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Center for
By-Products
Utilization
DEMONSTRATION OF MANUFACTURING
TECHNOLOGY FOR CONCRETE AND CLSM
UTILIZING WOOD ASH FROM WISCONSIN
By Tarun R. Naik and Rudolph N. Kraus
Report No. CBU-2004-07 REP-551
March 2004
Final Report submitted to the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, Madison, WI
for Project # 01-06.
Department of Civil Engineering and Mechanics
College of Engineering and Applied Science
THE UNIVERSITY OF WISCONSIN - MILWAUKEE
-i-
FINAL TECHNICAL REPORT
Project Title: DEMONSTRATION OF MANUFACTURING TECHNOLOGY FOR
CONCRETE AND CLSM UTILIZING WOOD ASH FROM
WISCONSIN
Principal Investigator: Tarun R. Naik
UWM Center for By-Products Utilization
University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee
Other Project Personnel: Rudolph N. Kraus, Yoon-moon Chun, and Rafat Siddique
UWM Center for By-Products Utilization
University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
Wisconsin industry generates approximately one million dry tons (or approx. 1.8 million
cubic yards) of wood ash per year. Disposal of wood ash in landfills costs Wisconsin
industry significant direct cost plus unknown future liabilities due to environmental concerns
related to such materials in landfills. This project establishes the initial manufacturing
technology for use of wood ash generated by the Wisconsin forest products industry in
concrete (structural-grade concrete) and flowable slurry (Controlled Low Strength Materials,
CLSM) through an initial laboratory evaluation followed by prototype manufacturing and
full-scale manufacturing. A technology transfer seminar, which also included a
demonstration of the placement of concrete and CLSM mixtures containing wood ash, was
conducted to transfer the knowledge developed about the use of wood ash in construction
material to the engineering community; including industrial and government agencies, as
well as the concrete construction industry. The project work was started with the laboratory
manufacturing of CLSM and concrete mixtures at the facilities of the UWM Center for By-
-ii-
Products Utilization, University of Wisconsin - Milwaukee. Four different concrete mixtures
(ML1-A, ML2-A, ML4-A, and ML4-B) were also manufactured in the laboratory. Mixture
ML1-A did not contain wood ash, whereas other mixtures contained between 36 and 87
lb/yd3 of wood ash. All four mixtures had a Class C fly ash content between 50 and 165
lb/yd3 to simulate the usual types of concrete manufactured by ready-mixed concrete plants
in Wisconsin. Additionally, based upon past R&D work conducted at the UWM Center for
By-Products Utilization, this range of Class C fly ash was used to take advantage of available
alkalies in wood ash to activate the Class C coal ash for enhanced performance. Three
different CLSM mixtures (SL-1, SL-2, and SL-3) were first proportioned in the laboratory.
The CLSM mixtures manufactured in the laboratory contained wood ash and cement from
2130 to 995 lb/yd3 and 81 to 116 lb/yd
3, respectively. Tests were performed for density,
bleed water, settlement, and compressive strength.
Beneficial use criteria for by-product materials is established in the WI-DNR Administrative
Code Chapter NR 538. When the results of the leachate and elemental analysis are
combined, the wood ash meets Category 4 requirements. However, only one parameter
limited the beneficial use options for the wood ash to NR 538 Category 4 applications. The
detection limit of thallium slightly exceeded the limit specified for Category 2 & 3. Since
the concentration of elemental thallium present in the sample meets NR 538 Category 1
requirements, most likely, if a more detailed analysis were performed for this element, the
material most likely would meet Category 2 limits.
-iii-
Based on the results of lab manufacturing of concrete and CLSM mixtures, prototype
manufacturing was conduced at a ready-mixed concrete plant (Midway Concrete Co.) in
Rothschild, WI. Four series of concrete mixtures (R-1, R-2, R-3, and R-4) were
manufactured. The were tested for fresh concrete properties and test specimens were made
for compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, drying shrinkage, and
freezing and thawing resistance. Tests for strength properties were performed at the ages of
7, 14, 28, and 91 days. The concrete mixtures attained 28-day compressive strengths
between 4315 and 5065 psi. An increase in strength was observed as the test age increased.
Similar results were also observed for splitting tensile strength and flexural strength.
Three series of CLSM mixtures (SL-1, SL-2, and SL-3) were manufactured. Tests were
performed for bleed water, density, settlement, and compressive strength for CLSM
mixtures. Compressive strength was evaluated at the ages of 7, 14, 28, 91, and 182 days.
Test results at the 28-day age show that CLSM achieved compressive strengths between 90
and 190 psi.
Full-scale manufacturing of concrete and CLSM mixtures was also conducted at the ready-
mixed plant (Midway Concrete Co.) in Rothschild, WI. Three series of CLSM mixtures (S-
1, S-2, and S-3) were manufactured. For each series, between five and seven batches of
CLSM were manufactured. The volume of each batch of CLSM was approximately nine
cubic yards. Tests were performed for density, settlement, and bleed water. Test specimens
were cast for compressive strength and water permeability. The compressive strength of the
CLSM mixtures ranged from 40 to 120 psi at the age of 28 days, 100 to 205 psi at 91days,
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135 to 830 psi at 182 days, and 150 to 2090 psi at 365 days. Water permeability tests were
performed at 63, 90, and 227 days. Permeability values were between 6.8 x 10-5
and 3.3 x
10-5
cm/sec at 63 days; between 2.1 x 10-5
and 3.9 x 10-5
cm/sec at 90 days; and between 11
x 10-5
and 28 x 10-5
cm/sec at 227 days of testing.
Four series of concrete mixtures (C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-4) were manufactured. Each series
consisted of three to four batches of ready-mixed concrete approximately nine cubic yards
each. Tests were performed for fresh concrete properties. Test specimens were prepared for
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, drying shrinkage, and
freezing and thawing resistance. Compressive strengths between 3625 and 5410 psi were
achieved at the age of 28 days. There was a continuous increase in the compressive strength
at the later ages of 91, 182, and 365 days. Similar results were also observed for splitting
tensile strength and flexural strength. Tests were also performed for drying shrinkage and
freezing and thawing resistance. The concrete mixtures were tested for pulse velocity,
relative dynamic modulus, and percent length change up to 300 freezing and thawing cycles.
Test results after 300 cycles of freezing and thawing indicated that inclusion of wood ash in
the concrete mixtures did not affect freezing and thawing resistance of the concrete mixtures.
There was no significant change on the drying shrinkage of concrete specimens made with
or without wood ash.
Significant efforts were made during and after completion of this project to transfer the
technology for the use of wood ash in concrete and CLSM to the engineering community;
including industry, government agencies, concrete construction industries, and others. As a
-v-
part of this project, a technology transfer educational seminar was conducted in Rothschild,
WI. The seminar consisted of a half-day of technical presentations followed by a
construction demonstration of the placement of concrete containing wood ash for materials
handling yard a pavement slab and flowable slurry containing wood ash for the pavement
base course. An additional similar educational seminar is planned for 2004.
Although not directly supported by the funds of this project, additional presentations were
made in Wisconsin and elsewhere on the use of wood ash and the results of this project
furthering the technology transfer efforts. Presentations that included the results of this
project on the use of wood ash as a construction material were made at the following
conferences or meetings: High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete in Structures and Pavements
Seminar, ACI Maharastra Chapter, Mumbai, India, July, 2001; Residual Wood Ash
Conference – Residual-to-Revenue, Richmond, BC, Canada, November 2001; Weyerhaeuser
Co., Seattle, WA, November 2001; UWM-CBU Workshop on the Use of Fly Ash and other
Coal-Combustion Products in Concrete and Construction Materials, March 2002; meeting at
Stora Enso North America, Wisconsin Rapids, WI, March 2002; NCASI Central Lake States
Regional Meeting, Oshkosh, WI, May 2002; ACI Fall 2002 Convention, Phoenix, AZ,
October 2002; CANMET/ACI Lyon, France, and Barcelona, November 2002; Weyerhaeuser
Company Workshop on Alternative Management Methods for Weyerhaeuser Residuals,
Albany, OR, October 2003; Weyerhaeuser Company meeting on Wis-DOT I-39/Highway
51 Corridor Project, Rothschild, WI, January 2004; ACI 2004 Spring Convention,
Washington, D.C., March 2004, and at the UWM-CBU Seminar on Recent Advances in
Cementitious Materials, March 2004.
-vi-
Additional technical papers have been presented, published, or submitted for publication
based on the activities of this project. A paper titled “Greener Concrete Using Recycled
Materials” was published by the ACI Concrete International, July 2002, which contained
important information from the Rothschild construction project. A paper titled “Durability
of Concrete Incorporating Wood Fly Ash” was presented and published at the Sixth
CANMET/ACI International Conference on Durability of Concrete, Thessaloniki, Greece,
June 2003. Another paper titled “Properties of Controlled Low-Strength Material made with
Wood Fly Ash” was presented and published at the ASTM Symposium on Innovations in
Controlled Low-Strength Material (Flowable Slurry), Denver, CO, June 2003 (ASTM STP
1459, scheduled for publication in Fall 2004). A paper has been published in ACI Concrete
International magazine in December 2003 titled “A New Source of Pozzolanic Material.” A
paper has also been preliminarily accepted for publication by the ASCE Geotechnical and
Geoenvironmental Engineering Division titled “Permeability of Flowable Slurry Materials
Containing Wood Ash.” A paper has been accepted for publication by ACI Committee 555
for a ACI Special Publication (SP) titled “Properties of Flowable Slurry Containing Wood
Ash.” The effort to disseminate the information and experience obtained during this project
will continue.
-vii-
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Section Page
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ............................................................................................................ i
LIST OF TABLES ......................................................................................................................... x
LIST OF FIGURES .................................................................................................................... xiii
1.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND ....................................................................... 1
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ....................................................................................................3
2.1 Introduction ....................................................................................................................3
2.2 Properties of Wood Ash .................................................................................................3
2.3 Beneficial Uses of Wood Ash ........................................................................................6
2.3.1 Land Application ............................................................................................7
2.3.2 Pollution Control .............................................................................................8
2.3.3 Construction Materials ....................................................................................9
3.0 OBJECTIVES ....................................................................................................................11
4.0 RESEARCH DESIGN .......................................................................................................12
5.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES ..................................................................................17
5.1 Materials ................................................................................................................17
5.1.1 Wood Ash ..................................................................................................17
5.1.2 Fine Aggregate ...........................................................................................17
5.1.3 Coarse Aggregate .......................................................................................18
5.1.4 Class C Fly Ash .........................................................................................18
5.1.5 Cement .......................................................................................................18
5.2 Elemental Analysis ................................................................................................19
5.3 Mineralogical Analysis ..........................................................................................19
5.4 Manufacturing of CLSM and Concrete Mixtures and Testing ..............................20
of specimens
5.4.1 Laboratory Mixtures ...................................................................................20
5.4.1.1 CLSM laboratory mixtures ................................................................20
5.4.1.2 Concrete laboratory mixtures ................................................................22
5.4.2 Prototype Manufacturing ................................................................................23
5.4.2.1 CLSM prototype mixtures ...............................................................23
5.4.2.2 Concrete prototype mixtures ............................................................24
5.4.3 Full-Scale Manufacturing ................................................................................25
5.4.3.1 CLSM full-scale mixtures .......................................................................27
5.4.3.2 Concrete full-scale mixtures ...................................................................28
-viii-
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Section Page
6.0 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ........................................................................................30
6.1 Laboratory and Prototype Manufacturing (Selection and ............................................30
Refinement of Mixtures and Testing)
6.1.1 Materials ............................................................................................................30
6.1.2 Elemental Analysis ............................................................................................31
6.1.3 Mineralogical Analysis ......................................................................................31
6.1.4 Wisconsin DNR Chapter NR 538 Standards .....................................................32
6.1.4.1 Leachate Characteristics of Wood Ash ...............................................32
6.1.4.2 Elemental Characteristics of Wood Ash .............................................33
6.1.4.3 DNR NR 538 Specified Use Options ..................................................34
6.1.5 Lab Manufacturing Results .................................................................................35
6.1.5.1 Laboratory CLSM mixture results ......................................................35
Mixture proportions and fresh properties ............................................35
Compressive strength ..........................................................................36
6.1.5.2 Laboratory concrete mixture results ................................................36
Mixture proportions and fresh properties ...........................................36
Compressive strength .........................................................................36
6.1.6 Prototype Manufacturing Results ........................................................................37
6.1.6.1 Prototype CLSM mixture results ..........................................................37
Mixture proportions and fresh properties .............................................37
Compressive strength ...........................................................................37
6.1.6.2 Prototype concrete mixture results.....................................................37
Mixture proportions and fresh properties .............................................37
Compressive strength ...........................................................................38
Splitting tensile strength .......................................................................38
Flexural strength ...................................................................................39
Compressive strength from portions of beams broken
in flexure .............................................................................................39
Resistance to freezing and thawing ......................................................40
Drying Shrinkage .................................................................................40
-ix-
TABLE OF CONTENTS (Continued)
Section Page
6.2 Full-Scale Manufacturing/Production Results .......................................................41
6.2.1 Full-scale CLSM mixture results .................................................................41
Mixture proportions and fresh properties ......................................................41
Compressive strength ....................................................................................42
Water permeability ........................................................................................43
6.2.2 Full-scale concrete mixture results .............................................................43
Mixture proportions and fresh properties .....................................................43
Compressive strength ...................................................................................44
Splitting tensile strength ...............................................................................45
Flexural strength ...........................................................................................46
Compressive strength from portions of beams broken in flexure ................46
Resistance to freezing and thawing ..............................................................47
Drying Shrinkage .........................................................................................48
6.3 Technology Transfer and Field Demonstration ...........................................................48
6.4 Long-Term Evaluation and Condition Assessment .....................................................51
7.0 COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF USING WOOD ASH IN FLOWABLE
SLURRY (CLSM) AND CONCRETE .................................................................................53
7.1 Cost/Benefit Analysis for CLSM Containing Wood Ash ............................................54
7.2 Cost/Benefit Analysis for Concrete Containing Wood Ash ........................................55
8.0 CONCLUSIONS................................................................................................................56
9.0 LIST OF REFERENCES ...................................................................................................59
APPENDIX 1 ..............................................................................................................................126
-x-
LIST OF TABLES
Table No./Title Page
Table 1 - Physical Properties of Fine and Coarse Aggregates for Laboratory Mixtures .............. 62
Table 2 - Gradation of Fine and Coarse Aggregates for Laboratory Mixtures .............................63
Table 3 - Physical Properties of Cement for Laboratory Mixtures ................................................64
Table 4 – Chemical Properties of Cement for Laboratory Mixtures .............................................65
Table 5 - Physical Properties of Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures ...........................................66
Table 6 – Chemical Properties of Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures ........................................67
Table 7 - Physical Properties of Class C Fly Ash for Laboratory Mixtures ..................................68
Table 8 – Chemical Properties of Class C Fly Ash for Laboratory Mixtures................................69
Table 9 - Elemental Analysis of Cement and Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures ......................70
Table 10 - Mineralogy of Cement and Class C Fly Ash for Laboratory Mixtures ........................73
Table 11 - Mineralogy of Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures .....................................................73
Table 12 - Beneficial Use Methods for By-Products Based Upon Characterization
Category, per NR 538 ....................................................................................................................74
Table 13 - Leachate Analysis Data for Wood Ash ........................................................................75
Table 14 - Leachate Standards per DNR NR 538 ..........................................................................76
Table 15 - NR 538 Categories for Wood Ash per Leachate Analysis ...........................................77
Table 16 - NR 538 Elemental Analysis for Wood Ash .................................................................78
Table 17 - Elemental Analysis per DNR NR 538 ..........................................................................79
Table 18 - NR 538 Categories for Rothschild Ash per Elemental Analysis ..................................80
Table 19 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties of CLSM Mixtures ...................................81
from Laboratory Manufacturing
Table 20 - Bleed water of CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing ...............................82
Table 21- Settlement of CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing .................................83
Table 22- Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing .............84
Table 23 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Concrete Properties for Air-Entrained .......................85
Concrete from Laboratory Manufacturing
Table 24 - Compressive Strength of Air-Entrained Concrete Mixtures from Laboratory .............86
Manufacturing
Table 25 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for CLSM Mixtures from ..........................87
Prototype Manufacturing
Table 26 - Bleed water for CLSM Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing ...............................88
Table 27 - Settlement for CLSM Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing ..................................89
-xi-
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table No./Title Page
Table 28 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Prototype ........................................90
Manufacturing
Table 29 - Mixture Proportions for Air-Entrained Concrete from Prototype
Manufacturing .................................................................................................................91
Table 30 - Compressive Strength for Air-Entrained Concrete Mixtures from ..............................92
Prototype Manufacturing
Table 31 - Splitting Tensile Strength for Concrete Mixtures from ...............................................93
Prototype Manufacturing
Table 32- Flexural Strength of Concrete Mixtures for Prototype Manufacturing .........................94
Table 33- Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures Using Portions of ..................................95
Beam Broken in Flexure from Prototype Manufacturing
Table 34 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for CLSM Mixtures ..................................96
from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-1
Table 35 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties of CLSM Mixtures ...................................97
from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-2
Table 36 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties of CLSM Mixtures ....................................98
from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-3
Table 37 - Bleed water from CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing ............................99
Table 38 - Settlement for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing ...............................100
Table 39 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale .....................................101
Manufacturing, Series S-1
Table 40 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale .....................................102
Manufacturing, Series S-2
Table 41 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale .....................................103
Manufacturing, Series S-3
Table 42 - Permeability of CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-2 ...........104
Table 43 - Permeability of CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-3 ...........104
Table 44 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for Air-Entrained ....................................105
Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-1
Table 45 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Concrete Properties of Air-Entrained ......................106
Concrete Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-2
Table 46 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Concrete Properties of Air-Entrained ......................107
Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-3
-xii-
LIST OF TABLES (Continued)
Table No./Title Page
Table 47 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Concrete Properties of Air-Entrained ......................108
Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-4
Table 48 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from ..................................................109
Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-1
Table 49 - Compressive Strength of Air-Entrained Concrete Mixtures from .............................110
Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-2
Table 50 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from ...................................................111
Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-3
Table 51 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from ...................................................112
Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-4
Table 52 - Splitting Tensile Strength for Concrete Mixtures ......................................................113
from Full-Scale Manufacturing
Table 53 - Flexural Strength for Concrete Mixtures from ...........................................................114
Full-Scale Manufacturing
Table 54 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures Using Portions of Beams
Broken in Flexure from Full-Scale Manufacturing ....................................................115
Table 55 - Average Mixture Proportions of CLSM Mixtures Containing Wood Ash from
Full-Scale Manufacturing. .........................................................................................116
Table 56 - Cost/Benefit Analysis per Cubic Yard of CLSM Mixtures
Containing Wood Ash.................................................................................................116
Table 57 - Overall Cost/Benefit Analysis for CLSM Mixtures Containing Wood Ash ..............117
Table 58 - Average Mixture Proportions of Concrete Mixtures Containing Wood Ash
from Full-Scale Manufacturing..................................................................................117
Table 59 - Cost/Benefit Analysis per Cubic Yard of Concrete Mixtures Containing
Wood Ash ...................................................................................................................118
Table 60 - Overall Cost/Benefit Analysis for Concrete Mixtures Containing Wood Ash .........118
-xiii-
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure No./Title Page
Fig 1- Pulse Velocity versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Prototype Manufacturing .......119
Fig 2- Relative Dynamic Modulus versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Prototype
Manufacturing ...................................................................................................................119
Fig 3- Percent Length Change versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Prototype
Manufacturing ...................................................................................................................120
Fig 4- Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing ........................120
Fig 5- Pulse Velocity versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-Scale Manufacturing ......121
Fig 6- Relative Dynamic Modulus versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-Scale
Manufacturing ......................................................................................................................121
Fig.7- Percent Length Change versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-Scale
Manufacturing ................................................................................................................122
Fig.8 - Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Mixtures for Full-Scale Manufacturing ..........................122
Fig.9 – Placement of CLSM for Full-Scale Demonstration ........................................................123
Fig.10 – Leveling CLSM for Full-Scale Demonstration .............................................................123
Fig.11 – Placement of Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing ................................................124
Fig.12 – Finishing of Concrete Containing Wood Ash for Full-Scale Mixtures .........................124
Fig.13 – Completed Concrete Slab from Full-Scale Manufacturing ...........................................125
Fig.14 – Concrete Containing Wood Ash – Two Year Assessment ............................................125
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1.0 INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND
Wisconsin industries (pulp and paper mills, saw mills, wood products industries such as
doors and windows, and other forest products industries) generate approximately one million
dry tons (or approx. 1.8 million cubic yards) of wood ash per year. NCASI has estimated
that of the total wood ash produced in the U.S., only about 28% is being utilized [1]*.
