulates
Kiln operation and cooling ParticulatesCO, SO2 , NOx, HC
Product grinding and packaging Particulates
Control of emission of particulate matter is economically viable as the cost of collected dust
(raw material and product) pays for control measures.
Sulphuric acid manufacture
Sulphuric acid is produced from Sulphur, which is burnt to obtain SO2.
Sulphur dioxide is converted to trioxide in presence of vanadium pentaoxide catalyst.
The Sulphur trioxide is absorbed in recycling concentrated sulfuric acid.
Unreacted SO2 escapes with the flue gas.
New large plants now a days use double conversion double absorption (DCDA) process
realizing above 99 percent efficiency.
13. b) Paper pulp industry
Pulp mills separate the fibres of wood or from other materials, such as rags, wastepaper or
straw in order to create pulp. Paper mills primarily are engaged in manufacturing paper from wood
pulp and other fibre pulp, and may also manufacture converted paper products.
The production process can be divided into 7 sub-processes:
raw materials processes;
wood-yard;
fibre line;
chemical recovery;
bleaching;
paper production;
products and recycling.
Regulated wastes and emissions from the pulp and paper industry include liquid and solid
wastes, air emissions, and wastewater. Air emissions related with this process are: sulphur
dioxide, nitrous oxides, particulate matter, methanol, polycyclic organic matter, hydrogen chloride,
formaldehyde, chloroform, phenol and chlorinated phenolics, dioxins, furans and other chlorinated
compounds.
Pulp mills are big water users. The total requirement of raw water has through cleaner
production measures been reduced from about 200-300 m3 per ton of pulp in 1970 to well below 50
m3/ton, in some mills even below 10 m3/ton. Consumption of fresh water can seriously harm habitats
near mills, reduce water levels necessary for fish, and change water temperature, a critical
environmental factor for fish.
The most common organic pollutants are suspended solids (SS): – lost cellulose fibre, –
dissolved organic compounds such as dissolved lignin compounds, carbohydrates, starch and hemi-
cellulose. Acidic compounds are predominantly natural resin acids. Chlorinated organics are found if
elemental chlorine is used in the process.
Maintaining moisture content of the raw materials constant all year around. Keeping
chemical inventory to a minimum and buying small containers of infrequently used materials.
Labelling storage area for hazardous substances.
Providing spill containment and collection systems during storage.
Genetically modifying forest trees.
Increasing recycling rates. Recycling reduces energy consumption, decreases combustion and landfill
emissions, and decreases the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. This process also saves
money.
Possibility for easy packaging recycling.
Using “green” fuel for transportation.
14.a) Different Treatment Technologies :
Definition
“Neutralization” can be defined as the treatment of industrial waste so that it is neither too acidic
nor too alkaline for safe discharge. _ There are several possible reasons that an industry neutralized
its wastewater during the twentieth century and will continue to do so:
Reasons
1. To make industrial waste compatible (in terms of pH) with municipal sewage when joint
treatment is practiced
2. To continue reason no. 1; more specifically, to make certain that its pH does not kill or
otherwise inactivate the microorganisms that are being used to biologically oxidize the organic
matter content
3. To prevent corrosion of pipelines and equipment leading from the industry to its ultimate
destination
4. To comply with effluent standards for excessive acid or alkaline conditions in sewers or
receiving waters.
5. To continue reason no. 4; more specifically, to make certain that the waste discharge pH does
not kill fish or otherwise affect other organisms in receiving waters,_Excessively acid or alkaline
wastes should not be discharged into a receiving stream without treatment.
A stream even in the lowest classification—that is, one classified for waste disposal and/or
navigation—is adversely affected by low or very high pH values.
_This adverse condition is even more critical when sudden slugs of acids or alkalis are imposed
upon the stream.
1. Mixing Wastes
Mixing of wastes can be accomplished within a single plant operation or between neighboring
industrial plants. Acid and alkaline wastes may be produced individually within one plant and
proper mixing of these wastes at appropriate times can accomplish neutralization, although this
usually requires some storage of each waste to avoid slugs of either acid or alkali
2. Limestone Treatment for Acid Wastes
Passing acid wastes through beds of limestone was one of the original methods of neutralizing
them. The wastes can be pumped up or down through the bed, depending on the head available and
the cost involved, at a rate of about 1 gallon/min (gpm) per square foot (ft2) or less. Neutralization
proceeds chemically according to the following typical reaction Disposing of the used limestone
beds can be a serious drawback to this method of neutralization, because the used limestone must
be replaced by fresh limestone at periodic intervals, with the frequency of replacement depending
on the quantity and quality of acid wastes being passed through a bed.
