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1 Cell proliferation and Diseases

Cell proliferation and Diseases

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Cell proliferation and Diseases. Cell proliferation A process of cell division and regeneration, which results in an increase in the cell number with exact passages of genetic information to their daughter cells. Cell cycle. - PowerPoint PPT Presentation

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Page 1: Cell proliferation and Diseases

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Cell proliferation and Diseases

Page 2: Cell proliferation and Diseases

Cell proliferation A process of cell division and regeneration, which results in

an increase in the cell number with exact passages of genetic information to their daughter cells.

Page 3: Cell proliferation and Diseases

Cell cycle• An ordered series of events leading to replication of Cells

• Four phases: G1→S→G2→M

• Quiescent cells: under certain conditions, cells exit the cell cycle during G1 and remain in the G0 state as nongrowing and nondividing cells.

• Appropriate stimulation of such cells induces them to return to G1 and resume growth and division.

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Regulation of the Cell Cycle1.Cell cycle self-control2.Regulation by extracellular signals3. Checkpoint of Cell cycle

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1. Cell cycle self-control

---Basic control of Cell Cycle

Cyclins

Cyclin Dependent protein Kinases (CDK)

---Cell cycle dependent fluctuation of cyclin contents and CDK activities

CDK inhibitors (CKI)

RB-E2F pathway and G1/S transit control

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(1) Cyclins • cyclical concentrations during the courses of cell cycle.

• 16 cyclins have been identified: A,B1,B2,C,D1,D2,D3,E,F,G1,G2,H,I,K,T1,T2.

• Common structure: cyclin box, a series of 100 amino acids, which is a domain used to bind and activate CDKs.

CDKCDKPSTAIRE

cyclincyclin

CDKCDK

Cyclin/CDKCyclin/CDK

CombineCombine

Cyclin boxCyclin box

CyclinCyclin -COOH-COOHHH22N-N-

Catalytic subnuit

Regulatory subunit

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Cyclin 周期变化

Cyclin-CDK 复合物及其相关蛋白 Cyclins 相关 CDKs 细胞周期作用 相关蛋白 底物 降解 A CDK1 , CDK2 S+G2, M p107+E2F , p21 , PCNA Rb ubiquitin

B(B1,B2) CDK1(cdc2) G2, M p21,PCNA Rb ubiquitin

C CDK8 G1 - - PEST

D(D1-3) CDK4(2,5,6) G1 Rb,p21,p27,p15,p16,PCNA Rb PEST

E CDK2 G1+G1, S p107+E2F ,p21,PCNA Rb PEST

F - S - - -

G - G1 - - -

H CDK7 G1,S,G2, M - CDK1,4,6 -

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Degradation of cyclins : 主要是通过泛素 - 蛋白酶体进行泛素化降解

1.CyclinA, B1, B2 : N 端降解盒 (destruction box) ,通过泛素连接酶催化泛素与 cyclin 结合,被 26S 蛋白酶体水解。

SUMO

2. CyclinD, E :也通过类似途径降解。 N 端无降解盒, C 端 PEST 序列与其降解有关 (proline, glutamic acid, serine, threonine)

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泛素

蛋白质降解的蛋白质

Ubiquitin Conjugation.

The ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1 adenylates ubiquitin (Ub) and transfers the ubiquitin to one of its own cysteine residues. Ubiquitin is then transferred to a cysteine residue in the ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2. Finally, the ubiquitin-protein ligase E3 transfers the ubiquitin to a lysine residue on the target protein.

26S proteasome digests the ubiquitinated proteins.

• This ATP-driven multisubunit protease spares ubiquitin, which is then recycled.

• The 26S proteasome is a complex of two components: a 20S proteasome, which contains the catalytic activity, and a 19S regulatory subunit.