Disposal of wood ash in landfills costs Wisconsin industry significant direct cost plus
unknown future liabilities due to environmental concerns related to such materials in
landfills. This project establishes the initial manufacturing technology for the use of wood
ash generated by the Wisconsin forest products industry in concrete and flowable slurry
(Controlled Low Strength Materials, CLSM), through an initial laboratory evaluation
followed by prototype manufacturing and full-scale manufacturing. A technology transfer
seminar was conducted, which demonstrated the placement of concrete and CLSM mixtures
containing wood ash for a materials handling area in Rothschild, WI, at the Weyerhaeuser
Company plant.
CLSM is a very fluid cementitious material that flows like a liquid and supports like a solid,
without compacting. It is self-compacting and self-leveling. It hardens in a defined and
predictable manner. ACI 229R defines CLSM flowable slurry as "cementitious material that
is in a flowable state at placement and has specified compressive strengths of 1200 psi or less
at the age of 28 days." A number of names including flowable fill, unshrinkable fill,
manufactured dirt, controlled density fill, flowable mortar, and other similar names, are
being used to describe this material. CLSM is used primarily for non-structural applications.
* Reference number corresponding to the reference listed in Section 9.0
-2-
Its consistency is similar to that of a pancake batter. CLSM can be placed quickly with
minimum labor. It can harden within a few hours of placement.
For excavatable slurry, compressive strength should be in the range of 50 to 100 psi at the
28-day age. In cases where higher strengths are required, and/or future excavation is not
expected, CLSM mixtures can be proportioned with higher amounts of cementitious
materials. For use as a permanent fill or support material, CLSM mixtures can be
proportioned to attain strengths of up to 1200 psi at the age of 28 days, in accordance with
ACI Committee 229. Developing different strength levels for CLSM with wood ash would
allow for greater flexibility for potential uses of CLSM such as backfill around underground
electric and/or telephone cables, water distribution lines, gas lines, and other similar trench
excavations, backfill for bridge abutment wall, road sub-base, and foundation base materials.
This project outlines a practical solution to disposal challenges associated with wood ash for
the forest products industry in Wisconsin through the development of this technology for
commercial production of concrete and CLSM containing wood ash.
-3-
2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Introduction
Typical wood burned for fuel at pulp and paper mills and wood products industries may
consist of saw dust, wood chips, bark, saw mill scraps, hard chips rejected from pulping,
excess screenings such as sheaves, and primary residuals with or without mixed secondary
residuals. Physical and chemical properties of wood ash are important in determining their
beneficial uses. These properties are influenced by species of tree, tree growing regions and
conditions, method and manner of combustion including temperature, other fuel used with
wood fuel, and method of wood ash collection [1, 2, 3]. Further quality variation in the
wood ash properties occur when wood is co-fired with other supplementary fuels such as
coal, coke, gas, oil, and the relative quantity of wood verses such other fuels [1]. The
following sections deal with the information collected on properties and options for
constructive uses for wood ash.
2.2 Properties of Wood Ash
Etiegni and Campbell [3] studied the effects of combustion temperature on yield and
chemical properties of wood ash. For this investigation, lodgepole pine saw dust collected
from a sawmill was combusted in an electric furnace at different temperatures for 6 to 9
hours or until the ash weight became constant. The results showed that wood ash yield
crons
(10-3
mm). The concentration of potassium, sodium, zinc, and carbonate decreased while
concentrations of other metal ions remained constant or increased with increasing
-4-
temperature. The pH of the wood ash was found to vary between 9 and 13.5. Etiegni et al.
[2,3] obtained X-ray diffraction data to determine the presence of various compounds in dry
and wet ash which was then dried for 24 hours. The major oxides detected in the wood ash
were lime (CaO), calcite (CaCO3), portlandite (Ca(OH)2) and calcium silicate (Ca2SiO4).
The authors reported that swelling of wood ash occurred due to the possible hydration of
silicates and lime present in the ash.
Campbell [4] presented data on major and trace elements in wood ash. The major elements
were calcium (7-33%), potassium (3-4%), magnesium (1-2%), phosphorus (0.3-1.4%),
manganese (0.3-1.3%), and sodium (0.2-0.5%). The trace elements were zinc, boron,
copper, molybdenum, and others at parts per million levels. Carbon content in wood ash was
found to vary between 4 and 34% by mass.
Mishra et al. [5] investigated elemental and molecular composition of mineral matters in ash
from five types of wood and two types of barks as a function of temperature. The mass loss
occurred in the range of 23 to 48 % when the combustion temperature was increased from
500 to 1300o
C (930 to 2370o
F). This was attributed to decreased elemental mass
concentrations of K, S, B, Na, and Cu resulting from increased temperature.
Steenari and Lindqvist [6] characterized fly ashes derived from co-combustion of wood chips
and fossil fuels, and compared their properties to those obtained from combustion of wood
ash alone. In their work, wood fly ash samples were obtained by co-firing of wood chips
with coal, oil, and peat in utility boilers in Sweden. The fly ashes derived from co-
combustion of wood with coal or peat exhibited lower concentrations of calcium, potassium,
-5-
and chlorine, and higher concentrations of aluminum ion and sulfur relative to pure wood
ash. The pH of leachates obtained from the co-combustion ashes were lower compared to
pure wood ash. The concentrations of trace metals in these ashes were similar to those
observed in pure wood ashes.
Steenari [7] presented possible chemical reactions involved in the hydration of wood ash
concrete. Equation 1 describes the reaction involving CaO and H20.
CaO + H2O = Ca (OH) 2 (1)
This reaction is rapid and exothermic, and leads to the formation of inter-particle bond. The
next reaction occurs due to exposure to moisture and air as given by Equation 2.
Ca (OH) 2+ H2O+ CO2 (gas) = Ca (OH) 2 (aqueous)+ H2CO3 (aqueous) = CaCO3 +2H2O (2)
Due to very low (or none) solubility of CaCO3 compared to CaO and Ca (OH) 2, the above
hydration process produces a more stabilized reaction product. After the carbonation
reaction (Equation 2), the third reaction leads to the formation of an ettringite as described by
Equation 3.
Ca3Al2O6 + 3CaSO4 + 32 H2O = Ca6Al2 (SO4) 3(OH) 1226H2O (3)
In the above equation, tricalcium aluminate is used as an example. However, other soluble
components can be substituted for these compounds in the ettringite formation reaction
described by Equation (3). This ettringite is stable at pH levels greater than 10.5 [7]. This
chemical product contributes to the strength development of the hydrated wood ash material
and restricts the release of calcium, aluminum, and sulfate.
Naik [8] determined physical and chemical properties of wood ashes derived from different
mills. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM) was used to determine shape of wood ash
-6-
particles. The SEM micrographs showed wood ashes as a heterogeneous mixture of particles
of varying sizes, which were generally angular in shape. The wood fly ash contained cellular
particles, which were unburned, or partially burned wood or bark particles. The average
moisture content values for the wood ash studied were about 13% for fly ash and 22% for
bottom ash. All wood ash samples were first oven-dried at 990 C (210
o F) and then tested for
gradation in accordance with ASTM C 136 using standard sieve sizes. The average amount
of fly ash passing sieve #200 (75 μm) was 50% (ASTM C 117). The average amount of fly
ash retained on sieve No. 325 (45 m) was about 31% for wood fly ash (ASTM C 430). Test
results for unit weight or bulk density (ASTM C 29) exhibited average density values of 490
kg/m3 (30.6 lb/ft
3) for fly ash and 827 kg/m
3 (51.6 lb/ft
3) for bottom ash. Specific gravity
(ASTM C 188) tests showed an average specific gravity value of 2.48 for wood fly ash.
Specific gravity (ASTM C 128) tests for bottom ash showed an average specific gravity
value of 1.65. The average saturated surface dry (SSD) moisture content (ASTM C 128)
values were 10.3% for fly ash and 7.5% for bottom ash. The average cement activity index
ASTM C 311/C 109 at the age of 28 days for fly ash was about 66% of the control. The
average water requirement (ASTM C 311) for fly ash exhibited a value of 116%. Autoclave
expansion tests for fly ash exhibited a low average expansion value of 0.2 percent.
2.3 Beneficial Uses of Wood Ash
Approximately 70% of the wood ash generated in the U.S.A. is landfilled; an additional 20%
is applied on land as a soil supplement. The remaining 10% has been used for miscellaneous
applications [1-4] including construction materials, metal recovery, and pollution control.
Landfilling is becoming more restrictive due to shrinking landfill space and strict
-7-
environmental regulations. The use of wood ash as a soil supplement is also becoming more
limited due to the presence of heavy metals and high alkalinity, as well as reduced
availability of land for application. Due to these reasons, many attempts are being made to
develop high-volume use technologies for wood ash, especially for use in construction
materials [8,12].
2.3.1 Land application
Based on the properties of wood ash, it can be used as a source of nutrients for plant growth,
and as a liming material and neutralizing agent for acidic soil. Etiegni and Campbell [3]
reported the use of wood ash as an agricultural soil supplement and liming material. For this
investigation, two types of plants (winter wheat and poplar) were grown in a greenhouse on
six different Idaho soils amended with varying amounts of wood ash. The results indicated a
substantial increase in the wheat biomass and in the diameter and height of the poplar at ash
concentrations of up to 2% (16 tons/acre). Based on the results obtained, the authors
indicated that wood ash could be used as a low-grade fertilizer containing potassium and as a
liming agent.
Meyers and Kopecky [9] evaluated the effects of land spreading of wood ash on the yield
and elemental composition of forage crops and soil nutrient levels using both greenhouse and
field investigations. The use of wood ash resulted in a higher yield compared to that
obtained with lime and fertilizer control treatments. No adverse effects were noted at wood
ash application rates of up to 20 tons/acre.
-8-
Nguyen and Pascal [10] measured tree growth responses using two sources of wood ash as a
forest soil amendment. Four different application rates (0, 2, 4, and 8% by mass) were used
in their investigation. The tree growth responses were measured using greenhouse and
small-scale environment approaches. The addition of wood ash affected all the measured
growth responses (height, diameter, and total leaf area) within the tested range. However,
2% (i.e., 16 tons/acre) application rate was found to be optimum.
Bramryd and Frashman [11] reported a decrease in acidity and aluminum concentration
when wood ash was applied to the soil having 35-year old pine trees in Sweden. Except Cu,
no significant increase in heavy metal concentrations was found due to the addition of wood
ash. However, the concentration of extractable Mn increased.
Naylor and Schmidt [14] evaluated wood as a fertilizer and liming material. In their study,
wood ash was mixed with two acidic soils at rates of 0, 0.4, 1.8 and 2.4 tons/acre to assess
changes in extractable nutrients and soil pH. Generally, concentrations of extractable P, K,
and Ca increased with increasing ash application rate. The same trend was also noticed for
soil pH. The neutralizing capability of the ash was found to be half of that achieved by using
agricultural limestone.
2.3.2 Pollution Control
Wood ash has been used as a replacement of lime or cement kiln dust in the solidification of
hazardous wastes [1]. It has also been used for odor as well as pH control of hazardous and
-9-
non-hazardous wastes. Wood ash has also been added to compost as a color and odor
control. Wood ash was found to capture several water borne contaminants [1].
2.3.3 Construction Materials
Very limited work has been conducted to find applications of wood ash as a construction
material, particularly in cement-based materials. Due to high carbon content in wood ash, its
use may be limited to low- and medium-strength concrete materials. In Europe, wood ash
has been used as a feedstock in the manufacture of portland cement [2].
Based on the measured physical, chemical, and morphological properties, Naik [8] reported
that wood ash has a substantial potential for use as a pozzolanic mineral admixture and an
activator in cement-based materials. He further indicated that wood ash has significant
potential for use in numerous other materials including Controlled Low Strength Materials
(CLSM), low- and medium-strength concrete, masonry products, roller-compacted concrete
pavements (RCCP), materials for road base, and blended cements.
Naik [12] investigated the use of wood ash as a major ingredient in the manufacture of
CLSM meeting ACI 229 requirements. All CLSM mixtures consisted of wood fly ash,
water, and cement. A total of 31 CLSM mixtures were proportioned using three sources of
wood fly ash to obtain a range of compressive strengths from 50 psi to 150 psi at the age of
28 days. Each CLSM mixture was tested for its fresh/rheological and hardened properties.
Fresh CLSM properties included unit weight, amount of bleedwater, settlement, and setting
and hardening characteristics. Hardened CLSM properties included compressive strength,
-10-
density, and permeability. Several CLSM mixtures containing high volumes of wood fly ash
were found to be appropriate for backfill of excavations, and/or for making low- to medium-
strength concrete [8, 12].
Mukherji et al. [13] performed experiments to explore the use of wood ash in the ceramic
industry. They reported that wood ash derived from the “Neem” (Margosa) tree could be
used as a substitute for CaCO3 in the manufacture of glaze. A series of color stains was also
manufactured using the "Neem" wood ash and other ingredients. These stains were calcined
at 12500 C (2280
0 F). The glazes and colors developed using this wood ash were tested and
evaluated for the desired properties for the ceramics[13]. The authors concluded that the
glazes and colors developed in their investigation are suitable for use in both green and
baked ware.
-11-
3.0 OBJECTIVES
Wood ash is generated by saw mills, pulp mills, and the wood products industry, by burning
a combination of wood products, such as bark, twigs, knots, chips, saw dust, scrap woods,
and the like with other fuels such as coal, coke, oil, and natural gas to generate electricity
and/or steam required for their manufacturing processes. The aim of this project was to
develop manufacturing and performance requirements for structural-grade concrete and
CLSM (flowable slurry) containing wood ash from Wisconsin industry for construction
applications.
In order to demonstrate the use of wood ash in concrete and CLSM, the project was planned
over a two-year period. The project activities included refinement of laboratory mixture
proportions through prototype-scale manufacturing at the facilities of a ready-mixed concrete
producer, establishing final mixtures for full-scale manufacture of CLSM and concrete, and a
construction demonstration.
Implementation of the technology developed from this project should increase utilization of
wood ash materials, reducing the pressure on Wisconsin landfills; and develop a market for
products containing wood ash, which do not exist currently. This benefits industry, the
environment, and the citizens of Wisconsin.
-12-
4.0 RESEARCH DESIGN
This project consisted of the following eight tasks: Task 1: Selection of Materials and
Mixtures; Task 2: Mixture Proportions Refinement; Task 3: Prototype Manufacturing; Task
4: Evaluation of Mixtures; Task 5: Full-scale Manufacturing; Task 6: Technology Transfer
and Construction Demonstration Plan; Task 7: Wood Ash Concrete and CLSM
Demonstration; Task 8: Reports. A summary of the work performed for these tasks is given
below. Details of the results of each task are described in later sections of this report.
Task 1: Selection of Materials and Mixtures
Materials used for this project included sand, coarse aggregate, ASTM Type I cement,
ASTM C 618 Type C fly ash, and wood ash. Wood ash from the Weyerhaeuser Company
in Rothschild,WI, was chosen. All components of the concrete and CLSM (wood ash,
cement, and aggregate) were tested for their chemical and physical properties using ASTM
or other applicable test methods. These properties were used in determining mixture
proportions of both CLSM and concrete developed in this project.
Task 2: Mixture Proportions Refinement
Based on previous work conducted and reported by UWM-CBU using different ash materials
[17], wood ash from the Weyerhaeuser Company, Rothschild, WI, was selected. Three
series of CLSM mixture proportions, and four series of concrete mixture proportions were
developed in the laboratory. Cement content in CLSM mixtures varied from 81 to 116 lb/yd3
and wood ash content varied between 995 and 2130 lb/yd3. For concrete mixtures, wood ash
content varied between 36 and 87 lb/yd3 and Class C fly ash content between 50 and 165
-13-
lb/yd3. CLSM mixtures were tested for unit weight, temperature, air content, settlement,
bleed water, and compressive strength. Concrete mixtures were tested for fresh concrete
properties and compressive strength.
Task 3: Prototype Manufacturing
Based on the mixture proportions developed at UWM-CBU, prototype-scale manufacturing
was carried out at a ready-mixed concrete plant (Midway Concrete Co.) near Rothschild,
WI. Each batch of CLSM or concrete was between one and two cubic yards. Three CLSM
and four concrete mixtures were manufactured for the prototype series. Wood ash was not
stored at the facilities of Midway Concrete Co. It was transported directly from the
Weyerhaeuser Company plant and either placed into a hopper used to batch the CLSM
materials for the mixtures, or manually weighed for concrete mixtures.
Task 4: Evaluation of Mixtures
CLSM prototype mixtures containing wood ash were tested for various properties. The
CLSM was monitored for its rheological and hardened CLSM characteristics of bleed water,
settlement, compressive strength, and permeability.
Concrete prototype mixtures containing wood ash were tested for rheological, physical, and
mechanical properties. Fresh concrete properties such as air content, workability, unit
weight, and temperature were measured. Test specimens were made for evaluating
compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength, drying shrinkage, and
freezing and thawing resistance.
-14-
Test results from the laboratory and prototype manufacturing were evaluated for physical
and chemical properties. Based on the evaluation, CLSM and concrete mixtures were
selected for full-scale manufacturing and construction demonstration.
Task 5: Full-Scale Manufacturing
Full-scale manufacturing was carried out at the Midway Concrete Co., a ready-mixed
concrete plant near Rothschild, WI. Similar to the prototype manufacturing, wood ash was
not stored at the facilities of Midway Concrete Co. Three series of CLSM mixture
proportions were made. For each series, between five and seven batches of CLSM were
manufactured. The volume of each batch of CLSM was approximately nine cubic yards.
The CLSM was monitored for its rheological and hardened CLSM characteristics such as
bleed water, settlement, compressive strength, and water permeability.
Four series of concrete mixtures were also made (one reference concrete mixture without
wood ash and three concrete mixtures containing wood ash). Each series consisted of three
to four batches of approximately nine cubic yards of concrete. Fresh concrete properties
such as air content, workability, unit weight, and temperature were measured. Test
specimens were made for evaluating compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural
strength, shrinkage, and freezing-thawing resistance.
-15-
Task 6: Technology Transfer and Construction Demonstration
A technology transfer seminar was conducted in Rothschild, WI, on September 27, 2001.
The title of the seminar was “Workshop and Construction Demonstration for Use of Wood
Ash in Concrete and Flowable Slurry.” A total of 26 people attended the seminar. The
Speakers for this seminar were Tarun R. Naik of UWM-CBU, Bruce W. Ramme of We
Energies, and Michael Miller of the Wisconsin DNR. They presented information on the use
of flowable slurry and concrete incorporating wood ash and fly ash, as well as on
environmental issues and regulations. The technology transfer seminar consisted of a half-
day of technical presentations followed by a demonstration of the use and placement of wood
ash in flowable slurry and in concrete. A section of a pavement in a log-handling yard
located in the Weyerhaeuser Rothschild mill was used for the demonstration. Additional
technology transfer activities have also been undertaken. Results of the project have been
presented at various venues as well as at other UWM-CBU sponsored workshops.
Additional details are presented in Section 6.3, “Technology Transfer and Field
Demonstration,” on presentations that were made in Wisconsin and elsewhere and also
technical publications on the use of wood ash to further the technology transfer activities.
Task 7: Wood Ash Concrete and CLSM Demonstration
A demonstration of three sections of CLSM used as a base course for a concrete structural
slab and a demonstration of four sections of air-entrained concrete were conducted. The base
course and structural slab were used for a section of the log yard at the facilities of the
Weyerhaeuser Company, Rothschild, WI. Mixtures from the full-scale CLSM and concrete
-16-
manufacturing were used for the demonstration. The area used for the construction of the
three series of CLSM pavement base was 800 to 1200 ft2. The thickness of the CLSM base
varied between 9 and 24 inches depending on the depth of the soil excavated. Each concrete
mixture was used to cast a section of the pavement area of about 800 to 1200 ft2. The
thickness of the concrete slab was specified at eight inches. A minimum concrete
compressive strength was specified as 4000 psi at the age of 28 days. CLSM and air-
entrained concrete containing wood ash was manufactured at the facilities of Midway
Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI. For the construction demonstration, wood ash was not
stored at the facilities of Midway Concrete Co. Ash was transported directly from the
Weyerhaeuser Company plant and either dumped into a hopper used to batch the CLSM
materials for the mixtures, or manually weighed for concrete mixtures.
-17-
5.0 EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURES
5.1 Materials
Materials used in this project consisted of cement, fine and coarse aggregates (concrete sand
and crushed stone), one source of wood ash, and one source of Class C fly ash. Materials
were characterized for their chemical and physical properties in accordance with the
applicable ASTM standards, or other test methods.
5.1.1 Wood ash
Wood ash from one source was used during this project. Properties of the wood ash were
determined in accordance with ASTM C 618 requirements for chemical and physical
properties. Chemical properties included oxides, basic chemical elements, and mineralogy.
Physical property tests included fineness (ASTM C 430), strength activity index with cement
(ASTM C 109), water requirement (ASTM C 109), autoclave expansion (ASTM C 151), and
specific gravity (ASTM C 188).