When there are extremely high acid loads, foaming may occur, especially when organic matter
is also present in the waste.
3. Lime-Slurry Treatment for Acid Wastes
Mixing acid wastes with lime slurries is an effective procedure for neutralization.
The reaction is similar to that obtained with limestone beds.
In this case, however, lime is used up continuously because it is converted to calcium sulfate
and carried out in the waste.
4. Caustic-Soda Treatment for Acid Wastes
Adding concentrated solutions of caustic soda or sodium carbonate to acid wastes in the proper
proportions results in faster, but more costly, neutralization. Smaller volumes of the agent are
required, because these neutralizers are more powerful than lime or limestone. Another advantage is
that the reaction products are soluble and do not increase the hardness of receiving waters.
Both these neutralizations take place in two steps and the end-products depend on the final pH
desired. For example, one treatment may require a final pH of only 6, and thus, NaHSO would make
NaHSO4 up the greater part of the products; another treatment may require a pH of 8, with most of the
product being Na2SO4
14.b) Municipal Waste Treatment
Refer Q.No15.b , page no 20
15.a) Physico- Chemical Treatment for Hazardous waste.
Physical and chemical treatment
Physical and chemical treatments are an essential part of most hazardous waste treatment
operations, and the treatments include the following
(i) Filtration and separation:
Filtration is a method for separating solid particles from a liquid using a porous medium. The
driving force in filtration is a pressure gradient, caused by gravity, centrifugal force, vacuum, or
pressure greater than atmospheric pressure. The application of filtration for treatment of hazardous
waste fall into the following categories:
Clarification, in which suspended solid particles less than 100 ppm (parts per million)
concentration are removed from an aqueous stream. This is usually accomplished by depth filtration
and cross-flow filtration and the primary aim is to produce a clear aqueous effluent, which can either
be discharged directly, or further processed. The suspended solids are concentrated in a reject stream.
Dewatering of slurries of typically 1% to 30 % solids by weight. Here, the aim is to
concentrate the solids into a phase or solid form for disposal or further treatment. This is usually
accomplished by cake filtration. The filtration treatment, for example, can be used for neutralisation of
strong acid with lime or limestone, or precipitation of dissolved heavy metals as carbonates or
sulphides followed by settling and thickening of the resulting precipitated solids as slurry. The slurry
can be dewatered by cake filtration and the effluent from the settling step can be filtered by depth
filtration prior to discharge.
(ii) Chemical precipitation: This is a process by which the soluble substance is converted to
an insoluble form either by a chemical reaction or by change in the composition of the solvent to
diminish the solubility of the substance in it.
Settling and/or filtration can then remove the precipitated solids. In the treatment of hazardous
waste, the process has a wide applicability in the removal of toxic metal from aqueous wastes by
converting them to an insoluble form.
This includes wastes containing arsenic, barium, cadmium, chromium, copper, lead, mercury,
nickel, selenium, silver, thallium and zinc. The sources of wastes containing metals are metal plating
and polishing, inorganic pigment, mining and the electronic industries.
Hazardous wastes containing metals are also generated from cleanup of uncontrolled hazardous
waste sites, e.g., leachate or contaminated ground water.
(iii) Chemical oxidation and reduction (redox): In these reactions, the oxidation state of one
reactant is raised, while that of the other reactant is lowered. When electrons are removed from an ion,
atom, or molecule, the substance is oxidised and when electrons are added to a substance, it is reduced.
Such reactions are used in treatment of metal-bearing wastes, sulphides, cyanides and
chromium and in the treatment of many organic wastes such as phenols, pesticides and sulphur
containing compounds. Since these treatment processes involve chemical reactions, both reactants
are generally in solution. However, in some cases, a solution reacts with a slightly soluble solid
or gas.
There are many chemicals, which are oxidising agents; but relatively few of them are used for
waste treatment. Some of the commonly used oxidising agents are sodium hypochlorite, hydrogen
peroxide, calcium hypochlorite, potassium permanganate and ozone.
Reducing agents are used to treat wastes containing hexavalent chromium, mercury,
organometallic compounds and chelated metals. Some of the compounds used as reducing agents are
sulphur dioxide, sodium borohydride, etc. In general, chemical treatment costs are highly influenced
by the chemical cost. This oxidation and reduction treatment tends to be more suitable for low
concentration (i.e., less than 1%) in wastes.