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(2) Cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs)

CDK 1-9: 一组丝氨酸一组丝氨酸 // 苏氨酸蛋白激酶苏氨酸蛋白激酶Mechanism of CDK activation:

• Cyclin dependent (cyclin binding)

• Phosphorylation dependent (some specific amino acid phosphorylation and dephosphorylation)

Each CDK can associate with different cyclins,

and the associated cyclin determines which proteins are phosphorylated by the CDK-cyclin complex.

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▲▲CDKCDK22 与与 cyclin Ecyclin E 和和 AA 结合后 结合后 促进促进 SS 期期

▲▲ CDKCDK11 与与 cyclin Acyclin A 结合 结合 启动启动 G2G2 期期

▲▲CDKCDK11 与与 cyclin Bcyclin B

11 结合结合 ((Maturation promoting factor, MPFMaturation promoting factor, MPF) ) 启动启动

MM 期期

▲▲ CDKCDK22 与与 cyclin Ecyclin E 结合, 结合, CDKCDK

44 、、 CDKCDK66 与与 cyclin Dcyclin D

11 、、 DD22 、、 DD33

结合结合

pRbpRb 磷酸化 游离磷酸化 游离 E2FE2F 释放↑ 释放↑ 启动启动 G1G1 期期

DNADNA 合成 合成 启动启动 SS 期期

CDK 与不同 cyclin 结合活化调控细胞周期

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CDK 结合 Cyclin 、磷酸化 / 去磷酸化→ CDK 活化,启动 cell cycle

CDKCDK 活化活化

CyclinCyclin 与与 CDKCDK 结合磷酸化结合磷酸化

CAKCAK 对对 CDKCDK 的磷酸化的磷酸化

Cell cycleCell cycle

去磷酸化

CDK 激酶( CDK activating kinasekinase ,, CAK )

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M phase kinase regulates entry into mitosis

• Also called maturation promoting factor, or M phase promoting factor (MPF)• 34 kD Cdc2 catalytic subunit (CDK1) ;• associate with cyclin A or B• Activation requires modification of Cdc2• Inactivation is achieved by physical destruction of cyclin (proteasome)

• phosphate that is necessary at Thr-161 is added by CAK.

• wee1 kinase phosphorylates Tyr-15 to maintain the M phase kinase in inactive form

• Cdc25 phosphatase removes the phosphate from Tyr-15.

Cdc25 is itself activated by phosphorylation; and M phase kinase can perform this phosphorylation, creating a positive feedback loop.

• Separate kinases and phosphatases that act on Thr-14 have not been identified

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Phosphorylation State of CDK1 and the Activity of Mitosis Promoting Factor

Wee1

CAK

Cdc25

CDK1CDK1 的激活需要的激活需要 Thr14Thr14 和和 Tyr15Tyr15 去磷酸化和去磷酸化和 Tyr161Tyr161 的磷酸化的磷酸化 ((磷酸酶磷酸酶 P80P80cdc25cdc25 ))

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Control of Mitosis Requires CDK1 Phosphorylation and Dephosphorylation

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▲ CDKCDK 抑制因子抑制因子 (CDI) (CDI)

cyclin/CDK CDKcyclin/CDK CDK 活性↓ 活性↓ cell cycle↓cell cycle↓

▲pRbpRb 、、 P53P53 、、 c-mycc-myc 、、 UPPUPP 、磷酸酶等参与对、磷酸酶等参与对 CDKCDK 的调控。的调控。

影响 CDK 活性因素▲ Cyclin/CDKCyclin/CDK 、、 CAKCAK CDKCDK 磷酸化磷酸化激活激活 cell cycle↑cell cycle↑

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(3) CDI/CKI: CDK inhibitors

Two classes:

INK4 (inhibitors of kinase 4) family

---specific for cdk4 and cdk6

---four members: p16INK4A, p15INK4B, p18INK4C, and p19INK4D

The CIP (Cdk inhibitory protein) /KIP (kinase inhibiting protein)

family

---inhibit all G1 and S phase cdk enzymes

---three members: p21Cip1/WAF1, p27Kip1, and p57Kip2

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CKIs and Cell Cycle Control

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(4) RB-E2F pathway: G1-S control