5.1.2 Fine aggregate
One source of concrete sand was used in this investigation for all CLSM mixtures and
concrete mixtures. Physical properties of the sand were determined in accordance with
ASTM C 33 requirements: unit weight (ASTM C 29), specific gravity and absorption
(ASTM C 128), fineness (ASTM C 136), material finer than #200 sieve (ASTM C 117), and
organic impurities (ASTM C 40).
-18-
5.1.3 Coarse aggregate
One source of coarse aggregate was used in this investigation for the concrete mixtures. The
maximum size of the coarse aggregate was 3/4". Physical properties of the coarse aggregate
were also determined in accordance with ASTM C 33 requirements: unit weight (ASTM C
29), specific gravity and absorption (ASTM C 128), fineness (ASTM C 136), and material
finer than #200 sieve (ASTM C 117).
5.1.4 Class C fly ash
One source of Class C fly ash meeting the specifications of ASTM C 618 was used for the
concrete mixtures. Fly ash was characterized for chemical properties (ASTM C 618)
including oxides, basic chemical elements and mineralogy; and physical properties: fineness
(ASTM C 430), strength activity index with cement (ASTM C 109), water requirement
(ASTM C 109), autoclave expansion (ASTM C 151), and specific gravity (ASTM C 188).
5.1.5 Cement
Type I portand cement was used. Its physical and chemical properties were determined in
accordance with applicable ASTM test methods. Cement was tested per ASTM C 150
requirements for air content (ASTM C 185), fineness (ASTM C 204), autoclave expansion
(ASTM C 151), compressive strength (ASTM C 109), time of setting (ASTM C 191), and
specific gravity (ASTM C 188).
-19-
5.2 Elemental Analysis
Wood ash, Class C fly ash, and cement were analyzed using Instrumental Neutron Activation
Analysis. The neutron activation analysis method exposes the sample to neurons, which
results in an activation of elements. This activation consists of radiation of various elements.
For the ash and cement used in this project, gamma-ray emissions were detected. Many
different elements may be detected simultaneously based on the gamma-ray energies and
half-lives.
5.3 Mineralogical Analysis
Two grams of each sample were ground in a power driven mortar and pestle unit for 55
minutes with ethyl alcohol. The alcohol was then evaporated for mineralogical analysis of
the sample. The diffraction mount used was a specially made back loading holder in which
the sample was poured against a matte surface disk and secured in place with a second
smaller disk mounted into the holder through an "O" ring seal. The matte surface disk was
then removed. The samples were weighed while loading so that each mount contained the
same amount of the sample powder. The sample was mounted on a diffractometer (a Nicolet
I2 automated unit). The parameters used for producing the scan (diffraction pattern) were
optimized for quantitative analysis of the minerals. The file, which was produced during the
scan, was graphically converted on a computer screen and plotted. The plot was searched for
crystalline phases present using an automated Hanawalt search, by looking through a list of
expected phases for the sample using first and second strongest lines and by using computer
overlays of the plot using standard phases from the JCPDS file to test each phase. The
-20-
overlay plot was generated from the unknown test sample and a standard sample. The
presence or absence of the phase was verified using the standard.
After the phases were tabulated, the diffraction file was converted to run on the "SQ"
program, which uses the phases assigned, calculates a match between the observed pattern
and a pattern generated from the assigned phases. Various parameters were adjusted to
obtain this match. The scale factors assigned to each phase were converted into weight
percents of each phase. A second pattern was run in which 50% ZnO was added. In the test
samples containing amorphous material, the percentage of ZnO measured by "SQ" was
higher than 50%. The magnitude of this change was used to calculate the amount of
amorphous material in the sample.
5.4 Manufacturing of CLSM and Concrete Mixtures and Testing of Specimens
5.4.1 Laboratory mixtures
5.4.1.1 CLSM laboratory mixtures
Three CLSM mixtures were proportioned and manufactured in the laboratory of the UWM
Center for By-Products Utilization. Laboratory mixture procedures were followed as
outlined in ACI 229R for mixing CLSM in a ready-mixed concrete truck mixer. First, 70 to
80 percent of the water required was added to the mixer. Subsequently, half of the fine
aggregate and/or ash was added to the mixer and mixed for one minute. Then, all of the
cement and half of the remaining ash was added to the mixer and again mixed for one
minute. Then, the rest of the ash was added. Finally, with continued mixing, the remaining
-21-
aggregate and remaining water was added. After all materials were added, the mixture was
mixed for a minimum of three more minutes.
CLSM mixtures had a wood ash content between 995 and 2130 lb/yd3, whereas cement
content varied between 81 and 116 lb/yd3. The first two CLSM mixtures consisted of wood
ash, ASTM Type I cement, and water. The third mixture contained wood ash, ASTM Type I
cement, sand, and water. The sand content in the third mixture was 1570 lb/yd3. CLSM
mixtures had a flow between 12 and 13.5 inches and a unit weight between 108 and 115
lb/ft3.
Fresh CLSM properties such as air content (ASTM D 6023), flow (ASTM D 6103), unit
weight (ASTM D 6023), temperature (ASTM C 1064), and setting (ASTM D 6024) were
measured. Air temperature was also measured and recorded. CLSM test specimens were
prepared from each mixture for compressive strength (ASTM D 4832) and water
permeability (ASTM D 5084). The compressive strength of CLSM was measured at the
ages of 1, 2 and 3 days. Compressive strength at the early ages were evaluated for CLSM
since Weyerhaeuser Co. had specified high early strength of the CLSM to expedite the
construction of the concrete pavement, and not concern for long-term excavatability. The
amount of bleedwater and level of the solids (settlement) of CLSM mixtures was measured
in a 6x12-inch cylinder. All test specimens were cast in accordance with ASTM D 4832.
-22-
5.4.1.2 Concrete laboratory mixtures
Air-entrained concrete mixtures were batched in the laboratory of the UWM Center for By-
products Utilization. Four series of mixtures were proportioned. All laboratory concrete
mixtures were mixed in a rotating drum concrete mixer in accordance with ASTM C 192.
Coarse aggregate was added first to the mixer and then mixed for a few revolutions. Fine
aggregate and cement were then added to the mixer. These ingredients were mixed dry for
two minutes. Thereafter, water was added and all ingredients in the mixer were mixed for
three minutes, followed by a 3-minute rest and then mixed for an additional 2-minute. The
air-entraining admixture (AEA) was introduced into the mixture with the water.
The first mixture (Control) was proportioned without wood ash, and the remaining three
mixtures contained wood ash. All four concrete mixtures contained Class C fly ash. Wood
ash and Class C fly ash were used as a partial replacement of cement in the concrete
mixtures. Concrete laboratory mixtures contained 0, 6, 9, and 13 % wood ash by weight of
cementitious materials. The slump of all concrete mixtures was maintained between 3 and 4-
1/2 inches. The fresh concrete density varied between 143 and 146 lb/ft3.
Fresh concrete properties including slump (ASTM C 143), air content (ASTM C 138), unit
weight (ASTM C 138), and concrete temperature (ASTM C 1064) were measured for each
mixture. Ambient air temperature was also measured and recorded. For each concrete
mixture, concrete test specimens were cast in accordance with ASTM C 192. Specimens
were cast for compressive strength (ASTM C 39), and were tested at 3, 14, and 28 days.
-23-
Specimens were cured for one day in their molds at 75 ± 5oF, then demolded and placed in a
standard moist-curing room (100% R.H. and 73 ± 3o F) until the time of test.
5.4.2 Prototype manufacturing
Based on the laboratory mixtures (CLSM and concrete) results, CLSM and concrete
mixtures were refined and prototype manufacturing was conducted at a ready-mixed concrete
plant (Midway Concrete Co.) near Rothschild. Three CLSM and four concrete mixtures
were manufactured. Each batch of CLSM and concrete was between one and two cubic
yards. Wood ash was not stored at the facilities of Midway Concrete Co. Wood ash was
transported directly from the Weyerhaeuser Company plant for manufacturing CLSM and
concrete. Wood ash remaining from prototype manufacturing was returned to the
Weyerhaeuser Company.
5.4.2.1 CLSM prototype mixtures
All ingredients were batched and mixed at the Midway Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI.
All CLSM mixtures were manufactured in accordance with the recommendations of ACI
229R. At the ready-mixed plant, cement, fine aggregate, and water were automatically
batched and added into a conventional ready-mixed concrete truck. Ash was weighed
separately via batching equipment for each load, added to the ready-mixed concrete truck,
and mixed. After all materials were introduced, materials were mixed in the truck with the
drum rotating at high speed. The resulting mixture was then discharged into a pan where
fresh CLSM tests were performed and test specimens were cast.
-24-
Three prototype CLSM mixtures were manufactured. Mixtures had a wood ash content
between 797 to 573 lb/yd3, whereas cement content varied between 87 to 134 lb/yd
3. Two
CLSM mixtures consisted of wood ash, ASTM Type I cement, and water. The third mixture
contained wood ash, ASTM Type I cement, sand, and water. The sand content in the third
mixture was 1495 lb/yd3. All CLSM mixtures had a flow between 12 and 13-1/2 inches, and
a unit weight between 101 and 114 lb/ft3.
Fresh CLSM properties such as air content (ASTM D 6023), flow (ASTM D 6103), unit
weight (ASTM D 6023), temperature (ASTM C 1064), and setting (ASTM D 6024) were
measured. Air temperature was also measured and recorded. CLSM test specimens were
prepared from each mixture for compressive strength (ASTM D 4832). Compressive
strength of CLSM was measured at the ages of 7, 14, 28, 91, and 182 days. The amount of
bleedwater and level of the solids (settlement) of CLSM mixtures was measured in a 6x12-
inch cylinder. All test specimens were cast in accordance with ASTM D 4832.
5.4.2.2 Concrete prototype mixtures
Based the results of the lab manufacturing, four concrete mixtures were manufactured at the
Midway Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI. The first mixture (Control) was proportioned
without wood ash, and the remaining three mixtures contained wood ash. All four concrete
mixtures also contained Class C fly ash. Wood ash and Class C fly ash were used as a partial
replacement of cement in the concrete mixtures. The wood ash content in the mixtures was
approximately 0, 6, 9 and 13%, respectively, as expressed as a percentage of total
-25-
cementitious materials. Class C fly ash content in the mixtures was 52, 98, 112, and 152
lb/yd3, respectively.
Fresh concrete properties including slump (ASTM C 143), air content (ASTM C 138), unit
weight (ASTM C 138), and concrete temperature (ASTM C 1064) were measured for each
mixture. The slump of all concrete mixtures was maintained between 3 and 5-1/2 inches.
The fresh concrete density varied between 142.2 and 145.1 lb/ft3. Ambient air temperature
was also measured and recorded. For each concrete mixture, concrete test specimens were
cast, in accordance with ASTM C 192, for compressive strength (ASTM C 39), splitting
tensile strength (ASTM C 496), flexural strength (ASTM C 78), resistance to freezing and
thawing (ASTM C 666, Procedure A), and drying shrinkage (ASTM C 157) measurements.
Compressive strength and splitting tensile strength were measured at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days.
Flexural strength was measured at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 120 days. Specimens were cured for one
day in their molds at the plant site at a temperature of 75 ± 5o F, brought to the UWM-CBU
laboratory, demolded, and placed in a standard moist-curing room (100% R.H. and 73 ± 3o
F) until they were tested. Test specimens for length change were cured for one day in their
molds, then removed from the molds and placed in lime-saturated water until the age of 28
days. Specimens were then moved to a controlled humidity room maintained at 50% R.H.
and 73 ± 3o F.
5.4.3 Full-scale manufacturing
Full-scale manufacturing of CLSM and concrete mixtures was carried out at the ready-mixed
concrete plant (Midway Concrete Co.) near Rothschild, WI. Wood ash was not stored at the
-26-
facilities of the Midway Concrete Co. Wood ash was transported directly from the
Weyerhaeuser Company plant for manufacturing of concrete and CLSM mixtures.
Remaining wood ash from full-scale manufacturing was returned to the Weyerhaeuser
Company.
Three series of CLSM mixture proportions were made. For each series, between five and
seven batches of CLSM were manufactured. The volume of each batch of CLSM was
approximately nine cubic yards. Four series of concrete mixtures were made. Each series of
concrete mixtures consisted of three to four batches of approximately nine cubic yards of
ready-mixed concrete.
A construction demonstration of a section of a structural pavement using air-entrained
concrete and a demonstration of CLSM used for the section of pavement base was
conducted. The structural pavement and base course was used for a section of the log-yard
at the facilities of the Weyerhaeuser Company, Rothschild, WI. Mixtures from full-scale
CLSM and concrete manufacturing were used for the demonstration. The constructed area
for area each of the three series of CLSM pavement base mixtures was about 800 to 1200 ft2.
The thickness of the CLSM base varied between 9 and 24 inches depending on the depth of
the soil excavated. Each concrete mixture was used to cast a section of the pavement area of
about 800 to 1200 ft2. Thickness of the concrete slab was specified at eight inches.
Minimum concrete compressive strength was specified to be 4000 psi at the age of 28 days.
Placement of the CLSM and concrete for the full-scale mixtures is shown in Figs. 9 to 12.
-27-
5.4.3.1 CLSM full-scale mixtures
Full-scale manufacturing of CLSM mixture was also conducted at the Midway Concrete Co.,
near Rothschild, WI. All ingredients were batched and mixed at the facilities of the ready-
mixed plant. All CLSM was manufactured in accordance with the recommendations of ACI
229R. Cement, fine aggregate, Class C fly ash, wood ash, and water were automatically
batched and added into a conventional ready-mixed concrete truck at the ready-mixed plant.
The wood ash was introduced into one of the bins typically used for aggregate, conveyed to
scales for weighing and then discharged into the ready-mixed concrete truck. Once all the
materials were introduced, the material was mixed in the truck with the drum rotating at high
speed for approximately 70 revolutions. The resulting mixture was then discharged into a
pan where fresh CLSM tests were performed and test specimens were cast.
For each series, five to seven batches of CLSM were made. The first series of mixtures
contained wood ash between 572 and 580 lb/yd3, cement between 137 and 139 lb/yd
3, and
sand between 2130 and 2145 lb/yd3. The second series of mixtures contained 95 and 100
lb/yd3 of wood ash, cement between 161 and 165 lb/yd
3, Class C fly ash between 480 and
496 lb/yd3, and sand between 2130 and 2145 lb/yd
3. The third series of mixtures contained
843 and 858 lb/yd3 of wood ash, cement between 101 and 104 lb/yd
3, and sand between 1535
and 1580 lb/yd3. The unit weight of the first series of mixtures varied between 123.2 and
125.2 lb/ft3, between 137.2 and 139.2 lb/ft
3 for the second series of mixtures, and between
115.6 and 119.0 lb/ft3 for the third series of CLSM mixtures.
-28-
Fresh CLSM properties such as air content (ASTM D 6023), flow (ASTM D 6103), unit
weight (ASTM D 6023), temperature (ASTM 1064), and setting (ASTM D 6024) were
measured. Air temperature was also measured and recorded. CLSM test specimens were
prepared from each mixture, to test for compressive strength (ASTM D 4832) and water
permeability (ASTM D 5084). The compressive strength of CLSM was measured at the
ages of 3, 7, 28, 91, 182, and 365 days. Permeability was tested at the ages of 63, 90 and 227
days. The amount of bleed water and level of the solids (settlement) of CLSM mixtures was
measured in a 6x12-inch cylinder. All test specimens were cast in accordance with ASTM D
4832.
5.4.3.2 Concrete full-scale mixtures
Full-scale concrete manufacturing was carried out at the Midway Concrete Co., near
Rothschild, WI. Four series of air-entrained concrete mixtures were proportioned. For each
series three to four batches of concrete were made. The first series of mixtures (Control) was
proportioned without wood ash, and the remaining three mixtures contained wood ash. All
the concrete mixtures contained Class C fly ash. Wood ash and Class C fly ash were used as
a partial replacement of cement in the concrete mixtures. The wood ash content in the
mixtures was approximately 0, 6, 9, and 12% (expressed as a percentage of total
cementitious materials). Class C fly ash content in the mixtures was between 49 and 52, 99
and 102, 129 and 138, and 130 and 135 lb/yd3. The slump for all concrete mixtures was
maintained between 4 and 6 inches. The fresh concrete density varied between 142.1 and
144.9 lb/ft3.
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Fresh concrete properties including slump (ASTM C 143), air content (ASTM C 138), unit
weight (ASTM C 138), and concrete temperature (ASTM C 1064) were measured for each
mixture. The ambient air temperature was also measured and recorded. For each concrete
mixture, concrete test specimens were cast in accordance with ASTM C 192, for
compressive strength (ASTM C 39), splitting tensile strength (ASTM C 496), flexural
strength (ASTM C 78), freezing and thawing resistance (ASTM C 666, Procedure A), and
drying shrinkage (ASTM C 157) measurements. Compressive strength and splitting tensile
strength were measured at 3, 7, 28, 91, 182, and 365 days. Flexural strength was measured
at 7, 28, 91, and 365 days. Specimens were cured for one day in their molds at the plant site
at 75 ± 5o
F, brought to the UWM-CBU laboratory, demolded, and placed in a standard
moist-curing room (100% R.H. and 73 ± 3o F) until the time of their test. Test specimens for
length change were cured for one day in their molds, then removed from the molds and
placed in lime-saturated water until the age of 28 days. Specimens were then moved to a
controlled humidity room maintained at 50% R.H. and 73 ± 3o F.
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6.0 TEST RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The test results and discussions are presented in two parts. The first part, Section 6.1,
presents the results of material testing in the laboratory, design of laboratory mixture (both
CLSM and concrete) proportions, and testing. Based on the laboratory results, mixture
proportions for CLSM and concrete were refined and mixtures were manufactured on a
prototype-scale and tested. The second part, Section 6.2, details the full-scale mixture (both
CLSM and concrete) proportioning, and test results of various properties of CLSM and
concrete.
6.1 Laboratory and Prototype Manufacturing (Selection and Refinement of Mixtures
and Testing)
6.1.1 Materials
The fine aggregate used was natural sand with a 1/4-inch nominal maximum size and the
coarse aggregate was crushed dolomite aggregate with a maximum size of 3/4-inch for
laboratory mixtures. The physical properties and gradation of fine aggregate and coarse
aggregate are given in Table 1 and Table 2, respectively. Both aggregates satisfied ASTM
C 33 requirements. Type I portland cement conforming to ASTM C 150 requirements was
used in this study. The physical and chemical properties for the portland cement used are
shown in Table 3 and Table 4, respectively. The cement met ASTM C 150 specifications for
Type I cement. One source of wood ash was used. The physical and chemical properties of
the wood ash were determined in accordance with ASTM C 311 (Table 5 and 6). The wood
ash used in this project did not conform to all the requirements of ASTM C 618 for coal ash
(Class C and F) or volcanic ash (Type N). ASTM standard specifications do not exist for
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wood ash. One source of Class C fly ash (P-4) was used. Its physical and chemical
properties are given in Tables 7 and 8, respectively. The Class C fly ash used satisfied
ASTM C 618 requirements for Class C fly ash.
6.1.2 Elemental analysis
The results for the elemental analysis of the cement and wood ash used in this project are
given in Table 9. As expected, the elemental composition of the cement and wood ash
differed considerably. Primary elements in the cement were Aluminum, Calcium, Iron, and
Potassium. The predominate elements contained in the wood ash (>5000 ppm) were
Aluminum, Cadmium, Calcium, Iron, Magnesium, Manganese, Potassium, Sodium, and
Titanium. The wood ash had much higher amounts of Magnesium, Manganese, Potassium,
Aluminum, and Sodium than the cement. The total elemental composition of these
materials gives some indication of the potential for leaching.
6.1.3 Mineralogical analysis
Major mineral species (crystalline phases) that were found in the cement and Class C fly ash,
and wood ash are shown in Table 10 and 11, respectively. The predominate crystalline
phase present in the wood ash sample was quartz (SiO2), Table 11. Additional trace
amounts of crystalline phases detected in wood ash included gypsum (CaSO4·H2O),
magnetite (Fe3O4), microcline (KAlSi3O8), mullite (Al2O3·SiO2), periclase (MgO), and
plagioclase (NaCa). The mineralogical analysis also indicated large amounts of amorphous
material present in the wood ash sample (46.9%). The calcite, hematite, magnetite,
microcline, mullite, plagioclase, and quartz present in the wood ash are generally not reactive
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when used in concrete. The cement samples had predominant phases of tricalcium
aluminate, dicalcium silicate, tetracalcium aluminoferrite, and tricalcium silicate (Table 10).
The fly ash samples had predominant phases of anhydrite, lime, dicalcium silicate, periclase,
quartz, and tricalcium aluminate.
6.1.4 Wisconsin DNR Chapter NR 538 Standards
Chapter NR 538 Standards (“Beneficial Use of Industrial By-Products”) of the Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources (WI-DNR) were used for determining environmental
compliance and potential uses of the wood ash used for this project. ASTM D 3987 water
leach tests and EPA SW-846 elemental tests were performed on the sources of wood ash.