(iv) Solidification and stabilisation: In hazardous waste management, solidification and
stabilisation (S/S) is a term normally used to designate a technology employing activities to reduce the
mobility of pollutants, thereby making the waste acceptable under current land disposal requirements.
Solidification and stabilisation are treatment processes designed to improve waste handling and
physical characteristics, decrease surface area across which pollutants can transfer or leach, limit the
solubility or detoxify the hazardous constituent.
15.b) Secure landfills:
Land treatment:
This is a waste treatment and disposal process, where a waste is mixed with or incorporated
into the surface soil and is degraded, transformed or immobilised through proper management. The
other terminologies used commonly include land cultivation, land farming, land application and sludge
spreading.
Compared to other land disposal options (e.g., landfill and surface impoundments), land
treatment has lower long-term monitoring, maintenance and potential clean up liabilities and because
of this, it has received considerable attention as an ultimate disposal method.
It is a dynamic, management-intensive process involving waste, site, soil, climate and
biological activity as a system to degrade and immobilise waste constituents.
Waste characteristics: Biodegradable wastes are suitable for land treatment. Radioactive
wastes, highly volatile, reactive, flammable liquids and inorganic wastes such as heavy metals, acids
and bases, cyanides and ammonia are not considered for land treatment.
Land treatability of organic compound often follows a predictable pattern for similar type of
compounds. Chemical structure, molecular weight, water solubility and vapour pressure are few of the
characteristics that determine the ease of biodegradation.
Soil characteristics: The rate of biodegradation and leaching of waste applied, the availability
of nutrients and toxicants to microorganisms and the fate of hazardous waste constituents are
determined largely by application rate as well as the soil’s chemical and physical characteristics or
reaction.
Principal soil characteristics affecting land treatment processes are pH, salinity, aeration,
moisture holding capacity, soil temperature, etc. Some of the characteristics can be improved through
soil amendments (e.g., nutrients, lime, etc.), tillage or through adjustments of loading rate, frequency,
etc., at the time of waste application.
Microorganisms: Soil normally contains a large number of diverse microorganisms, consisting
of several groups that are predominantly aerobic in well-drained soil. The types and population of
microorganisms present in the waste-amended soil depend on the soil moisture content, available
oxygen, nutrient composition and othercharacteristics.
The key groups of the microorganisms present in the surface soil are bacteria, actinomycetes,
fungi, algae and protozoa. In addition to these groups, other micro and macro fauna, such as nematodes
and insects are often present.
Waste degradation: Conditions favourable for plant growth are also favourable for the activity
of soil microorganisms. The factors affecting waste degradation that (may be adjusted in the design
and operation of a land treatment facility) are soil pH (near 7), soil moisture content (usually between
30 to 90 %), soil temperature (activity decreases below 10C) and nutrients.
(ii) Enzymatic systems: Enzymes are complex proteins ubiquitous in nature. These proteins,
composed of amino acids, are linked together via peptide bonds. Enzymes capable of transforming
hazardous waste chemicals to non-toxic products can be harvested from microorganisms grown in
mass culture. Such crude enzyme extracts derived from microorganisms have been shown to convert
pesticides into less toxic and persistent products.
The reaction of detoxifying enzymes are not limited to intracellular conditions but have been
demonstrated through the use of immobilised enzyme extracts on several liquid waste streams. The
factors of moisture, temperature, aeration, soil structure, organic matter content, seasonal variation and
the availability of soil nutrients influence the presence and abundance of enzymes.
(iii) Composting: The principles involved in composting organic hazardous wastes are the
same as those in the composting of all organic materials though with moderate modifications. The
microbiology of hazardous wastes differs from that of composting in the use of inoculums.
The reaction is that certain types of hazardous waste molecules can be degraded by only one or
a very few microbial species, which may not be widely distributed or abundant in nature. The factors
important in composting of hazardous wastes are those that govern all biological reactions.
(iv) Aerobic and anaerobic treatment: Hazardous materials are present in low to high
concentration in wastewaters, leachate and soil.
These wastes are characterised by high organic content (e.g., up to 40,000 mg/l total organic
carbon), low and high pH (2 to 12), elevated salt levels (sometimes, over 5%), and presence of heavy
metals and hazardous organics. Hazardous wastes can be treated using either aerobic or anaerobic
treatment methods