RB– Tumor suppressor– Substrate for CDK-cyclin D– Bound to transcription factor E2F– nonphosphorylated form of RB forms a complex

with cdk-cyclins. – phosphorylation causes RB to release E2F

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E2F and regulated genes• DNA polymerase • Dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR)• Thymidine kinase• Thymidylate synthase• CDK1 (Cdc2)• PCNA• Cyclin E• E2F itself

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E2F-related transcription factors DP1, 2, or 3

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2. Regulation of the Cell Growth

By Extracellular Signals and Pathways

GG11 期“限定点”(期“限定点”( restriction pointrestriction point )决定细胞是否进入周期。)决定细胞是否进入周期。 “ “ 限定点”主要受细胞外信号的调控。限定点”主要受细胞外信号的调控。

■■ 抑制信号(抑制信号( TGF-βTGF-β ))下调下调 cyclincyclin 和和 CDKCDK

44 的表达的表达 ,,

促进促进 P21P21waflwafl 、、 P27P27kiplkipl 和和 P15P15ink4bink4b 等等 CDICDI 产生,产生,使细胞阻滞在使细胞阻滞在 GG11 期。期。

■■ 细胞生长条件不具备细胞生长条件不具备使使 P16P16INK4aINK4a 和和 P15P15INK4bINK4b 增加,增加,并抑制并抑制 Cyclin D-CDKCyclin D-CDK

4/64/6 复合物的功能,复合物的功能,细胞阻滞细胞阻滞 GG11 期。期。

pRb

E2F

■■ 增殖信号(生长因子 )增殖信号(生长因子 ) EGF, PDGF, NGF, IGF, IL, etc

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TGF- 抑制细胞周期进展的机制

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Possible interactions between MAPK pathways and the cell cycle

•  

•  

  

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3. Checkpoint of Cell cycle

DNA integrity---DNA damage checkpoint: G1/S

unreplicated DNA: S/G2

paired kinetochores---Spindle assembly checkpoint: G2/M

division—Maintenance of Cell ploidy

Page 28: Cell proliferation and Diseases

P53 ProteinDNADNA 损伤: 损伤: integrating cellular responses to stress------ 细胞周期阻滞细胞周期阻滞::磷酸化 P53 ,上调 p21Cipl 基因转录。 P21Cipl 能与多种 CDK-cyclin 复合物结合,抑制 CDKs 激活,阻滞 G1/S 过渡;并直接结合抑制 PCNA 从而抑制 DNA 复制。为 DNA 修复提供时间。---DNA---DNA 修复修复 : : 激活 DNA 损伤修复相关基因------ 细胞凋亡细胞凋亡::激活 Bax 凋亡基因,下调 Bcl-2 抗凋亡基因表达,诱导凋亡。

P53P53 突变或缺失突变或缺失

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Regulation of p53 Increased half-life of p53 is the major mechanism for the increased protein

level, although transcriptional or translational regulation may also contribute Alterations in p53 protein stability: feedback regulation by MDM2 Post-translation modification: phosphorylation, acetylation, and methylation Changes in intracellular location

p53 and MDM2

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P53 signaling pathways

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Up-regulation: p21, gadd45, mdm2, Bax, Fas, CKM, CycG, TSP1, IGF-BP3, BTG2

Down-regulation: bcl-2, NOS2, IL-6, bFGF, c-fos, MDR1, b-myb, PCNA, DNApolhsp70, MAP4, TOPIIVEGF

A. p53-regulated genes and interacting proteins

Interacting proteins: RPA, Mdm2, MdmX, hsp72/hsc73, 53BP2, TBP, XPA, XPB, CSB, WT1, DP-1, RAD51/RecA, SV40 T, Adv E1B, HPV E6, HBX

B. Genotoxic Stress

radiation, UV, DNA-damaging agents

Non-genotoxic stress

heat, cold, hypoxia, low pH, heavy metals, kinase inhibitors

DNA, protein damage, receptor activation

PARP, ATM, NBS, BLS, FAS ??