The WI-DNR NR 538 standards specify the allowable leachate and elemental concentrations
when using industrial by-products in various applications. Based upon these leachate and
elemental concentrations, NR 538 specifies a category to the material, one through five.
Category 1 material has the least restrictions placed upon its use, while Category 5 has the
most restrictions (Table 12). The WI-DNR NR 538 standards are applicable to the wood ash
sample evaluated as a part of this project. The wood ash was analyzed per the NR 538
leachate and elemental analysis guidelines established for “other” industrial by-products to
evaluate all parameters established by NR 538.
6.1.4.1 Leachate Characteristics of Wood Ash
The results of the leachate characterization per NR 538 for the wood ash are presented in
Table 13. The WI-DNR requirements for the leachate concentrations for Category 1 to 4 are
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shown in Table 14. The results of the leachate characterization, compared with the NR 538
standards, are presented in Table 15. The wood ash material met the leachate requirements
of NR 538 Category 1 with the exception of aluminum, antimony, arsenic, beryllium,
cadmium, chromium, lead, and mercury, which met Category 2 & 3 requirements. One
leachate parameter, thallium concentration, exceeded the limits specified for Category 2 & 3
applications, but did meet Category 4 requirements. However, the higher concentration was
not due to detected levels of thallium, but rather due to the detection limits of the leachate
analysis. The detection limit of the analysis, 0.0043 mg/l, slightly exceeded the maximum
concentration specified for Category 2 & 3, 0.004 mg/l. Since this was the only parameter
that did not meet Category 2 & 3, if additional use options are desired for the wood ash that
are part of the Category 2 options, a more accurate analysis of the thallium concentration
should be performed. Since the use options implemented for this project correspond to
Category 4 use options specified in NR 538, the re-analysis of the wood ash was not
performed as a part of this project.
6.1.4.2 Elemental Characteristics of Wood Ash
The results of the elemental characterization of the wood ash are given in Table 16. The WI-
DNR requirements for the elemental concentrations are shown in Table 17. The elemental
concentrations compared with the NR 538 standards, are presented in Table 18. Elemental
analysis results for the wood ash indicate that the wood ash meets NR 538 Category 1
requirements with the exception of arsenic, beryllium, and total PAHs, which meet Category
2 requirements. NR 538 does not specify a standard value for total PAHs for Category 1
materials; therefore, the detection of any measurable PAHs automatically places the material
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in Category 2. The concentration of elemental thallium in the sample was less than half of
the limit specified for a Category 1 use option. This also supports the conclusion reached
from the leachate analysis, that if a more accurate analysis was performed for thallium, the
material could be approved for Category 2 uses.
6.1.4.3 WI-DNR NR 538 Specified Use Options
When the results of the leachate and elemental analysis are combined, the wood ash used
meets NR 538 Category 4 requirements. NR 538 specifies the following beneficial use
applications for a Category 4 material:
raw material for manufacturing a product
waste stabilization/solidification
supplementary fuel source/energy recovery
land fill daily cover/internal structures
confined geotechnical fill
-commercial, industrial or institutional building subbase
-paved lot base, subbase & subgrade fill
-paved roadway base, subbase & subgrade fill
- utility trench backfill
-bridge abutment backfill
-tank, vault or tunnel abandonment
-slabjacking material
encapsulated transportation facility enbankment
However, only one parameter limited the beneficial use options for the wood ash to NR 538
Category 4 applications. The detection limit of thallium slightly exceeded the limit specified
for Category 2 and 3. Since the concentration of elemental thallium present in the sample
-35-
meets NR 538 Category 1 requirements, most likely, if a more detailed analysis were
performed for this element, the material most likely would meet Category 2 limits.
Beneficial use methods approved per NR 538 for materials meeting Category 2 requirements
includes all of the uses approved for a Category 4 material as well as the following additional
applications:
capped transportation facility embankment
unconfined geotechnical fill
unbonded surface course
bonded surface course
decorative stone
cold weather road abrasive
6.1.5 Laboratory manufacturing results
6.1.5.1 Laboratory CLSM mixture results
Mixture proportions and fresh properties
Mixture proportions and fresh properties of CLSM mixtures are given in Table 19. Three
CLSM mixtures were manufactured in the UWM-CBU laboratory (LS-1, LS-2, and LS-3).
Cement content was varied between 81 and 116 lb/yd3. Wood ash content in the CLSM
mixtures was varied between 2130 and 995 lb/yd3. The third CLSM mixture also contained
sand (1570 lb/yd3). The unit weight of the mixtures varied between 101 and 114 lb/ft
3. Flow
of CLSM mixtures was maintained between 12 and 13 ½ inches. Bleed water and settlement
results are given in Table 20 and 21, respectively.
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Compressive Strength
Compressive strength results are given in Table 22. Tests were conducted at the ages of 1, 2,
and 3 days. At the age of 3 days, CLSM mixtures attained compressive strengths of 30 to 45
psi.
6.1.5.2 Laboratory concrete mixture results
Mixture proportions and fresh properties
Mixture proportions and fresh concrete properties for the air-entrained concrete mixtures are
given in Table 23. Four air-entrained concrete mixtures (ML1-A, ML2-A, ML4-A, and
ML4-B) were manufactured in the UWM-CBU laboratory. Mixture ML1-A contained no
wood ash, 53 lb/yd3
of Class C fly ash, and 511 lb/yd3
of cement. Mixture ML2-A
contained 36 lb/yd3
of wood ash, 99 lb/yd3 of Class C fly ash, and 473 lb/yd
3 of cement.
Mixture ML4-A contained 61 lb/yd3 of wood ash, 165 lb/yd
3 of Class C fly ash, and 422
lb/yd3 of cement. Mixture ML4-B contained 88 lb/yd
3 of wood ash, 161 lb/yd
3 of Class C
fly ash, and 412 lb/yd3 of cement. The mixtures had slump of 3 to 4 ½ inches. Fresh
concrete density varied between 143 and 146 lb/yd3.
Compressive strength
Compressive strength was determined at the ages of 3, 14, and at 28 days. Results are given
in Table 24. Mixtures ML-1A, ML-2B, ML-4A, and ML-4B achieved strengths of 1180,
1365, 2025, and 3605 psi, respectively, at 28 days.
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6.1.6 Prototype manufacturing results
6.1.6.1 Prototype CLSM mixture results
Mixture proportions and fresh properties
Mixture proportions and fresh properties of CLSM mixtures manufactured on a prototype-
scale are given in Table 25. Three CLSM mixtures (SL-1, SL-2, and SL-3) were
manufactured at the Midway Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI. Cement content was varied
between 87 and 134 lb/yd3. Wood ash content was between 2035 and 967 lb/yd
3. The third
mixture (SL-3) also contained sand (1495 lb/yd3). The unit weight of the mixtures was
between 108 to 115 lb/ft3. Flow of CLSM mixtures varied from 11 ½ to 12 inches. Bleed
water and settlement results are given in Tables 26 and 27, respectively.
Compressive strength
Compressive strength data are given in Table 28. Tests were conducted at 7, 14, 28, 91 and
182 days. At the age of 28 days, Mixtures SL-1 and SL-2 attained compressive strengths of
100 and 190 psi, respectively, whereas Mixture SL-3 achieved strength of 90 psi.
Compressive strengths at later ages (91 and 182 days) show further increases, due to
continuing pozzolanic action.
6.1.6.2 Prototype concrete mixture results
Mixture proportions and fresh properties
Prototype mixture proportions and fresh concrete properties for the air-entrained concrete are
given in Table 29. Four series of mixtures (R-1, R-2, R-3, and R-4) were proportioned.
Mixture R-1 did not contain wood ash, but contained 52 lb/yd3
of Class C fly ash and 515
-38-
lb/yd3 of cement. Mixture R-2 contained 37 lb/yd
3 of wood ash, 98 lb/yd
3 of Class C fly ash,
and 476 lb/yd3 of cement. Mixture R-3 had 55 lb/yd
3 of wood ash, 112 lb/yd
3 of Class C fly
ash, 454 lb/yd3 of cement. Mixture R-4 contained 84 lb/yd
3 of wood ash, 152 lb/yd
3 of Class
C fly ash, and 409 lb/yd3 of cement. The mixtures had slump between 3 and 5 ½ inches. Air
content varied between 5.6 and 7.0 percent. Fresh concrete density varied between 142.2
and 145.1 lb/yd3.
Compressive strength
Compressive strength results of the prototype concrete mixtures are tabulated in Table 30.
Compressive strength was determined at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days. Mixture R-1 attained a
strength of 4115, 4595, 5050, and 5690 psi at the age of 7, 14, 28, and 91 days, respectively.
Compressive strengths of Mixture R-2 were 3485, 4000, 4255, and 4585 psi at the ages of 7,
14, 28, and 91 days, respectively. Mixture R-3 achieved compressive strengths of 4075,
5040, 5065 and 5555 psi at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days, respectively. Mixture R-4 achieved 3100,
3535, 4315, and 4585 psi of strength at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days, respectively.
Splitting tensile strength
Splitting tensile strength test results of the prototype concrete mixtures are given in Table 31.
Splitting tensile strength was determined at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days. Mixture R-1 attained
splitting tensile strengths of 450, 495, 570 and 565 psi at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days, respectively.
Mixture R- 2 achieved 355, 440, 460, and 510 psi of splitting tensile strength at 7, 14, 28,
and 91 days, respectively. Mixture R-3 attained strength of 520, 510, 530 and 615 psi at 7,
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14, 28, and 91 days. Mixture R-4 achieved a slitting tensile strength of 315, 440, 465, and
520 psi at 7, 14, 28, and 91 days, respectively.
Flexural Strength
Flexural strength test results of the prototype concrete mixtures are given in Table 32.
Flexural strength was determined at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 120 days, respectively. Mixture R-1
attained flexural strengths of 535, 560, 595, 600 and 520 psi at 3, 7, 28,91, and 120 days,
respectively. Mixture R- 2 achieved flexural strengths of 530, 520, 650, 475 and 565 psi at
3, 28, 28,91, and 120 days, respectively. Mixture R-3 attained flexural strengths of 510, 635,
660, 675 and 640 psi at 3, 7, 28,91, and 120 days, respectively. Mixture R-4 achieved
flexural strengths of 420, 495, 545, 535, and 560 psi at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 120 days,
respectively.
Compressive Strength from Portions of Beams Broken in Flexure
Compressive strength for the concrete mixture proportions was also determined by using
broken portions of beams that were tested in flexure. The test results are given in Table 33.
Compressive strength was determined at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 120 days. Mixture R-1 attained
compressive strengths of 1945, 2000, 3195, 3610 and 3580 psi at 3, 7, 28,91, and 120 days,
respectively. Mixture R- 2 achieved compressive strengths of 1650, 2270, 1970, 2840 and
2805 psi at 3, 28, 28,91, and 120 days, respectively. Mixture R-3 attained compressive
strengths of 2335, 2620, 3830, 4160 and 4355 psi at 3, 7, 28,91, and 120 days, respectively.
Mixture R-4 achieved compressive strengths of 1305, 1780, 2195, 2965, and 2835 psi of
strength at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 120 days, respectively.
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Resistance to Freezing and Thawing
Air-entrained concrete mixtures were tested for resistance to freezing and thawing cycling.
As part of this evaluation, pulse velocity, relative dynamic modulus, and length change was
also determined.
Pulse velocity of the concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 1. The pulse velocity of the concrete
mixtures was not significantly affected by freezing and thawing cycling.
Relative dynamic modulus of the concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 2. There is no
significant effect of freezing and thawing cycles (300 cycles) on the relative dynamic
modulus of any of the concrete mixtures. The relative dynamic modulus was 92.4%, for
Control Mixture (R-1), 92.4 % for Mixture R-2, 94.8% for Mixture R-3, and 95.3 % for
Mixture R-4.
Percent change in length of concrete mixtures subjected to freezing and thawing is shown in
Fig. 3. The length change of the air-entrained concrete mixtures did not vary significantly
from the readings at 30 cycles through 213 cycles of freezing and thawing.
Drying Shrinkage
Drying shrinkage of concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 4. Drying shrinkage of Control
Mixture R-1 (without wood ash) was approximately –0.02% at 7 days and –0.04% at 247
days of testing. For concrete Mixture R-2, the shrinkage ranged between approximately
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-0.04% at 7 days to -0.04% at 247 days. Shrinkage value for concrete Mixture R-3 was
approximately -0.02% at 7 days, and -0.04% at 247 days. Mixture R-4 had a change in
length between -0.0.02% at 7 days and -0.05% at 247 days.
6.2 Full-Scale Manufacturing/Production Results
6.2.1 Full-scale CLSM mixture results
Mixture proportions and fresh properties
Mixture proportions and rheological properties for the CLSM mixtures from full-scale
manufacturing are given in Tables 34 to 36. Three series of CLSM mixtures (S-1, S-2 and S-
3) were produced at the Midway Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI. Series S-1 consisted of
seven batches and there were five and seven batches for Series S-2 and S-3, respectively.
The volume of CLSM produced for each batch was approximately nine cubic yards.
For Series S-1, cement content varied between 137 and 139 lb/yd3. Flow for Series S-1
mixtures was between 3 ½ and 7 inches. The unit weight of the mixtures varied between
123.2 and 125.2 lb/ft3.
For Series S-2, cement content of the mixtures ranged from 160 to 165 lb/yd3. Flow of
Series S-2 mixtures was between 4.5 and 6.75 inches. The unit weight of the mixtures varied
between 137.2 and 139.2 lb/ft3.
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For Series S-3, cement content was varied between 101and 112 lb/yd3. Flow of Series S-3
mixtures was between 4.75 and 6.5 inches. The unit weight of the mixtures varied between
115.6 and 119.0 lb/ft3.
For Series S-1, S-2, and S-3 bleed water and settlement of CLSM mixtures are given in
Tables 37 and 38, respectively. Bleed water is given as the depth of water present at the top
of a 6x12-inch cylinder filled with CLSM. The measurements indicate the amount of bleed
water per foot of CLSM. Also, the bleed water gives an indication of the cohesiveness of the
CLSM mixture. Minimizing the amount of bleed water is desirable to minimize potential
leaching of elements. Bleed water measurements for the Series S-1 CLSM mixtures show
that bleed water measurement was up to a depth of 1/8-inch after one hour, but was 1/16 inch
after 22 hours. Bleed water measurements for the Series S-2 CLSM mixtures were 1/16 inch
after one hour and remained the same even after 22 hours. Bleed water measurements for
Series S-3 CLSM mixtures were 1/8 inch, after 1 hour as well as 22 hours.
Compressive Strength
The compressive strength for all three series (S-1, S-2, and S-3) mixtures is given in Tables
39 to 41, respectively. Compressive strength test results for S-1 mixtures at 3, 7, 28, 91, 182,
and 365 days, are given in Table 39. S-1 mixtures attained compressive strengths between
90 and 120 psi at 28 days, 205 psi at 91 days, 180 and 225 psi at 182 days, and 200 psi at 365
days.
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Compressive strength of S-2 mixtures at 3, 7, 28, 91, and 182 days is given in Table 40.
Series S-2 mixtures gained compressive strengths between 40 and 120 psi at 28 days, and
from 645 to 830 psi at 182 days. Compressive strength of the Series S-3 mixtures is shown
in Table 41. Compressive strength was between 70 and 110 psi at 28 days, 100 psi at 91
days, between 135 and 155 psi at 182 days, and 150 psi at 365 days.
Water Permeability
Test results of water permeability of Series S-2 and S-3 mixtures are given in Tables 42 and
43, respectively. Tests were conducted at 63, 90, and 227 days for Series S-2 and S-3. At
the age of 63 days, the permeability varied between 2.4 x 10-5
and 13.2 x 10-5
cm/sec for
series S-2 CLSM mixtures and between 2.6 x 10-5
and 3.7 x 10-5
cm/sec for series S-3 CLSM
mixtures at 65-day. Permeability decreased at 90 and 227 days for both series due to the
increase in strength and improved microstructure of the CLSM matrix. At 90 days,
permeability was between 1.1 x 10-5
and 4.1 x 10-5
cm/sec for Series S-2 CLSM mixtures,
and between 2.9 x 10-5
and 4.4 x 10-5
cm/sec for Series S-3 mixtures at 91 days. At 227
days, it was between 1.1 x 10-5
and 0.2 x 10-5
cm/sec for series S-2 CLSM mixtures, and 1.1
x 10-5
and 0.4 x 10-5
cm/sec for Series S-3 mixtures.
6.2.2 Full-scale concrete mixture results
Mixture proportions and fresh properties
Mixture proportions and rheological properties for the concrete mixtures from full-scale
manufacturing are given in Tables 44 to 47. Four series of mixtures (C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-
4) were proportioned. Mixture C-1 did not have wood ash. It contained Class C fly ash
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between 49 and 51 lb/yd3, and cement content was between 509 and 520 lb/yd
3. Mixture C-2
contained wood ash between 33 and 36 lb/yd3, Class C fly ash between 99 and 102 lb/yd
3,
and cement between 474 and 480 lb/yd3. Mixture C-3 had wood ash between 53 and 55
lb/yd3, Class C fly ash between 129 and 138 lb/yd
3, and cement between 439 and 460 lb/yd
3.
Mixture C-4 contained wood ash between 83 and 86 lb/yd3, Class C fly ash between 130 and
135 lb/yd3, and cement between 444 and 452 lb/yd
3.
The density of concrete Mixture C-1 was between 142.1 and 144.9 lb/ft3, between 143.0 and
144.2 lb/ft3
for Mixture C-2, between 137.4 and 144.8 lb/ft3 for Mixture C-3, and between
143.2 and 144.4 lb/ft3 for Mixture C-4.
Compressive Strength
The compressive strength data for the concrete mixtures (Series C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-4)
from full-scale manufacturing are presented in Tables 48 to 51. The compressive strength of
concrete mixtures without wood ash (Series C-1) is shown in Table 48. Series C-1 mixtures
achieved a compressive strength of 3225 to 3340 psi at the age of 3 days, 3875 to 4185 psi at
7 days, 4620 to 5410 psi at 28 days, 5085 to 6075 psi at 91 days, 5975 to 6270 psi at 182
days, and 6260 to 6495 psi at 365 days.
Series C-2 mixtures (Table 49) achieved a compressive strength of 3375 to 3550 psi at the
age of 3 days, 4065 to 4545 psi at 7 days, 4425 to 4980 psi at 28 days, 5430 to 6015 psi at 91
days, 5750 to 6270 psi at 182 days, and 6105 to 6410 psi at 365 days.
-45-
Series C-3 mixtures (Table 50) achieved compressive strengths of 2225 to 3680 psi at the
age of 3 days, 3025 to 4605 psi at 7 days, 3635 to 5355 psi at 28 days, 4440 to 6610 psi 91
days, 4665 to 6885 psi at 182 days, and 4825 to 7125 psi at 365 days.
Series C-4 mixtures (Table 51) achieved compressive strengths of 3075 to 3500 psi at the
age of 3 days, 3945 to 4835 psi at 7 days, 4320 to 5205 psi at 28 days, 5660 to 6195 psi at 91
days, 5720 to 6465 psi at 182 days, and 5770 to 6550 psi at 365 days.
Splitting Tensile Strength
The splitting tensile strength for the Series C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-4 concrete mixtures is
presented in Table 52. Series C-1 mixtures (without wood ash) achieved tensile strengths of
365 psi at the age of 3 days, 440 psi at 7 days, 555 psi at 28 days, 600 psi at 91 days, 615 psi
at 182 days, and 625 psi at 365 days. The tensile strength of Series C-2 mixtures was 360 psi
at the age of 3 days, 425 psi at 7 days, 515 psi at 28 days, 540 psi at 91 days, 570 psi at 182
days, and 615 psi at 365 days. Series C-3 mixtures achieved tensile strengths of 425 psi at
the age of 3 days, 435 psi at 7 days, 550 psi at 28 days, 650 psi at 91 days, 700 psi, and 745
psi at 365 days. Series C-4 mixtures achieved tensile strengths of 410 psi at the age of 3
days, 450 psi at 7 days, 575 psi at 28 days, 590 psi at the 91 days, 605 psi at 182 days, and
620 psi at 365 days.
Flexural Strength
Flexural strength for Series C-1, C-2, C-3, and C-4 full-scale concrete mixture is given in
Tables 53. Series C-1 mixtures (without wood ash) gained flexural strengths of 450 psi at
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the age of 7 days, 590 psi at 28 days, 600 psi at 91 days, and 635 psi at 365 days. Flexural
strengths of C-2 series mixtures were 560 psi at the age of 7days, 585 psi at 28 days, and
635psi at 91 days, and 620 psi at 365 days. C-3 series mixtures achieved flexural strengths
of 550 psi at the age of 7 days, 635 psi at 28 days, 730 psi at 91 days, and 775 psi at 365
days. Series C-4 mixtures gained flexural strengths of 460 psi at 7 days, 565 psi at 28 days,
630 psi at 91 days, 755 psi at 365 days.
Compressive Strength from Portions of Beams Broken in Flexure
The compressive strength of full-scale concrete mixtures was also determined by using
portions of beams broken in flexure. The test results are given in Tables 54. Series C-1
mixtures (without wood ash) achieved a compressive strength of 3105 psi at 28 days, 3435
psi at 91 days, and 3480 psi at 365 days. Series C-2 mixtures attained a compressive
strength of 3185 psi at the age of 7 days, 3960 psi at 28 days, 2890 psi at 91 days, and 4350
psi at 365 days. Series C-3 mixtures achieved compressive strengths of 2930 psi at the age
of 7 days, 3685 psi at 28 days, 3920 psi at 91 days, and 4200 psi at 365 days. Series C-4
mixtures obtained compressive strengths of 2415 psi at the age of 7 days, 3590 psi at 28
days, 4400 psi at 91 days, and 4925 psi at 365 days.
Resistance to Freezing and Thawing
Resistance to freezing and thawing of concrete mixtures manufactured for the full-scale
mixtures were evaluated by testing for changes in pulse velocity, relative dynamic modulus,
and change in length.
-47-
The pulse velocity of concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 5. There is no significant effect
from inclusion of wood ash on the pulse velocity of concrete mixtures. At 300 cycles, the
pulse velocity of concrete Mixtures C-1 was 17800 ft/sec, 17970 ft/see for Mixture C-2,
18225 ft/sec for Mixture C-3, and 17830 ft/sec for Mixture C-4.
The relative dynamic modulus of concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 6. There is no
significant effect of freezing and thawing cycles (300 cycles) on the relative dynamic
modulus of the concrete mixtures. The inclusion of wood ash in concrete mixtures did not
make a significant difference in relative dynamic modulus. For Control Mixture (C-1)
without wood ash, the relative dynamic modulus was 97.7%, 95.7 % for Mixture C-2, 97.8%
for Mixture C-3, and 95.7 % for Mixture C-4.
Percent change in length of concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 7. For Control Mixture (C-1),
percent change in length was 0% at 32 cycles, and -0.00556% at 360 cycles. The percent
change in length for Mixture C-2 was –0.003273% at 32 cycles and 0.01113% at 300 cycles,
0.002942% at 32 cycles and 0.00903% at 300 cycles for Mixture C-3, -0.000417% at 32
cycles and 0.01156% at 213 cycles for Mixture C-4.
Drying Shrinkage
Drying shrinkage of concrete mixtures is shown in Fig. 8. Drying shrinkage of the Control
Mixture C-1 (without wood ash) was - 0.009% at 7 days, and - 0.051% at 232 days. For
concrete Mixture C-2, the shrinkage ranged from 0.115% at 7 days to -0.027% at 232 days.
-48-
Shrinkage values for concrete Mixture C-3 were 0.014% at 7 days, and -0.013% at 232 days.
Mixture C-4 had shrinkage between -0.005% at 7 days and -0.044% at 232 days.
6.3 Technology Transfer and Field Demonstration
A technology transfer seminar was conducted in Rothschild, WI on September 27, 2001.
The title of the seminar was “Workshop and Construction Demonstration for Use of Wood
Ash in Concrete and Flowable Slurry.” A total of 26 people attended the seminar. An actual
construction demonstration of structural concrete slab and flowable slurry was carried out.
Concrete and slurry containing wood ash was manufactured at the facilities of Midway
Concrete Co., near Rothschild, WI. The seminar was organized into two parts. The first part
of the seminar consisted of a series of lectures presented on the use of wood ash in CLSM
and concrete, applications of CLSM in constructions, and environmental considerations
when using wood ash. A copy of the seminar announcement is given in Appendix 1. The
following speakers participated in this technology transfer seminar:
Prof. Tarun R. Naik, Director, UWM Center for By-Products Utilization, presented
“Physical, chemical, and mechanical properties of wood ash: use of wood ash in ready-
mixed concrete; Mixture proportions for non-air entrained and air entrained concrete, and
flowable slurry with wood ash; and Test results for concrete and flowable slurry with wood
ash.”
Bruce W. Ramme, Principal Engineer, We Energies, presented “Field Applications:
Flowable slurry containing industrial by-products in backfilling of excavations, trenches and
-49-
underground voids; Effects of slurry mixture proportions on setting characteristics and
placement, thermal, and electrical resistivity properties, field performance, economy, and
marketing”.
Michael L. Miller, Waste Management Specialist, West Central Region, WI-DNR, presented
“Regulatory perspective: use of wood ash in concrete and flowable slurry relative to NR 538
requirements”.
For the construction demonstration and full-scale manufacturing/production, concrete
Mixture C-4 (Table 47) and slurry Mixture S-3 (Table 36) was used, Figs. 9 to 12.
Although not directly supported by the funds of this project, additional presentations were
made in Wisconsin and elsewhere on the use of wood ash and the results of this project
furthering the technology transfer efforts. Presentations that included the results of this
project on the use of wood ash as a construction material were made at the following
conferences or meetings: High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete in Structures and Pavements
Seminar, ACI Maharastra Chapter, Mumbai, India, July, 2001; Residual Wood Ash
Conference – Residual-to-Revenue, Richmond, BC, Canada, November 2001; Weyerhaeuser
Co., Seattle, WA, November 2001; UWM-CBU Workshop on the Use of Fly Ash and other
Coal-Combustion Products in Concrete and Construction Materials, March 2002; meeting at
Stora Enso North America, Wisconsin Rapids, WI, March 2002; NCASI Central Lake States
Regional Meeting, Oshkosh, WI, May 2002; ACI Fall 2002 Convention, Phoenix, AZ,
October 2002; CANMET/ACI Lyon, France, and Barcelona, November 2002; Weyerhaeuser
-50-
Company Workshop on Alternative Management Methods for Weyerhaeuser Residuals,
Albany, OR, October 2003; ACI 2004 Spring Convention, Washington, D.C., March 2004,
and at the UWM-CBU Seminar on Recent Advances in Cementitious Materials, Milwaukee,
WI, March 19 – 20, 2004.
A presentation was also made by Tarun R. Naik on January 28, 2004 as a part of a meeting
on the Wisconsin Department of Transportation’s (Wis-DOT) I-39 Highway 51 Corridor
Project near Rothschild, WI. This meeting was conducted to present ideas on the potential
use of wood ash in the proposed WI-DOT project. Meeting participants included employees
of the WI-DNR, WI-DOT, and Weyerhaeuser Co. The results of this wood ash
implementation project were also distributed at the meeting.
Additional technical papers have been presented, published, or submitted for publication
based on the activities of this project.
A paper titled “Greener Concrete Using Recycled Materials” was published by the
ACI Concrete International, July 2002.
A paper titled “Durability of Concrete Incorporating Wood Fly Ash” was presented
and published at the Sixth CANMET/ACI International Conference on Durability of
Concrete, Thessaloniki, Greece, June 2003.
Another paper titled “Properties of Controlled Low-Strength Material made with
Wood Fly Ash” was presented and published at the ASTM Symposium on
Innovations in Controlled Low-Strength Material (Flowable Slurry), Denver, CO,
June 2003 (ASTM STP 1459, scheduled for publication in Fall 2004).
-51-
A paper has been published in the ACI Concrete International magazine titled “A
New Source of Pozzolanic Material,” December 2003.
A paper has also been preliminarily accepted for publication by the ASCE
Geotechnical and Geoenvironmental Engineering Division titled “Permeability of
Flowable Slurry Materials Containing Wood Ash.”
A paper has been accepted for publication by ACI Committee 555 for a ACI Special
Publication (SP) titled “Properties of Flowable Slurry Containing Wood Ash.”
As evidenced by the numerous presentations and publications listed above, the effort to
disseminate the information and experience obtained during this project will continue
beyond the ending date for this funded project.
6.4 Long-Term Evaluation and Condition Assessment
The structural concrete slab placed as a part of the full-scale manufacturing and technology
transfer seminar was evaluated after approximately two years. The overall condition of the
pavement (Fig. 13 to 14) was excellent. No cracking due to shrinkage or freezing and
thawing were present. There were some cracks observed in the pavement, as shown in Fig.
14. However, upon closer examination, the cracking that occurred was concluded to be due
to over-loading. This conclusion was also confirmed by the Weyerhaeuser engineer, who
indicated that there were some unanticipated material handling operations that frequently
occurred in the newly paved area of the log yard. For example, equipment such as a front-
end loader frequently cleared debris accumulated in the shovel by impacting the shovel in
pavement. This resulting impact load was not part of the original design loads when
determining the pavement thickness and reinforcing. Overall, Weyerhaeuser was extremely
-52-
pleased with the performance of the pavement, and intended to use wood ash in future
projects.
-53-
7.0. COST/BENEFIT ANALYSIS OF USING WOOD ASH IN FLOWABLE
SLURRY (CLSM) AND CONCRETE
Wisconsin industries (pulp and paper mills, saw mills, wood products industries such as
doors and windows, and other forest products industries) generate approximately one million
dry tons (or approx. 1.8 million cubic yards) of wood ash per year [1]. NCASI has estimated
that of the total wood ash produced in the U.S., only about 30% is being utilized [2].
Disposal of wood ash in landfills costs Wisconsin industry significant direct cost plus
unknown future liabilities due to possible environmental impact related to such materials in
landfills. The objective of this project was to establish initial manufacturing technology for
the use of wood ash generated by the forest products industry in flowable slurry (Controlled
Low Strength Materials, CLSM) and concrete.
For cost/benefit analysis of using wood ash in CLSM and concrete, an economic analysis
was conducted. Unit costs were assigned for the mixture components in order to establish a
cost per cubic yard for CLSM and concrete mixtures. The cost assumed for each component
was: cement: $ 75/ton; Class C fly ash: $45/ton; aggregates: $7/ton; mid-range water
reducing admixture (MRWRA) or air-entraining admixture (AEA): $7/gallon ($0.05476/oz);
and, disposal cost of wood ash at $35/ton (cost to transport wood ash to the ready-mixed
concrete manufacturer is accounted for in this cost since the cost to transport wood ash to a
disposal site or a ready-mixed concrete manufacturer would be similar). The cost per cubic
yard of the concrete and CLSM were then compared with Control Mixture without wood ash
to determine the net/overall benefit. NR 538 requirements specify certain storage conditions
for materials prior to its use in manufacture in a product. However, the requirements
specified in NR 538.16 do not apply to the storage of Category 2 or 3 materials when stored
-54-
for less than a two-year period. In most cases, a ready-mixed concrete facility has some
excess storage capacity available for wood ash. Similar to the use of wood ash for this
project, larger-scale projects can take delivery of the materials just prior to its use, on an as-
needed basis; therefore, saving the cost of developing a storage area specifically for wood
ash. The cost associated with storage of wood ash on site has not been accounted for in the
overall cost of the concrete.
7.1 Cost/Benefit Analysis for CLSM Containing Wood Ash
For cost/benefit analysis of CLSM containing wood ash, average mixture proportions from
the full-scale manufacturing were used. In full-scale manufacturing, there were three
mixtures containing wood ash. A CLSM mixture without wood ash was not produced.
Therefore, a Control Mixture proportion (without wood ash) was chosen per ACI 229R to
compare the cost/benefit analysis of CLSM mixture with wood ash. Mixture proportions
details are given in Table 55.
Based on the unit cost of CLSM components and disposal cost of wood ash, the cost/benefit
per cubic yard of CLSM containing wood ash is given in Table 56.
Mixtures S-1 (81% wood ash), S-2 (12.5% wood ash), and S-3 (89% wood ash) contained
576, 100, and 843 pounds, respectively, of wood ash per cubic yards of CLSM mixtures.
Wisconsin produces approximately 750,000 tons of usable wood ash, and assuming if 10%
of it is used in CLSM, then 75,000 tons of wood ash could be used in making CLSM.
Therefore, by using Mixtures S-1 (81% wood ash), S-2 (12.5% wood ash), and S-3 (89%
-55-
wood ash) over 260,000 cubic yards, 1,500,000 cubic yards, and 118,000 cubic yards of
CLSM, respectively, could be produced, from 75,000 tons of wood ash.
Based on the calculation presented in Table 56, the overall savings by using wood ash in
CLSM is shown in Table 57. It is evident from Table 57 that between 645,000 to 5,833,340
dollars could be saved each year in Wisconsin by using between 12.5 and 89% of wood ash
in the CLSM materials.
7.2 Cost/Benefit Analysis for Concrete Containing Wood Ash
For cost/benefit analysis of concrete containing wood ash, average mixture proportions from
the full-scale manufacturing were used. In full-scale manufacturing, there was one Control
Mixture (without wood ash) and three concrete mixtures with wood ash. Mixture
proportions details are given in Table 58. Based on the unit cost of concrete components and
disposal cost of wood ash, the cost/benefit per cubic yard of concrete containing wood ash is
shown in Table 59.
Approximately 5,000,000 cubic yards of concrete is produced in Wisconsin each year and
assuming, if only 5% of 5,000,000 cubic yards concrete would be produced with wood ash,
then the quantity of concrete produced with wood ash would be 250,000 cubic yards. Based
on the calculation presented in Table 59, the overall savings by using wood ash in concrete is
shown in Table 60. It is evident from Table 60 that 120,000 to 505,000 dollars could be
saved each year in Wisconsin by using only between 5 and 12% wood ash content of the
total cementitious materials in concrete.
-56-
8.0 CONCLUSIONS
The following general conclusions can be drawn based on the work performed for this
project:
(1) The wood ash used for this implementation project met NR 538 Category 4 requirements.
NR 538 specifies the following beneficial use applications for a Category 4 material:
raw material for manufacturing a product
waste stabilization/solidification
supplementary fuel source/energy recovery
land fill daily cover/internal structures
confined geotechnical fill
-commercial, industrial or institutional building subbase
-paved lot base, subbase & subgrade fill
-paved roadway base, subbase & subgrade fill
- utility trench backfill
-bridge abutment backfill
-tank, vault or tunnel abandonment
-slabjacking material
encapsulated transportation facility enbankment
However, only one parameter limited the beneficial use options for the wood ash to NR
538 Category 4 applications. The detection limit of thallium slightly exceeded the limit
specified for Category 2 & 3. The concentration of elemental thallium present in the
sample would lead to the conclusion that if a more detailed analysis were performed for
the leachate concentration of thallium, the material most likely would meet Category 2
limits. This would open additional markets for the wood ash source used for this
project.
-57-
(2) CLSM can be manufactured using wood ash as the primary component. CLSM from
each series produced compressive strengths between 40 and 120 psi at 28 days and
increased in strength at 182 days to between 150 and 830 psi. CLSM containing a
combination of Class C fly ash and wood ash developed the highest strength at later
ages.
(3) Inclusion of wood ash in CLSM may also help in reducing the permeability of CLSM at
later ages. This is possibly due to the enhancement of compressive strength at later ages,
which may be due to the pozzolanic reactions of the wood ash.
(4) The addition of wood ash did not affect the compressive strength of concrete. The
compressive strength of mixtures made with wood ash was very much comparable to
the mixture containing no wood ash. In fact, at later ages (91, 182, and 365 days) wood
ash seemed to have contributed to strength gain due to pozzolanic reaction. All
concrete mixtures from full-scale manufacturing achieved approximate strengths of
5000 psi at 28 days and over 6,000 psi at 365 days. Therefore, concrete made with
wood ash can be used for many structural applications. Splitting tensile strength and
flexural strength results also showed a similar pattern of increased strength with age.
(5) Inclusion of wood ash did not affect the freezing and thawing resistance of concrete
mixtures. All mixtures had excellent resistance to freezing and thawing.
(6) Based on results available, it can be concluded that structural concrete can be produced
with the addition of wood ash..
(7) A cost/benefit analysis of using wood ash in concrete and CLSM was carried out.
Calculations revealed that each year in Wisconsin, approximately 120,000 to 500,000
US dollars could be saved by using only 5 to 12% wood ash as a part of the total
-58-
cementitious materials in concrete, and approximately 650,000 to 5.8 million US dollars
by using wood ash content between approximately 12 and 90 % as a part of flowable
CLSM materials.
-59-
9.0 LIST OF REFERENCES
(1) National Council for Air and Stream Improvement, Inc. (NCASI), “Alternative
Management of Pulp and Paper Industry Solid Wastes,” Technical Bulletin No. 655,
NCASI, New York, NY, November 1993, 44 pages.
(2) Etiegni, L., “Wood Ash Recycling and Land Disposal,” Ph.D. Thesis, Department of
Forest Products, University of Idaho at Moscow, Idaho, USA, June 1990, 174 pages.
(3) Etiegni, L., and Campbell, A. G., “Physical and Chemical Characteristics of Wood
Ash," Bioresource Technology, Elsevier Science Publishers Ltd., England, UK, Vol.
37, No. 2, 1991, pp.173-178.
(4) Campbell, A. G., “Recycling and Disposing of Wood Ash,” TAPPI Journal, TAPPI
Press, Norcross, GA, Vol. 73, No. 9, September 1990, pp.141-143.
(5) Mishra, M. K., Ragland, K. W., and Baker, A. J., “Wood Ash Composition as a
Function of Furnace Temperature,” Biomass and Bioenergy, Pergamon Press Ltd.,
UK, Vol. 4, No. 2, 1993, pp. 103-116.
(6) Steenari, B. M., and Lindqvist, O., “Co-combustion of Wood with Coal, Oil, or Peat-
Fly Ash Characteristics,” Department of Environmental Inorganic Chemistry,
Chalmers University of Technology, Goteborg, Sweden, Report No. ISSN 0366-
8746 OCLC 2399559, Vol. No. 1372, 1998, pp. 1-10.
(7) Steenari, B. M., “Chemical Properties of BC Ashes,” Report No. ISBN 91-7197-618-
3, Department of Environmental Inorganic Chemistry, Chalmers University of
Technology, Goteborg, Sweden, April 1998, 72 pages.
-60-
(8) Naik, T. R., “Tests of Wood Ash as a Potential Source for Construction Materials,”
Report No. CBU-1999-09, UWM Center for By-Products Utilization, Department of
Civil Engineering and Mechanics, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Milwaukee,
August 1999, 61 pages.
(9) Meyers, N. L., and Kopecky, M. J., “Industrial Wood Ash as a Soil Amendment for
Crop Production,” TAPPI Journal, TAPPI Press, Norcross, GA, 1998, pp. 123-130.
(10) Nguyen, P., and Pascal, K. D., “Application of Wood Ash on Forestlands:
Ecosystem Responses and Limitations,” Proceeding of the 1997 Conference on
Eastern Hardwoods, Resources, Technologies, and Markets, Forest Product Society,
Madison, WI, April 21-23, 1997, pp. 203.
(11) Bramryd, T. and Frashman, B., “Silvicultural Use of Wood Ashes – Effects on the
Nutrient and Heavy Metal Balance in a Pine (Pinus Sylvestris, L.) Forest Soil,”
Water, Air and Soil Pollution Proceeding of the 1995 5th
International Conference
on Acidic Deposition: Science and Policy, Acid Reign ’95, Part 2, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Dordrecht Netherland, Vol. 85, No. 2, June 26-30, 1995, pp.
1039-1044.
(12) Naik, T. R., “Flowable Slurry incorporating Wood Fly Ash from the Weyerhaeuser
Company,” Report No. CBU-2000-01, Rep-367, UWM Center for By-Products
Utilization, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, January 2000, 37 pages.
(13) Mukherji, S. K., Dan, T. K., and Machhoya, B. B., “Characterization and Utilization
of Wood Ash in the Ceramic Industry,” International Ceramic Review, Verlag
Schmid GmbH, Freiburg, Germany, Vol. 44, No. 1, 1995, pp. 31-33.
-61-
(14) Naylor, L. M., and Schmidt, E. J., “Agricultural Use of Wood Ash a Fertilizer and
Liming Material,” TAPP Journal, TAPPI Press, Norcross, GA, October 1986, pp.
114-119.
(15) Proceedings of the Workshop and Field Demonstration for uses of Flowable Slurry
Containing Coal Ash, Used Foundry Sand and other Recyclable Products,
University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Center for By-Products Utilization,
Portwashington, WI, and August 1999.
(16) Proceedings of the Workshop on the Use of Fly Ash and Other Coal Combustion
Products in Concrete and Construction Materials, University of Wisconsin-
Milwaukee, Center for By-Products Utilization, Madison, WI, and February 2000.
(17) Naik, T. R and Kraus, R N., “Use of Wood Ash for Structural Concrete and
Flowable CLSM,” Report No. CBU-2000-31, UWM center for By-products
Utilization, University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee, Final Report Submitted to The
University of Wisconsin System, Solid Waste Management and Research Program,
October 2000, 121 pages.