DNA-PK RAS/ MAPK

Increase in p53 levels or activity

CDKs

Rb P

E2FRb

PCNAp21

DNA replication

Mdm2Bax

Bcl-2

G1 Arrest

Bcl-XL

MAP4

Apoptosis

GADD45

G2 Arrest

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ATM (ataxia telangiectasia mutated) , ATR (ATM and Rad3-related)

Page 33: Cell proliferation and Diseases

Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell. 2011;144(5):646-74.

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Cell proliferation dysregulation

Page 35: Cell proliferation and Diseases

细胞过度增殖或不足 : 本质是细胞周期调控异常细胞周期的驱动失控( Cyclin 、 CDK 和 CDI )监控(检查)机制受损 (Checkpoint)信号调控异常 (signaling)

细胞增殖异常细胞增殖↓ 分化不良(过度) → 组织器官发育不全 细胞增殖↑ 分化不全 (不足)→ 肿瘤发生

细胞增殖分化异常与相关疾病 增殖异常 分化异常 增殖分化异常

再生障碍性贫血 肥胖症 恶性肿瘤

白癜风 遗传性血红蛋白病 银屑病

前列腺肥大 肌营养不良 畸胎瘤

动脉粥样硬化 先天畸形

家族性红细胞增多症 X- 连锁 - 球蛋白缺乏症

高 IgM 血症

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(1) 细胞周期监控机制受损 DNA 损伤:导致基因突变、缺失、易位、染色体重排等 p53 功能等异常: G1/S 、 G2/M 检查点异常 , 探测 DNA 损伤功能降低

▲P53 突变或丢失 正常细胞 肿瘤细胞

致变剂

检测点检查功能↓ 遗传不稳定性 复制忠实性↓

G1/S 交界处失察

▲P53 功能正常 细胞进入 S 期

DNA 损伤 修复成功

G1/S 交界处 细胞周期停顿 G1 期 对损伤 DNA 修复

DNA 修复失败

诱导细胞凋亡 下调 bcl-2 基因表达或激活 bax 基因 P53

1. 恶性肿瘤 ( 细胞增殖异常机制 )

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GG22/M /M 交界处失察交界处失察

GG22/M/M 交界处交界处

DNADNA 双链断裂双链断裂

▲ 激活激活 DNADNA 损伤检查点 阻止细胞进入损伤检查点 阻止细胞进入 MM 期期

诱导修复基因转录诱导修复基因转录

完成断裂的完成断裂的 DNADNA 修复修复

▲ 失去失去 GG22/M/M 检查点的阻滞作用 染色体发生重排、丢失检查点的阻滞作用 染色体发生重排、丢失

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人类肿瘤人类肿瘤 p53p53 基因突变热点和频率基因突变热点和频率肿瘤型 突变频率(肿瘤型 突变频率( %% ) 突变热点 肿瘤型 突变频率() 突变热点 肿瘤型 突变频率( %% ) 突变热点) 突变热点肺癌 肺癌 56 15756 157 ,, 248248 ,, 273 273 前列腺癌 前列腺癌 30 30 不确定不确定结肠癌 结肠癌 50 17550 175 ,, 245245 ,, 248248 ,, 273 273 肝细胞癌 肝细胞癌 45 24945 249

食道癌 食道癌 45 45 不确定 胶质癌 不确定 胶质癌 25 17525 175 、、 248248

卵巢癌 卵巢癌 44 273 44 273 乳腺癌 乳腺癌 22 22 175175 、、 248248 、、 273273

胰腺癌 胰腺癌 44 273 44 273 子宫内膜癌 子宫内膜癌 22 24822 248

皮肤癌 皮肤癌 44 24844 248 、、 278 278 甲状腺癌 甲状腺癌 13 24813 248 、、 273273

胃癌 胃癌 41 41 不确定 白血病 不确定 白血病 12 17512 175 、、 248248

头颈鳞癌 头颈鳞癌 37 248 37 248 宫颈癌 宫颈癌 7 2737 273

膀胱癌 膀胱癌 34 280 34 280 软组织肉瘤 软组织肉瘤 31 31 不确定不确定

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( 1 ) Cyclins 异常: 肿瘤发生与 cyclin ( D 、 E )过量表达有关