-62-
Table 1 - Physical Properties of Fine and Coarse Aggregates for Laboratory Mixtures
Unit
Weight
(lb/ft3)
Bulk
Specific
Gravity
SSD
Bulk
Specific
Gravity
Apparent
Specific
Gravity
SSD
Absorption
(%)
Percent
Void
Fineness
Modulus
Material
Finer
than
#200 Sieve
(75 μm)
(%)
Clay
Lumps
and
Friable
Particles
(%)
Organic
Impurity
for Fine
Aggregate
ASTM
Test
Designation
C 29
C 127/C 128
C 29
C 136
C 117
C 142
C 40
Sand (Fine
Aggregate)
110.4
2.64
2.67
2.72
1.3
38.0
2.7
0.6
0.0
Passes
Stone
(Coarse
Aggregate)
97.6
2.66
2.67
2.70
0.7
41.2
6.7
0.0
0.0
Passes
-63-
Table 2 - Gradation of Fine and Coarse Aggregates for Laboratory Mixtures
Fine Aggregate*
Coarse Aggregate*
Sieve Size
%
Passing
ASTM C 33
% Passing
Sieve Size
% Passing
ASTM C 33
% Passing
3/8" (9.5-mm)
--
100
1" (25.4-mm)
99.2
100
#4 (4.75-mm)
100
95 to 100
3/4" (19-mm)
90.9
90 to 100
#8 (2.36 mm)
88.7
80 to 100
1/2" (12.7-mm)
55.6
-
#16 (1.18 mm)
73.5
50 to 85
3/8" (9.5-mm)
30.8
20 to 55
#30 (600 μm)
49.9
25 to 60
#4 (4.75-mm)
2.3
0 to 10
#50 (300 μm)
18.9
10 to 30
#8 (2.36-mm)
1.0
0 to 5
#100 (150 μm)
3.4
2 to 10
#16 (1.18-mm)
-
-
* Values reported for % passing are an average of three tests.
-64-
Table 3 - Physical Properties of Cement for Laboratory Mixtures
ASTM TEST
DESIGNATION
TEST
PARAMETER
RESULT
ASTM C 150
Requirements
Minimum
Maximum
C 109
Compressive Strength, psi
3-day
7-day
28-day
2565 psi
3860 psi
5625 psi
1800 psi
2800 psi
4000 psi
--
--
C 151
Autoclave Expansion, %
0.055
--
0.8
C 430
Fineness
(% Retained on
No. 325 Sieve)
4.0
--
--
C 204
Fineness
(Air Permeability, Specific
Surface, m2/kg)
340
280
--
C 191
Vicat Time of Initial Set
(min)
275
Initial
365 Final
45
375
C 185
Air Content of Mortar, %
11.0
--
12.0
C 188
Specific Gravity
3.15
--
--
-65-
Table 4 – Chemical Properties of Cement for Laboratory Mixtures
OXIDES, SO3, AND LOSS ON IGNITION ANALYSIS, (%)
Analysis Parameter
Cement
ASTM C 150
Requirements
(Maximum)
Silicon Dioxide, SiO2
21.9
--
Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3
4.9
--
Iron Oxide, Fe2O3
3.0
--
Calcium Oxide, CaO
64.1
--
Magnesium Oxide, MgO
2.4
6.0
Titanium Oxide, TiO2
0
--
Potassium Oxide, K2O
0.5
--
Sodium Oxide, Na2O
0.1
--
Tricalcium Aluminate, C3A
(as calculated from oxides)
7.9
--
Sulfite, SO3
1.4
3.5
Loss on Ignition, LOI
1.7
3.0
Moisture
0.9
--
Available Alkali, Na2O,
(ASTM C-311)
0.88
0.60*
* Required only where potentially reactive aggregate is used.
-66-
Table 5 - Physical Properties of Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures
TEST
PARAMETER
Wood
Ash ASTM C 618 Specification
CLASS C
CLASS F
CLASS N
Retained on No.325
sieve, (%)
90
34 max
34 max
34 max
Strength Activity
Index with Cement
(% of Control)
3-day
7-day
28-day
102.0*
83.3*
78.7*
75 min
75 min
75 min
75 min
75 min
75 min Water Requirement
(% of Control)
115*
105 max
105 max
115
Autoclave Expansion,
(%)
-0.63*
±0.8
±0.8
0.8 max
Unit Weight (lb/ft
3)
85.9
-
-
-
Specific Gravity
2.60
-
-
-
Variation from Mean,
(%)
Fineness
Specific Gravity
0.6*
1.9
5 max
5 max
5 max
5 max
5 max
5 max
*Material passing, No. 100 (150 um) sieve was used for these tests.
-67-
Table 6 – Chemical Properties of Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures
Analysis Parameter Wood Ash
ASTM C 618 Requirement Class C
Class F
Class N
Silicon Dioxide, SiO2
61.4
--
--
--
Aluminum Oxide, Al2O3
6.2
--
--
--
Iron Oxide, Fe2O3
2.6
--
--
--
SiO2 + Al2O3 + Fe2O3
70.2
50.0 min
70 min
70 min.
Calcium Oxide, CaO
12.3
--
--
--
Magnesium Oxide, MgO
2.9
--
--
--
Titanium Oxide, TiO2
0.57
--
--
--
Potassium Oxide, K2O
3.3
--
--
--
Sodium Oxide, Na2O
1.4
--
--
--
Sulfite, SO3
0.8
5.0 max
5.0 max
4.0 max.
Loss on Ignition, LOI (1000
0 C)*
8.4
6.0 max
6.0 max
10.0 max.
Moisture
8.9-12.1
3.0 max
3.0 max
3.0 max.
Available Alkali, Na2O,
(ASTM C-311)
0.8 1.5 max
1.5 max
1.5 max.
* Per ASTM C618: The use of Class F pozzolan containing up to 12% Loss on Ignition
may be approved by the user if either acceptable performance records or laboratory test
results are made available
-68-
Table 7 - Physical Properties of Class C Fly Ash for Laboratory Mixtures
TEST
PARAMETER
Class C
Fly Ash
ASTM C 618
SPECIFICATIONS
CLASS C
CLASS F
Retained on No.325 sieve, (%)
10
34 max
34 max
Strength Activity Index with Cement
(% of Control)
3-day
7-day
28-day
109.2
110.8
104.7
75 min
75 min
75 min
75 min Water Requirement (% of Control)
95
105 max
105 max
Autoclave Expansion, (%)
0.08
±0.8
±0.8
Unit Weight (lb/ft
3)
67.6
-
-
Specific Gravity
2.58
-
-
Variation from Mean, (%)
Fineness
Specific Gravity
0.3
1.9
5 max
5 max
5 max
5 max
-69-
Table 8 – Chemical Properties of Class C Fly Ash for Laboratory Mixtures
Analysis Parameter
Class C
Fly Ash
ASTM C-618 Requirements
Class C Class F Class N
Silicon Dioxide,
SiO2
38.5
--
--
--
Aluminum Oxide,
Al2O3
20.4
--
--
--
Iron Oxide, Fe2O3
6.1
--
--
--
SiO2 + Al2O3 +
Fe2O3
65.1
50.0 Min
70 Min
70 Min
Calcium Oxide,
CaO
23.3
--
--
-- Magnesium Oxide,
MgO
4.8
--
--
--
Titanium Oxide,
TiO2
1.4
--
--
--
Potassium Oxide,
K2O
0.66
--
--
--
Sodium Oxide,
Na2O
1.8
--
--
--
Sulfite, SO3
1.5
5.0 Max
5.0 Max
4.0 Max
Loss on Ignition,
LOI
1.2
6.0 Max
6.0 Max 10.0 Max
Moisture
0.2
3.0 Max
3.0 Max
3.0 Max
Available Alkali,
Na2O,
(ASTM C-311)
1.6
1.5 Max
1.5 Max
1.5 Max
-70-
Table 9 - Elemental Analysis of Cement and Wood Ash
for Laboratory Mixtures
Elemental (Bulk Chemical Analysis)
Element ASTM Type I
Cement
Wood
Ash
Aluminum (Al)
18104.0
27478.3
Antimony (Sb)
12.7
3.6
Arsenic (As)
95.2
148.3
Barium (Ba)
<94.9
291.5
Bromine (Br)
<0.4
2.7
Cadmium (Cd)
<1322.0
<1375.9
Calcium (Ca)
<116255.4
17043.1
Cerium (Ce)
16.1
43.3
Cesium (Cs)
<0.3
1.0
Chlorine (Cl)
<146.1
416.7
Chromium (Cr)
20.5
31.4
Cobalt (Co)
4.9
3.8
Copper (Cu)
<265.1
<241.6 Dysprosium (Dy)
<4.3
<7.5
Europium (Eu)
0.3
0.3
Gallium (Ga)
<357.4
<660.8
Gold (Au)
<0.0
<0.0
Hafnium (Hf)
1.0
2.7
Holmium (Ho)
<3.7
<6.5
-71-
Table 9 (Cont'd) - Elemental Analysis of Cement and
Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures
Elemental (Bulk Chemical Analysis)
Element ASTM Type I
Cement
Wood
Ash
Indium (In)
<0.4
<0.6
Iodine (I)
<10.9
<16.1
Iridium (Ir)
<0.0
<0.0
Iron (Fe)
19601.2
17519.9
Lanthanum (La)
14.8
29.4
Lutetium (Lu)
0.5
0.7
Magnesium (Mg)
4581.0
6216.0
Manganese (Mn)
4329.5
17605.6
Mercury (Hg)
1.1
0.4
Molybdenum (Mo)
<65.0
<65.3
Neodymium (Nd)
17.2
26.1
Nickel (Ni)
<1265.1
<1206.2
Palladium (Pd)
<616.0
<905.5
Potassium (K)
6148.2
44220
Praseodymium (Pr)
<13.6
<32.5
Rubidium (Rb)
<21.7
<100.4
Rhenium (Re)
<61.5
100.1
Ruthenium (Ru)
6.3
22.9
Samarium (Sm)
4.0
5.1
-72-
Table 9 (Cont'd) - Elemental Analysis of Cement and
Wood Ash for Laboratory Mixtures
Elemental (Bulk Chemical Analysis)
Element ASTM Type I
Cement
Wood
Ash
Scandium (Sc)
3.3
2.6
Selenium (Se)
<72.7
<75.7
Silver (Ag)
<7.2
<7.2
Sodium (Na)
637.2
6036.1
Strontium (Sr)
64.9
<285.9
Tantalum (Ta)
0.5
1.1
Tellurium (Te)
0.2
<0.3
Terbidium (Tb)
<0.2
<0.3
Thorium (Th)
2.3
3.7
Thulium (Tm)
<0.4
8.3
Tin (Sn)
<198.4
<194.6
Titanium (Ti)
1241.0
2971.2
Tungsten (W)
<2.0
11.6
Uranium (U)
9.0
6.2
Vanadium (V)
59.7
32.1
Ytterbium (Yb)
2.7
3.8
Zinc (Zn)
<10.2
<18.2
Zirconium (Zr)
60.7
<103
-73-
Table 10 - Mineralogy of Cement and Class C Fly Ash
for Laboratory Mixtures
Analysis Parameter
Cement
Fly Ash
Amorphous
8.8
70.8
Anhydrite, CaSO4
--
1.0
Dicalcium Silicate
(C2S) 2CaOSiO2
12.8
2.1
Lime, CaO
--
1.6
Periclase, MgO
--
2.9
Quartz, SiO2
--
10.0
Tricalcium Aluminate
(C3A) Ca3Al2O6
0.8
11.0
Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite
(C4AF) 4CaOAl2O3Fe2O3
13.2
--
Tricalcium Silicate
(C3S) 3CaOSiO2
63.9
--
Table 11 - Mineralogy of Wood Ash for
Laboratory Mixtures
Analysis Parameter
W-3
Amorphous
46.9
Calcite (CaCO3)
3.6
Quartz (SiO2) 34.5 Microcline (KAlSi3O8)
7.9
Mullite (Al2O3
•SiO2)
--
Albite (NaAlSi3O8)
5.7
Portlandite (Ca(OH)2
1.4
Syngenite (K2Ca(SO4)2
•H2O)
--
-74-
Table 12 - Beneficial Use Methods for By-Products Based Upon Characterization Category, per NR 538
Industrial By-Product Category
5 4 3 2 1
(1) Raw Material for Manufacturing a Product
X X X X X
(2) Waste Stabilization / Solidification
X X X X X
(3) Supplemental Fuel Source / Energy Recovery
X X X X X
(4) Landfill Daily Cover / Internal Structures
X X X X X
(5) Confined Geotechnical Fill
(a) commercial, industrial or institutional building subbase
(b) paved lot base, subbase & subgrade fill
(c) paved roadway base, subbase & subgrade fill
(d) utility trench backfill
(e) bridge abutment backfill
(f) tank, vault or tunnel abandonment
(g) slabjacking material
X X X X
(6) Encapsulated Transportation Facility Embankment
X X X X
(7) Capped Transportation Facility Embankment
X X X
(8) Unconfined Geotechnical Fill
X X X
(9) Unbonded Surface Course
X X
(10) Bonded Surface Course
X X
(11) Decorative Stone
X X
(12) Cold Weather Road Abrasive
X X
Other General beneficial use in accordance with sect.
NR 538.12 (3)
X
-75-
Table 13 - Leachate Analysis Data for Wood Ash
Parameter
NR 538 Leachate
Analysis
(mg/l)
Wood Ash
Aluminum (Al)
1.9
Antimony (Sb)
<0.0025
Arsenic (As)
<0.0081
Barium (Ba)
0.46
Beryllium (Be)
<0.00061
Cadmium (Cd)
<0.00053
Chromium, Tot.
0.019
Copper (Cu)
<0.00090
Total Cyanide
<0.0015
Fluoride (F)
0.23
Iron (Fe)
<0.019
Lead (Pb)
0.0018
Manganese (Mn)
<0.00032
Mercury (Hg)
<0.00030
Molybdenum (Mo)
0.023
Nickel (Ni)
<0.0012
Nitrite & Nitrate (NO2+NO3-N)
<0.047
Phenol
0.012
Selenium (Se)
<0.0048
Silver (Ag)
<0.0011
Sulfate
22
Thallium (Tl)
<0.0043
Zinc (Zn)
<0.0025
-76-
Table 14 - Leachate Standards per DNR NR 538
Parameter
NR 538
Leachate Standard
Material Category
1
2 & 3
4 Aluminum (Al)
1.5
15
--
Antimony (Sb)
0.0012
0.012
0.03*
Arsenic (As)
0.005
0.05
0.25*
Barium (Ba)
0.4
4
10*
Beryllium (Be)
0.0004
0.004
0.02*
Cadmium (Cd)
0.0005
0.005
0.025
Chloride (Cl)
125
1250*
2500*
Chromium, Tot. (Cr)
0.01
0.1
0.5
Copper (Cu)
0.13
1.30*
6.5*
Total Cyanide
0.04*
0.40*
1*
Fluoride (F)
0.8*
8.0*
20*
Iron (Fe)
0.15
1.5*
3*
Lead (Pb)
0.0015
0.015
0.075*
Manganese (Mn)
0.025
0.25
0.5*
Mercury (Hg)
0.0002
0.002
0.01*
Molybdenum (Mo)
0.05
--
--
Nickel (Ni)
0.02
0.20*
0.5*
Nitrite & Nitrate
(NO2+NO3-N)
2
20*
50*
Phenol
1.2*
12*
30*
Selenium (Se)
0.01
0.1
0.25
Silver (Ag)
0.01
0.1
0.25
Sulfate
125
1250
2500
Thallium (Tl)
0.0004
0.004
0.01*
Zinc (Zn)
2.5
25*
50*
--: Not Available
-77-
Table 15 - NR 538 Categories for Wood Ash per Leachate Analysis
Parameter
NR 538
Categories
Leachate Analysis
Wood Ash
Aluminum (Al)
2&3
Antimony (Sb) 2&3 Arsenic (As) 2&3 Barium (Ba)
2&3
Beryllium (Be)
2&3
Cadmium (Cd)
2&3
Chromium, Tot.
2&3
Copper (Cu)
1
Total Cyanide
1
Fluoride (F)
1
Iron (Fe)
1
Lead (Pb)
2&3
Manganese (Mn)
1
Mercury (Hg)
2&3
Molybdenum (Mo)
1
Nickel (Ni)
1
Nitrite & Nitrate (NO2+NO3-N)
1
Phenol
1
Selenium (Se)
1
Silver (Ag)
1
Sulfate
1
Thallium (Tl)
4*
Zinc (Zn)
1
*Dectection Limit of the Analysis
exceeded Category 2&3
-78-
Table 16 - NR 538 Elemental Analysis for Wood Ash
Parameter Elemental Analysis
Wood Ash Units Solids, total
92.3
%
Arsenic, ICP
6.0
mg/kg
Barium, (Ba)
490
mg/kg
Beryllium, ICP
0.37
mg/kg
Boron, (B)
49
mg/kg
Cadmium, (Cd)
1.1
mg/kg
Chromium, Hex. (Cr) <2.2
mg/kg
Lead. (Pb) 24
mg/kg
Mercury, (Hg) 0.0089
mg/kg
Molybdenum, (Mo) 1.8
mg/kg
Nickel (Ni) 9.6
mg/kg
Phenol 0.28
mg/kg
Selenium (Se) 1.1
mg/kg
Silver (Ag) 0.054
mg/kg
Strontium (Sr) 220
mg/kg
Thallium (Tl) 0.059
mg/kg
Vanadium (V) 17
mg/kg
Zinc (Zn) 130
mg/kg Acenaphthene
<4.8
ug/kg
Acenaphthylene
<6.4
ug/kg
Anthracene
<6.8
ug/kg
Benzo (a) anthracene
<5.4
ug/kg
Benzo (b) fluoranthene
Oranthene
<3.6
ug/kg
Benzo (k) fluoranthene
<6.7
ug/kg
Benzo (a) pyrene
<6.4
ug/kg
Benzo (ghi) perylene
<9.4
ug/kg
Chrysene
<4.2
ug/kg
Dibenzo (a,h) anthracene
<5.2
ug/kg
Fluoranthene
<4.7
ug/kg
Fluorene
<3.4
ug/kg
Indeno (1,2,3- cd) pyrene
<5.5
ug/kg
1-Methylnaphthalene
<2.7
ug/kg
2-Methylnaphthalene
<6.4
ug/kg
Naphthalene
<4.2
ug/kg
Phenanthrene Pyrene
<6.7
ug/kg
<3.7
ug/kg
NA: Not Available
-79-
Table 17 - Elemental Analysis per DNR NR 538
Parameter
NR 538 Standard Elemental Analysis (mg/kg)
Material Category
1
2
Aluminum (Al)
Antimony (Sb)
6.3
Arsenic (As)
0.042
21
Barium (Ba)
1100
Beryllium (Be)
0.014
7
Boron (B)
1400
Cadmium (Cd)
7.8
Chromium, Hex. (Cr)
14.5
Cobalt (Co)
Copper (Cu)
Lead (Pb)
50
Mercury (Hg)
4.7
Molybdenum (Mo)
78
Nickel (Ni)
310
Phenol
9400*
Selenium (Se)
78*
Silver (Ag)
9400*
Strontium (Sr)
9400*
Thallium (Tl)
1.3
Vanadium (V)
110
Zinc (Zn)
4700
Acenaphthene
900
Acenaphthylene
8.8
Anthracene
5000
Benz(a)anthracene
0.088
44
Benzo(a)pyrene
0.0088
4.4
Benzo(b)fluoranthene
0.088
44
Benzo(ghi)perylene
0.88
Benzo(k)fluoranthene
0.88
Chrysene
8.8
Dibenz(ah)anthracene
0.0088
4.4
Fluoranthene
600
Fluorene
600
Indeno(123-cd)pyrene
0.088
44
1-methyl naphthalene
8.8
2-methyl naphthalene
8.8
Naphthalene
600
Phenanthrene
0.88
Pyrene
500
Total PAHs
100
NA: Not Available
-80-
Table 18 - NR 538 Categories for Wood Ash per Elemental Analysis
Parameter NR 538 Category Elemental Analysis
Wood Ash Solids, total
--
Arsenic, ICP
2
Barium, (Ba)
1
Beryllium, ICP
2
Boron, (B)
1
Cadmium, (Cd)
1
Chromium, Hex. (Cr) 1
Lead. (Pb) 1
Mercury, (Hg) 1
Molybdenum, (Mo) 1
Nickel (Ni) 1
Phenol 1
Selenium (Se) 1
Silver (Ag) 1
Strontium (Sr) 1
Thallium (Tl) 1
Vanadium (V) 1
Zinc (Zn) 1 Acenaphthene 1 Acenaphthylene
1
Anthracene
1
Benzo (a) anthracene
1
Benzo (b) fluoranthene
Oranthene
1
Benzo (k) fluoranthene
1
Benzo (a) pyrene
1
Benzo (ghi) perylene
1
Chrysene
1
Dibenzo (a,h) anthracene
1
Fluoranthene
1
Fluorene
1
Indeno (1,2,3- cd) pyrene
1
1-Methylnaphthalene
1
2-Methylnaphthalene
1
Naphthalene
1
Phenanthrene 1 Pyrene
1
Total PAH
2*
*No Category 1 Parameter
-81-
Table 19 – Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties of
CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing
Mixture Number LS-1 LS-2 LS-3
Wood Fly Ash (lb/yd3) 2130 1945 995
Water, W (lb/yd3) 820 812 667
Cement, (lb/yd3) 81 116 93
Unit Weight, (lb/ft3) 101 100 114
Air Temperature, (°F) 77 76 75
Fresh CLSM Temperature,
(°F) 75 75 73
Flow, (in.) 12-1/2 13-1/2 12
Air Content, (%) 2.4 2.9 1.6
SSD Fine Aggregate (lb/yd3) - - 1570
-82-
Table 20 - Bleed water of CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing
Lab
Mixture
Number
Bleed water (in.)*
1 hour
4 hour
24-hour
2-day
3 days
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Ave. Act.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
LS-1
1
1
3/4
¾
1/2
1/2
1/8
1/8
1/1
6
1/16
1 3/4 1/2
1/8 1/1
6
1 3/4 1/2
1/8
1/1
6
LS-2
1
1
1/2
½
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
1/2 0
0 0
1
1/2 0
0 0
LS-3
3/4
3/4
1/2
½
1/4
1/4
1/8
1/8
1/1
6
1/16
3/4
1/2 1/4
1/8 1/1
6
3/4
1/2 1/4
1/8
1/1
6
*Bleedwater depth is the net water after bleeding minus evaporation.
-83-
Table 21 – Settlement of CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory Manufacturing
Lab
Mixture
Number
Settlement (in.)
1 hour
4 hour
24-hour
2-day
3 days
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Ave. Act.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
LS-1
1
1
1
1
1
1/2
1
1
3/4
3/4
1 1 1 1 3/4
1 1 1 1 3/4
LS-2
1-1/8
1-1/8
1-1/8
1-1/8
1
1
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
1-1/8 1-1/8 1 3/4 3/4
1-1/8 1-1/8 1 3/4 3/4
LS-3
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4
3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4
3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4 3/4
-84-
Table 22 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Laboratory
Manufacturing
Lab
Mixture
Number
Compressive Strength (psi)
1-day
2-day
3-day
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave
LS-1
15
15
25
25
30 30
15
25
30
LS-2
20
20
35
35
45 45
20
35 45
LS-3
15
15
25
25
45 45
15
25 45
-85-
Table 23 – Mixture Proportions and Fresh Concrete Properties for Air-Entrained
Concrete from Laboratory Manufacturing
Lab Mixture Number ML1-A ML2-A ML4-A ML4-B
Wood Fly Ash, (%)*** 0 6 9 13
Class C Fly Ash, (%)*** 9 16 25 24
Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 511 473 422 412
Class C Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 53 99 165 161
Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 0 36 61 88
SSD Fine Aggregate, (lb/yd3) 1335 1390 1350 1313
SSD Coarse Aggregate, (lb/yd
3) 1695 1695 1700 1655
Water, W, (lb/yd3) 230 230 225 225
W/C* 0.46 0.50 0.54 0.56
[W/(C+A)]** 0.42 0.41 0.39 0.40
Mid-Range Water Reducing
Admixture, MRWRA, (oz./yd3)
208 159 126 123
Air Entraining Admixture, AEA,
(oz./yd3)
2.5 3.3 6.6 5.0
Slump, (in) 3-3/4 3-3/4 3 4-1/2
Air Content (%) 5.7 5.4 6.9 7.2
Air Temperature, (0F) 72 73 72 74
Concrete Temperature, (0F) 75 75 74 46
Fresh Concrete
Density, (lb/ft3)
146.0 146.0 147.0 142.9
* In the calculation of water/cement ratio, half of the amount of MRWRA has been
considered as water.
** In the calculation of water/cementitious material ratio, half of the amount of
MRWRA has been considered as water.
*** Fly ash has been expressed as percentage of total cement, wood ash, and coal ash
content.
-86-
Table 24 - Compressive Strength of Air-Entrained Concrete Mixtures from
Laboratory Manufacturing
Lab
Mixture
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class
C Fly
Ash
(%)
Compressive Strength (psi)
3-day
14-day
28-day
Actual
Ave.
Actual
Ave.
Actual
Ave.
ML-1A 0 9
320
310
385
485
1365
1180 280 510 1130
330 560 1050
ML-2A 6 16
225
230
390
395
1350
1365 235 415 1365
225 380 1375
ML-4A 9 25
95
90
125
135
1830
2025 90 130 1845
50 150 2402
ML-4B 13 24
120
145
215
220
2680
3605 165 240 3955
155 210 3255
-87-
Table 25 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for
CLSM Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing
Prototype Mixture
Designation SL-1 SL-2 SL-3
Cement, (lb/yd3) 87 134 87
Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 2035 2095 967
Water, W, (lb/yd3) 797 735 573
SSD Fine Aggregate,
(lb/yd3)
- - 1495
Flow, (in.) 11-1/2 12 12
Air Content, (%) 2.4 3.3 1.4
Air Temperature, (°F) 83 82 85
Fresh CLSM Temperature,
(°F) 83 80 83
Unit Weight, (lb/ft3) 108 110 115
-88-
Table 26 - Bleed water for CLSM Mixtures from
Prototype Manufacturing
Prototype
Mixture
Number
Bleed water (in.)*
1 hour
18- hours
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
SL-1
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
SL-2
3/8
3/8
1/4
1/4
3/8
1/4
3/8
1/4
SL-3
1
7/8
3/4
5/8
3/4
1/2
7/8
3/4
*Bleed water depth is the net water after bleeding minus evaporation.
-89-
Table 27 - Settlement for CLSM Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing
Prototype
Mixture
Number
Settlement (in)
1 hour
18- hours
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
SL-1
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2
1/2 1/2
1/2 1/2
SL-2
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
3/8
SL-3
1
7/8
3/4
3/4
3/4
1/2
7/8
3/4
-90-
Table 28 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing
Prototype
Mixture
Number
Compressive Strength (psi)
7-day
14-day 28-day 91-day 182-day
Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave.
SL-1
25
25
45
45
105
100
85
135
115
130
25 35 105 85 140
20 50 85 230 125
SL-2
80
80
120
125
190
190
360
365
175
225 70 130 210 375 320
90 125 170 355 170
SL-3
50
45
80
65
90
90
180
210
160
165 40 55 95 210 170
50 65 85 235 165
-91-
Table 29 - Mixture Proportions for Air-Entrained Concrete from Prototype
Manufacturing
Prototype Mixture Number R-1 R-2 R-3 R-4
Wood Fly Ash, (%)* 0 6 9 13
Class C Fly Ash, (%)* 9 16 18 24
Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 515 476 454 409
Class C Fly Ash, A,
(lb/yd3)
52 98 112 152
Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) - 37 55 84
SSD Fine Agg., (lb/yd3) 1225 1385 1399 1314
SSD Coarse Agg., (lb/yd3) 1685 1655 1703 1674
Water, W, (lb/yd3) 213 196 196 212
[W/(C+A)] 0.38 0.34 0.35 0.38
Mid-Range Water
Reducing Admixture,
MRWRA, (oz./yd3)
33 34 34 33
Air Entraining Admixture,
AEA, (oz./yd3)
5 7.5 7 12.5
Slump, (in) 3-1/4 4-1/2 3 5-1/2
Air Content, (%) 7.0 6.8 5.6 7.0
Air Temperature, (°F) 73 77 77 82
Concrete Temperature,
(°F) 85 88 86 88
Fresh Concrete
Density, (lb/ft3)
142.2 142.2 145.1 142.3
* Fly ash has been expressed as percentage of total cement plus ash content.
-92-
Table 30 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing
Prototype
Mixture
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class C
Fly Ash
(%)
Compressive Strength (psi)
7-day
14-day
28-day
91-day
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
R-1 0 9
4510
4115
4705
4595
5060
5050
5700
5690 3720 4490 5125 5675
- - 4960 -
R-2 6 16
3500
3485
4030
4000
4210
4255
4720
4585 3470 3965 4145 4450
- - 4415 -
R-3 9 18
4240
4075
4950
5040
5060
5065
5490
5555 3915 5125 5000 5620
- - 5125 -
R-4 13 24
3160
3100
3390
3535
4470
4315
4600
4585 3040 3675 4115 4570
- - 4360 -
-93-
Table 31 - Splitting Tensile Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing
Prototype
Mixture
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class C
Fly Ash
(%)
Splitting Tensile Strength (psi)
7-day
14-day
28-day
91-day
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
R-1 0 9
455
450
480
495
605
570
565
565 450 510 580 -
- - 530 -
R-2 6 16
350
355
435
440
500
460
480
510 360 440 415 540
- - - 510
R-3 9 18
515
520
485
510
490
530
595
615 530 535 565 625
- - - 620
R-4 13 24
335
315
470
440
485
465
530
520 300 410 445 510
- - - -
-94-
Table 32 - Flexural Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing
Prototype
Mixture
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class C
Fly Ash
(%)
Flexural Strength (psi)
3-day
7-day
28-day
91-day
120-day
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
R-1 0 9
525
535
580
560
555
595
630
600
555
520 545 545 600 605 620
540 560 635 565 380
R-2 6 16
585
530
545
520
625
650
450
475
565
565 525 460 740 480 550
485 450 590 495 575
R-3 9 18
515
510
600
635
710
660
615
675
680
640 560 640 645 750 535
450 670 625 655 710
R-4 13 24
450
420
485
495
585
545
505
535
575
560 395 530 535 540 550
420 470 515 555 560
-95-
Table 33 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures Using Portions of Beam Broken in Flexure
from Prototype Manufacturing
Prototype
Mixture
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class C
Fly Ash
(%)
Modified Cube Compressive Strength (psi)
3-day
7-day
28-day
91-day
120-day
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
R-1 0 9
1955
1945
1645
2000
3210
3195
3105
3610
4100
3580 1860 2195 3125 3410 3155
2020 2160 3245 3810 3490
R-2 6 16
1420
1650
1880
2270
-
1970
2150
2840
2930
2865 1550 2420 1935 3335 3650
1985 2505 2000 3035 2615
R-3 9 18
1975
2335
2870
2620
3830
3830
3885
4160
5165
4355 2645 1890 4100 4245 3195
2385 3105 3580 4345 4705
R-4 13 24
1290
1305
2150
1780
2070
2195
3115
2965
3005
2835 1100 1290 2305 2915 2645
1530 1900 2210 2860 2860
-96-
Table 34 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for CLSM Mixtures
from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-1
Batch Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Full-Scale Mixture Designation S-1/1 S-1/2 S-1/3 S-1/4 S-1/5 S-1/6 S-1/7
Cement, (lb/yd3) 138 137 139 138 138 139 137
Class C Coal Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) - - - - - - -
Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 576 572 580 576 576 580 572
Water, W (lb/yd3) 498 495 496 498 478 494 492
SSD Fine Aggregate, (lb/yd3) 2145 2130 2160 2145 2145 2160 2130
Flow, (in.) 7 4-3/4 3-1/2 7-3/4 4-1/2 5 4-1/4
Air Content, (%) 1.5 2.0 3.5 1.4 2.5 2.1 2.2
Air Temperature, (°F) 65 65 66 65 71 72 74
Fresh CLSM Temperature, (°F) 64 64 66 66 69 72 72
Unit Weight, (lb/ft3) 124.4 123.2 125.2 124.2 123.8 125.0 123.2
-97-
Table 35 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for CLSM
Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-2
Batch Number 1 2 3 4 5
Full-Scale Mixture
Designation
S-2/1 S-2/2 S-2/3 S-2/4 S-2/5
Cement, (lb/yd3) 165 164 161 162 160
Class C Coal Fly Ash,
(lb/yd3)
496 491 482 485
480
Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 95 100 80 93 98
Water, W (lb/yd3) 454 381 518 534 462
SSD Fine Aggregate,
(lb/yd3)
2545 2565 2485 2485 2510
Flow, (in.) 6-3/4 5-1/2 6-1/2 6-1/2 4-1/2
Air Content, (%) 1.8 2.5 1.6 1.5 3.0
Air Temperature, (°F) 51 50 48 50 51
Fresh CLSM Temperature,
(°F)
66 57 64 62 65
Unit Weight, (lb/ft3) 139.0 137.2 138.0 139.2 137.4
-98-
Table 36 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for CLSM Mixtures
from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-3
Batch Number 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Full-Scale Mixture Designation S-3/1 S-3/2 S-3/3 S-3/4 S-3/5 S-3/6 S-3/7
Cement, (lb/yd3) 104 102 104 102 101 102 112
Class C Coal Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) - - - - - - -
Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 843 838 858 840 848 868 850
Water, W, (lb/yd3) 704 669 677 680 647 667 636
SSD Fine Aggregate, (lb/yd3) 1560 1535 1580 1545 1530 1540 1680
Flow, (in.) 6-1/2 4-3/4 5-1/4 4-3/4 6 6 5-1/4
Air Content, (%) 2.2 4.1 3.0 3.7 3.3 3.0 3.1
Air Temperature, (°F) 61 63 61 64 64 66 61
Fresh CLSM Temperature, (°F) 65 66 69 68 69 70 64
Unit Weight, (lb/ft3) 119.0 116.4 118.4 117.4 115.6 117.6 121.4
-99-
Table 37 - Bleed water from CLSM Mixtures from
Full-Scale Manufacturing
Full-Scale
Mixture
Number
Bleed water (in.)
1 hour
18- hours
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
S-1
1/8
1/8
1/16
1/16
1/8 1/16
1/8 1/16
S-2
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16
S-3
1/8
1/8
1/8
1/8
1/8
1/8 1/8
1/8
-100-
Table 38 - Settlement for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing
Full-Scale
Mixture
Number
Settlement (in)
1 hour
22- hours
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
S-1
1/8
1/8
1/8
1/8
1/8 1/8
1/8 1/8
S-2
1/16
1/16
1/16
1/16 1/16 1/16
1/16 1/16
S-3
1/8
1/8
1/8
1/8
1/8
1/8
1/8
1/8
-101-
Table 39 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-1
Full-
Scale
Mixture
Number
Batch
Number
Compressive Strength (psi)
4-day
7-day
28-day
91-day
182-day
365-day
Act. Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
S-1
S-1/3
50
60
55
65
105
120
200
205
225
225
195
200 65 65 140 205 250 220
60 80 120 210 195 180
S-1/4
-
-
65
60
100
105
-
-
165
180
-
- - 60 100 - 190 -
- 60 110 - 190 -
S-1/5
-
-
70
65
80
95
-
-
175
180
-
- - 55 100 - 185 -
- 70 110 - 175 -
S-1/7
-
-
35
45
85
90
-
-
200
195
-
- - 50 90 - 195 -
- 40 85 - 190 -
-102-
Table 40 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixture from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-2
Full-Scale Mixture
Number
Batch
Number
Compressive Strength (psi)
4-day
7-day
28-day
91-day
182-day
Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave.
S-2
S-2/2
-
10
10
55
120
-
-
770
780 - 10 125 - 790
- 10 175 - -
S-2/3
15
15
10
10
35
40
-
-
860
830 15 10 35 - 800
15 10 45 - 835
S-2/5
--
-
15
15
110
105
-
-
610
645 - 15 100 - 610
-- 15 100 - 710
-103-
Table 41 - Compressive Strength for CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series S-3
Full-
scale
Mixture
Number
Batch
Number
Compressive Strength (psi)
4-day
7-day
28-day
91-day
182-day
365-day
Act. Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
Act.
Ave.
S-3
S-3/2
-
55
60
30
70
-
-
130
140
-
- - 55 90 - 150 -
- 60 85 - 145 -
S-3/3
40
45
50
55
75
85
90
100
145
145
145
150 40 60 95 100 130 150
50 50 85 100 155 145
S-3/5
-
-
65
60
110
110
-
-
155
155
-
- - 60 110 - 175 -
- 55 110 - 130 -
S-3/7
-
-
50
45
75
70
-
-
135
135
-
- -- 45 75 - 125 -
- 45 60 - 145 -
-104-
Table 42 - Permeability of CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing,
Series S-2
CLSM Mixture Series S-2
Test Age
63-day 90-day 227-day
Actual Average Actual
Average Actual Average
Permeability
(cm/s)
2.4 x 10-5
6.8 x 10-5
1.2 x 10-5
2.1 x 10-5
0.11 x 10-5
0.6 x 10-5
4.9 x 10-5
1.1 x 10-5
1.6 x 10-5
13.2 x 10-5
4.1 x 10-5
0.2 x 10-5
Table 43 - Permeability of CLSM Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing,
Series S-3
CLSM Mixture Series S-3
Test Age
65-day 91-day 227-day
Actual Average Actual
Average Actual Average
Permeability
(cm/s)
3.6 x 10-5
3.3 x 10-5
4.4 x 10-5
3.9 x 10-5
0.11 x 10-5
1.2 x 10-5
2.6 x 10-5
2.9 x 10-5
0.35 x 10-5
3.7 x 10-5
4.4 x 10-5
3.0 x 10-5
-105-
Table 44 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for Air-Entrained
Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-1
Full-Scale Mixture
Number C-1
Batch Number C-1/1 C-1/2 C-1/3 C-1/4
Wood Ash (%) 0 0 0 0
Class C Fly Ash (%) 9 9 9 9
Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 509 511 517 520
Class C Fly Ash, A,
(lb/yd3)
51 49 52 50
Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 0 0 0 0
SSD Fine Agg., (lb/yd3) 1410 1430 1445 1440
SSD Coarse Agg., (lb/yd3) 1635 1640 1665 1680
Water, W, (lb/yd3) 231 222 230 218
[W/(C+A)] 0.41 0.40 0.40 0.38
Mid-Range Water
Reducing Admixture,
MRWRA, (oz /yd3)
34 34 34 34
Air Entraining Admixture,
AEA, (oz./yd3)
4.3 3.3 3.5 3.3
Slump, (in.) 4-1/2 6 4-1/2 5-3/4
Air Content, (%) 7.0 7.1 6.2 6.0
Air Temperature, (°F) 60 60 62 60
Concrete Temperature,
(°F) 70 71 71 75
Fresh Concrete
Density, (lb/ft3)
142.1 142.8 144.9 144.9
-106-
Table 45 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for Air-Entrained
Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-2
Full-Scale Mixture Number C-2
Batch Number C-2/1 C-2/2 C-1/4
Wood Ash (%) 5 6 6
Class C Fly Ash (%) 16 16 16
Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 480 474 474
Class C Fly Ash, A,
(lb/yd3)
102 99 99
Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 33 35 36
SSD Fine Agg., (lb/yd3) 1385 1440 1445
SSD Coarse Agg., (lb/yd3) 1655 1640 1630
Water, W, (lb/yd3) 261 209 247
[W/(C+A)] 0.45 0.36 0.43
Mid-Range Water
Reducing
Admixture,MRWRA,
(oz./yd3)
35 35 35
Air Entraining Admixture,
AEA, (oz/yd3)
4.3 4.3 4.4
Slump, (in.) 4-3/4 4-1/2 4-3/4
Air Content, (%) 5.8 6.6 5.7
Air Temperature, (°F) 66 61 64
Concrete Temperature, (°F) 68 70 73
Fresh Concrete
Density, (lb/ft3)
143.4 143.0 144.2
-107-
Table 46 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for Air-Entrained
Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-3
Full-Scale Mixture Number C-3
Batch Number C-3/1 C-3/2 C-3/3 C-3/4
Wood Ash (%) 9 9 8 8
Class C Fly Ash (%) 21 21 21 21
Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 439 460 460 460
Class C Fly Ash, A, (lb/yd3) 129 135 135 138
Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 53 55 53 53
SSD Fine Agg., (lb/yd3) 1315 1380 1365 1370
SSD Coarse Agg., (lb/yd3) 1605 1665 1675 1670
Water, W, (lb/yd3) 242 268 309 260
[W/(C+A)] 0.43 0.45 0.52 0.43
Mid-Range Water Reducing
Admixture, MRWRA,
(oz/yd3)
34.5 36 36 36
Air Entraining Admixture,
AEA, (oz/yd3)
8.4 4.7 5.0 5.0
Slump, (in.) 4-1/2 5 4-1/2 5
Air Content, (%) 10.0 5 5.6 5.5
Air Temperature, (°F) 47 49 50 52
Concrete Temperature, (°F) 71 69 70 69
Fresh Concrete
Density, (lb/ft3)
137.4 144.8 143.8 143.8
-108-
Table 47 - Mixture Proportions and Fresh Properties for Air-Entrained
Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-4
Full-Scale Mixture Number C-4
Batch Number C-4/1 C-4/2 C-4/3
Wood Ash (%) 12 12 13
Class C Fly Ash (%) 20 20 20
Cement, C, (lb/yd3) 444 452 443
Class C Fly Ash, A, (lb/yd3) 135 132 130
Wood Fly Ash, (lb/yd3) 80 83 86
SSD Fine Agg., (lb/yd3) 1360 1310 1325
SSD Coarse Agg., (lb/yd3) 1640 1635 1635
Water, W, (lb/yd3) 230 288 253
[W/(C+A)] 0.40 0.50 0.44
Mid-Range Water Reducing
Admixture, MRWRA,
(oz/yd3)
34 34 34
Air Entraining Admixture,
AEA, (oz/yd3)
5.0 5.0 5.0
Slump, (in.) 4 5-1/4 4-1/2
Air Content, (%) 5.7 4.3 4.7
Air Temperature, (°F) 61 63 61
Concrete Temperature, (°F) 69 69 71
Fresh Concrete
Density, (lb/ft3)
143.2 144.4 143.2
-109-
Table 48- Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-1
Full-
scale
Mixture
Number
Batch
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class
C Fly
Ash
(%)
Compressive Strength (psi)
3-day
7-day
28-day
91-day
182-day
365-day
Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Avg. Act. Ave.