【 Cyclin D1 (原癌基因)过表达原因】

▲基因扩增:是 Cyclin D1 过表达的主要机制,乳腺癌、胃癌、食道癌存在 Cyclin D1 基因扩增过度。▲染色体倒位 Cyclin D1 基因倒位,于甲状旁腺启动子控制下, Cyclin D1 蛋白合成↑,甲状旁腺腺癌。 ▲ 染色体易位Cyclin D1 基因 t(11:14) (q13:q32) 易位,受 Ig 重链基因增强子影响, Cyclin D1 表达↑。▲ 基因突变Cyclin D1 的 T286 突变, Cyclin D1 泛素化受阻,半衰期延长。【 Cyclin D 过表达致肿瘤机制】

Cyclin D 过表达 + 生长因子 正常细胞

CDKs 的瀑布效应↑

肿瘤细胞

(2) 细胞周期驱动机制失控

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( 2 ) CDK 的增多

主要 CDK4 、 CDK6 过表达。

CDK4↑+ cyclin D 结合↑ CDK4/cyclin D↑ CDKs 表达↑

pRb pRb 磷酸化↑ 细胞增殖过度

E2F ↑ G1/S 过渡加速

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正常细胞 肿瘤细胞

【 Mechanism 】

p16 InK4 基因表达↓ 抑制 CDK4 与 cyclin D 结合↓

细胞周期处在“易于”被启动状态

▲ Kip/Cip 减少

P21cip1 正常功能 cyclins/CDKs 活性↓ 细胞周期速度↓

抑制增殖细胞核抗原( PCNA ) 阻滞 DNA 复制

【 Mechanism 】

P53 基因突变 P21cip1 转录↓ DNA 受损的细胞增殖↑正常细胞 肿瘤细胞

( 3 ) CDI 表达不足和突变:

肿瘤细胞常出现 CDI (肿瘤抑制基因)表达不足或突变

▲ InK4 失活

p16 InK4 基因失活原因:突变或缺失、染色体易位、 p16 InK4高度甲基化。

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Mutation of G1/S regulators in cancer

Pink: loci with defined specific genetic or epigenetic alteration ;

Yellow: alterations mechanism unkown;

Aasterisk: Alterations relevant for tumor prognosis

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(3)Membrane-to-Nucleus Signaling Pathways Involved in CancerProteins in white letters on black fill have been implicated as oncoproteins or tumor suppressor proteins

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Therapeutic Targeting of the Hallmarks of Cancer

Hanahan D, Weinberg RA. Hallmarks of cancer: the next generation. Cell. 2011;144(5):646-74.

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Therapeutic targets

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2. 原发性血小板增多症( PT )■■临床症状:以巨核细胞增殖为主的骨髓增生性疾病。伴有血临床症状:以巨核细胞增殖为主的骨髓增生性疾病。伴有血

小板持续增多和血小板功能异常,有反复自发性小板持续增多和血小板功能异常,有反复自发性

出血及血栓形成。出血及血栓形成。

■■ 病因与机制:病因与机制: XX 染色体遗传、染色体遗传、 TGF-TGF-减少、减少、辅助细胞缺乏等。辅助细胞缺乏等。

3. 良性前列腺增生 ■ ■ 病因与机制:细胞凋亡出现下降,增殖不变,导致良性前列腺增生。病因与机制:细胞凋亡出现下降,增殖不变,导致良性前列腺增生。

4. 银屑病

■■ 病因与机制:表皮生长因子受体的增加和病因与机制:表皮生长因子受体的增加和受体的减少是引起受体的减少是引起

表皮细胞增长过快的原因。表皮细胞增长过快的原因。