C-1
C-1/1 0 9
3300
3340
3925
4110
4725
4710
5560
5085
6180
6120
6240
6260 3245 4280 4620 5045 6015 6310
3475 4120 4785 4655 6160 6230
C-1/2 0 9
3325
3225
3955
3875
4630
4620
5665
5620
5705
5975
6255
6335 3145 3795 4615 5515 6130 6450
3205 3875 4615 5680 6090 6300
C-1/4 0 9
2895
3300
4480
4185
5930
5410
5795
6075
6325
6270
6600
6495 3620 3725 5540 6445 6065 6360
3380 4355 4765 5985 6415 6250
-110-
Table 49 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-2
Full-
Scale
Mixture
Number
Batch
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class C
Fly Ash
(%)
Compressive Strength (psi)
4-day* 7-day 28-day 91-day 182-day 365-day
Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Avg. Act. Ave.
C-2
C-2/1 5 16
3540
3475
3835
4065
3035
4425
5850
5670
5515
5750
6365
6245 3495 4290 5005 5430 5825 6365
3390 4075 5235 5730 5905 6000
C-2/2 6 16
3460
3375
4020
4070
4505
4800
5240
5430
6105
6270
6405
6410 3305 4050 4910 5635 6355 6395
3360 4140 4985 5420 6350 6430
C-2/3 6 16
3595
3550
4665
4545
4690
4980
6120
6015
6245
6245
5870
6105 3305 4435 5155 6120 6240 6340
3755 4530 5095 5805 - -
-111-
Table 50 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-3
Full-scale
Mixture
Number
Batch
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class C
Fly Ash
(%)
Compressive Strength (psi)
3-day
7-day
28-day
91-day
182-day
365-day
Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Avg. Act. Ave.
C-3
C-3/1 9 21
1975
2225
2960
3025
3790
3635
4510
4440
4720
4665
4285
4825 2420 3145 3565 4530 4830 5040
2275 2975 3555 4270 4445 5155
C-3/2 9 21
3620
3680
4550
4605
5420
5355
5975
6210
6755
6885
7065
7125 3660 4670 5275 5925 6965 7215
3755 4600 5365 6735 6940 7100
C-3/3 8 21
3350
3205
4375
4405
5140
5140
7120
6610
6415
6615
7020
6610 3260 4480 5345 6600 6795 6230
3005 4360 4940 6105 6640 6590
C-3/4 8 21
2855
3085
4315
4260
5130
5205
5825
6215
5600
6080
5980
6315 3135 4105 5475 6610 6240 6640
3270 4455 5015 6215 6400 6320
-112-
Table 51 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing, Series C-4
Full-scale
Mixture
Number
Batch
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class C
Fly Ash
(%)
Compressive Strength (psi)
3-day
7-day
28-day
91-day 182-day
365-day
Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Avg. Act. Ave.
C-4
C-4/1 12 20
3365
3500
4060
3945
4400
4320
5800
5660
5015
5720
5540
5770 3215 3885 4200 5550 6335 6050
3925 3890 4355 5625 5810 5720
C-4/2 12 20
2910
3415
4720
4835
5325
5205
5520
6195
6825
6465
6705
6550 3675 4895 5310 6650 6445 6800
3660 4895 4980 6415 6120 6270
C-4/3 13 20
3200
3075
4025
4170
4890
4890
5540
5665
5855
5795
-
- 3025 4170 5030 5690 5525 -
2995 4315 4775 5760 6010 -
-113-
Table 52 - Splitting Tensile Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing
Full-scale
Mixture
Number
Batch
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class C
Fly Ash
(%)
Splitting tensile Strength (psi)
3-day 7-day 28-day 91-day 182-day 365-day
Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Avg. Act. Ave.
C-1 C-1/2 0 9
355
365
435
440
555
555
630
600
615
615
580
625 370 470 495 580 585 590
370 415 610 595 645 705
C-2 C-2/2 6 16
380
360
400
425
540
515
540
540
610
570
670
615 320 470 465 515 525 505
375 400 535 565 575 670
C-3 C-3/2 9 21
415
425
425
435
560
550
605
650
700
700
790
745 455 440 540 655 695 715
410 440 545 685 700 735
C-4 C-4/2 12 20
385
410
475
450
600
575
600
590
625
605
600
620 425 400 545 580 610 700
420 470 580 590 585 565
-114-
Table 53- Flexural Strength for Concrete Mixtures from Full-Scale Manufacturing
Full-scale
Mixture
Number
Batch
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class C
Fly Ash
(%)
Flexural strength (psi)
7-day 28-day 91-day 365-day
Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave.
C-1 C-1/2 0 9
375
450
580
590
600
600
650
635 515 565 560 635
460 635 630 615
C-2 C-2/2 6 16
545
560
535
585
615
635
700
620 555 540 600 605
585 685 685 545
C-3 C-3/2 9 21
445
550
605
635
715
730
835
775 585 615 745 755
625 680 725 735
C-4 C-4/2 12 20
510
460
510
565
550
630
715
755 440 520 705 735
430 665 630 810
-115-
Table 54 - Compressive Strength for Concrete Mixtures Using Portions of Beams Broken in Flexure from Full-Scale Manufacturing
Full-scale
Mixture
Number
Batch
Number
Wood
Ash
(%)
Class C
Fly Ash
(%)
Modified Cube Compressive Strength (psi)
7-day 28-day 91-day 365-day
Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave. Act. Ave.
C-1 C-1/2 0 9
--
--
2710
3105
3420
3435
3595
3475
3480 -- 3240 3480 3335
3180
-- 3360 3400 3805
3485
C-2 C-2/2 6 16
3030
3185
3845
3960
2890
2890
4340
4300
4350 3525 3170 3085 4055
3005 4815 2680 4225
4830
C-3 C-3/2 9 21
2895
2930
3330
3685
3575
3920
4660
4200 2610 3365 4080 3705
3280 4365 4100 4240
C-4 C-4/2 12 20
2120
2415
4085
3590
4100
4400
5435
4925 2690 3295 4175 5055
2430 3390 4915 4290
-116-
Table 55 - Average Mixture Proportions of CLSM Mixtures Containing Wood Ash from
Full-Scale Manufacturing
Mixture Type S-1 S-2 S-3
Control CLSM
Mixture per
ACI 229R
Cement (lb/yd3) 138 165 104 200
Wood Fly Ash (lb/yd3) 576 100 843 0
Class C Fly Ash (lb/yd3) 0 496 0 350
Wood Fly Ash, % of
total cementitious
materials
81 12.5 89 -
SSD Fine Aggregate,
(lb/yd3)
2145 2565 1560 2750
Water (lb/yd3) 498 381 704 500
Unit Weight (lb/ft3) 124.4 137.2 119 -
Table 56 - Cost/Benefit Analysis per Cubic Yard of CLSM Mixtures
Containing Wood Ash
Mixture Type
CLSM
Materials
Cost/yd3,
dollars
Savings in
CLSM
Materials
Cost/yd3,
dollars
Savings
in
Disposal
Cost/yd3,
dollars
Net Savings
in CLSM
Materials/yd3,
dollars
Control Mixture (per
ACI 229 R) 25 0.0 0.0 0.0
S-1 (81% Wood Ash) 12.68 12.32 10.08 22.40
S-2 (12.5% Wood Ash) 26.32 - 1.32 1.75 0.43
S-3 (89% Wood Ash) 9.36 15.64 14.75 30.39
-117-
Table 57 - Overall Cost/Benefit Analysis for CLSM Mixtures Containing Wood Ash
Mixture Type
Total Savings in
CLSM
Materials,
Dollars
Total Savings
from Disposal
Costs, Dollars
Overall
Savings in
Dollars
S-1 (81% Wood Ash) 3,208,337 2,625,003 5,833,340
S-2 (12.5% Wood Ash) -1,980,000 2,625,000 645,000
S-3 (89% Wood Ash) 1,844,503 1,739,541 3,584,044
Table 58 - Average Mixture Proportions of Concrete Mixtures Containing Wood Ash from
Full-Scale Manufacturing
Mixture Type C-1 C-2 C-3 C-4
Cement, C (lb/yd3) 509 480 439 444
Wood Fly Ash, A1 (lb/yd3) - 33 53 80
Class C Fly Ash, A2 (lb/yd3) 51 102 129 135
Equivalent Cementitious Content,
Ceq., (lb/yd3)
549 579 569 593
SSD Fine Aggregate (lb/yd3) 1410 1385 1315 1360
SSD Coarse Aggregate, (lb/yd3) 1635 1655 1605 1604
Water, W (lb/yd3) 231 261 242 230
% (Class C + Wood) Fly Ash* 9 22 29 33
% Wood Fly Ash** - 5 8 12
W/Ceq. 0.42 0.45 0.43 0.39
Mid-Range Water Reducing
Admixture, MRWRA (oz/yd3)
34 35 34.5 34
Air Entraining Admixture, AEA
(oz/yd3)
4.3 4.3 8.4 5
Fresh Concrete Density (lb/ft3) 142.1 143.4 137.4 143.2
* (A1+A2)/(C+A1+A2) ** A1/(C+A1+A2)
-118-
Table 59 - Cost/Benefit Analysis per Cubic Yard of Concrete Mixtures Containing
Wood Ash
Mixture Type
Concrete
Materials
Cost/yd3,
Dollars
Savings in
Concrete
Materials
Cost/yd3,
Dollars
Savings in
Disposal
Cost/yd3,
Dollars
Net Savings
in
Concrete/yd3,
Dollars
C-1 (Control Mixture) 32.98 0.0 0.0 0.0
C-2 (5% Wood Ash) 33.08 - 0.10 0.58 0.48
C-3 (8% Wood Ash) 31.92 1.06 0.93 1.99
C-4 (12% Wood Ash) 32.36 0.62 1.40 2.02
Table 60 - Overall Cost/Benefit Analysis for Concrete Mixtures Containing Wood Ash
Mixture Type
Total Savings in
Concrete Materials
with Wood Ash
Concrete, Dollars
Total Savings
from Disposal
Costs, Dollars
Overall Savings,
Dollars
C-2 (5% Wood Ash) - 25,000 145,000 120,000
C-3 (8% Wood Ash) 265,000 233,500 497,500
C-4 (12% Wood Ash) 155,000 350,000 505,000
-119-
Fig. 1 Pulse Velocity versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Prototype
Manufacturing
13000
14000
15000
16000
17000
18000
19000
20000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Freezing and Thawing cycles
Pu
lse V
elo
cit
y,
ft/s
ec
Mixture R-1
Mixture R-2
Mixture R-3
Mixture R-4
Fig. 2 Relative Dynamic Modulus versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for
Prototype Manufacturing
92.0
93.0
94.0
95.0
96.0
97.0
98.0
99.0
100.0
101.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Freezing and Thawing Cycles
Rela
tive D
yn
am
ic
Mo
du
lus
Mixture R-1
Mixture R-2
Mixture R-3
Mixture R-4
-120-
Fig. 4 Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Mixtures from Prototype Manufacturing
-0.06
-0.05
-0.04
-0.03
-0.02
-0.01
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Drying Time (days)
Ch
an
ge
in
Len
gth
, p
ercen
t
Mixture R-1
Mixture R-2
Mixture R-3
Mixture R-4
Fig. 3 Percent Length Change versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for
Prototype Manufacturing
-0.1000
-0.0750
-0.0500
-0.0250
0.0000
0.0250
0.0500
0 50 100 150 200 250
Freezing and Thawing Cycles
Ch
an
ge
in
Len
gth
, p
ercen
tMixture R-1
Mixture R-2
Mixture R-3
Mixture R-4
-121-
Fig. 6 Relative Dynamic Modulus versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-
Scale Manufacturing
94.0
95.0
96.0
97.0
98.0
99.0
100.0
101.0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350
Freezing and Thawing Cycles
Rela
tive D
yn
am
ic M
od
ulu
s
Mixture C-1
Mixture C-2
Mixture C-3
Mixture C-4
Fig. 5 Pulse Velocity versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-Scale
Manufacturing
16000
16500
17000
17500
18000
18500
19000
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Freezing and Thawing Cycles
Pu
lse V
elo
cit
y,
ft/
sec
Mixture C-1
Mixture C-2
Mixture C-3
Mixture C-4
-122-
Fig. 7 Percent Change Length versus Freezing and Thawing Cycles for Full-
Scale Manufacturing
-0.0250
0.0000
0.0250
0.0500
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400
Freezing and Thawing Cycles Cycles
Ch
an
ge
in
Len
gth
, p
ercen
tMixture C-1
Mixture C-2
Mixture C-3
Mixture C-4
Fig. 8 Drying Shrinkage of Concrete Mixtures for Full-Scale Manufacturing
-0.2500
-0.2000
-0.1500
-0.1000
-0.0500
0.0000
0.0500
0.1000
0.1500
0 50 100 150 200 250
Drying Time (days)
Ch
an
ge i
n L
en
gth
, p
ercen
t
Mixture C-1
Mixture C-2
Mixture C-3
Mixture C-4
-123-
Fig. 9 Placement of CLSM for Full-Scale Demonstration
Fig. 10 Leveling CLSM for Full-Scale Demonstration
-124-
Fig. 11 - Placement of Concrete from Full-Scale Manufacturing
Fig. 12 - Finishing of Concrete Containing Wood Ash for Full-Scale Mixtures
-125-
Fig. 13 - Completed Concrete Slab from Full-Scale Manufacturing
Fig. 14 - Concrete Containing Wood Ash – Two Year Assessment
-126-
APPENDIX 1:
TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER SEMINAR ANNOUNCEMENT
ROTHSCHILD, WI
UWM-CBU Concrete Materials Technology Series Program No. 50
Workshop and Construction Demonstration for Use of Wood Ash in
Concrete and Flowable Slurry
Center for By-Products Utilization NONPROFIT ORGANIZATION
3200 North Cramer Street, Room W309 U.S. POSTAGE
P. O. Box 784 PAID
Milwaukee, WI 53201 MILWAUKEE, WI PERMIT NO. 864
UWM-CBU Concrete Materials Technology Series Program No. 50
Workshop and Construction Demonstration for Use of Wood Ash in
Concrete and Flowable Slurry
Sponsored By
UWM Center for By-Products Utilization, Milwaukee, WI Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources Waste Reduction and Recycling Demonstration Grant
Program
Weyerhaeuser Company, Stora Enso North America, National Council of Air and Stream Improvement (NCASI)
Wisconsin Electric Power Company, and Wisconsin Public Service Corporation
Co-Sponsored By Wisconsin Chapter – American Concrete Institute, Wisconsin Ready-Mixed Concrete Association,and
American Society of Civil Engineers – Wisconsin Section
September 27, 2001, Rothschild, WI
Workshop Description
The purpose of the workshop is to present important technical information and review production and construction aspects
for the use of wood ash in ready-mixed concrete as well as in flowable slurry (CLSM). Flowable Slurry is a very low-strength
concrete-like material that is made from one or more of the following materials such as coal ash, wood ash, used foundry
sand, post-consumer crushed glass, concrete sand, water, and some portland cement. The strength of this material can vary
from 50 psi to 1200 psi at the age of 28 days. Flowable slurry is being specified increasingly by municipalities, state highway
departments, and engineers for many applications.
The workshop will present case histories of successful installations. It will also include a demonstration of use of wood ash in
structural concrete slab and slurry placement. Handout materials will be provided. The workshop should be of interest to
those associated with building design, engineers, architects, engineering technicians, engineers working in governmental
agencies, industry and private practice, engineering faculty and students, as well as ready mixed concrete producers,
aggregates suppliers, and contractors. Knowledgeable professionals engaged in specifying, approving, marketing, and using
concrete and flowable slurry will present state-of-the-art information.
PROGRAM
Workshop and Construction Demonstration for Use of Wood Ash in
Concrete and Flowable Slurry
September 27, 2001, Rothschild, WI
8:00 a.m. Registration and Continental Breakfast
8:30 Welcome and Introduction
Stuart A. D. McCormick
8:45 Physical, Chemical, and Mechanical Properties of Wood Ash: Use of wood ash in ready-mixed
concrete. Mixture proportions for non-air entrained and air entrained concrete, and flowable
slurry with wood ash. Test results for concrete and flowable slurry with wood ash.
Tarun R. Naik
10:15 Break
10:30 Field Applications: Flowable slurry containing industrial by-products in backfilling of
excavations, trenches, and underground voids. Effects of slurry mixture proportions on
setting characteristics and placement, thermal and electrical resistivity properties, field
performance, economy, and marketing.
Bruce W. Ramme
12:00 Lunch
1:00 Regulatory Perspective: Use of wood ash in concrete and flowable slurry relative to NR 538
requirements.
Michael L Miller
1:30 Adjourn to the demonstration location.
1:45 Construction Demonstration of Structural Concrete Slab and Flowable Slurry with Wood
Ash: Placement, compaction, finishing, hardening and settlement process; and questions and
answers
Tarun R. Naik and Bruce Sopkowicz
3:15 Adjourn
---------------------------------------------------Advantages of Flowable Slurry--------------------------------------------------
No Compaction Required
Excellent Flowability – Fills all Voids
No Shrinkage or Settlement after Final Set
Reduced Labor Cost and Improved Construction Safety
Large Range of Mixtures with Different Strengths and Other Characteristics Available
SPEAKER INFORMATION
The program is scheduled to include the following speakers:
Stuart A. D. McCormick, P. Eng., Leader of Residuals, Solid Waste, and Groundwater
Specialists Network, Weyerhaeuser Company, Alberta, Canada. Since 1989 Mr. McCormick has
been a Registered Professional Engineer, and a member of Association of Professional Engineers,
Geologists, and Geophysicists of Alberta. He has made presentations to and/or authored papers for
many conferences and seminars, including National Council for Air and Stream Improvement
(NCASI), Solid Waste Association of North America (SWANA), and Air and Waste Management
Association (A&WMA).
Michael L. Miller, Waste Management Specialist for the West Central Region, Wisconsin
Department of Natural Resources, Wisconsin Rapids, Wisconsin. Mr. Miller has worked for 23
years for the WI-DNR in the Solid Waste Program. He is responsible for solid waste activities in
Adams, Jackson, Juneau, Monroe, and Wood Counties. He is also responsible for NR 538 activities
for the entire West Central Region (18 counties).
Tarun R. Naik, Ph. D., P. E., Director, UWM Center for By-Products Utilization, Milwaukee,
Wisconsin. Dr. Naik has over 35 years of experience with cement, aggregates, and concrete. His
contribution in teaching and research has been well recognized nationally and internationally. His
research has resulted in over 250 technical reports and papers in ACI, ASCE, ASTM, RILEM, etc.
He is a member of ACI, ASCE, ASEE, ASTM, RILEM, NSPE, and WSPE. He is also a member of
technical committees of ACI, ASCE, ASTM, and RILEM. He has served as a president of WI-ACI,
WSPE, and other organizations.
Bruce W. Ramme, P. E., Manager, Combustion Products Utilization, Wisconsin Electric
Power Company, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Mr. Ramme has worked for approximately 20 years with
WEPCO and is currently working towards the goal of 100% utilization of WEPCO’s coal
combustion products. He is a member of ACI, ASCE, and other professional organizations. He is
also the chairman of ACI Committee 229 on Flowable Slurry (CLSM), chairman of ACI 213B on
By-Products Lightweight Aggregate, and a member of other technical committees of ACI. He is also
a past president of the Wisconsin Chapter of ACI.
THE UWM CENTER FOR BY-PRODUCTS UTILIZATION MISSION STATEMENT:
“To collect and analyze data, and disseminate information regarding the beneficial use of presently discarded
by-products from industrial, commercial, and public sector operations.”
The UWM-CBU was established in 1988 by a generous grant from Dairyland Power Cooperative, La Crosse; Madison Gas &
Electric Company, Madison; National Minerals Corporation, St. Paul, MN; Northern States Power Company, Eau Claire;
Wisconsin Electric Power Company, Milwaukee; Wisconsin Power & Light Company, Madison; and Wisconsin Public Service
Corporation, Green Bay. With their financial support and support from other organizations including Manitowoc Public
Utilities, US-DOE, Weyerhaeuser Company, NCASI, the UWS Applied Research Council and Solid Waste Recovery Research
Program, Wisconsin Recycling Market Development Board, Illinois Clean Coal Institute, and others, the UWM-CBU is
developing low- cost, high-quality construction materials from wood ash, pulp and paper mill primary residual solids, coal fly
ash, bottom ash, and clean-coal ash.